MARYKNOLL SCHOOL OF LUPON, INC

Kambing Baratua St., Poblacion, Lupon, Davao Oriental

LEARNING MODULE
GENERAL PHYSICS 1- GRADE 12
QUARTER 2: 11-13
NAME OF STUDENT:_______________________________
GRADE & SECTION: _______________________________
TEACHER’S NAME: _JO-AN M, GIDO_________________
 Module 11
Periodic Motion and Mechanical Waves

PERIODIC MOTION
A single pulse introduced in the string in figure
12-7 produces wave. Continuous oscillation of you
hand will create a repeating pulse or continuous
vibration in the string. In this case, a series of
waves is formed. Such waves are called a periodic
waves or wave train.
The high points on a wave are called crests,
while low points are troughs. The distance from
crest to crest (or trough to trough) is the
wavelength expressed in meters. The amplitude
(A) is the distance of the crest (or trough) from the
midpoint of the wave. The frequency (B) refers to the number of crest or
waves that pass a fixed point per second measured in hertz (Hz). See figure
12-8. The period (T) us the time (in seconds) it takes a wave to travel a
distance equal to a wavelength. It is the reciprocal of frequency.
1 1
𝑇 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 =
𝑓 𝑇
Angular frequency refers to the angular displacement per unit time or
the rate of change of the phase of the sinusoidal waveform. Angular
frequency is often represented in units of radians per second
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
The wave velocity (v) is equal to the distance traveled by a wave crest in
one period.
𝜆
𝑣 = = 𝜆𝑓
𝑇
Example 1.

The frequency limits of the range of human hearing are from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. If the speed of
sound is 345 m/s, what are the wavelengths of these waves in meters?

Given: Required:
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 20 𝐻𝑧 wavelength at 20 Hz
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 20 000 𝐻𝑧 wavelength at 20 000 Hz
v = 345 m/s
Solution:
For 20 Hz frequency
𝑣 345𝑚/𝑠
𝜆= = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎
𝑓 20 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠
For 20 000 Hz frequency
𝑣 345𝑚/𝑠
𝜆= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟑 𝒎
𝑓 20 000 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠

I. Simple Harmonic Motion

A vibration is repeated back and forth motion or oscillation

of an object. Any elastic solid can be made to vibrate. Figure 12-
1 shows a load attached to one end of the spring at equilibrium
position. The maximum displacement is called amplitude. When
the load is released, it vibrates back and forth. If the surface is
frictionless, the magnitude of the maximum displacement to the
right and to the left of the equilibrium position are equal.
 The motion of the load repeats itself over and over on a definite path in equal intervals of time. The
periodic vibration of the mass is called simple harmonic motion (SHM). SHM is a type of vibration along a
path in which the displacement of the object from its equilibrium position is always equal above and below
its equilibrium position.
A simple pendulum oscillates back and forth. See figure 12-2.
If the pendulum bob moves from A and B then back to A, it has
made one complete vibration. The time it takes the pendulum
bob to complete one vibration is called the period T, and the
number of complete vibrations in a second is the frequency f.
An overdamped system moves slowly toward equilibrium. An
underdamped system moves quickly to equilibrium but will
oscillate about the equilibrium point as it does so. A critically
damped system moves as quickly as possible toward equilibrium
without oscillating about the equilibrium.

Exercise 1. Drills on Periodic Motion

Solve the problem carefully and write your answers and their corresponding solutions on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. The lowest note used in an organ has a frequency of 16 Hz. If the sound wave travels 350 m/s at
30°C, how many meters long is the wave?
2. AM radio signals have wavelength between 190 m and 550 m and travel with speed of
3.0𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠. The frequency of these signals in kHz (1kHz=1000Hz) are?

MECHANICAL WAVES

Tie end of a string to a doorknob and pull the other end so that the string does not touch the floor.
Create a single pulse on the string by moving your hand u and down quickly. Vibrating objects send out
waves like a hand oscillating on one end of a piece of string. The up-and-down motion of the hand is
transferred to the string in contact with the hand, then corresponding sections of the string, causing them
also to move up and down. Hence a wave on the string is created. It travels toward the doorknob through
the string as the up-and-down motion is transferred from one motion to the other. The string acts as the
medium. Waves that need a material medium through which they can travel are called mechanical waves.
Some examples of mechanical waves are sound and water waves.
For the waves in a string, the particles oscillate up and down while the waves move horizontally. The
direction of the motion of the particles of the medium(string) is perpendicular to the direction of motion
of the waves. These waves are called transverse waves.
When the end of a spring is
pushed and pulled, a series of
compression (areas where coils are
closed together) and expansion
(areas where coils are far apart)
occur in figure 12-6. Compression
and expansions are equivalent to
crest and troughs of a transverse
wave. The particles of the spring move back and forth horizontally and are in the same direction as that
of the line of propagation. These waves are called compressional or longitudinal waves. Sound waves
possess these properties of longitudinal waves which occur not only in springs but also in most fluids.
Transverse waves travel through a medium whose particles are attached to one another. Gas particles
are widely separated making transverse waves unable to travel through them. A longitudinal wave causes
particles of a gas to move closer together or farther apart, making gas a medium for it. Both transverse
and longitudinal waves can be travel through a solid since the particles of solids can be vibrate about their
relatively fixed positions in any direction. Surface waves possess both transverse and longitudinal
properties. These make the particles in the medium move horizontally and vertically as the wave moves
across the surface. Water waves are examples of surface waves.
 I. Sound

