GRAPE

Post-harvest Operations
- Post-harvest Compendium
GRAPE: Post-harvest Operations

Authors: Fabio Mencarelli, Andrea Bellincontro – LAPO, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Viterbo, Italy. Email: [email protected]
Giancarlo DiRenzo – Technical Economic Department, University of Basilicata, Italy.
E-mail: [email protected]
Edited by: Danilo Mejía, PhD - Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Service
(AGST)
Last reviewed: 13/11/2005

Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Economic and Social impact of the table grapes ......................................................... 7
1.2 World Table Grape Situation and Outlook .................................................................. 8
1.3 Primary product (fresh) .............................................................................................. 11
1.4 Secondary product (processed) .................................................................................. 14
1.5 Postharvest Physiology and Technology Requirements ............................................ 21
1.6 Export Quality Assurance .......................................................................................... 22
2. Postharvest Operations..................................................................................................... 25
2.1 Harvest ....................................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Packinghouse (shed) operations ................................................................................. 27
2.3 Shipping ..................................................................................................................... 36
2.4 Pest control................................................................................................................. 37
References ............................................................................................................................ 40

Preface
Grape is one of the most diffuse fruit in the world both as fresh fruit (table grape) and
processed in wine, grape juice, molassa, and raisins. The reason to have these different
processed products depends on the extreme perishability of the fruit. As fresh fruit, grapes are
very delicate and the loss at harvest and during the distribution is very high. In a survey on
postharvest losses on the New York and Chicago markets, Cappellini and Ceponis (1984)
reported that on the retail the loss of grape Emperor and Thompson Seedless was
respectively of 1.4 and 3.7 millions of pounds. The situation is not changed with the years
and today table grapes is one the commodity with the higher loss in the retail step of the
distribution channel, losses due mainly to shattering and grey mould. If the situation is so
critical in term of losses in the Developed Countries, in the Developing Countries the losses
are always higher because harvest and postharvest operations to protect grapes from
mechanical damage are very poor or completely absent. In Developed Countries table grape
is one of the fruit with the highest input of technology (cooling, sulfuration, packing, cold
storage) and practices (hand labour). In Developing Countries the cost of labour is low but
the financial situation to afford the purchase of the equipments sometime is critical. Today, in
the direction of market-oriented production even for poor countries, the need of knowledge of
advanced technologies as well as the information about the Developed Countries
requirements in term of trade quality and safety is very worthwhile.

1. Introduction
a) Taxonomy, cultivars
Grapes belong to the Vitaceae family. The genus Vitis is largely distributed between 25° and
50° N latitude in Europe, the Middle East, North America, and eastern Asia. Additionally, a
few species of Vitis are found in the tropics – Central American countries, Caribbean, and
northern South America. These are over 100 species in the literature, 65 of which are thought
to be pure lines and another 44, probably interspecific hybrids. The genus Vitis is divided into
2 subgenera:
1. Euvitis - "True grapes"; characterized by elongated clusters of fruit with berries adhering to
stems at maturity, forked tendrils, diaphragms in pith at nodes. Also called "bunch grapes" .
Most of the species is in this subgenera.
2. Muscadinia - Muscadine grapes; characterized by small fruit clusters, thick-skinned fruit,
berries that detach one-by-one as they mature, simple tendrils, and the lack of diaphragms in
pith at nodes. There are only 2-3 species in this section.

b) Origin, history of cultivation

Figure 1. Table grape producing areas

1. V. vinifera. "Old world grape", "European grape". This is the major species of grape,
accounting for >90% of world production. Probably native in the area near the Caspian sea,
in Asia Minor. Seeds have been found in excavated dwellings of the Bronze-age in south-
central Europe (3500 - 1000 BC). Egyptian hieroglyphics detail the culture of grapes in 2440
BC. The Phoenicians carried wine varieties to Greece, Rome, and southern France before 600
BC, and Romans spread the grape throughout Europe. Grapes moved to the far east via
traders from Persia and India. Shiraz variety very famous for wine production gets the name
from one the most important Iranian city where the grapes were found about 5000 years ago.

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2. V. labrusca. (syn. V. labruscana Bailey). American bunch grape, Fox grape, Concord
grape. Valuable in breeding; hybrids used in wine production or as phylloxera resistant
rootstocks for vinifera grapes. Major use is for sweet grape juice (Welch's) and associated
products - jelly, jam, preserves, some wine. This species is found growing wild from Maine
to the South Carolina Piedmont, as far west as the Tennessee mountains. It is thought that
Viking explorers, before Columbus' voyages, named the maritime provinces of Canada
"Vinland" meaning "grape land" due to the abundance of wild grapes growing in the forests.
3. V. rotundifolia. Cultivated muscadine grapes charcaterised by fruity aroma, thick-skinned
berries, in small clusters or borne singly, resistant to Pierce's disease and phylloxera. Native
from Virginia in the north through central Florida, west to eastern Texas.

c) Botanical description
Plant: a liana or woody vine. Leaves are often large (8-10" in width) sometimes deeply lobed
as in many V. vinifera cultivars, or rounded with entire or serrate margins. Tendrils occur
opposite leaves at nodes.

Figure 2. Typical grapes leaves shape

Flower: Flowers are small (1/8 inch), indiscrete, 5-merous, borne in racemose panicles
opposite leaves on current season's growth. The calyptra, or cap is the corolla, which abscises
at the base of the flower and pops off at anthesis. Species in Euvitis may have more than 100
flowers per inflorescence, whereas muscadine grapes have only 10-30 flowers per cluster.
Also, vinifera and concord grapes are perfect-flowered and self-fruitful, whereas some
muscadines have only pistillate flowers.

Figure 3. Inflorescence (left) and young leaves with closed floral buds
Pollination: Most grapes are self-fruitful and do not require pollinizers; however, pistillate
muscadines (e.g., 'Fry', 'Higgins', 'Jumbo') must be inter-planted with perfect-flowered

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cultivars for fruit set. Since parthenocarpy doesn't exist, all grapes require pollination for fruit
set. Even seedless cultivars like 'Thompson Seedless' are not parthenocarpic; rather, the
embryos abort shortly after fruit set. This condition is called "Stenospermocarpy".
Fruit: Fruit are berries, with 2 to 4 seeds; ovaries contain 2 locules each with 2 ovules.Italian
varieties and French-American hybrids may set 4-5 clusters of fruit per shoot, and require
cluster thinning for development of quality and proper vine vigor. Fruit size and cluster
length are increased through GA application on 'Thompson Seedless' and other table
cultivars. GA is applied 10-15 ppm when 50% of flowers on 50% of clusters are in bloom,
followed by 40 ppm sizing spray 1 (± 2) weeks later. This opens the cluster, prevents
crushing of berries, and reduces disease.

