Module 2

Components of a Computer System

1.7 A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Any system is defined as a group of integrated parts which are designed to achieve a common objective.
Thus, a system is made up of more than one element or part, where each element performs a specific function and
where all the elements (parts) are logically related and are controlled in such a way that the goal (purpose) of the
system is achieved.

A computer is made up of a number of integrated elements like

- The central processing unit,
- The input and output devices and
- The storage devices.
Each of these units performs a specific task. However, none of them can
function independently on their own. They are logically related and controlled to achieve
a specific goal. When they are thus integrated they form a fully fledged computer
system.

1. 8 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The basic parts of computer system are:

 Input Unit
 The Central Processing Unit
 Output Unit

Fig. 1.9 Central Processing Unit

The Input Unit:

Input devices are the dev ices which are used to feed programs and data to
the computer. The input system connects the external environment with the computer
system. The input devices are the means of communication between the user and the
computer system. Typical input devices include the keyboard, floppy disks, mouse,
microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in which the data is fed
into the computer through each of these devices is different. However, a computer can
accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these input devices transform the data
fed to them, into a form which can be accepted by the computer. These devices are a
means of communication and inter1 station between the user and the computer
systems.

Introduction to Computer System/1

Thus the functions of the input unit are :

 accept information (data) and programs.

 convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
 provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

 The Central Processing Unit:

This is the brain of any computer system. The central processing unit or CPU
is made of three parts:
 The control unit.
 The arithmetic logic unit
 Te primary storage unit

The Control Unit :

The Control Unit controls the operations of the entire
computer system. The control unit gets the instructions from the programs stored in
primary storage unit interprets these instruction an subsequently directs the other units
to execute the instructions. Thus it manages and coordinates the entire computer
system.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) actually executes the
instructions and performs all the calculations and decisions. The data is held in the
primary storage unit and transferred to the ALU whenever needed. Data can be moved
from the primary storage to the arithmetic logic unit a number of times before the entire
processing is complete. After the completion, the results are sent to the output storage
section and the output devices.

The Primary Storage Unit:

This is also called as Main Memory. Before the actual
processing starts the data and the instructions fed to the computer through the input
units are stored in this primary storage unit. Similarly, the data which is to be output
from the computer system is also temporarily stored in the primary memory. It is also
the area where intermediate results of calculations are stored. The main memory has
the storage section that holds the computer programs during execution. Thus the
primary unit:

 Stores data and programs during actual processing

 Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
 Stores results of execution temporarily

1.8.3 Output Unit:

The output devices give the results of the process and computations to
the outside world. The output units accept the results produced by the computer,
convert them into a human readable form and supply them to the users. The more
common output devices are printers, plotters, display screens, magnetic tape drives
etc.

Check your Progress - 1.7 & 1.8

1. Fill in the blanks.
a. The primary storage unit is also called as …………………
b. Arithmetic logic unit is a part of …………………………
c. The unit of the computer which gives t h e results of the process and
Computer Fundamentals/2
computations is the ……………
2. Answer in brief
a. Define a system.
..............................................................................................................................
 b. Write the functions of the input unit.
.............................................................................................................................

1.9 SUMMARY

A computer is a fast and accurate data processing system which

accepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the capacity to store data
and process the data with the set of instructions given to it. The data is the information
provided by the user to the computer and the set of instructions to perform the operation
on data is the computer pro- gram.

The hardware of the computer is the physical parts of the machine like
monitor, keyboard, disks etc. whereas the software is the various programs,
procedures and other documentation which is used to operate the hardware efficiently.

Classification of computers done on the basis of the logic used in their

design as analog and digital computers. Analog computers recognize data as a
continuous movement of a physical property. Digital computers recognize data a
series of discrete signals representing high or low voltage state of electricity. Hybrid
computers are a combination of analog and digital computers. Digital computers are further
classified according to their speed and capacity of memory and size as micro
computers, notebook or laptops, Mini computers, Main frames and Super computers.

The typical characteristics of the computer are its superfast speed, the
accuracy of each and every calculation, and its consistent efficiency. It has tremendous
storage capacity and can store large volumes of data. It is versatile in the sense that it
can be used in a vast range of applications from complex scientific problems to a
child’s game. A system is a group of integrated elements which are logically related to
achieve the goal of the system each element performs a specific task assigned to it.

A computer system is made up of:

Input Unit: which accepts input data The Central Processing Unit: This is made up of
the Control unit, the Arithmetic and Logic Unit and the Primary Storage Unit. This unit
controls the entire computer system.

Output Unit: This unit gives the results of the computation to the user. The evolution or
development of computers is characterized by generations of computers. The first
generation had very large and complex machines which made use of the vacuum
tube technology. Invention of transistors in the second generation reduced the size of the
computers and the concept of stored program emerged, as well as higher level languages
were introduced. The third generation was characterized by Integrated Circuits and
commercial production of computers. The fourth generation saw the invention of
microcomputers with Very Large Scale Integration, Networking and introduction of
personal computers. The fifth or the present generation has seen advances in parallel
processing and superconductor technologies.