The longitudinal wave that is very important in your daily life is sound wave. The intensity (I) of sound
waves is defined as the time average rate at which energy is transported per unit area (A) perpendicular
to the direction of the propagation. Because the time average rate of energy transported is average power
(Pave),
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐼=
𝐴
The unit of intensity is W/m2 or J/s m2. Consider a source of sound shown in figure 11.22. The energy
transported by the sound through the two imaginary spheres (with radii r1 and r2) shown in figure is the
same. The intensity of sound waves decreases with the square of the distance from the source.
Your ear can start detecting sound with an intensity of 1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 . This intensity is the
threshold of hearing (𝐼0 ). Because your ears are very sensitive and can be detect a wide range of
intensities, sound intensity level (β) relative to the threshold of hearing are used. the unit for sound
intensity level is decibel (dB). The sound intensity level β for a sound wave with the intensity 𝐼 is defined
as
𝐼
𝛽 = (10𝑑𝐵) log
𝐼0
Note that sound intensity is different from sound intensity level. The intensity is average power per unit
area with a unit of 𝑊/𝑚2 , whereas the intensity level (β) is scaled value of intensity with a unit of dB.

Example 1.

Find the sound intensity level for the threshold hearing 𝐼0 = 1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 . The corresponding
sound intensity level is
𝑊
𝐼0 1 𝑥 10−12 2
𝛽 = (10𝑑𝐵) log = (10𝑑𝐵) log 𝑚 =0
𝐼0 𝑊
1 𝑥 10−12 2
𝑚
Therefore, the threshold of hearing has an intensity level of 0 dB. An intensity of 0 dB corresponds
to a very faint sound that the ears could detect.
To find the intensity level for the threshold of pain, simply substitute its intensity to the following
equation
𝑊
𝐼0 1 2
𝛽 = (10𝑑𝐵) log = (10𝑑𝐵) log 𝑚 = 120 𝑑𝐵
𝐼0 𝑊
1 𝑥 10−12 2
𝑚
This is the intensity level where your ear starts to feel pain due to a very loud sound.

Example 2.

The sound level of source of sound is 10 dB. What is the intensity of 1000 sources of sound? The
minimum intensity 𝐼𝑂 = 1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 .
Given: Required
𝛽 = 𝑑𝐵 𝐼 =?
𝐼𝑂 = 1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2
x=1000

Solution
𝐼
𝛽 = 10 log
𝐼𝑂
𝐼
10 = 10 log
1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2
10 𝐼
= log
10 1 𝑥 10 𝑊/𝑚2
−12
𝐼
1 = log
1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2
 𝐼
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 =
1𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐼
101 =
1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐼= (101 )(1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 ) = 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
The intensity of 1000 sources of sound:
𝐼 = (1000)( 1 𝑥 10−11 𝑊/𝑚2 ) = 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐

II. Standing waves

If you continuously oscillate one end of a tied string up and down, there
will be waves travelling in the same direction. These waves will interfere with
the reflected waves moving in the opposite direction. The wave motion
becomes complicated. If the frequency of the string’s oscillation is just right,
only two waves will interfere – the incoming and reflected waves. The crest of
the incoming wave always meets the troughs of the reflected wave at the same
point on the rope. See figure 12-18. The points at which the incoming wave crest
and reflected troughs meet are called nodes. At these points, there is no
displacement of the rope at any time. These means that the waves do not move
along the rope at all. These waves are called standing waves. The wave motion
consists simply of vibration of the points between nodes. These vibration nodes
are called antinodes. The distance of the nodes (or antinodes) is half a
wavelength.

III. Doppler effect

Have you noticed that the pitch of a siren from a police car or ambulance increases when it moves
closer and closer to you? Do you notice too with the sound produced by a train whistle when the train
moves father and father away from you? In situations like this, the frequency of sound heard by the
listener changes because of the relative motion between the source of sound and the listener. This
observation (apparently change in the frequency of the sound) is called the Doppler effect.
You can find the frequency heard by the listener if you know the speeds of the source and of the
listener. To do this, you need to define the following sign conventions:
1. The direction from the listener to the source is positive:
2. The speed of sound (v) is taken to be always positive. Its value varies with temperature. However,
you can approximate its typical value to be equal to 340 m/s for air at many cases.
Consider a source that emits a sound wave with frequency fs and moves at speed vs and a listener
that moves at speed vL. You can show that the frequency fL heard by the listener is

𝑣 + 𝑣𝐿
𝑓𝐿 = 𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 𝑆
Example 3

Case 1: The siren of a police car emits a sound with a frequency of 70 Hz. The police (P) is chasing a criminal
(C) as shown in the figure here. The police car moves at 30 m/s, whereas the criminal’s car is moving 10
m/s. what is the frequency of the sound emitted by the siren as heard by the criminal?
Case 2: This time the criminal turned around and approached the police car head on with the same speed
as shown here. What is the frequency of the sound emitted by the siren as heard by the criminal?
Case 3: As a strategy to catch the criminal, the police approached a wall with the same speed as shown
here. What is the frequency of the sound emitted by the siren as heard by the policemen?