Figure 4. Grapes bunches of red and white varieties

d) General Culture
Soils: Grapes are adapted to a wide variety of soil conditions, from high pH and salt, to acidic
and clay. Rootstocks allow adaptation to various soil situations. In the case of wine
production, deep, well-drained, light textured soils are preferable. Highly fertile soils are
unsuited to high quality wine production. Irrigation is not always necessary for wine grapes,
but is beneficial for table and raisin grapes where high yields are desired.
Climate: Vinifera grapes can be generally characterized as requiring a long growing season,
relatively high summer temperatures, low humidity, a ripening season free of rainfall, and
mild winter temperatures. All of these attributes are found in mediterranean climates.
Concord and muscadine grapes are obviously adapted to humid, temperate climates, with
muscadines requiring longer growing seasons and milder winters than concords. Cold
hardiness is a major limiting factor for vinifera grapes. Damage to primary buds occurs at -18
to -23 °C, and trunks may be injured or killed below – 23°C. Labrusca grapes are more cold
resistant than vinifera or French-American hybrids, but can be injuried between -23 and -
29°C. Muscadine grapes are the least cold resistant, being killed below -18°C.. The number
of days from bloom to maturity, or heat unit requirement increases as follows: Labrusca
(least) < French-American hybrids < European < Muscadine. This generally corresponds to
150-200+ frost-free days, with 165 to 180 best for vinifera, or 2000 to 3500 heat
units.Humidity is another limiting factor for vinifera grape culture, due to disease
susceptibility. Grapes cannot tolerate high RH or rain during harvest. Muscadines, however,

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 4

grow much better in humid climates.Chilling requirement is highly variable among grape
species; some grapes can be grown in the tropics.
Propagation: The most common method of grapes propagation is bench grafting, although
rooted cuttings (where phylloxera is not a problem), T-budding, layering (difficult-to-root
types like muscadine), and to a limited extent, tissue culture are used in various situations.
Rootstocks: Vitis vinifera was propagated on its own roots from the beginning of recorded
history until about the 1870s. The grape phylloxera (Dactylosphaera vitifolii, Homoptera),
also called the "grape root louse" (but is actually an aphid), was introduced into Europe from
eastern North America in the 1860s, where it caused the most significant pest-related disaster
in all of fruit culture. The search for resistant rootstocks led horticulturists to the native range
of the phylloxera, eastern N. America, where various species of American grapes had
coexisted with the pest for millennia, and thus were resistant to it. Most grape rootstocks used
today are numbered clonal selections of hybrids of V. riparia, V. rupestris, and V.
berlandieri.

e) Pruning and training systems

Numerous systems are used around the world to obtain the proper balance between grapevine
vigor and fruiting. Table grapes are pruned to the Bilateral Cordon or the Double-T Cane
system.
Cane. The Double-T cane pruning system is useful when growing table grapes because of the
balance achieved between fruit and vegetation and because of bud count flexibility. Sun
canes from renewal spur buds are both vigorous and fruitful from year to year. Vines can be
pruned to 8 or 24 buds with only 2 canes, or to 16 or 32 buds on a 4 cane system. Since new
canes are selected each year, long term loss from hail or freeze is reduced. If excess vigor is a
problem, more buds are left on the vine. The total bud count per vine can be used to
dramatically increase cluster and berry size. Large cluster varieties can be pruned to fewer
buds per cane on mature vines, producing fruit far superior to that obtained on a bilateral
cordon vine. All varieties can be cane pruned.
Bilateral Cordon. The Bilateral Cordon is the most common pruning system currently in use
for wine grapes in Texas, and it will also work for table grapes. Vine vigor and production
are well-balanced with 28 to 32 total buds on 14 spurs. The bilateral cordon is very difficult
to train during the second and third years of vineyard establishment, but is extremely easy to
prune thereafter. Hail and freeze damage to the horizontal cordons has caused some growers
to shift to a cane system with temporary canes rather than permanent cordons.
The Bilateral Cordon system is well-designed for leaf pruning and for exact fungicide
placement to control black rot and bunch rot. All varieties except Thompson Seedless can
produce good crops using the bilateral cordon if over-cropping or excess vigor is not a
problem.

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Suitable for cultivars with a trailing/drooping Suitable for cultivars with an upright to semi-
growth habit. upright growth habit.

Figure 5. Single Curtain Training Systems Curtain Training Systems Bi-lateral Cordon - lateral
Cordon
Trellis. Table grapes need to be vigorous with the canopy positioned for maximum sunlight
absorption. A Double-T Lyre trellis is best. The Double-T trellis should have 12-gauge wires
spaced at 18 inches for the drip irrigation line, 42 inches for the main wire, two cane wires at
52 inches spaced 12 to 18 inches apart, and top wires at 66 inches spaced 24 to 36 inches
apart. In situations where climate, soil and site may potentially reduce vine vigor, the
Bilateral Cordon can be used. The cordon trellis has vertical wires at 18, 42, 52, and 66
inches.

Figure 6. Vineyard raised with the Cordon system

Italian situation. The only training system used in Italy for table grapes is that of `tendone',
consisting of a continous overhead canopy under which the bunches are disposed; they
receive some protection against wind and excessive light intensity and benefit from a
microclimate characterized by moderate air temperature and diffuse solar radiation, thus
favouring berry development and a more uniform ripening and skin colour. At present, the so
called `puglia type' tendone is adopted. Basically, it consist of two pairs of canes (12-15 bud
pruned) per vine having opposite direction, which are tied to a supporting wire (1.70-1.80 m
in height); the shoots arising from canes are trained to grow over an higher wire (2.0 m in

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height) and, when they are about 30-50 cm long, they are tied to still other wires, at the same
height, forming the trellis of the tendone roof. This system allows a good separation between
the vegetative and reproductive zones, the latter forms a continuous belt on each side of the
vine `row'. In Sicily, the mixed pruning system with 2-3 spurs and 3-4 canes is used; in
Apulia the mixed pruning system is used with cultivars such as `Victoria' or `Michele Palieri'
which can have a low budburst at the first nodes. With cultivars showing a low budburst
percentage and basal fruitfulness, such as `Centennial Seedless, as many as 20-25 buds per
cane and 100 or more buds per vine are retained. Canopy management includes the thinning
of sterile shoots when they have reached a length of 15-20 cm (all but the shoot destined to be
the renewal cane) and, after berry set, the removal of leaves and laterals in the cluster zone,
when shoots are tied to the trellis roof, the cluster are also accurately positioned under the
canopy roof.

