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Human Anatomy and Physiology
(Lecture/Laboratory)
MODULE NO: 6
MODULE TITLE: The Nervous System
WRITER: Mariness B. Autos, RN, MN

MODULE INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTION(S):

The nervous system is the most mysterious and complex system of the human body. It is the body’s fast-acting
master control center that monitors changes inside and outside the body, integrates sensory input, and quickly
generates an appropriate feedback response. The nervous system works together with the slower-acting endocrine
system, which is the body’s second most important regulating system.

What are the organs comprising the nervous system and how do they function? The nervous system is able to
constantly regulate and maintain homeostasis within narrow limits that are necessary for proper physiological
functioning. How does nervous system regulate the homeostasis of the human body? What are the process involved?

This module, you will have the full grasp of the nervous system. This focuses on both the structural and
functional classifications of the nervous system. It also includes the different organs and their mechanisms as a whole.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:

To do well in this module, REMEMBER the following:

❖ PRAY first before answering each module.

❖ Read and go through the module in the given schedule.
❖ ONLINE: Aside from the learning materials attached to this module, open the suggested
references and video links. It will help you in understanding the concepts of the lesson.
OFFLINE: Understand carefully the different concepts by thoroughly reading the learning
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materials and you may contact your instructor thru her personal messenger or if possible, thru our
messenger group chat.
❖ HONESTLY answer the activities and the answers will be provided for you either online or at the
end of this module.
❖ Submission of outputs/requirements are as follows:
Students with Internet Connection – written outputs is every Friday; Projects – Monday of the
following week thru our google classroom.
NOTE: All answer for this module must be intact and submitted as one. For Online, turn in your
outputs to our google classroom with the following file name format:
LASTNAME_Module6(date)

❖ Late submission will be subjected to 5 points deduction per week.

❖ And don’t forget to PRAY after finishing each module.
❖ You may now GET STARTED…

MODULE LESSON AND COVERAGE

Lesson Subtopics LEARNING OUTCOMES Estimated

―I SHOULD BE ABLE TO‖… time
6 Functions Discuss the functions of the nervous system. 13 hrs.

Cells Explain the structural and functional

classification of nervous system.
Describe the different structures of the
Divisions and its Parts central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system and outline the function of
each
Identify the parts of the brain, cranial nerves
and spinal nerves.
Explain the different events that lead to the
generation of a nerve impulse and its
Electrical Signals and conduction from one neuron to another.
neural pathways
Describe the parts of reflex arc and explain
its function.
Describe several types of reflex activity.
Reflexes

Here is a simple map of the above lessons you will cover:

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FUN FACTS ABOUT NERVOUS SYSTEM

● There are more nerve cells in the human brain than there are stars in the Milky Way.
● If we lined up all the neurons in our body it would be around 965 km long.
● There are 100 billion neurons in your brain alone.
● A newborn baby's brain almost triples in size during the course of its first year.
● The left side of human brain controls the right side of the body and the right side of the brain controls
the left side of the body.
● A new born baby loses about half of their nerve cells before they are born.
● There are about 13 500,00 neurons in the human spinal cord.
● The nervous system can transmit nerve impulses as fast as 100 meters per second, and in some cases,
the speed of transmission is around 180 miles per hour.
● A man's brain has 6.5 times more grey matter compared to women, but a woman's brain has 10 times
more white matter compared to men.
● Your nervous system cannot function properly in the absence of potassium and sodium ions. Vitamin
B is equally essential for your nervous system.

Ref: https://www.health24.com/Lifestyle/Healthy-Nerves/10-fun-facts-about-the-nervous-system-
20160210 Let’s find out how much you already know about this module.
Encircle or highlight the letter that you think best answers the question. Take note of
your answer and check if you get it correctly as you go through this module.