Computers today, find applications in vast and varying fields like

scientific, engineering and research, medicine and business, education and games,
entertainment. The computers however have a serious drawback that they can only
do what they are programmed to do since they have no brain. They cannot arrive at a
conclusion without going through all intermediate steps.
 1.10 QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY

1. Define the terms: data, program, hardware and software.

2. List and explain in brief the characteristics of computers.
3. Define a System. What constitutes a computer system?
4. Write short notes on Fourth Generation of Computers, Limitations of computers.
5. Explain the classification of computers on the basis of their capacity to access
memory and size.
6. List the applications of computers.

1. 12 SUGGESTED READINGS
 Computer Fundamentals
Concepts, Systems & Applications – P.K Sinha

REFERENCE
 http://www.tutorialspoint.com/


 Chapter-2
Input Devices and Output Devices

2.0 Objectives Introduction Input

2.1 Devices Output Device Summary
2.2 Check Your Progress - Answers
2.3 Questions for Self - Study.
2.4 Suggested Readings
2.5
2.6
2.7

2. 0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

 Explain the definitions of peripheral devices.
 Describe different types of input devices like punched cards, keyboards,
 mouse, digitizers and scanners and output devices like printers, plotters,
video display terminals and microfilms, their broad design, their
features advantages and disadvantages.
 Discuss the common peripheral devices, their physical appearances and the
mode of operation of these dev ices. The student would be able to use these
devices in the practical efficiently.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

As seen earlier, computer hardware is made up of the physical parts of the

computer system like the electronic ICs, magnetic storage media and the mechanical
devices.
The devices which are a means of communication between the computer and the
outside world are called as peripheral devices.

Those peripheral devices which supply information i.e. data and progr ms from
the outside world to the computer are the input devices. Those peripheral devices
which give information from the computer to the user or store them in secondary
storage devices, like floppy disks or tapes for future use are called output devices.

The processors which are required to convert the input data into machine
readable form and to convert the output generated by the computer into human
readable form are known as input/output (I/O) interfaces. There are two concepts
related to the way in which data is input to the computer:
1. On-line Data Input : Here data is directly transferred to the computer
2. Off-line Data Input : - Here the data is not immediately transferred to the
computer.

2.2 INPUT DEVICES

The various types of input devices most commonly used are :

2.2.1 Punch Cards :
Data is recorded onto punch cards or punch tapes using standard codes, like the
Hollerith code. The pattern of these holes is interpreted by a card reader device and
converted into machine readable form. A punch card machine is used to transcribe
the data onto the card.

Input Devices and Output Devices / 19

 Fig. 2.1 Punch Card and a Keyboard

Characteristic of punch card

 they are cheaper

 they are reliable.

Disadvantage of punch card

The major drawback of these cards is that they cannot be reused. Also the
cards have to be handled and stored carefully. Even if a single card is misplaced or the
arrangement of the cards gets disturbed it becomes very difficult to rearrange them and
to detect there problem. Punched cards require large storage space since they cannot
be folded.

2.2.2 Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the most commonly used input device. The computer
keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard. The keyboard has keys made up of
letters, numbers, symbols and special function keys.
A display screen or monitor (Cathode Ray Tube) is used to display the data
entered by the operator with the keyboard. This monitor can also display the results of
processing as well as messages generated by the computer. A special symbol, called
a cursor, indicates the position on the screen. There are special keys on the keyboard
which allow the cursor to move in up, down, left and right directions. Other special
keys on the keyboard include keys like Tab, Del, Ctrl, Ins, PgUp, PgDn etc.

The keys on the keyboard include :

A-Z : Used to enter alphabets
0-9 : Used to enter numbers
Up, Down, Left, Right(Arrow Keyes): To Move the cursor in the specified direction
F1-F12 : Special Function Keys
PgUp/PgDn : To move cursor up or down by one page enter:
To move cursor to a new line
Shift : A Special key To Select the other option shown normal character on the same
key Num Lock : Activates the keypad on the right side of the keyboard. In the normal
mode this numeric pad works as per the function written below the number on the key

Advantages of the keyboard :

 It is very easy to use a keyboard
 It offers a number of facilities
 Editing or changing the input data is very easy with the help of the
keyboard
 It is relatively Inexpensive
2.2.3 Mouse
The mouse is a pointing device. The mouse is used to control and manipulate
cursor movement on the monitor. The mouse usually has three or four buttons on it and
a roller ball which signals the movements made by the mouse on a flat surface. These
movements are transferred to the system. The mouse is rolled on a flat surface by the
user. It can be used independently, but normally it is used in conjunction with the
keyboard to improve the efficiency of the input operation. The mouse can be used to
select data. Also the mouse makes it possible to move fast from one par of the screen
to the other.
The various types of mouse in use are
 Mechanical mouse
 Optical mouse
 Opt mechanical mouse

Fig. 2.2 Mouse

2.2.4 Light Pen
The light pen is a picking dev ice. The light pen contains a photocell placed in a small
tube. This photo- cell detects the presence of light on the CRT (monitor). The tip of the
pen is moved on the surface of the screen to write or sketch data. The light pen is
especially useful in Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications.