Figure 6. Italian pergulate known as `tendone'; the bunches are concentrate in the middle of the
row.

f) Insects and diseases

The grape berry moth is a common pest. The small greenish larvae feed in the berries. Small,
wedge-shaped jumping insects, called leafhoppers, feed on grape foliage. Severe damage
reduces growth and interferes with fruit ripening. Mealy bugs and flea beetles also can cause
injury. A fungus disease, called black rot, is widely prevalent and often damaging. The
disease first attacks the foliage and later spreads to the fruit. Infected berries soon become
blackened, shrivelled and worthless. Other fungus diseases are downy and powdery mildews.
Fungal diseases usually grow in dense foliage that does not dry quickly. Appropriate pruning
and training that encourages light penetration and air movement will help to eliminate or
decrease the severity of these diseases. Crown gall, a bacterial disease, often occurs following
an extremely cold winter. Galls or fleshy tumours appear on the lower trunk of injured vines.
Infected canes should be pruned at the soil surface. New shoots originating from the base of
the plant can be selected and trained to replace infected canes.

1.1 Economic and Social impact of the table grapes

Table grape is one of the fruit with the highest input of technologies but even with an intense
hand labour activity and the price on the market is one of the higher in the fruit sector. The
incidence of the handling cost over the final cost of the table grape leaving the packinghouse,
is around 50% which means 20% more than most of fruits. Handling and packing (labour cost
and packing materials) weight upon 25-30%; the cost od refrigerated storage condition
engraves for 10% per month. Moreover there are some general costs of management around

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5-8%. Shipping cost by truck from South Italy to North Europe is 10% of the final cost;
oversea shipping to USA is 20%.
This high cost for market preparation is due to the labour cost for the operation of sorting and
packing. In the area where the table grapes production is important, most of families bases
the familiar annual income on the seasonal job of grapes harvest and annual job of grapes
handling. Thus, from a viewpoint of employment, table grapes represent a real economic
factor for the region. Moreover, the production of secondary products such as raisins, grape
juice, molassa, and/or wine will increase the job potential as well as the economic return for
the family. In fact the production of raisins in hot area is a very easy and sustainable
technique which every one can carry out at home level. In Lebanon at this level even the
molassa production is always common as the result of the grape juice heating and
concentration. One farm family can produce table grapes for selling, raisins for selling and
home consume without any problem of storability, grape juice and molassa for home use, the
latter as substitute of sugar, and finally can produce wine in the easiest way.

1.2 World Table Grape Situation and Outlook

United States total fresh market grape production in 2001 is about unchanged from a year ago
at 815.992 metric tons. Total California fresh market grape production is expected to be about
even at 803.000 tons.Total production during the 2001 season for selected Northern
Hemisphere table grape producing countries is expected to decline 2 %.U.S. table grape
exports during2001 posted a 3-% increase over the previous year with a stronger market in
the United Kingdom and growth to Asian markets continuing.
United States The table grape industry continues to successfully market its grapes overseas.
In 2001, approximately 298.918 tons were shipped at a value of $389 million. Although
exports to the largest market, Canada, declined slightly, moderate increases to the United
Kingdom and strength in the Hong Kong and Malaysian markets helped to offset any
declines. The second largest market for U.S. grapes continues to be Hong Kong with
shipments to Malaysia. During 2001, table grape imports posted a 13-% decline. About 11 %
and 14 % of grapes were imported from Chile and Mexico, respectively. Argentina, although
accounting for less than 2 % of total imports, more than doubled the amount that they shipped
during 2000.
Canada Canada imported about 10 % of grapes during 2001 compared to the previous year.
During 2001, the United States supplied about 65 % of the total grapes imported into Canada;
Chile supplied about 22 % and Mexico only about 6 %. The remaining 7 % was shipped from
Italy, South Africa, and Argentina. During 2000, Peru began to ship grapes to Canada and in
2001 shipped about 190 tons, nearly six times the amount during 2000.
Mexico Unfavourable weather conditions in 2001 caused table grape production to drop an
estimated 18.370 tons from 2000 and total 171.000 tons for the year. Water shortages and the
lack of available credit are considered limiting factors in expansion efforts. Mexican grape
consumption is increasing but 2001 imports are expected to be about even with the previous
year. U.S. table grape exports to Mexico during 2001 totalled 35.380 tons, down 12 % from
2000. Chile is expected to supply about 40 % of total imported grapes while the United States
is expected to supply the remainder.Chilean shipments do not directly compete with those
from the United States; Chile typically exports to Mexico in June and July, while the United
States exports primarily during August through December.
Chile Table grape production is expected to increase 2 % in 2001 to 955.000 tons. Exports
during 2000 reached a high of 596.196 tons with top destinations including the United States,
the Netherlands, Mexico, the United Kingdom and Hong Kong. Exports during 2001 declined
9 % overall but shipments to Mexico were 18 % higher than 2000 at a level of 32.843 tons
valued at $27 million. Chile produces over 36 varieties of table grapes for export. Thompson