1. The term central nervous system refers to the ________.

A) autonomic and peripheral nervous systems
B) brain, spinal cord, and cranial nerves
C) brain and cranial nerves
D) brain and spinal cord

2. What are the two main functional subdivisions of the nervous system?
A) central and peripheral C) somatic and autonomic
B) sensory and motor D) autonomic and sympathetic
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3. Support cells in the central nervous system are collectively called ________.
A) myelin sheaths B) neuroglia C) oligodendrocytes D) microglia

4. The part of the neuron that typically conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body is the ________.
A) dendrite B) cell body C) synaptic cleft D) axon

5. What are the major positive ions situated outside the neuron when it is polarized?
A) calcium ions C) sodium ions
B) potassium ions D) magnesium ions

6. Myelinated fibers (tracts) form ________ matter while unmyelinated fibers form ________ matter.
A) sensory; motor B) gray; white C) motor; sensory D) white; gray

7. What reflexes stimulate skeletal muscles?

A) somatic B) pupillary C) autonomic D) salivary
8. The thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus collectively constitute the ________.
A) cerebellum C) diencephalon interbrain
B) brain stem D) cerebrum

9. In which cerebral lobe is the primary somatic sensory cortex located?

A) parietal B) frontal C) temporal D) occipital

10. Which of the following is one of the major functions of the pons?
A) breathing B) hunger C) thirst D) consciousness

11. The ________ is a connective tissue wrapping around fascicles of neuron fibers.
A) epineurium B) endoneurium C) perineurium D) perimysium

12. What is the name of cranial nerve III?

A) optic B) olfactory C) oculomotor D) trochlear

13. What part of the neuron releases neurotransmitters from vesicles?

A) axon terminals B) dendrites C) axon hillock D) Schwann cells

14. What is the primary role of the interneuron (association neuron)?

A) carry information from the central nervous system to muscles and/or the viscera
B) form a lipid-protein (lipoprotein) cell membrane on the outside of axons
C) transmit nerve impulses from the skin and organs to the central nervous system
D) connect motor and sensory neurons in their pathways

15. Which ion causes neurotransmitter vesicles to fuse with the axon's membrane during the conduction of a
nerve impulse from one neuron to the next?
A) chlorine B) sodium C) potassium D) calcium

RESEARCH
ACTIVITY 1: Widen up your knowledge
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Online: Download the pdf copy of learning materials posted in your google classroom.
Offline: The copy of the learning materials is attached at the end of this module.
Read, study, understand and reflect on the following questions.

Your main goal in this section is to learn and understand the key concepts by working on the following
questions:
What are the structures that make up the CNS and those that make up the PNS? Describe each structure and function.
• The Brain and Spinal Cord Are the Central Nervous System. Nerves and Sensory Organs Make Up the
Peripheral Nervous System. Together, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous systems (PNS)
transmit and process sensory information and coordinate bodily functions. In addition, the nervous system has two main
parts: The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is made up of
nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body
What is the difference between supporting cells and neurons? What are their significance to each other and what are the
different types of supporting cells?
• Nervous tissue contains two categories of cells — neurons and neuroglia. Neurons are highly
specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses. Neuroglia are supporting cells that provide physical sport,
remove debris, and provide electrical insulation. Neurons are highly specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve
impulses. Neuroglia are supporting cells that provide physical sport, remove debris, and provide electrical insulation.
Neuroglia operate as support cells to neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. There are six types of
neuroglia, each with different functions: Astrocyte, Oligodendrocyte, Microglia, Ependymal cell, Satellite cell, Schwann
cell
How does a tract differ from a nerve? Ganglion and nucleus?

 A tract is a collection of nerve fibers (axons) in the central nervous system. A nerve is a collection of nerve fibers
(axons) in the peripheral nervous system. Nucleus refers to cell bodies in the CNS ie the brain and the spinal cord
while ganglion refers to cell bodies outside the CNS. In addition, there is no difference between nuclei and ganglia.
Nuclei exist in the CNS, ganglia in the PNS. Dendrites and axons are both arm-like processes that extend from
neuron cell bodies.
Which part of a neuron conducts impulses toward the cell body in multipolar and bipolar neurons? Which part releases
neurotranmitters?