Solution

Case 1: First note that by sign convention, the positive direction is from
the criminal (listener) to the police (source) as shown in each figure. So,
in the first case, the speed of the criminal is 𝑣𝐶 = −10 𝑚/𝑠 and the
speed of the police is 𝑣𝑃 = −30 𝑚/𝑠. Let 𝑓𝑃 be the frequency emitted
by the siren (police car) and 𝑓𝐶 be the frequency heard by the criminal.
Using the Doppler effect and assuming that the speed of sound is v = 340 m/s,
 𝑣 + 𝑣𝐶 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (−10𝑚/𝑠)
𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓𝑃 = (70 𝐻𝑧) = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟓 𝑯𝒛
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑃 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (−30𝑚/𝑠)
Case 2: In this case, the sign for the speed of the criminal has
changed into is 𝑣𝐶 = +10 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣𝐶 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (10𝑚/𝑠)
𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓𝑃 = (70 𝐻𝑧) = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑃 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (−30𝑚/𝑠)

Case 3: This case can be analyzed in two phases. First, the source of
sound (the siren of the police car) approaches the wall. Second, the
wall reflects the sound wave, and the sound was then heard by the
policeman. In the first phase, the siren of the police ca is the source
(S) of sound, whereas the wall is the listener (L). Let the frequency
of the sound emitted by the siren be 𝑓𝑠 , and the frequency “heard” by the wall be 𝑓𝑊 . The speed of the
wall is zero, and the speed of the police car is 𝑣𝑆 = −30 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑊 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (0𝑚/𝑠)
𝑓𝑊 = 𝑓𝑆 = (70 𝐻𝑧) = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟖 𝑯𝒛
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑆 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (−30𝑚/𝑠)
For the second phase, the wall is the source (S) of the (reflected) sound, and the policeman is the listener
(L). the frequency of sound reflected by the wall is 𝑓𝑊 . Let the frequency of sound heard by the policeman
be 𝑓𝑃 . The speed of the police car is 𝑣𝑃 = 30 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑃 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (30𝑚/𝑠)
𝑓𝑃 = 𝑓𝑊 = (76.8 𝐻𝑧) = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟓 𝑯𝒛
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑊 (340 𝑚/𝑠) + (0𝑚/𝑠)

Exercise 2. Drills on Mechanical Waves

Solve the problem carefully and write your answers and their corresponding solutions on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. The intensity of a source of sound is 1 𝑥 10−9 𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐼𝑂 = 1 𝑥 10−12 𝑊/𝑚2 . What is the sound
level of 10 sources of sounds?
2. The siren of a stationary ambulance emits sound waves of frequency 550 Hz. You are riding a
motorcycle traveling directly away from the ambulance. How fast must you be traveling if you
detect a frequency of 480 Hz?

Module assessment
Answer the questions briefly.
1. Using a graphical organizer, compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse waves in terms of
a. Direction of oscillation of the particles
b. Direction of motion of the waves
c. Medium through which they can travel
2. When a pendulum is swinging back and forth, one of its properties is its period. Define period in
this case.
3. 2 children are taking turns swinging on a tire swing. If kid A has twice the mass of kid B, who has
greater period of motion?

Solve the problem carefully and write your answers and their corresponding solutions on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. Microwave travel through space 3.0 x 108 m/s. if a microwave oven operates at a frequency of
2.50 x 109 Hz. What is the wavelength and period of these waves?
2. An ambulance truck emits a sound with a frequency of 800Hz, (a) What is the frequency detected
by a stationary observer if the ambulance truck is moving 30 m/s toward the observer? (b) What
frequency will be detected if the ambulance is moving 30 m/s away from the observer? (The speed
of sound in air at 20 °C is 343 m/s
 Module 12
Fluid Mechanics and Temperature and Heat

FLUID MECHANICS

I. Density and Pressure

You know that liquids and gases, unlike solids, take the shape of their containers and have the
ability to flow. Thus, liquids and gases are collectively known as fluids. The field in the physics
that studies the motion, and the properties of fluids is called fluid mechanics.
1. Density (𝜌) – ratio of materials mass m and volume V
𝑚 (𝑘𝑔)
𝜌=
𝑉 (𝑚3 )

2. Specific gravity (SG) of a substance is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance and the
𝑔
density of water at 4°C (1.00 3 = 1.00 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ). For example, gasoline has a density of
𝑐𝑚
𝜌 = 0.68 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Thus, specific gravity is SG = 0.68
3. Pressure is known as force per unit area.
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
- Atmospheric pressure (𝑝0 ) is the pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere to the bottom of the
atmosphere where you live in (𝑝0 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 𝑥 105 𝑃𝑎.
- Gauge pressure (𝑝𝑔 ) is the excess pressure above the atmospheric pressure, whereas the total
pressure is called the absolute pressure (𝑝), (𝑝 = 𝑝𝑔 + 𝑝0 )
- The pressure of fluids has a uniform density 𝜌 that varies with depth. Note that the greater is the
depth of the fluid, the more pressure there is.
- The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pa

Example 1

The specific gravity of aluminum is 2.7. Find its density in kg/m 3.