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Seedless, Flame Seedless and Ribier are the bulk of production. Production of the Red Globe
variety has increased significantly in the last few years, as most replanting has been with this
variety.
China Production in calendar year 2001 is expected to be 3.80 million tons, up 16 % from
the 3.28 million tons in 2000. Most of China's grape production is made up of 12 different
major varieties, Jufeng being the most popular. Red Globe acreage is mainly located on
China's east coast. Within this area, growers have experienced some disease problems.
Despite reports of efforts to increase the Red Globe production base, near term competition
from the Red Globe is expected to be limited. Acreage planted in grape vines is growing
along with grape processing, particularly for wine. However, at least for the short term, China
remains a net importer of grapes. Despite improving distribution and storage infrastructure
for fruit, reported postharvest gaps still exist supporting continued growth in exports of U.S.
table grapes to China. U.S. exports to China decreased in 2001 to 7.117 tons. Import tariffs in
2002 dropped to 23.2 % (effective tariff 39 %) from a level of 40 % (effective tariff 58.2 %)
during 2001. This rate is for countries that have most-favored-nation (MFN) trading status
with China (i.e. WTO members). The import tariff for countries that do not have MFN
trading status with China decreased from 100 % in 2001 to 80 % in 2002. The VAT rate
remained unchanged at 13 %. This tariff change is likely to help increase China's grape
imports. U.S. imports of grapes from China, although still very small, almost doubled during
2001. The bulk of the shipments came in during the month of March last year with some very
small amounts in early summer. The trade continues to expect China to become a major
competitor to U.S. exports in the next 2 to 5 years, particularly in Southeast Asia. Most
current trade data shows that during 2001 China began shipping table grapes to Bangladesh
and India. In addition, grape export trade that was established to Sri Lanka in 2000 increased
slightly in 2001.
Japan Japan's table grape production has been on the decline in recent years but imports of
grapes, particularly the Thompson Seedless and Red Globe varieties, have helped to ensure a
quality product on the Japanese market year round. Japan's top suppliers include Chile and
the United States, but the Japanese also source product from Mexico, Taiwan, and New
Zealand. During 2001, Japan was the United States thirteenth largest export market. Chile has
increased the value of their grape exports to Japan from $19 million in 1999 to nearly $30
million in 2001. Comparatively, the United States, over the last year, has experienced a loss
in market share with value of its shipments measuring only at about $5.5 million. The United
States still faces some relatively high tariff rates, 17 % from March through October, and 7.8
% from November through February.
Greece About half of the 150.000 hectares planted under vine are devoted to the table grape
and dried fruit industries. Greek table grape production estimates for calendar year 2001 have
been increased to a record 328.412 tons. Export levels remained larger than the previous year
but marketability to specific destinations shifted with the quality of the fruit available. Top
destination markets typically include: Germany, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and
Eastern European countries such as Poland, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Romania. During
January – July 2001, availability of lower priced product helped to move larger quantities
into the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. Grapes imported into Greece are minimal and
occur either during the off-season or to fill demand of grape varieties not typically grown in
country. Most imported product comes from Argentina and Chile.
Italy Italy is reported to have the largest acreage cultivated with grape vines. Actual area
planted for table grapes has remained steady over the last few years. Italy's top export
markets include Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Switzerland. They compete with
the United States for the United Kingdom market. During 2000, Italy exported a total volume
of approximately 625.000 tons at a value of $ 457 million. The Italians source most of their

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imported table grapes from France and Spain but also import from Central and South
American countries such as Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Argentina.
Spain Table grape production is expected to decline about 9 % for 2001 from the previous
year, due to heavy rains and warmer temperatures. Imported table grapes are mainly from
Italy, Chile, France and South Africa. In 2000, the Spanish imported about 19.000 tons.
During the first 10 months of 2001, despite lower production, Spain imported fewer grapes,
with available data showing a 3% decline. Italy is the main supplier. Table grapes are
exported mainly to Portugal, Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
During the first 10 months of 2001, Spain's top market for table grapes was the United
Kingdom with a volume of 20.000 tons valued at $21.7 million. Total volume and value of
grapes exported during January through October 2001 increased 2 % and 9 % respectively.
Turkey Turkey exported 64.873 tons of table grapes in 2000, with top markets including
Germany, Austria, and the Russian Federation. In the first 10 months of 2001, Turkey's grape
exports were about 29 % above the same period during 2000 and valued at about $27 million.
Turkey imported a very small amount of grapes from Chile and South Africa during 2001 and
only about half of the amount that it imported in year 2000.

TABLE GRAPES: PRODUCTION, SUPPLY, AND DISTRIBUTION

Exports, Domestic Withdrawal
Country Total For
Production Imports Fresh Fresh from
Year Supply Processing
Only Consumption Market
Northern Hemisphere Countries
Greece
1999 287.000 1.413 288.413 102.458 135.955 50.000 0
2000 315.878 1.955 317.833 104.151 170.696 42.986 0
2001 328.412 1.500 329.912 117.000 167.912 45.000 0
Italy
1999 1.562.000 12.000 1.574.000 578.000 696.000 300.000 0
2000 1.568.000 14.000 1.582.000 625.000 690.000 267.000 0
2001 1.580.000 14.000 1.594.000 635.000 689.000 270.000 0
Japan
1999 242.000 9.005 251.005 24 219.481 31.500 0
2000 237.500 13.218 250.718 23 222.695 28.000 0
2001 234.200 15.000 249.200 20 219.180 30.000 0
China; Peoples Republic of
1999 2.708.127 25.859 2.733.986 437 2.273.159 460.390 0
2000 3.280.000 44.156 3.324.156 752 2.691.204 632.200 0
2001 3.800.000 52.408 3.852.408 920 3.015.488 836.000 0
Mexico
1999 185.615 51.896 237.511 107.830 129.681 0 0
2000 189.370 73.744 263.114 115.414 147.700 0 0
2001 171.000 82.000 253.000 95.000 158.000 0 0
Spain
1999 370.200 21.000 391.200 100.000 255.000 30.000 6.200
2000 351.000 19.200 370.200 111.000 236.000 20.000 3.200
2001 320.000 25.000 345.000 95.000 230.000 19.000 1.000