Fig 2.3 Light Pen

2.2.5 Joy Stick

The position and speed with which the joystick is moved is converted into
digital signals by the use of a lever. These signals are then sent to the computer
system. This in turn controls the movement of the cursor on the screen. The joystick is
mainly used in video games applications.

2.2.6 Track Ball

The track ball uses
a hard sphere to control
cursor movement. The bail
can be rotated in any
direction by hand and this
is translated into a digital
signal to control the cursor
movement on the screen.

Fig 2.4 Track ball

2.2.7 Touch screen:
A touch panel is a transparent plate which is fitted over the CRT. Input is
registered when a finger or any other object comes in contact with the plate.
There are two types of touch panels:
 Optical touch panels
 Electric touch panels

Fig. 2.5 Touch Screen

2.2.8 Digitizer :
A digitizer converts a graphical or pictorial data into digital form which can be
directly entered and stored in a computer. A digitizer is also called as a graphics tablet.
There are two types of digitizers :

Fig 2.6 A Scanner, a Graphics tablet (digitizer)

• Image scan digitizer and flat bed digitizer

In the image scan digitizer the entire image is scanned and reproduced
automatically. Therefore the image scan digitizers are more powerful as compared to
flat bed digitizers. Flat bed digitizers are mainly used in simple drawings, graphs etc.
whereas image scan digitizers are used for photographs and pictures.

2.2.9 Scanner :
Scanner is able to directly enter text and images into the computer memory.
Therefore the duplication work of entering data is eliminated and this also results in
increased accuracy. The speed of data entry also increases. There are two types of
scanners :

1. Optical Scanners
2. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition devices

a) Optical Scanner:

The optical scanner uses a light source and sensor for reading the information on the
paper. It can read characters, pictures, graphics from the paper. The common types
of optical scanners are:
1. The Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This is capable of reading pre specified
marks made by pencils or pens with the help of light. Light is focused on the page
that is to be scanned. The reflected light pattern is detected by the device. These
types of scanners are normally used where the data is preprinted for applications.
eg. answer papers of the objective tests where the answers are marked with pencils or
preprinted forms.

2. Optical Character Reader :The Optical Character Reader (OCR) can read
alphabets, characters and numbers printed on paper. These characters can be either
handwritten or typed. However special fonts are required to be used while typing. In
case of handwritten data, the characters have to be of standard predefined size. The
OCR reads each character as a collection of pixels. The light which is reflected from
the page to be scanned is converted into binary data. OCRs are available in various
sizes and speeds. These devices are expensive and are mainly used in processing
where the data volumes are large.
 Fig 2.7 Bar Code Reader

Bar code reader is a device which reads bar coded data. Data which is coded in the
form of light or dark lines (bars) is a bar code. Bar code readers are normally used in
applications like labeling of products in retail shops, super markets etc. A laser beam
scanner is used to read the bar code.
The most commonly used bar code is the Universal Product Code (UPC). In this code
the bars are coded as 10 digits. The first five digits define the manufacturer or supplier,
and the remaining five digits denote the actual product of the manufacturer.

b) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

A special type of input device, this mainly finds application in banking areas. A
magnetic ink is used to encode the characters to be read. This ink contains iron
oxide particles. When a cheque is presented in the bank, the amount is encoded by
the bank employee in the lower right corner and the cheque is then processed with
MICR. Special character sets like E13B and CMC7 are used by these devices to
encode data. The E13B has four special character and the digits 0-9. The CMC7 has
five special characters, digits 0-9, and all alphabets.
The advantages of using MICR are that they speed up data entry, and even
roughly handled cheque can be processed relatively easily. However among the
limitations are that special type of magnetic ink is required for .encoding characters
and only a limited number of digits and characters are available for encoding.

2.2.10 Voice Recognition Systems :

This system allows the user to talk with the computer. The Voice Recognition
System consists of a microphone or telephone into which the operator speaks. The
speech is converted into electrical signals. The signal is input as the voice of the
operator. This is matched with an already entered pre-stored pattern of words called
vocabulary. When the closest match is found the word is recognized. Since each
operator may have a different style of speaking, all Voice Recognition systems are
highly operator dependent. Also a separate vocabulary for each operator is required to
be maintained. The advantages of the Voice Recognition systems are that they reduce
the cost of data entry. Also the operator can move freely while talking into the
Check your Progress- 2.1 & 2.2

1. Fill in the blanks

is an example of a picking device.
is an example of a pointing device.
A digitizer is also as a ……………
2. Give the full form of the following.
a) MICR b) OCR c) OMR

3. Match the following.

AB
Punch card1) Computer games
Bar code2) Output devices
Joy stick3) Hollerith Code
Floppy Disk4) Universal Product Code (UPC)

computer.
 2.3 OUTPUT DEVICES

The output device allows the compute to communicate with the outside world
by accepting data from the computer and transforming it into user readable
form.

The various types of output devices are :

2.3.1 Printers:
Aprinter producesthe output from the computer on the paper. It is the most commonly
used output device. The printers produce a hard copy i.e. a permanent copy of the
results which can be stored and read later. Printers are classified as :
a) Impact Printer
b) Non Impact Printer

a) Impact Printer
Impact printers are similar to typewriters. They use hammer to strike a character
against an inked ribbon and the impact of the hammer causes the image of the
character to be printed on paper. E.g. Dot matrix printers, line printers, daisy wheel
printers,

Advantages of impact printers:

 Their functioning is relatively easy

 Multiple copies can be produced at the same time with the help of carbon paper.
 Impact printers are noisy in operation and are subject to wear and tear of
mechanical parts.