Given: Required:
SG=2.7 𝜌 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Solution
𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑆𝐺 ∗ 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2.7(1.00 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
Example 2

What is the mass in kg of 1.00 L of kerosene which has a specific gravity of 0.80?
Given: Required:
V = 1.00 L m=?
SG = 0.80
Solution:
𝜌𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 𝑆𝐺 ∗ 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.80 (1.00 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) = 0.80 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑚 𝑘𝑔 1𝑚3
𝜌= , 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 0.80 𝑥 103 3 ∗ (1.0𝐿) ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝒌𝒈
𝑉 𝑚 1000𝐿
II. Pascal’s Principle
If you increase the pressure above the liquid (such as by pushing down a piston in a cylinder),
every point in the liquid will have an increase in pressure with the same amount. This is Pascal’s principle.
It formally states that:
“If an external pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure at every point within the fluid
increases by the same amount”

Attach figure 12.3

 An important application of Pascal’s principle is in hydraulics. Figure 12.3 shows a simplified
illustration of a hydraulic lift. When the pressure due to a small input of force (𝐹𝑖𝑛 ) is applied to a cylinder
with a smaller cross-sectional area (𝐴𝑖𝑛 ) the pressure at every point within the liquid also increases by the
same amount. Thus, for the same level, the pressure is the same at both the input and output cylinders,
as denoted by 𝑝𝑖𝑛 and 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 , respectively.
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑝𝑖𝑛
You can write this in terms of forces and the cross-sectional area in the input cylinder and output
cylinder, respectively, as follows:
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡
The quantity is called the mechanical advantage (MA) of the hydraulic lift. It is equal to the
𝐹𝑖𝑛
ratio of the cross-sectional area of the cylinder.

Example 3

A downward force of 100 N is applied to the small piston with a diameter of 50 cm in the hydraulic
lift system. (a) What is the upward force exerted by the large piston with a diameter of 2m? (b) What is
the mechanical advantage of this hydraulic lift? (c) if the input force of 100N pushes the small piston down
by 2m, how high will the large piston rise?
Given: Required:
𝐹1 = 100 𝑁 a. 𝐹2 =?
𝑑1 = 50 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑟 0.5 𝑚 b.MA=?
𝑑2 = 2 𝑚 c.
Solution:
a.
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐴2 𝜋𝑟1 2 𝜋(1 𝑚)2
𝐹2 = 𝐹1 ∗ = 100𝑁 ∗ = 100𝑁 ∗ = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝐴1 𝜋𝑟2 2 𝜋(0.25 𝑚)2
b.
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 1600𝑁
𝑀𝐴 = = = 16
𝐹𝑖𝑛 100𝑁
III. Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

Recall from newton’s law that for a big ship to float on water, there must be an upward force
opposing the downward weight of the ship. This upward force exerted by a liquid is called buoyant force.
Buoyant force occurs because the pressure in a fluid increase with depth.
With a spring balance, weigh any object in air and then weigh it again when submerged in water.
Compare the two weighs obtained and note the difference in weight. A study on the effect of fluids on
submerged object was made by the famous Greek scientist Archimedes. He made a study on why some
objects submerged in fluid float. He discovered that the buoyant force on body immersed in a fluid is qual
to the weight of the fluid displaced by that objects. This statement is known as Archimedes’ Principle and
it applies to all fluids, just as it does to liquids.
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑔
𝐹𝐵 = Buoyant Force, N
𝜌𝑓 = fluid density, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity. 9.8 m/s2
V = fluid volume, m3

Example 4

A standard basketball (m=624 grams; 24.3 cm in radius) is held fully underwater. Calculate the
buoyant force and weight.
Given: Required:
m = 624 g or 0.624 kg Weight of ball, (𝐹𝑔 )
r = 24.3 cm or 0.243 m 𝐹𝐵 =?
Solution:
a.
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = (0.624 𝑘𝑔)(9.8 𝑚/𝑠2 ) = 𝟔. 𝟏𝑵
b.
1000𝑘𝑔 𝑚 4 1000𝑘𝑔 𝑚 4 𝑑
𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = ( ) (9.8 2 ) ( 𝜋𝑟 3 ) = ( ) (9.8 2 ) ( 𝜋( )3 )
𝑚3 𝑠 3 𝑚3 𝑠 3 2
4 0.243 𝑚 3
𝐹𝐵 = (1000)(9.8) ( 𝜋 ( ) ) = 𝟕𝟒𝑵
3 2
IV. Continuity Equation

The amount of fluid passing through a pipe may be expressed in terms of a quantity called flow
rate (Q).
𝑚 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑄=
𝑡(𝑠𝑒𝑐)
Continuity equation tells us that if the cross-section area is large, the velocity of the fluid is small
and if the cross-section area is small, the velocity of the fluid is large. For many cases, the fluid is
incompressible.
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
The product of A and v is called the volume flow rate with an SI unit of 𝑚3 /𝑠. You can observe the
equation in continuity in real-life situation. When you pass through a small opening (such as doors or
hallways) of open-space buildings or structures on a windy day, you can feel that the wind, which is fluid,
blows stronger and faster.