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TABLE GRAPES: PRODUCTION, SUPPLY, AND DISTRIBUTION
Exports, Domestic Withdrawal
Country Total For
Production Imports Fresh Fresh from
Year Supply Processing
Only Consumption Market
Turkey
1999 3.400.000 233 3.400.233 47.980 1.652.253 1.700.000 0
2000 3.600.000 173 3.600.173 64.873 1.750.300 1.785.000 0
2001 3.500.000 100 3.500.100 70.000 1.700.100 1.730.000 0
United States
1999 804.882 383.672 1.188.554 238.987 949.567 0 0
2000 822.666 469.749 1.292.415 289.924 1.002.491 0 0
2001 815.922 414.000 1.229.922 298.918 931.004 0 0
Subtotal
1999 6.851.697 479.219 7.330.916 1.175.279 4.037.937 2.111.500 6.200
2000 7.084.414 592.039 7.676.453 1.310.385 4.219.882 2.142.986 3.200
2001 6.949.534 551.600 7.501.134 1.310.938 4.095.196 2.094.000 1.000
Southern Hemisphere Countries
Chile
1999 815.000 97 815.097 473.525 93.000 248.572 0
2000 935.000 16 935.016 596.000 95.000 244.016 0
2001 955.000 12 955.012 580.000 96.000 279.012 0
South Africa; Republic of
1999 227.671 0 227.671 183.716 39.378 4.577 0
2000 208.000 0 208.000 168.000 36.000 4.000 0
2001 210.000 0 210.000 170.000 37.000 3.000 0
Subtotal
1999 1.042.671 97 1.042.768 657.241 132.378 253.149 0
2000 1.143.000 16 1.143.016 764.000 131.000 248.016 0
2001 1.165.000 12 1.165.012 750.000 133.000 282.012 0
Total Selected Countries
1999 7.894.368 479.316 8.373.684 1.832.520 4.170.315 2.364.649 6.200
2000 8.227.414 592.055 8.819.469 2.074.385 4.350.882 2.391.002 3.200
2001 8.114.534 551.612 8.666.146 2.060.938 4.228.196 2.376.012 1.000
Table 1. (SOURCES: FAS Agricultural Attaché Reports, Bureau of the Census,
NASS/USDA).

1.3 Primary product (fresh)

a) Consumption
Grapes are highly digestible and have a number of therapeutic properties: firstly, they are
laxative and diuretic. They are useful in fighting dyspepsia, hemorrhoids, stones in the
urinary tract and bile ducts,. They also activate liver functions, ease digestion, help reduce the
cholesterol level of the blood and eliminate uric acid. Grapes are also disinfectant and
antiviral, aid the nervous system, are useful in processes that demineralize the body such as
pregnancy and nursing. To take best advantage of its therapeutic virtues, it should be eaten in
the morning on an empty stomach. A natural tonic and detoxicant, grape therapy involves a

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diet which leads progressively to eating only grapes throughout the day, gradually replacing
other foods. Its juice is used in cosmetics to bleach and soften the skin. As well as being eaten
fresh, grapes are used to prepare various desserts, jams, gelatins and sorbets. Nutritional
composition is reported in Table 3.
b) Consumer preference
Table grape berries are appreciated by the consumer for their sweetness indeed high quality
berries should have more than 14% SSC (soluble solids content) depending on the variety but
the appreciation by the consumer depends even on the ethnic group. Acidity is anyway
important too to balance the excessive sweetness of some grape berries. Different ethnic
group have an appreciation for the berry depending more on the acidity than on sweetness.
American consumer acceptance of Red Globe grape is strongly dependent on the ratio
between sugar content and the titratable acidity: a ratio over 25 for the grape berries received
the highest appreciation. For the American consumer, grapes must have SSC more than 15%
and titratable acidity less than 0.8%. Even for Chinese consumer the high SSC was more
appreciated but they were more sensitive to the level of titratable acidity.
Italian consumer prefers table grape berries with a very high SSC and very low titratable
acidity but this appreciation can vary depending on the latitude, North and South.

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Harvest period
Market presence

Table 2. The table grape calendar in the North Emisphere

Edible part 94 % Sodium 1 mg

Water 80.3 g Potassium 192 mg
Proteins 0.5 g Iron 0.4 mg
Lipids 0.1 g Calcium 27 mg
Glucides 15.6 g Phosphorus 4 mg
Fiber 1.5 g Niacin 0.1 mg
Energy 61 kcal Vitamin C 6 mg

Table 3. Nutritional and energy information for grape (100 grams of product)

c) Characteristics of some typical Table Grapes varieties

Figure 7. Var. Regina

The Regina is one of the most ancient and common varieties of

table grapes, with many local nicknames. It is called Pergolone in
Abruzzo, Inzolia Imperiale in Sicily, Mennavacca in southern
Italy, Aleppo in Romania and Razaki in Greece. It is certainly of
Eastern origin, perhaps Syria, and was introduced to Italy by the
ancient Romans, who held it in high regard. Even today it is much
appreciated by consumers for its pleasant appearance and
excellent flavor.
Berry appearance: Large, elliptical grapes, with a medium-
thickness pruinous peel.
Berry colour:Golden yellow

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 Bunch Shape: Large, long, pyramid-shaped or cylindrical
bunches
Berry flavour and texture: Crisp, sweet pulp with a neutral
flavour
Refraction index (° Brix): Consumption: ≥15
Sale period (North Emisphere): August through October

Figure 8. Var. Italia

Obtained by crossing the Bicane and Hamburg Muscatel grapes,

Italia is certainly one of the most popular varieties of table
grapes for both its appearance and flavor, as well as its hardiness
in withstanding handling and shipping. Italia grapes have large,
consistent berries with a lovely golden yellow color, and a
delicate, pleasant musky flavor.
Berry appearance: Large, oval grapes, with a medium-
thickness pruinous peel.
Berry colour:Golden yellow
Bunch shape: Large, tapered, pyramid-shaped bunches
Berry flavor and texture: Crisp, sweet pulp with a delicate
musk flavor. Thick, consistent pruinous peel.
Refraction index (° Brix): Consumption: ≥15
Sale period (North Emisphere): Late August through the end
of December

Figure 9. Var. Crimson Seedless (seedless grape variety)

Crimson Seedless has rapidly become the preferred red

seedless for supermarkets worldwide. Crimson has a sweet
neutral juicy flavour and elongated berries that are light red
in colour. Particularly impressive is the crisp, firm texture of
the berries and the variety has exceptional shelf-life.

Figure 10. Var. Thompson Seedless

Almost everyone is familiar with this grape's light green

colour, oblong berries and sweet, juicy flavour.