Types of impact printers :

1) Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printer prints each character as a pattern of dots. The printer has a printer
head with a matrix of pins (needles). Typical heads have a matrix of 7 rows and 9
columns. These pins produce a pattern of dots to form the individual characters.

Fig. 2.8 A dot matrix printer, a daisy wheel and a daisy wheel
printer

These printers are relatively low in cost and print at speeds of 50-500
characters per second. The programmer can also define the shape of characters for
this printer. Therefore it is possible to print many special characters, characters in
various sizes as well as charts and graphs on such printers. Dot matrix printers are
very commonly used in most computer systems.

2) Daisy Wheel Printer :

These printers are also called as letter quality printers. These printers have a
daisy wheel with a number of petals. A character is embossed on each wheel. There
is a motor which spins the wheel at a fast rate. When the desired character is brought
to the correct position, a hammer strikes the petal to produce the output. Thus these
printers are impact printers. The letter quality of these printers is much superior as
compared to the dot matrix printers. But they are slow and typically print in the
range of 10-50 characters per second.
3) Line Printer:
Line printers are very fast printers which print at speed of 200-2500 lines per
minute. These printers are impact printers and normally have 132 print positions per line.
Different types of character set are available for different printers. Line printers are
normally used in applications where large volumes of data are to be printed.

Fig 2.9 A Line printer

The two types of line printers are :

(i) Drum printers
This consists of a metallic cylinder. On the surface of this drum there are
characters in bands. Each column or band on the drum contains all the characters.
Opposite to each band there is a hammer located behind the paper. The drum rotates
at a fast rate. The hammer strikes the paper along with the inked ribbon and produces
the output. One line is printed in each revolution of the printer.
(ii) Chain printers
In the chain printers there is one print hammer for each print position on a line.
There is a fast moving chain called the print chain. W hen this chain rotates, the print
hammer and the inked ribbon strike the paper against the proper character on the
chain.

b) Non Impact Printer

They use thermal, chemical, electrostatic and inkjet technologies for printing as
against the hammer mechanism of impact printers. E.g. Laser printers, DeskJet
printers.

Ink Jet Printer:

Ink jet printer is a non impact printer. It prints characters by spraying ink from tiny
nozzles onto the paper. A special type of ink which has a high iron content is used. This
ink is charged electrically when it comes out of the nozzle. This ink is absorbed by the
paper and dries instantly. The output of the ink jet printer is of a superior quality. Also it is
possible to obtain colored output. A number of character styles and sizes are available.
However, being a non impact printer it is not possible to prepare carbon copies with this
printer.

Fig 2.10 An Ink Jet Printer

Laser Printers : These printers are used where a very superior quality output
is desired. The image is created on a photo sensitive drum ; with a laser
beam. The laser is turned on and off when it moves back and forward across the drum. It
leaves a negative charge on the drum to which a positively charged black toner powder
sticks. When the paper rolls by the drum, the ink is transferred to the paper. Laser
 printers have a buffer memory to store entire pages and hence their speed is v ery fast.
The biggest advantage of these printers is that no mechanical movement is
involved, therefore
they are noiseless in operation. However there are comparatively expensive.

2.3.2 Plotter :
A plotter is an output device used in applications where printouts of graphs and
drawings are required. Plotters are of two types :

Fig 2.11 plotter

1) Flat bed i.e. X-Y plotter:

This plotter plots on a paper which is fixed on a rectangular flatbed table. One
recording pen moves in the x direction and one in the y direction to plot on the paper.
Color plotting is also possible by using pens of different colors.

2) Drum Plotter:
In this plotter the paper on which the output is to be obtained, is placed over a drum.
The drum rotates back and forth to produce motion. The pen is mounted horizontally
across the drum and the horizontal motion of the pen is achieved with the help of the
pen holder. The drum and the holder move simultaneously to produce output. Multi
coloured printing is possible by changing the pens.
The speed of plotters is very slow. Therefore normally the output is first sent to some
secondary storage device like a magnetic tape and then directed to the plotter.

2.3.3 Video Display Terminal:

Fig 2.12 : Screen - Flat Panel Display & Monitor

• CRT:
An electron beam is moved across a phosphor coated screen to produce the image.
The CRT can be monochrome or colored. This screen normally has 25 lines and 80
characters.
 • Flat Panel Display :
The most common flat panel display is the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD). This does
not have a picture tube. The other type of display is the gas plasma screen.

• The Video Display Terminal:

The most popular output device in direct access processing is the Video Display
Terminal. These terminals display information instantaneously. The monitor and the
keyboard together are called a terminal. The types of terminals are :

Dumb Terminal:
This is a combination of a keyboard and monitor which can send or receive data, but
cannot process the data.

Smart Terminal: A smart terminal has an inbuilt microprocessor. It can perform

arithmetic, logic and control functions. They also have some memory capacity. So they
can store the data before sending to the processor. They can also control the cursor
movement.