Example 5

The blood flows from the aorta or radius 1.0 cm to the capillaries whose total cross-sectional area
is 0.7 m2. The average speed of the blood flowing in these capillaries is 9.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚/𝑠. Calculate the
speed of blood flowing through the aorta.
Given: Required:
r = 1 cm or 0.01m 𝑣1 =?
2
𝐴2 = 0.07 𝑚
𝑣2 = 9.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
Solution:
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴2 𝑣2 (0.07 𝑚2 )(9.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚/𝑠) (0.07 𝑚2 )(9.0 𝑥 10−4 𝑚/𝑠)
𝑣1 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝐴1 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋(0.01)2

V. Bernoulli’s Equation

1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2
2 2
𝜌 = fluid density
g = acceleration due to gravity
𝑃1 = pressure at elevation 1
𝑣1 = velocity at elevation 1
ℎ1 = height at elevation 1
𝑃2 = pressure at elevation 2
𝑣2 = velocity at elevation 2
ℎ2 = height at elevation 2

This is called the Bernoulli’s equation, which is expressed in form of pressure difference. It can be
seen from this equation that pressure difference can be associated with the change in the speed of the
fluid and/or difference in the elevation. Large flow speeds correspond to low pressure, and that flow
speeds give high pressure.
Fill a glass with water. Get two plastic straws 12 cm long. Place one straw in the glass with water.
Place the second straw in the position shown in figure 9-13 and blow. Observe the level of water in the
first straw before blowing and while blowing into the second straw. Why does the water rise when you
blow into the second straw?
 At start, the levels of water in the straw and in the beaker are the same. In this condition, the
upward pressure exerted by the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted by the molecules of air on the
water surface. If you blow into the second straw, then the speed of air molecules above the first straw is
increased. This result to a decrease in the downward pressure exerted by air molecules on the surface of
water in the first straw. The upward pressure exerted by water in the glass to the water in the first straw
is now greater than the downward pressure exerted by the air molecules. The difference in these
pressures makes the water in the first straw to rise. This demonstrates the relations between the velocity
and pressure exerted by a moving fluid. This relationship is embodied in the Bernoulli’s principle. It states
that as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by that fluid decreases.

Attach figure 9-13

Example 6

The standard water pressure supplied by water suppliers in the Philippines, such as NAWASA,
Maynilad, or Manila Water, is around 60 psi (pounds per square inch) or around 4.14 𝑥 105 𝑃𝑎. Water
enters the house through pipe with an internal diameter of 2.0 cm. From here, a 1.0 cm- diameter pipe
leads the water to the bathroom on the second floor 5.0 m from the ground. If the flow speed at the inlet
pipe (the 2.0-cm diameter pipe) is 1.5 m/s, find the (a) flow speed, (b) pressure, and (c) volume flow rate
in the second-floor bathroom.
Given Required:
5
𝑃1 = 4.14 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎 𝑣2 = ?
d1 = 2 cm or r = 1 cm 𝑃2 = ?
d2 = 1 cm or r = 0.5 cm 𝐴2 𝑣2 = ?
𝑣1 = 1.5𝑚/𝑠
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 5 𝑚
𝜌 = 1.0 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Solution:
a. Find the flow speed 𝑣2 in the second-floor bathroom using the continuity equation.
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴1 𝑣1 𝜋𝑟1 2 𝜋(1 𝑐𝑚)2 1.5𝑚
𝑣2 = = 𝑣 = ( ) = 𝟔. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
𝐴2 𝜋𝑟2 2 1 𝜋(0.50 𝑐𝑚)2 𝑠
b. Find the pressure at the second-floor bathroom using Bernoulli’s equation.
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 2 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2
2 2
1 1
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣1 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑣2 2
2
2 2
1 2 2
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 − 𝜌(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) − 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
2
1
𝑃2 = (4.14 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎) − (1.0 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )[(6.0𝑚/𝑠)2 − (1.5𝑚/𝑠)2 ]
5
2
−(1.0 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )(9.8𝑚/𝑠2 )(5 𝑚)
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂
c. The volume flow rate is the product of the cross-section area and the flow speed.
𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝜋𝑟2 2 𝑣2 = 𝜋(5.0 𝑥 10−3 𝑚)2 (6.0 𝑚/𝑠) = 𝟒. 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎𝟒 /𝒔

Exercise 1. Drills on Fluid Mechanics

Solve the problem carefully and write your answers and their corresponding solutions on a separate
sheet of paper.