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Berry appearance: Medium-large grapes, oval with pruinous peel.
Berry colour: From dark violet to golden yellow.
Bunch shape: Tapered or truncated-tapered bunches with average weight between 500 and
700 grams.
Berry flavor and texture: Fairly meaty, crisp pulp with neutral or slightly aromatic flavor.
The sugar content of must ranges from 13 to 14% while the total acidity varies from 5 to
6/1000.
Sale period (North Emisphere): August through September

1.4 Secondary product (processed)

a) Grape processing for wine production
One of the most known and antique fruit processing activity is the wine production. This
process is known since the age of the first settlements in the Tigris-Euphrates basin several
thousand years before our era. From this region the vine, Vitis vinifera has been carried to all
the Mediterranean Countries. Grape culture for wine production was known to the Assyrians
and Egyptians by 3500 B.C. and to the Greeks by about 1400 B.C. Actually the wine
production in the world is around 27 millions of ton and almost in all Continents wine is
produced and consumed. France and Italy represents the most important exporters covering
the 56% of the market in term of value of the product. Beyond the alcohol, wine contains
interesting healthy compounds such as the flavonoids which guarantee for the protection from
cardiovascular diseases and for this reason is known the French paradox: the Frenches has a
diet richer in fat than the Americans but they have less incidence of cardiovascular diseases
because the former drink more red wine than the latter. Moreover the tannin are antibacterial
compounds and have astringent effect. The legal definition of wine from grapes is : the
product obtained only from the partial or total alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes,
squeezed or not, or of grape must.
Different kinds of wine are produced all over the world but we can summarised in three main
vinification process: red, white, and dessert. We will give here just an overview of the first
two processes mentioning the main steps.
Red wine
Harvest
Red grapes must be picked at the technological stage of ripening which means:
maximum content of flavonoids (anthocyanins which provide the red color) and non
flavonoids (phenolic acids which provides brown color) together with tannins (astringent
taste), idrolyzable or mostly condensed (D-catechin, L-epicatechin, L-epigallocatechin, DL-
gallocatechin) mainly localised in the peel; right equilibrium among these components is
indispensable for good quality wine;
sufficient content of sugars to permit the production of legally speaking wine.
This stage of ripening for the red grape it is easy to detect because the berries peel changes
from green to light red to deep red (high content of flavonoids and non flavonoids included
tannins), which is the moment of picking. As the content of these compounds may be affected
by the weather condition (high UV radiation, water stress, thermal stress), the measure of
sugar content is indispensable even because is the sugars transformation which produces
alcohol..
The sugar content (only fructose and glucose are found in grape berry) measured by a
refractometer (RI = refractometer index in % or °Brix) should be above 19% to reach a right
content of alcohol. Anyway, simple taste of the berries can induce the decision for the
harvest. Berries with more than 17% of sugars are sweet and 19% of sugars provides a very
sweet taste.

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The conversion of sugar in alcohol is approximately 70% and for this reason it is used to
multiply the RI per 0.6 to obtain the potential alcohol content. Too high sugar content (> 26
%) can give problems in the start of fermentation; too low value does not provide sufficient
alcohol and gives very acid wine.
The acidity of the berries is another important characteristic which inversely correlated with
the sugar content. So, generally speaking when the sugars increase the acidity decreases. The
main acid is an acid present only in grape called tartaric acid. Other important acids are the
malic acid and the citric acid. Even the acids content can vary depending on the climate
condition during the grape growth, especially for the content of malic acid. Usually good
wine has an acidity between 4 and 6 g/L in tartaric acid.
Picking of grapes should be the gentlest is possible to avoid crushing of the berries. Keep the
bunch in one hand without squeezing and with the other hand cuts the stem (rachid) with the
cesor. Neither pull the bunch nor rotate the bunch. After cutting the stem, place gently the
bunch in the buckets. The buckets must be clean and as smooth is possible inside.
Not squeeze the bunches in the buckets. Crushing the berries in the harvest containers
provokes the start of acetic bacteria fermentation. Sometime potassium metabisulfite powder
is spreaded over the grapes to avoid this anomalous fermentation but this procedure can kill
the yeasts over the berries peel hastening the start of alcoholic fermentation.
Unloading and destemming
Unload the buckets in the crusher where the berries will be pressed and the peel broken;
usually the stems are removed to avoid the excessive add of salts and the herbaceous taste to
the wine; in some cases, part of the stems can be left in the mass to provide acidity and
tannins useful for the wine stabilisation.
Crushing
The crushing is very important step for red grapes. The operation serves to break the berries
for extracting the must but, in the same time, the fragmentation of the peel allows
successively the extraction of the pigments. In the past this operation was done by feet
directly in the wood fermentors. Today different kinds of crusher-destemmer are available all
based on mechanical squeezing of berries against the walls of the container. The typical one
is the roller type consisting of two fluted, horizontal rolls of rubber-coated steel and stainless
steel. The rolls are adjustable, and should be set so that the berries are thoroughly crushed
without breaking the seeds or grinding the stems. For small amount of grapes simple screw-
type crusher can be used as well as the vertical presser (torque).
Maceration and fermentation
This step has the objectives to transform sugars in alcohol and to permit the diffusion of the
peel substances (pigments, pectins, acids, mineral ions) in the liquid.
From the crusher the must with the peels is pumped or moved to the container (fermentor)
where fermentation and maceration will take place. The original containers were in clay or
wood; today stainless steel is used to better control temperature and for the easiness of
cleaning. The fermentor can be open on the top or sealed completely. In the open top
fermentor, the fermentation starts and continues easily because of the large availability of the
air for the yeasts.
In this process it is indispensable to break once a day the ―hat‖ of pomace (peels, seeds,
residues of stems) which floats on the surface of the must during the fermentation, due to the
carbon dioxide pressure created by the fermentation process. This practice can be done with a
special stick or removing the liquid from the bottom of the fermentor and, with a pump,
pouring with pressure the liquid on the ―hat‖. Other technologies are today used to carry out
this practice but the aim is always the same: break the hat and allow the pigments diffusion
from solids to the liquid.