Intelligent Terminal: This type of terminal also has an inbuilt microprocessor which
can be programmed by the user. These terminals also have limited processing
capability.
They can communicate with other terminals and processors.

2.3.4 Computer Output Microfilm (COM):

This technology is used to record the computer output as microscopic filmed images.
Information is recorded on a roll of microfilm. A microfilm recorder displays the
information onto a screen. An inbuilt camera then takes pictures of this information. A
microfilm reader is used to view this information. COM devices are normally used in
application where there are large volumes of data.
COM devices are much faster than the normal printers. Also since the size of these
films is very small the space required for storage is very less as compared to printed
output. However since COM systems are highly sophisticated they are relatively
expensive and are mainly used where there are high volumes of data.

Check your Progress - 2.3 Answer in brief.

What is a terminal? Name any two types of terminals.
.......................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................
W hat is an impact printer? Name one impact printer.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2.4 SUMMARY

The devices of the computer system which are a means of communication

between the computer system and the outside world are called as peripheral devices.
Those devices which accept data from the user are input devices, and those devices
that give information from the computer to the user or store it in secondary storage dev
ices for later use are output devices.
Input Output Interfaces are the processors which convert the data input by the
user into a form which can be understood by the computer and also convert output
generated by the computer into a human readable form. Data can be entered in the
 computer directly i.e. online or after first preparing it and entering later i.e. offline.
The various input devices are:

1. Punched cards - data is first recorded into these cards using standard codes and
then fed to the computer with a card punch machine. Though cheap, their major
drawbacks are that they cannot be reused and require large storage space.
2. Keyboard - is the most commonly used device for on line data entry. It is very
easy to use, inexpensive and allows on-line data editing.
3. Mouse -is a pointing device used along with a keyboard to control cursor
movement, select data etc. Light pen, joystick and track ball are also similar
devices used for cursor control.
4. A digitizer - This converts pictorial data into a digital form which can be directly
entered and stored in a computer.
5. A scanner can directly enter text and images into computer memory using light
source or magnetic ink recognition.
6. A voice recognition system converts the speech of the operator into electrical
signals for data entry.

Output Devices:
The common output devices are :
1) Printer - these are of two types :

impact and non impact.

Impact printers produce output on paper and use a hammer to strike a character
against a ribbon.
Non impact printers use thermal, chemical, electrostatic and inkjet technologies to
produce output. Some of the commonly used printers are dot matrix, Line printers,
Drum printers, Ink jet printers and laser printers.

2) Plotter: Plotters are mainly use for output of graphs and drawings. The
common plotters are Flat Bed Plotters and Drum Plotters.

3) Video Display Terminals : Some of the popular video output devices are
the monitor, Liquid Crystal Display, and a terminal which is a combination of a
monitor and keyboard together.

4) Computer Output Microfilm: These are highly sophisticated output devices

which record computer output as microscopic filmed images.

1. 6 QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY

1. Define : Peripheral Devices, Input Devices, Output Devices

2. Write Short notes on: Punched Cards, Keyboard, Optical Scanner, Plotter.
3. What are impact printers? Describe any two types of impact printers.
4. What is COM?
5. Describe the various types of computer terminals.

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

 Computer Fundamentals
Concepts, Systems & Applications – P.K Sinha

References
 http://www.tutorialspoint.com/ 
 Chapter: 3

Primary Storage and Secondary Storage

Devices
Objectives
Introduction
Primary Storage
Secondary Storage Devices
Summary
C heck Your Progress- Answers
Questions for Self – Study
Suggested Readings

3.1 OBJECTIVES

This chapter “Primary Storage and Secondary Storage Devices” will enable you to
 Explain what is a storage unit and the criteria according to which the
different types of storage are ranked.
 Describe various types of storage devices and their storage capacities.
 Discuss various concepts related to memory of the computer

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Storage Unit: A storage unit is that part of the computer system which is used to
store the data and instructions to be processed. There are two types of storage:

1) Primary storage
2)Secondary storage.

Primary memory is also known as internal memory. This is a section of the CPU
which holds program instructions, input data and intermediate results. Primary memory
is also known as main memory.

Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is used

mainly for permanent and long term storage of programs and data.

3.1.1 Characteristics of Storage units:

The storage units have special characteristics which decide the :
 Speed of operation of the computer,
 Its efficiency,
 Cost and
 The amount of data which the computer can store.
The storage unit of the computer is graded according to the following
characteristics (whether primary or secondary):

• Access time:
This is the time required to locate and retrieve a particular data from the storage unit. A
fast access to data and programs always yields higher efficiency.

• Storage Capacity:
Storage capacity is the amount of data that can be stored by a storage unit. Large
capacity of data storage is always desirable.
As seen earlier, the smallest unit of data which the computer understands is the bit. A
group of 8 bits forms a byte. The storage capacity of a computer system is defined in

Primary Storage and Secondary Storage Devices /31

 terms of bytes or words. One kilobyte (1 KB) is 2^ or 1024 bytes,
eg. 4 KB memory implies that it can store 4 x 1024 bytes or characters.
Storage capacities of primary and secondary units are measured in Kilobytes,
megabytes, gigabytes.