 Dendrites conduct impulses toward the nerve cell body; the axon terminal releases neurotransmitters.
What are the processes involving in the physiology of nerve impulses? Explain the different events and terminologies used.

 The transmission of a nerve impulse along a neuron from one end to the other occurs as a result of electrical
changes across the membrane of the neuron. The membrane of an unstimulated neuron is polarized—that is, there
is a difference in electrical charge between the outside and inside of the membrane. The inside is negative with
respect to the outside. Polarization is established by maintaining an excess of sodium ions (Na +) on the outside
and an excess of potassium ions (K +) on the inside. A certain amount of Na + and K + is always leaking across the
membrane through leakage channels, but Na +/K + pumps in the membrane actively restore the ions to the
appropriate side. The main contribution to the resting membrane potential (a polarized nerve) is the difference in
permeability of the resting membrane to potassium ions versus sodium ions. The resting membrane is much more
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permeable to potassium ions than to sodium ions resulting in slightly more net potassium ion diffusion (from the
inside of the neuron to the outside) than sodium ion diffusion (from the outside of the neuron to the inside) causing
the slight difference in polarity right along the membrane of the axon. Other ions, such as large, negatively charged
proteins and nucleic acids, reside within the cell. It is these large, negatively charged ions that contribute to the
overall negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane as compared to the outside. In addition to crossing the
membrane through leakage channels, ions may cross through gated channels. Gated channels open in response to
neurotransmitters, changes in membrane potential, or other stimuli. The following events characterize the
transmission of a nerve impulse: Resting potential. The resting potential describes the unstimulated, polarized state
of a neuron (at about –70 millivolts). Graded potential. A graded potential is a change in the resting potential of the
plasma membrane in the response to a stimulus. A graded potential occurs when the stimulus causes Na + or K +
gated channels to open. If Na + channels open, positive sodium ions enter, and the membrane depolarizes (becomes
more positive). If the stimulus opens K + channels, then positive potassium ions exit across the membrane and the
membranehyperpolarizes (becomes more negative). A graded potential is a local event that does not travel far from
its origin. Graded potentials occur in cell bodies and dendrites. Light, heat, mechanical pressure, and chemicals,
such as neurotransmitters, are examples of stimuli that may generate a graded potential (depending upon the
neuron).
What reflex? What are the components of a reflex arc? What are the different types of reflex arc and its importance?

 Reflex arc, neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, an immediate response to a particular
stimulus. The primary components of the reflex arc are the sensory neurons (or receptors) that receive stimulation
and in turn connect to other nerve cells that activate muscle cells (or effectors), which perform the reflex action.
Types of Reflex Arcs. There are two types of reflex arcs:the autonomic reflex arc, affecting inner organs, and the
somatic reflex arc, affecting muscles. When a reflex arc consists of only two neurons, one sensory neuron, and one
motor neuron, it is defined as monosynaptic. Monosynaptic refers to the presence of a single chemical synapse.
Different types of reflex actions are known which are involuntary responses of effectors to the stimulus. It aids us
in protection from any sudden stimulus that may harm us and therefore takes care of the survival of an organism.
The significance of reflex action is due to the fact that reflex arcs are composed of major components creating a
reflex.