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At the beginning of fermentation it is a good practice to add some sulphur doxide (Table 4) to
select the yeast, halting the bacteria development, and to favour the pigment diffusion from
the peel.
During fermentation, a huge amount of heat is released and temperature of the mass can reach
even 40°C depending on the environment condition. So the control of temperature is very
important because this value of temperature can stuck the fermentation compromising the
good results of fermentation. The maximum reachable temperature must be 35°C which
usually is reached at the maximum yeast reproduction rate and even this temperature must
last only few hours. To reduce the temperature if water is available it is good practice to wet
outside the container if wood, metal, or clay; cement container is harder to cool down. If it is
too cold, the container must be warmed by heating the environment or heating the liquid with
special tools such as infrared lamps, electric resistance.
Usually on the peel there is plenty of yeasts (Saccharomices cerevisiae) and in the red
vinification there is no need to exogenous supply. For white vinification the yeast supply is
common practice.
During fermentation, a huge amount of carbon dioxide is released, thus the room must be
ventilated to flush outside the CO2.
At the end of fermentation the sugar content in the liquid should be below 1 g/L to avoid
further anomalous fermentation (acetic fermentation) o rifermentation inside the bottle. At
this time the must has been transformed in wine: sugars in alcohol, the liquid is red, no
sweetness, light acidity.
Stabilisation
When the liquid is removed from the fermentor, is not completely clear, and the clearness is
depending on the vinification process and the quality of grapes.
Usually for the red wine after the alcoholic fermentation, secondary fermentation (malolactic)
which has the aim to convert the malic acid in lactic acid reducing the acidity and giving a
smoother taste, occurs. This fermentation is strongly depending on the outside temperature.
In the past, this fermentation due lactic bacteria could occur even the following summer.
Today it is commonly induced by adding of bacteria and slightly heating the liquid (30°C).
At this time a control of sulphur dioxide concentration in the wine is carried out. The level of
sulphur dioxide should be around 20 mg/L. When this fermentantion is accomplished, further
add of potassium metabisulphite is done to reach the concentration of 30 mg/L and 35 mg/L,
respectively for red and white wines.
Proteins and pectines are in solution and need to be removed before bottling the wine. Even
tannins sometime must be removed to reduce the astringency.
This process is called clarification and is carried out by adding proteic compounds such as
albumine which is sold as pure ( to use 40 mL/100 L and) or egg yolk can be used (1 stirred
egg yolk per 225 L of wine), or gelatine (sold as liquid; to use 30 g/100L), or fish glue (dilute
1 kg in 100 L of water and then take 2-3 g per 100 L of wine) for negative charged substances
as tannins.
After clarification the red wine can be stored in wood barrel (big or small such as barrique,
225 L) for few or several months, even years or in glass, plastic, stainless steel containers.
Storage in wooden barrel (usually this process is called fining) such as barrique, clarification
is not done and the precipitate is often remixed in the liquid mass to confer a more complex
aroma bouquet.
The pomace remained in the fermentor is removed and sent to distillation process (grappa) or
pressed to obtain further lower quality wine.
Filtration and bottling
Before the bottling, filtration is a common practice. Today this practice especially for red
wine tends to be avoid because it can remove some compound mainly pigment reducing the

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color intensity and modifying the taste. As the wine move from one continent to another
changing temperature continuously, bottle stabilisation is indispensable and so the filtration is
necessary. Several kinds of filtration can be done: one of the most common is with fossil
flour, or with cardboard to remove rough particles and successively, right before bottling,
vertical, synthetic septum filters are used to remove microorganisms.
After filtration, the wine is bottled in very well washed bottle and then capped with the cork
or silicon cap. The wine can be kept in the bottle before selling for several months or be sold
immediately.

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Summarising the easiest way to make wine:
1. pick gently the grape bunches
2. gently place the bunches in the buckets; NOT SQUEEZE;
3. transfer quickly the buckets to the processing place; AVOID SUN EXPOSURE
4. destem
5. gentle crushing, don't break excessively the peel
6. THE FERMENTOR MUST BE CLEAN and in the shadow or inside
7. add SO2
8. mix once or twice a day the hat with the liquid; when fermentation starts bubbling is
visible on the liquid surface
9. CONTROL THE TEMPERATURE
10. VENTILATE THE ENVIRONMENT TO REMOVE CO2
11. gentle remove the liquid from the fermentors (avoid to remove the solid materials from
the bottom) of the fermentor in other clean container placing on the opening a special tool or
if the neck of the containers is small such as (10-20 cm diameter) cover the liquid surface
with food oil, inodorous
12. if the wine is too astringent, egg yolk can be used ( 1 per 225 L of wine)
13. filtration can be necessary before bottling; gentle remove the wine from the top and let it
flow through cotton fabric or gauze
For all the steps the cleanliness of the equipment and the containers is very important. Use
food detergents for machinery and metabisulfite solution or sulphur burning to clean the
containers. SO2 adding can be avoided only if all the containers are very well cleaned.

sound grapes 5
decayed grapes 20
very sweet grapes 10-15
warm grapes 15-20
cold grapes 3-5
acid grapes 10-15
very red grapes 25-40

Table 4. Use of potassium metabisulphite (g HL-1)