• Cost:
Low cost storage media are always desirable.
Thus, storage units with faster access time, higher storage capacity and low costs are
the ones which are considered to be of a superior nature.

3.3 PRIMARY STORAGE

Primary storage is characterized by faster access time, less storage capacity

and higher costs as compared to secondary storage units. Primary storage or main
memory is that part of the computer system which stores the programs, data and
intermediate results during the program execution.
A primary storage comes as an integral part of all computer systems. It
comprises of a number of small locations. Each location has a unique number
assigned to it. This is called as the address of the location and it is used to identify the
location. Each location has a capacity to store a fixed number of bits. The number of
bits that a location can store is called as word length. Each location contains the
same number of bits.
Normally, primary memory size ranges from a few kilobytes on small
computers to several thousand kilo bytes and megabytes on larger machines.
The primary storage is volatile. Whenever the power is turned off the data is
lost. Primary storage is also called Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM means it
is possible to randomly select and use any storage location for storage and retrieval of
data. RAM is also called a read/write memory because data can both be read from
and written onto these units. When the power is switched off the data stored in the
RAM is lost.

Fig 3.1 Organization of Primary storage unit

• ROM: ROM is Read Only Memory. In this type of memory the data is permanently
stored. The information can only be read and new data cannot be written onto this
memory. However the contents of the ROM are not lost even when the power is turned
off
i.e. this memory is non-volatile. Such memories are also called as field stores, or
permanent stores.
There are a number of high level functions which are required to be performed
by the computer system. Such functions are performed by writing special programs
called micro programs. Micro programs generally execute the low level machine
functions. These programs are mainly used as a substitute for hardware. Such
programs can be stored on ROMs and be used again and again. This results in
reducing the hardware of the system. ROM helps to increase the
efficiency of the CPU as it can perform specialized tasks. ROM comes in the form of
a chip. Once information is stored on a ROM chip it cannot be changed or altered.

 PROM: PROM is Programmable Read Only Memory. These are ROMs which can be
programmed. A special PROM programmer is used to enter the program on the PROM.
 Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM cannot be altered.
PROM is non volatile ie. data is not lost when power is switched off.
• EPROM : Another type of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory.
It is possible to erase the data which has been previously stored on an EPROM and
write new data onto the chip.
 Cache Memory:
This is a very special type of high speed memory. This memory cannot be
accessed by the user. The main function of this cache memory is to make the
programs and data available to the CPU very fast.
Access time of memory is generally very high as compared to the execution
time of the GPU. Therefore a cache, which is a very small but fast memory, is used
between the CPU and the main memory. This memory also called a high speed buffer.
A cache stores those segments of programs and data which are frequently needed. It
makes available this data to the CPU at a very fast rate thus increasing the efficiency.

 Registers :
Registers are used to retain information temporarily. These are special memory units
which are not actual parts of the main memory, but allow efficient mov ement of
information between the various units of the computer system. The registers
receive information, hold it temporarily and make it available as and when required.
A computer uses a number of registers, where each register performs a specific
function. Some of the common registers are :

1. Memory Address Register (MAR): The function of this register is to hold the
address of the current or active memory location.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of the address
from which data is read or to which data has been written.
3. Program Control Register : It holds the address of the next instruction to
be executed.
Accumulator Register: It holds the initial data, the intermediate results and the final
data of the program under execution.
4. Instruction Register: This register holds the current instruction being executed.
Input/output Register: The function of this register is to communicate with the
Input/output devices.

The storage capacity of primary storage is limited. It is normally not sufficient

to accommodate all the data. Therefore secondary storage medium is used to store
large volumes of data. The cost of secondary memory is much less as compared to
primary memory, however access time of primary memory is very fast. The data stored
on secondary storage is transferred to the primary storage as and when required.
Secondary storage is also called auxiliary memory. Secondary storage is used for
storing copies of data and programs. This is a non volatile memory and is stored
external to the computer.
Check your Progress - 3.1 & 3.2
Answer in 1-2 words:
Name the two types of storage:
.............................................................................................................
Name the characteristics according to which the storage devices are ranked

.............................................................................................................

Givee the names of any two registers used by the computer:

............................................................................................................
Give the full form of:
a. RAM b.ROM c. PROM d. EPROM
 3.4 SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Information stored on secondary storage devices can be accessed in two ways:

 Sequential Access and

 Direct Access:

3.3.1 Sequential Access Devices:

Sequential or serial access

In sequential access data can be accessed only in the sequence in which it
has been stored. Typical sequential access storage device is the magnetic tape. These
types of devices are useful in applications like pay slip printing where the data is to be
accessed one after the other.
Types of Access Devices:
a) Punch Paper Tape:
Punched paper tapes were the early devices of data storage. Data is coded onto
a paper tape as a combination of punched holes across the width of the tape. Each
row on the tape represents one character. The data has to be coded on the tapes
using special coding systems. The punched paper tapes are a low cost storage medium
and their storage capacity is unlimited. However, the paper is susceptible to wear and
tear and mishandling. Nowadays, punched paper tapes are rarely being used wear and
tear and mishandling. Nowadays, punched paper tapes are rarely being used.