ANALYSIS
Activity 1: Neuron
Neurons or nerve cells are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system. It is responsible for
receiving sensory input from the external world, sending motor commands to our muscles, and
transforming and relaying the electrical signals.
Below is a figure of a neuron cell, answer the following:
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1. Identify the structure that is indicated by the leader lines and describe the role of each structure.
A. Neuroglial cells - The neuroglia are a diverse class of cells that provide developmental,
physiological, and metabolic support for neurons. They are responsible for maintaining
homeostatic control and immune surveillance in the nervous system.
B. Microgolia - are the resident innate immune cells of the CNS and are responsible for
normal maintenance of CNS tissue as well as the local response to injury or infection, thus
playing critical roles in both the healthy and pathological brain and spinal cord.
C. Nissl bodies - are thought to be the same as those of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in
general, primarily the synthesis and segregation of proteins. Similar to the ergastoplasm of
glandular cells, Nissl bodies are the main site of protein synthesis in the neuronal
cytoplasm.
D. Dendrites - are appendages that are designed to receive communications from other cells.
They resemble a tree-like structure, forming projections that become stimulated by other
neurons and conduct the electrochemical charge to the cell body (or, more rarely, directly
to the axons).
E. Nucleolus - is an organelle in the nucleus that plays a key role in the transcription and
processing of ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These material property changes lead to changes in
rRNA processing, providing insight into how rRNA flux and processing may be natively
tuned through the material state of nucleolus
F. Nucleus - controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism) and
carries the genes, structures that contain the hereditary information. Nucleoli are small
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bodies often seen within the nucleus. The gel-like matrix in which the nuclear components
are suspended is the nucleoplasm
2. What type of neuron classification is the figure? How do you say so?
 The figure above shows the multipolar neurons or the motor neuron because of its
different structure from others and it is the most common type of neurons. We can
identify multipolar by containing one axon and many dendrites.
3. Aside from your answer in number 2, what are the other classifications of neuron? What are their
differences?

 Neurons are classified functionally according to the direction in which the signal travels,
in relation to the CNS. Unipolar neurons (sensory neuron) have only one structure
extending from the soma; bipolar neurons (interneuron) have one axon and one
dendrite extending from the soma. Multipolar neurons contain one axon and many
dendrites; pseudounipolar neurons have a single structure that extends from the soma,
which later branches into two distinct structures.

Exercise 2: Brain Anatomy

The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up of more than
100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses. The brain is made up of
many specialized areas that work together.

1. Identify the brain structure indicated by the numbered leader lines.

Answer:
1) Temporal Lobe
2) Frontal Lobe
3) Parietal lobe
4) Occipital lobe
5) Cerebellum
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6) Brainstem
2. Match your answer in number 1 to the following functions.
a) Language and touch – (3) Parietal lobe
b) Breathing, heart rate and temperature – (6) Brainstem
c) Tough memory and behaviour – (1) Temporal Lobe
d) Balance and coordination – (5) Cerebellum
e) Hearing, learning and emotions – (2) Frontal lobe
f) Visual processing – (4) Occipital lobe

ACTION
PERFORMANC
E

LECTURE: A Case Study of the Central Nervous System

You are a neurologist at a major urban hospital. A 63 year-old African-American female with a history of
hypertension is brought to you for your neurological assessment. She is currently taking verapamil
(Calan) "when she remembers" and has a blood pressure of 139/107. The patient complains of both motor
and sensory problems that began several days ago. A series of cognitive, sensory and motor tests reveal
the following signs and symptoms:

The patient has completely lost the perception of the somatic senses from the right side of her jaw, face
and tongue. There is only minor diminishment in somatosensation from her right hand and lower arm.
However, even though the patient recognizes she has an object in her right hand by touch, she has almost
no ability to identify objects by touch when they are hidden from sight. Sensation in her left arm, torso
and both legs is unaffected.

The patient experiences flaccid (non-contracting) paralysis in the muscles on the right side of her jaw and
face. Movements of her right hand are hesitant and uncoordinated - she can no longer play the piano or
type with her right hand. She can no longer move her right ring finger at all. Activity and coordination of
other muscle groups appear normal.

The patient understands written and spoken words and can read and write normally. However, his speech
is labored and her enunciation is severely impaired.

Your task is to evaluate the patient and write a case summary. This summary should include a brief
description of her major symptoms and the patient's diagnosis. This diagnosis should include a brief
description of the problem and its location. The potential causes of this problem and whether the problem
will improve with treatment and time.