1. (Pascal’s Principle) A 1500kg car is placed on the large piston with a radius of 4m. (a) What is the
minimum upward force that the large piston must exert to lift the car? (b) if the mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic lift system is 20, what is the minimum downward force that should be
applied to lift the car? (c) what is the radius of the small piston? (d) what is the pressure exerted
by the large piston?
2. (Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle) A 0.650 kg garden gnome went snorkeling a little too low
and found himself at the bottom of a fresh-water lake of depth 35.0 m. The garden gnome is solid
 (with no holes) and takes up a total volume of 1.44 x 10−3 𝑚3 . The density of fresh-water lake is
1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . What is the buoyant force on the gnome?
3. (Continuity and Bernoulli’s Equation) Water flows through a horizontal pipe with a cross-sectional
area of 4𝑚2 at a speed of 5𝑚/𝑠 with a pressure of 300 000 𝑃𝑎 at point A. At point B, the cross-
sectional area is 2𝑚2 . (a) What is the speed of water at point B? (b) Calculate the pressure at
point B

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

To convert from one temperature scale to another, the following equations are used:

5
𝑇𝐶 = (𝑇𝐹 − 32)
9
9
𝑇𝐹 = (𝑇𝐶 − 32)
5
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
𝑇𝐶 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑠
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑛ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑡
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛

Note that the gradations or intervals for the kelvin scale are the same as those in the Celsius scale. Thus, 0 K = -
273.15 °C and 273.15 K = 0 C°. The changes in temperature as expressed in the two are numerically equal. For
example, 5 C° is 5 K.
I. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

The macroscopic definition of temperature

can be defined from the zeroth law of
thermodynamics. Consider the following
situations:
• Thermal Contact – a situation where
system can exchange energy with each
other.
• Thermal Equilibrium – a situation where
systems cease/stop exchanging energy.
Imagine three systems, A, B, and C that are initially not in thermal equilibrium with each other. Systems A
and C are put in thermal contact with each other as shown in figure 13.4a, whereas system A and B are
separated by an ideal insulating wall. When thermal equilibrium is attained, system A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with system C. But what about systems A and B, are they in thermal equilibrium with each
other?
To answer this, you separate system C from system A and B. Let systems A and B be in thermal contact
with other as shown in figure 13.4b. Experiments have shown that nothing happens. The condition is still
the same as before. Therefore, systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This is the concept of the zeroth law of thermodynamics. Its states that

“If the system C is in thermal equilibrium with both systems A and B, then systems A and B are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.”

II. THERMAL EXPANSION

The change in the length of body

when the temperature changes is called
linear expansion. The change in the
length of an object ΔL is proportional to
its initial length 𝐿0 and the change in
temperature ΔT. The proportionally
constant (α) is called the coefficient of
linear expansion (1/°C).
∆𝐿 = 𝐿0 𝛼Δ𝑇
To find the final length L, note that ∆𝐿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿0 , simple substitution gives
𝐿 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇)
Like linear expansion, the volume of materials changes when temperature changes. This is called
volume expansion. The changes in volume ΔV is proportional to the initial volume 𝑉0 and changes in
temperature ΔT. The proportionality constant is the coefficient of volume expansion denoted by the
symbol β.
Δ𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝛽Δ𝑇
You can find the final volume V by taking note that ∆𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉0 .
𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 + 𝛽Δ𝑇)
Example 7

Consider a glass tube with a volume of 200 cm3 that is filled to the brim with mercury at 20°C.
How much mercury would overflow if the temperature of the system is raised to 100°C? Note that the
coefficients of volume expansion of the glass and of mercury are 0.40 𝑥 10−5 𝐾 −1 and 18 𝑥 10−5 𝐾 −1 ,
respectively.

Solution:

The amount of mercury that would overflow is the difference in the changes of its volume and the inner
volume of the glass tube, as follows:
∆𝑉𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = Δ𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 − Δ𝑉𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
Note that the volume of the mercury and the inner volume of the glass tube have the same initial
volume of 200 cm3. The change in the volume of mercury is

Δ𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 𝑉0 𝛽𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 Δ𝑇 = (200 𝑐𝑚3 )(18 𝑥 10−5 𝐾 −1 )(80 𝐾) = 2.88 𝑐𝑚3

The change in the inner volume of the glass tube is

Δ𝑉𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉0 𝛽𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 Δ𝑇 = (200 𝑐𝑚3 )(0.4 𝑥 10−5 𝐾 −1 )(80 𝐾) = 0.064 𝑐𝑚3

Thus, the amount of mercury that overflows is

∆𝑉𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = Δ𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 − Δ𝑉𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 2.88 𝑐𝑚3 − 0.064 𝑐𝑚3 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟏𝟔 𝒄𝒎𝟑

III. HEAT AND HEAT CAPACITY

Heat (Q), is the energy being transferred between bodies with

different temperatures. Heat flows spontaneously from a body with
higher temperature to a body with lower temperature. A common
argument is that a body does not contain heat. Heat is energy transit,
which is not contained by an object.
The amount of heat Q to raise the temperature of a certain
substance with mass m from temperature 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 is found to be
proportional to the temperature change , ∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 . However, the
∆𝑇 of any substance still depends on its phase or nature. For example,
raising the temperature of a kilogram of water by 1°C requires 4 190 J
of heat, as compared to a kilogram of aluminum that requires only 910
J. This is because water doesn’t heat up as easily as metals. Thus, the
heat required for temperature change ∆𝑇 of a certain material with
mass m is

𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, J/kg.K or cal/g°C
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to change
temperature of a unit mass of the substance by one-unit degree
Example 8

How many calories of heat will be needed to raise the temperature of 200 g of iron from 27°C to
80°C?
Given: Required:
𝑇2 = 80°C H=?
𝑇1 = 27 °C
m = 200 g
c = 0.11 cal/g°C
Solution
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = (200 𝑔)(0.11 cal/g°C)(80 °C − 27 °C) = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒄𝒂𝒍

IV. MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER

1. CONDUCTION – is a mechanism of heat transfer that

exchanges or transfers heat within a body or between
bodies that are in contact with each other. For
example, consider a spoon whose one end is placed
above a flame, while you are holding the other end
(figure 13.9). Notice that the end of the spoon you are
holding becomes hotter although it its not in direct
contact with the flame. Because conduction needs a
medium for the transfer of heat, conduction through
a vacuum (empty space) is not possible.
𝑻𝑯 − 𝑻𝑪
𝑯 = 𝒌𝑨
𝑳
H = rate of heat flow (heat current/thermal conductivity), W
k = proportionally constant, W/m.K or J/s.m.°C
A = cross-sectional area, m2
𝑇𝐻 = heat flow from an area of higher temperature, °C
𝑇𝐶 = heat flow from an area of lower temperature, °C
L =length, m

Example 9

During summer, the air temperature in Metro Manila can reach as high as 36°C. Consider an air-
conditioned house with air temperature of 22°C. Calculate the rate of heat flow through a glass window
that is 1.8 m x 1.2 m in area and 3.0 mm thick
Given: Required:
𝑘 = 0.8 𝑊/𝑚. K 𝐻 =?
2
𝐴 = 2.16 𝑚
𝑇𝐻 = 36°C
𝑇𝐶 = 22°C
𝐿 = 0.003𝑚

Solution:
Assume that the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces of the window are the ambient
temperatures 22°C and 36°C, respectively. Based on the table 13.4, the representative value for the
thermal conductivity of glass is 0.8 W/m.K. The cross-sectional area of the glass window is A = (1.8m)
(1.2m) = 2.16 m2. Using the heat conductivity equation
𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 36°C − 22°C
𝐻 = 𝑘𝐴 = (0.8𝑊/𝑚. K)(2.16 𝑚2 ) = 𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟒 𝑾
𝐿 0.003𝑚
 2. CONVECTION – when a fluid, such as air or liquid, is heated and then travels away from the source,
carries the thermal energy along. This type of heat transfer is called convection. The fluid above
a hot surface expands, becomes less dense and rises. At the molecular level, the molecules expand
upon introduction of thermal energy. As the temperature of the given fluid mass increases, the
volume of the fluid must increase by the same factor. This effect on the fluid causes displacement.
As the immediate hot air rises, it pushes denser, colder air down. This series of events represents
how convection currents are formed. The equation for convection rates is calculated as follows:

𝑯 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝑺 − 𝑻𝒇 )
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇𝑆 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Exercise 10

3. RADIATION – is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves, such as visible light, infrared,
ultraviolet radiation, which can propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light. For example, you
palm feels warm when you place it beside a flame. Aside from emissivity, the rate of radiation is
also found to be proportional to the fourth power of the kelvin temperature T and the surface
area A of the emitting object. An object not only emits radiation, but it also absorbs radiation from
its surroundings. If the temperature of the surrounding is 𝑇𝑆 .Thus, the heat current due to
radiation or H can be expressed as
𝑯𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝝈𝓮𝑨(𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝑺 𝟒 )

Where, 𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 . 𝑲𝟒 , this is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Example 11

To cool your body, you decided to relax in a cool swimming pool with a temperature of 20°C. The
total surface area of a human body is approximately 1.50m2 with emissivity very close to unity (ℯ = 1),
irrespectively of skin pigmentation. If the surface temperature of your skin is 32°C, what is the net rate of
heat loss from your body when soaking in this pool?
Given Required:
−8 2 4
𝜎 = 5.67 𝑥 10 𝑊/𝑚 . 𝐾 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 =?
ℯ=1
𝐴 = 1.50𝑚2
𝑇 = 32 °𝐶 = 273.15 + 32°𝐶 = 305.15 𝐾
𝑇𝑆 = 20 °𝐶 = 273.15 + 20°𝐶 = 293.15 𝐾

Solution:
The net rate of radiation by your body is,
𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎ℯ𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑆 4 ) = (5.67 𝑥 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾 4 )(1)(1.50𝑚2 )[(305.15𝐾)4 − (293.15𝐾)4 ]
𝑯𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑾

Exercise 2. Drills on Temperature and Heat

1. A child’s temperature is 103 °F. Does the child have fever?

2. It takes 30 cal energy to heat a 13.2g sample of an unknown metal from 18°C to 49°C. Determine
the specific heat capacity of the unknown material.
3. What is the rate of flow through a glass window that is 2m x 3m and 1.4 cm thich if the outside
𝐽
temperature is 22°C and the inside temperature is 25°C? 𝐾 = 0.84 𝑠.𝑚.°C

Module Assessment
Answer the questions briefly.
1. Why will a cube of ice placed in a beaker with 100 g water at 27°C melt faster than an ice cube of
the same size placed in a beaker with 10 grams water at 37°C?
 2. As the balloon rises, does the pressure inside the bag of the balloon increase, or decrease?
Explain.