Fig. 3.2 Sequential Access Devices: Paper tape, magnetic tapes

b) Magnetic Tape:
A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar which is coated with a thin layer of iron
oxide material on one side. This tape is stored on a cassette or cartridge, or reel .The
iron oxide material can be magnetized and the data is recorded on the tape in the form
of magnetized and non-magnetized spots. A magnetic tape drive is used to read data
from the tape or write information to the tape. The tape drive has a read/write head to
access or store information respectively.
Magnetic tape is a read write device where the data can be written as well as
erased and new data recorded on the same area. The tape is divided into vertical
columns and horizontal rows. The columns are called frames and the rows are called
tracks. Special computer codes are used for recording data on the tape. One character
is recorded on each frame. Most modern tapes have 9 tracks, and use the EBCDIC
code for data representation. The actual number of characters that can be stored on
an inch of a tape is known as the density of the tape.
The storage capacity of magnetic tapes is very large. This capacity is
measured in terms of bytes per inch. Most common tape densities are 800 bpi, 1600
bpi. Nowadays tapes with much higher densities of the order of 6000 bpi are also
available.
The records in a tape can be of any size. Also all the records in a given file
need not be same in length. Thus the tapes can store fixed length and v variable
length records. In between two consecutive records the computer automatically keeps
a fraction of the tape blank. This blank space is called the Interlock gap, While reading
from the tape, the drive takes a finite amount of time to physically stop when the end of
the record is reached. Therefore this interlock gap is created to avoid loss of any
data of the subsequent record that may have been stored
while the drive mechanism comes to a halt.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes:
- High data density and virtually unlimited storage
- Low in cost
- Easy to handle and portable from one computer to another.
Limitations are:
- Support only Sequential access
- Tapes are sensitive to dust; humidity and temperature, hence require proper storage
facilities.

3.3.2 Di rect Access Storage

Devices Random or direct access
In random access the data at any location on the storage unit can be
accessed directly without having to follow the sequence in which it has been stored.
Typical devices that support direct access are the magnetic disk and magnetic drum.
a) Magnetic Disk: A magnetic disk is a thin metallic/Mylar platter circular in shape.
It is coated on both sides with magnetic material. A number of these disks are mounted
on a disk pack, on a central shaft. Thus all the disks in the disk pack move at the same
speed, simultaneously in the same direction. These disks are also called as hard disks
or fixed disks. Hard disk can be permanently installed in the drive or can also be in the
form of a removable cartridge. The data are recorded as magnetic spots on the coating
of the disk. The presence of a magnetic spot represents1 and the absence represents a
0. The standard binary code, 8 -bit EBCDIC is used for recording data on the disk.
Information is stored on both the surfaces of the disk. Each disk is divided into a
number of concentric circles called tracks. All the corresponding tracks in all the
surfaces are together called a cylinder. Information is not stored on the outer surface
of the upper plate and the lower surface of the bottom plate.

In some of the disks the outer tracks contain more data bits since the outer
circumference is greater. However, in most of the disks each track stores the same
number of characters. This means that the inner tracks, with a smaller circumference
are more densely packed than the outer tracks.
Magnetic disk is a random or direct access storage device. The data is read
from or written onto the disk surface with the use of read/write heads. These heads are
of flying type. They do not come in actual contact with the surface of the disk.
There are two types of disk systems:
1) Moving head System:
This consists of one read/write head for each disk surface. This head is mounted on an
 access arm which moves in and out. Thus each head moves horizontally across the
surface of the disk and can access each track individually.
2) Fixed head System:
In this system the access arm does not move. A large number of read/write heads one
for each track are distributed over the surface of the disk. In this system the data
access becomes very fast. However, extra space is needed to accommodate all the
heads. The time required to access the data stored on the disk depends upon the
following factors:
•The seek time - the time required for positioning the read/write head over the
appropriate track
•The latency time - the time required to spin the required data under the head. This
time is also called the search time.
b) Floppy Disks :
Floppy disks are made up of flexible Mylar coated with iron oxide. This disk is
enclosed in a square plastic jacket to protect the surface of the disk from dust. A floppy
disk is to be inserted in the floppy disk drive of the computer system to read or write
information. The read/write head of the drive makes a direct contact with the floppy
disk.

Fig 3.4

While accessing or storing data, Floppy disks come in various sizes

 8 inch floppy disks
 51/4 inch floppy disks
 31/2 inch floppy disks

A floppy disk can be single sided or double sided i.e data can be written on a
Fig. 3.4 Floppy disks: 51/4 inch and 31/2 inch single side or on both the sides. A double
sided disk drive is required to read data from
a double sided disk. This disk drive has two heads, one for each side. A single
sided drive has only one head. Floppy disks can also be single side double density
and double side double density depending upon their storage capacity.
Floppy disks are a very popular storage medium since they are small in size,
relatively cheap and can store data on line. Floppy disks are also very portable. They
can be carried form one place to another very easily.

c) Winchester Disk: In a Winchester, the disks are permanently enclosed in a

sealed container. The disks are coated with a special lubricant to reduce friction with
the read/write head. This technology allows for an increase in the number of tracks on
the disk, and higher storage density. Winchester disks are fast and highly reliable.
They are used extensively in micro computers.