Encode your answer in a short bond paper, font size 12, Times New Roman, with a minimum of 800
words and maximum of 1,500. Includes the references used.
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CASE SUMMARY ABOUT A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF PATIENT’S CONDITION

We aimed to inform the design of behavioral interventions by identifying patients’ and

their family members’ perceived facilitators and barriers to hypertension self-management.
Working with patients who are not willing to engage fully with healthcare services is a common
occurrence. The process requires patience and a focus on providing the patient with full
information about their condition and then allowing them to make decisions about their
treatment. The patient qualifies for a diagnosis of stage 1 hypertension (blood pressure
>139/>107 mm Hg). A single agent will not suffice to lower the patient’s blood pressure to target
level. Many studies have also demonstrated that combination therapy reduces the risk of cardiac
events,1 is more efficacious,2 and improves adherence, blood pressure control, and time-to-
target blood pressure.3 Combination therapy with appropriately chosen agents (such as
amlodipine and an angiotensin receptor blocker [ARB]) augments effects of either agent taken
alone. The days of ―maxing out‖ monotherapy before initiating combinations are over.

The neurologic examination is considered by many to be daunting. It may seem tedious,

time consuming, overly detailed, idiosyncratic, and even capricious. Every neurologist has
his/her own version of the examination, and may appear to use ―magical thinking‖ to come up
with a diagnosis at the end. With this situation as a neurologist at a major urban hospital, when
performing the neurological examination, it is important to keep the purpose of the examination
in mind, namely to localize the lesion. A basic knowledge of neuroanatomy is necessary to
interpret the examination. In reality, the examination is quite simple. I should do the key to
performing an efficient neurological examination is observation. More than half of the
neurological examination is performed by simply observing the patient – how he/she speaks,
thinks, walks, moves, and simply interacts with the examiner like in the situation with her
sensory and motor problems that began several days ago. A skillful observer will already localize
a lesion, based on simple observations. Formalized testing merely refines the diagnosis, and may
only require several additional steps. Hypertension affects one-third of Americans like this 63
year-old African-American female with a history of hypertension that is a significant modifiable
risk factor for cardiovascular disease, stroke, renal disease, and death. Severe asymptomatic
hypertension is defined as severely elevated blood pressure (180 mm Hg or more systolic, or 110
mm Hg or more diastolic) without symptoms of acute target organ injury. The short-term risks of
acute target organ injury and major adverse cardiovascular events are low in this population,
whereas hypertensive emergencies manifest as acute target organ injury requiring immediate
hospitalization. Individuals with severe asymptomatic hypertension often have pre-existing
poorly controlled hypertension and usually can be managed in the outpatient setting. Immediate
diagnostic testing rarely alters short-term management, and blood pressure control is best
achieved with initiation or adjustment of antihypertensive therapy. Aggressive lowering of blood
pressure should be avoided, and the use of parenteral medications is not indicated. Current
recommendations are to gradually reduce blood pressure over several days to weeks. Patients
with escalating blood pressure, manifestation of acute target organ injury, or lack of compliance
with treatment should be considered for hospital admission. A comprehensive history is essential
in the initial evaluation of patients with severe asymptomatic hypertension. A medication history
should include any new medications; illicit substances (e.g., sympathomimetics, cocaine); and,
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most importantly, compliance with current prescriptions.13 A targeted symptom history should
be obtained to identify a potential hypertensive emergency. Severe blood pressure elevations
may cause mild symptoms (e.g., headache, lightheadedness, nausea, shortness of breath,
palpitations, epistaxis, anxiety) without acute target organ injury, although patients with chest
pain should receive appropriate evaluation for chest pain, not severe asymptomatic hypertension.
Medical History in the Evaluation of Severe Asymptomatic Hypertension: Previous hypertension
(duration and levels); Personal history: coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure,
cerebrovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, peripheral vascular disease, diabetes mellitus,
sleep apnea; Risk factors: family history of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, tobacco use,
dietary habits, weight gain, sedentary lifestyle; Secondary causes: family history of kidney
disease, personal history of renal disease, medications and illicit drug use, clinical features of
metabolic disorders (e.g., thyroid disease, pheochromocytoma, hyperaldosteronism); Target
organ injury: neurologic (headache, vision changes, seizure, neurologic deficits), cardiovascular
(chest pain, shortness of breath, myocardial infarction, syncope, history of palpitations or
arrhythmias), renal (oliguria, anuria), peripheral arteries (claudication, cold extremities, weak
distal pulses), pulmonary (sleep apnea, chronic lung disease); Concurrent medication/drug use:
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants, oral contraceptives, cold medications,
sympathomimetics (amphetamines, cocaine, phencyclidine), corticosteroids, herbal remedies;
Compliance with antihypertensive therapy.