Solve the problem carefully and write your answers and their corresponding solutions on a separate
sheet of paper.
1. The dimension of a rectangular metal bar are 6 cm x 8 cm x 9 cm. If the bar has a mass of 4 Kg,
what is the density of the bar in g/mL and in Kg/m3?
2. An aluminum bar 1.25 meters long at 20 °C. The coefficient of linear expansion is 25 𝑥 10−6 1/°C.
if the temperature is increased to 75 °C. (a) how much will the length of the bar change? (b) what
is the new length of the bar at this temperature?
 Module 13
Laws of Thermodynamics

I. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Consider a small amount of water inside a test tube enclosed by

a balloon as shown in figure 14.9. when the water is heated, it, it is
converted in to steam that has a higher internal energy than water.
The balloon also inflates because of the expanding steam. This
illustrates that the heat added to a system can increase the internal
energy of the system or make the system do work on the
surroundings by expansion or both.

𝑄 = 𝑊 + ∆𝑈
This relation among heat (Q), work (W), and change in internal energy ∆𝑈 is known as the first law of
thermodynamics. It can be states as:

“The heat added to the system will be partly/completely used to do work on the surroundings and/or
partly/completely change the system’s internal energy”

The first law of thermodynamics is simply a restatement of the law of conservation of energy. Based
on the law of conservation of energy, heat cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred to
another location and converted to other forms. Thus, in systems where energy is conserved, the first law
of thermodynamics is obeyed.

Example 1

Consider the following isolated systems. Which of the following process violates the first law of
thermodynamics?

A. An ice cube is placed in hot water; the ice melts

B. Solid wax was placed on a hot metal pan; the wax melts and metal pan cools
C. An ice cube is placed in hot coffee; the ice gets colder and the coffee gets hotter
D. Cold water is placed in a cold glass; the glass gets colder and the water gets colder.

Answer:

The first law of thermodynamics is obeyed when the conservation of energy holds true for a
particular process. For option A, energy is transferred from the hot water to ice. For option B, the energy
is transferred from the hot metal pan to the solid wax. In these two cases, energy is conserved. Hence the
first law of thermodynamics is obeyed.
For option C, heat is transferred from ice to the coffee, making the ice colder and the coffee
hotter. This is not observed naturally, but energy is still conserved because on of the bodies has absorbed
the energy that was released by the other. Thus, the first law of thermodynamics still holds true.
In option D, because both the glass and the water became colder, both of them have released
energy. However, this energy was not absorbed by either one of them. Energy is not conserved. Hence
the first law of thermodynamics is violated.

Example 2
A 60J work is done on a gas, and the gas loses 150 J of heat to its surroundings. What is the change
in internal energy?
Given: Required:
W = 60 J ∆𝑈
Q = -150 J (loses)
Solution
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 = (−150 𝐽) − (60 𝐽) = −𝟗𝟎 𝑱
 II. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Consider two paths for the motion of a mug shown in figure

15.2a. In the first case, a mug is dropped from rest. As the mug
falls down, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
When the mug hits the ground, it breaks into smaller pieces,
converting its initial energy into the energy needed in breaking
the mug, this increasing its internal energy. Because energy is
conserved, the first law of thermodynamics is obeyed.
The second case in figure 15.2b is the reverse process of the
first case. Initially, there are broken pieces of mug on the flood. Suddenly, they assemble themselves and
move upward as internal energy is converted into kinetic energy first, and then to initial potential energy.
For this case, because energy is still conserved, the first law of thermodynamics is still obeyed. But have
you seen this happen? The answer is no. Therefore, there should be a law in thermodynamics that gives
limitations to the validity of the first law.
The difference between these two illustrative cases is the direction of the process. While the first law
of thermodynamics is obeyed in both cases, nature only allows the first one. Thus, nature prefers a
particular direction for process to occur. This preference is described in second law of thermodynamics.
In figure 15.2, the two cases obey the first law of thermodynamics, but the second one violates the
second law. In general, all the natural processes (i.e., those the happen spontaneously in nature without
human intervention) occur only in one direction.

Second law of thermodynamics states that:

“The total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease over time, and is constant if and only if all
process are reversible”

Module Assessment
1. A gas starts with 200J of internal energy. While you add 180 J of heat to the gas, the gas does 70
J work. What is the finals internal energy of the gas?
2. The second law of thermodynamics deals with the concept of? Explain.
a. The conservation of matter and energy
b. The transformations of matter and energy
c. Entropy
d. Enthalpy