d) Magnetic Drum: This is a cylinder whose outer surface is coated with a thin
layer of magnetic material. A motor rotates on the cylinder at a constant speed. Data is
recorded on the tracks of the drum as magnetized spots. A set of stationary
read/write heads are positioned slightly away from the surface of the drum. Data is
read from and written onto this drum with the help of these heads. The drum rotates are
relatively fast speeds of the order of a several thousand rotations per minute. Magnetic
drums have faster data transfer rates as compared to disks. However their storage
capacity is limited. Magnetic drums are rarely used today.
 3.3.3 Optical Devices

a) Optical Disk: An optical disk is made up of a rotating disk which is coated with a
thin reflective metal. To record data on the optical disk, a laser beam is focused on the
surface of the spinning disk. The laser beam is turned on and off at varying rates! Due
to this, tiny holes (pits) are burnt into the metal coating along the tracks. When data
stored on the optical disk is to be read, a less powerful laser beam is focused on the
disk surface. The storage capacity of these devices is tremendous; the Fig. 3.5 Optical
disk access time is relatively fast. The biggest drawback of the optical disk is that it is
a permanent storage device. data once written cannot be erased. Therefore it is a
read only storage medium. A typical example of the optical disk is the CD-ROM.

Fig 3.5
 Optical Card :
The optical card has an optical laser encoded strip which can store
approximately 2 megabytes of data. These cards are the size of a credit card. Optical
cards find use only in specific areas like storing credit records or medical histories of
people.

 Optical Tape :

Optical tapes are similar to magnetic tapes in appearance. However optical

laser techniques are used to write data on the tapes. Like optical disks optical tapes
too are read only storage devices.
Check your Progress - 3.3
Answer in 1-2 Sentences:
What are the methods with which the data on the secondary storage devices can be accessed?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
....
Name any two sequential access devices.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
....
Name any two direct access storage devices.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
....
Name any two optical devices. Name the factors which determine the time required to access data
stored on the disk.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
 3.5 SUMMARY

The storage unit is that part of the computer system which stores the data and
instructions. The two types of storage are primary storage and secondary storage. The
characteristics of the storage unit are access time, storage capacity and cost.
Primary storage is an integral part of all computer systems. Primary storage is
also called as Random Access Memory. This memory is volatile. The data stored on
this memory is lost when the power is turned off. There are special types of memories
which come in the form of chips. Micro programs which perform low level machine
functions and which are used as a substitute for hardware are stored on such chips.
Such memories are called field stores or permanent stores or Read Only Memory
(ROM). Data can be permanently stored in this type of memory. Other similar
memories are PROM, EPROM. Cache memory is a special type of high speed
memory. Special memory units are used in computers which are not a part of the main
memory. These units hold data temporarily. These units are called registers, eg.
Memory Address Register, Instruction Register etc.
Secondary storage devices are used to store large amounts of data.
Secondary storage devices are cheaper as compared to primary storage. However
their data access time is less. Secondary storage is non volatile and stored external to
the computer. There are two ways in which data can be accessed from the secondary
devices,: sequential access and random access. Punched paper tape, magnetic tape is
sequential access devices. Punched paper tapes are nowadays rarely being used.
Magnetic tapes can store unlimited data and have a high data density. They are also
lowin cost and portable. But since information can be accessed only sequentially, they
are slow.
Direct access or random access devices allow the access of data from any
storage location randomly, without having to follow the sequence in which it has been
stored. Magnetic disk is made of a thin Mylar platter and coated on both sides by
magnetic material. Data is recorded as magnetic spots on this disk. A number of such
disks are mounted on a disk pack. Each disk is divided into a number of
concentric circles called tracks. All the corresponding tracks in all the surfaces
together are called as a cylinder. These disks are also called hard disks and can be
permanently installed in a disk drive in the computer. Floppy disks are made of
flexible mylar coated with iron oxide. The floppy disks come in various sizes like 8
inch, 5 inch, 3 inch. Floppy disks are relatively cheap and can store data online. They
are also very portable. Winchester disks are permanently enclosed in a sealed
container. A magnetic drum is a cylinder whose outer surface is coated with magnetic
material. The drums have faster data transfer rate as compared to disks. However their
storage capacity is limited.
Optical laser techniques are used to write data onto optical dev ices like
optical disks, optical tapes and optical cards. The storage capacities of these
devices are tremendous. But these are permanent storage devices.
 3.6 QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY

1. Discuss what storage units are. What are the types of storage units?
Describe the characteristics of the storage units.
2. Discuss what is volatile and non-volatile memory.
3. Define registers. Write in short about the most commonly used registers in
the computer systems.
4. Explain the methods by which data on a secondary storage device can
be accessed.
5. Describe any two sequential access devices.
6. Describe any two direct access storage devices.
7. What are moving head systems and fixed head systems?
8. Discuss any two types of optical storage devices.

3.7 Suggested Readings

 Computer Fundamentals
Concepts, Systems & Applications – P.K Sinha

References

 http://www.tutorialspoint.com/