Patient presenting with severe asymptomatic hypertension rarely require diagnostic

evaluation, although subsequent office visits should include evaluation for long-term
hypertension risks based on current guidelines. Patient with symptoms or clinical findings
suggesting acute target organ injury require appropriate diagnostic testing and evaluation for
possible hypertensive emergency. A recent trial of an outpatient population referred to the ED
for severe asymptomatic hypertension showed only 5% of tests ordered had abnormal results,
and only 2% of patient had evidence of target organ injury. Patient who have not been compliant
often can safely resume their outpatient medications. Dosing adjustments and additions are
recommended for those already on antihypertensive therapy. No specific medication classes are
recommended for the initial management of severe asymptomatic hypertension. Treatment of
hypertension prolongs life and prevents or delays congestive heart failure and nephrosclerosis
and reduces the incidence of stroke.1–5 Antihypertensive treatment has, however, been less
effective in preventing coronary heart disease. It is not clear whether this is due to inadequate
blood pressure control, inadequate intervention of other risk factors, negative effects on the risk
of cardiovascular disease from antihypertensive drugs, intervention being too late to affect
atherosclerosis, or inadequate effect of present drugs on atherosclerosis. Important information
could be gained from prospective studies of long duration, which would also allow the
evaluation of patient characteristics of prognostic importance. ―Healing takes courage, and we all
have courage, even if we have to dig a little to find it.‖

RUBRICS

Criteria Exemplary Proficient Emerging Novice

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(4 points) (3 points) (2 points) (1 point)
Identification of Identifies and Identifies and Identifies and Identifies and
Main Cause/Problem demonstrates a demonstrates an demonstrates demonstrates weak
sophisticated accomplished acceptable understanding of
understanding of understanding of understanding of some
the main most of the cause/ some cause/problems in
cause/problems in problems. cause/problems in the case study.
the case study. the case study.
Analysis and Presents an Presents an Presents a Presents an
Evaluation of Cause/ insightful and thorough analysis superficial incomplete
Problems thorough analysis of most of the analysis of some analysis of some
of all identified cause/problems of the identified of the identified
cause/ identified. cause/ cause/problems.
problems. problems.
Recommendations on Supports Supports Little action No action
Effective Solutions/ diagnosis and diagnosis and suggested and/or suggested and
Strategies supports opinions with opinions with inappropriate inappropriate
strong arguments limited reasoning solutions solutions proposed
and well and evidence; proposed to the to the
documented presents a cause/problems in cause/problems in
evidence; presents somewhat one the case study. the case study.
a balanced and sided argument;
critical view; demonstrates little
interpretation is engagement with
both reasonable ideas presented.
and objective.
Organization Writing is well Writing is well Writing is not Writing is not well
organized and organized and well organized organized and not
logically generally and not logically logically
coherent. logically consistent. consistent. Writing
consistent. is rambling and
often doesn’t
make sense.
Paper requirements All paper Missing 1-2 paper Missing 3-4 paper Missing 5+ paper
and instructions requirements and requirements and requirements and requirements and
instructions are instructions. instructions. instructions.
correctly met

LABORATORY: Functions of the Nervous System and Action Potential

While you are walking along the street, an angry dog suddenly rushes in and ready to bite you. What
could your body’s response/reaction? Create a pathway of your response/reactions using the 3 essential
functions of the Nervous system. Be specific and detailed with your explanations. You must also include
receptor that senses the possible danger, gland and hormones that are mostly likely to be involved, the
events of the creation of action or how the action potential created to triggered a response.

Encode your answer in a short bond paper, font size 12, Times New Roman with a minimum of 800
words and maximum of 1,500. Includes the references used.
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Answer:

Dog bites can introduce dangerous bacteria into our body. A dog bite is a traumatic experience
that can cause the victim to sustain serious injuries with long-term complications. A dog bite is
not as uncommon as you may believe. My sensory (afferent) neuron carries information from the
sensory receptor that it will stop at first and could not process well because of shock, whereas a
motor (or efferent) neuron transmits information to the muscles and glands that will cause
sudden of motion of being hurt and bleed if the dog attacks me. When a person perceives that
danger is possible, such as when he or she interprets a situation or stimulus in a threatening way,
there is an automatic physiological (bodily) response that takes over and helps protect the person
from danger. This is called the ―fight-or-flight response‖ because its purpose is to help you either
fight or flee from potential danger like when the dog suddenly rush in. When a person perceives
danger, his or her brain sends messages to a part the nervous system called the autonomic
nervous system. The autonomic nervous system has two subsections or branches called the
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. It is these two branches of
the nervous system which are directly involved in controlling the body's energy levels and
preparation for action. Very simply, the sympathetic nervous system is the fight-or-flight system
which gets the body aroused and ready for action (fighting or fleeing), and the parasympathetic
nervous system returns the body to a normal, non-aroused state.When activated, the sympathetic
nervous system releases a chemical called adrenalin. Adrenalin is used as a messenger to
continue sympathetic nervous system activity, so that once activity begins, it often continues and
increases for some time. However, sympathetic nervous system activity is stopped in two ways.
First, the adrenalin is eventually destroyed by other chemicals in the body. Second, eventually,
the body "has enough" of the fight-or-flight response and activates the parasympathetic nervous
system to restore a relaxed feeling. In other words, the response does not continue forever, nor
does it spiral out of control or intensify to ―damaging levels‖. First, the fight-or-flight response is
not at all dangerous—it is meant to help you, not harm you. Second, the parasympathetic nervous
system is an inbuilt protector which slows down the sympathetic nervous system after a while.
Another important point is that adrenalin takes time to fully exit the blood stream. So, even after
your sympathetic nervous system has stopped responding, you are likely to feel keyed up or
alarmed for some time because the adrenalin is still floating around in your system. This is
actually part of the protective mechanism since in the wilds, danger often has a habit of
returning. So, it is useful for us to remain in fight-or-flight mode so that we can quickly react if
danger returns. In addition, when the dog again suddenly rush in then accidentally they bite me,
this can cause serious and sometimes fatal infections to occur when left untreated. It's very
important to wash the wound as soon as you're bitten and to use topical antibiotics, such as
povidone iodine, in and around broken skin. A change in an animal’s ability to sense its
environment can be caused by disease in either the central nervous system or the peripheral
nervous system. The primary signs of nervous system disorders include behavioral changes,
seizures, tremors, pain, numbness, lack of coordination, and weakness or paralysis of one or
more legs. The effects of an injury on sensory and motor functions depend on its location and
severity. A spinal cord injury can cause loss of feeling and paralysis below the level of the
injury. Mild spinal cord injuries can result in clumsy movement and mild weakness of the limbs.
Moderate spinal cord injuries can cause a greater weakness of the limbs. In severe spinal cord
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injuries, a complete loss of movement (paralysis) and feeling can occur. However, not all spinal
cord injuries cause paralysis. For example, injury to the spinal cord in the lower back can result
not in limb paralysis but in loss of bladder control. Brain injuries result in different effects, again
depending on which part of the brain is affected. Injuries to the brain stem can cause a loss of
balance, weakness of the limbs, hyperactive reflexes, stupor, or coma. Injuries to the cerebellum
can result in a lack of coordination of the head and legs, tremors, and a loss of balance. Injuries
to the cerebrum can cause complete or partial blindness, loss of the sense of smell, seizures,
coma, stupor, pacing or circling behavior, and inability to recognize an owner. Some injuries to
the nervous system can cause damage that is not evident until 24 to 48 hours after the injury
occurs. Long term damage is usually caused by swelling or internal bleeding of the vessels in the
brain. Strokes caused by clogged arteries or high blood pressure are rare in pets. In addition to
the effects of injuries, nervous system disorders can include birth defects, inherited disorders,
infections and inflammations, poisoning, metabolic disorders, nutritional deficiencies,
degenerative diseases, cancer, or unknown causes. Most birth defects, often called congenital
disorders, are obvious at birth or shortly after. Some genetic diseases cause the neurons to
degenerate slowly and irreversibly in the first year of life. In other inherited diseases, such as
epilepsy, the animal may not show any signs for 2 to 3 years. Infections of the nervous system
are caused by specific viruses or microorganisms. Other inflammations, such as certain types of
meningitis, can be caused by the body’s own overactive immune system. These are known as
autoimmune disorders. Various chemicals can cause a toxic reaction in the nervous system.
These include certain pesticides and herbicides, rat poisons, antifreeze, chocolate, and sedatives.
High doses of certain types of medication can also be toxic to the nervous system. Botulism,
tetanus, and tick bites, as well as coral and tiger snake venom, can also affect the nervous system
and cause paralysis. Some metabolic disorders affect the function of the nervous system,
including low blood sugar, shortness or loss of breath, liver disease, and kidney failure. Thyroid
and adrenal gland abnormalities and electrolyte imbalances can also cause neurologic signs. A
lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet can cause a loss of motor control, stupor, seizures, and
coma in dogs. Inadequate amounts of B6 can cause seizures.

RUBRICS
Criteria Exemplary Proficient Emerging Novice
(4 points) (3 points) (2 points) (1 point)
Sensory part Identifies, explain Identifies, explain Identifies, explain Identifies, explain
and demonstrates and demonstrates and demonstrates and demonstrates
a sophisticated an accomplished acceptable weak
understanding on on how the understanding on understanding on
how the stimulus stimulus is how the stimulus how the stimulus
is perceived. perceived. is perceived. is perceived.
Integration part Presents an Presents an Presents a Presents an
insightful and thorough analysis superficial incomplete
thorough analysis of most action to analysis of some analysis of some
of the action to be be undertaken. most action to be most action to be
undertaken. undertaken. undertaken.
Organization Effectively Adequately Creates Uses little or no
creates a creates a inconsistent discernible
sequence of sequence of sequence of sequence of
events and events and events and events and
 CCN1/.1
Human Anatomy and Physiology
(Lecture/Laboratory)
logically from logically from logically from logically from
beginning to end. beginning to end. beginning to end. beginning to end.
Motor output part Conveys a strong Conveys a little Conveys a weak Did not conveys
explanation of the to moderate explanation of the explanation of the
response that will explanation of the response that will response that will
be created. response that will be created. be created.
be created.
Paper requirements All paper Missing 1-2 Missing 3-4 paper Missing 5+ paper
and instructions requirements and paper requirements and requirements and
instructions are requirements and instructions. instructions.
correctly met instructions.

EQUIVALENT:

7-
Score 20 19-18 17 16 15 14 13-12 11 10 9-8
below
Grade 99 96 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 71

REFERENCES:
Textbooks:
Hapan, M., Domingo, J. and Sadang, M., 2015. Human Physiology and Anatomy Laboratory Manual, 2nd
Edition. C & E Publishing Philippines.
Marieb, E. and Jackson P. 2019. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual, 7th
Edition. Pearson Eduaction South Asia Pte. Ltd.
Patton. 2019. Laboratory Manual Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 8th Edition. Mc-Graw
Hill. New York.
Roiger, D. and Bullock, N.J., 2019. Anatomy, Physiology and Disease Foundations for the Health
Professions, 2nd Edition. McGraw – Hill Education.

Internet Links:
Action Potential in Neurons, Animation Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBDXOt_uHTQ
 CCN1/.1
Human Anatomy and Physiology
(Lecture/Laboratory)
What is Reflex Arc Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nn2RHLWST-k
How Sugar Affects the Brain? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEXBxijQREo
Fight or Flight Response Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m2GywoS77qc
The Autonomic Nervous System Retrieved fromhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPWEhl7gbu4