White wine
The white wine production differs from the red wine production for the removal of the peel
from the flesh after the crushing. The reason of this procedure is to avoid the transfer of
pigments from the peel which are very oxidable thus they can produce unpleasant color and
flavours to the wine. In the past white grapes varieties were fermented with the peel as red
wine vinification, but today only partial fermentation in some case is done with the peel.
Anyway in the case of unavailability of special equipments, to produce white wines is
possible to follow the steps of red wine production.
The first recommendations for the harvest and the field transport are the same of those for the
red wine production. The main difference is in the crushing technique because today the most
used for the white wine production is the pneumatic pressure system. In this case the air or
nitrogen pumping inside a plastic airtight balloon allows the squeezing of the grape berries
against the wall of a cylindrical metal container with the perforated bottom. In this way, the
berries blow up releasing the flesh and the must, leaving the peels almost intact. The
squeezing can be carried out with a simple torque using very light force.The clear must is
then moved to the fermentor for the fermentation without maceration.
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In the fermentor, there is only small amount of pomace and there is no formation of ―hat‖. All
the fermentation process today occurs without air contact to avoid oxidation. and usually at
temperature around or below 20°C. In this kind of vinification the fermentation start is
induced by the add of yeasts and nutrient compounds such as nitrogen (ammonia form), yeast
ghosts, thiamine, and sulphur dioxide.
Clarification and filtration are more or less the same of the red vinification. Usually it is used
bentonite to clarify the wine (dilute bentonite in water 1kg in 16 L of water and then 30-60 g
of the solution per 100L of wine).
Today most of the high quality white wines are produced by barrique fermentation: the must
is pumped in new barrique and left fermenting directly in the barrique with the precautions to
carry out the ―batonage‖, which means the mixing of the precipitate in the liquid mass during
the fementation and in the following secondary fermentation and storage of the wine.
b) Raisins Production
History books note that raisins were sun-dried from grapes as long ago as 1490 B.C. But
several hundred years passed before it was determined which grape variety would make the
best raisin. Phoenicians and Armenians traded raisins with the Greeks and Romans, and the
fruit became a favorite. Greeks and Romans decorated places of worship with raisins and
handed them out to winners in sporting contests. Roman physicians prescribed raisins to cure
anything from mushroom poisoning to old age. With their growing appeal came an increase
in value. In fact, two jars of raisins could be traded for one slave in ancient Rome. The fruit
also became popular among famous warriors of the time. Emperor Augustus feasted on small
roasted birds stuffed with raisins, and Hannibal stored raisins in his troop rations while they
were crossing the Alps. Sometime between 120 and 900 B.C., practical ways were developed
to grow the grapes that would become raisins. At that time, Phoenicians started vineyards in
Greece and southern Spain, and Armenians created vineyards in Persia (Turkey, Iran and
Iraq). These areas not only had perfect climates for growing raisins, but they also were close
to the first commercial markets for raisins Greece and Rome. The vineyards of Spain grew
muscat raisins, which are oversized, with seeds and full of flavor. Farmers of Corinth,
Greece, grew another kind-tiny, seedless, tangy raisins called currants. In the 11th century,
crusader knights first introduced raisins to Europe when they returned home from the
Mediterranean. Packing and shipping techniques were good enough by that time to ship
raisins throughout northern Europe. By the 14th century, raisins became an important part of
European cuisine. Raisin prices skyrocketed. The English, French and Germans attempted to
grow grapes for raisins, but their climates were too cold for drying the fruit. In the meantime,
Spaniards were perfecting viticulture, or grape growing. They were using grapes to make dry
table wine, sweet dessert wines and muscat raisins.
Drying and handling In January, vines are pruned back to one or two canes, which are the
most productive branches that will bear the next autumn's fruit. In early spring, the first grape
buds appear, followed by tiny clusters of grapes in March or early April. By late August, the
grapes are handpicked from the vine, put on clean trays between the vine row and laid in the
sun for two or three weeks to dry. When moisture content reaches 15 %, the trays are rolled
carefully into bundles and baked in the sun for a few more days. Then they are taken to the
grower's yard and loaded on a conveyor belt to separate the larger stems from the raisins. The
raisins are transferred to large wooden bins for moisture equalization and then shipped off to
their next destination-packing plants.
Before raisins are unloaded, government inspectors gather samples from the middle of each
box to make sure they are free of imperfections. Then raisins are processed, passing through a
series of conveyor belts and drums to remove remaining stems, chaff or lightweight fruit. The
raisins also are sent through a vacuum air stream to catch any other undesirable materials.
Finally, they are size-graded and thoroughly washed in pure water. In preparation for

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packaging, the raisins are moved through a laser sorter. The sorter's light beams, along with a
computer, see if anything besides raisins is passing through the stream. If material other than
a raisin is present, the computer sends a burst of air to knock it out of the stream of raisins
and down a trough. After final inspections, raisins are automatically weighed and packed in a
variety of convenient sizes.
Production of micotoxins due to fungi is one of the most concern today for raisins production
especially for field drying and during the storage in inidoneous place. Warm place (20-30°C)
and high humidity must be avoided and ventilation through raisins is very important to
prevent fungi formation.
Solar driers are today available to speed the process and to control better the conditions of
drying in order to avoid the formation of fungi and the consequence production of
micotoxins.
Drying can be done even with rotating, perforated drum filled with grape berries, invested by
hot air flow. The process is very fast but special attention must be addressed to temperature.
Moreover is very energy cost process.
In grape drying, the rate of moisture diffusion through the berries is very influenced by the
waxy cuticle of the grapes. In this way, many researches describe the importance of the
pretreatments on the drying rate. Dipping in hot water or the applying of chemicals products
(sulphur, caustic and ethyl or methyl oleate emulsions) as pretreatments is widely used in
order to obtain grape drying. The aim of using those pretreatments solutions is to increase
drying rates and to produce raisins of the desired quality level. Grapes were surface treated by
dipping in ethyl oleate, which greatly increases the drying rate by altering the waxy layer
structure at the grape surface, thus reducing the internal resistance to water diffusion.

Figure 11. Raisins

Raisins Juice From part of the crop, the processors make raisin juice and raisin paste. Raisin
juice is a pure extract of raisins. Throughout several processing stages, raisins are leached
with water to produce raisin juice. The liquid then is evaporated in a vacuum pan to produce a
self-preserving concentrate. Raisin juice concentrate contains a minimum of 70 % natural
fruit soluble solids. It's added to a variety of foods, including dairy, confectionery and bakery
items.
Raisins Paste Raisin paste is made from 100 % raisins, produced by extruding raisins
through a fine mesh screen. Raisin paste can be used to add visual appeal and flavor. It's a
stable ingredient that sweetens naturally. Raisin paste has excellent sweetening capabilities in
fine confectionery fillings and soft-center candies. In bakery items, such as breads, cookies
and pastries, the paste inhibits mold, extends shelf life and enhances flavor.

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c) Grape Juice
The methods for the grape juice preparation are very different in order to the varieties used
and local traditions. The juice may be extracted from the grapes after heat treatments, to
obtain the solubilization of some constituents (colour) or without preliminary heat treatments.
The preparation of the grapes for heating is similar to the one of wine production.
Successively, the red berries are heated up at 80-84°C in stainless steel pots or in tubular heat
exchangers. During this treatment is requested to control the warming in order to prevent an
excessive tannins and pectins solubilization from the cluster and the skins.
For the juice extraction, the continuous press are recommended. Applying this kind of press,
after the product heating, a treatment with clarified enzyme (pectinase) is requested and then
the product pass through the press. Then the extract juice is pasterurised at 88-90°C, then
cooled and stored at low temperature (-2, -5°C) in order to have a good sedimentation of the
tartaric product (KHC4H4O6) and the colloides. The grape juice before the pasteurization
treatment may be degassed. Sometime juice can be clarified with albumin, casein and
bentonite.

1.5 Postharvest Physiology and Technology Requirements

Maturity Indices
Harvest date is determined by Soluble Solids Concentration (SSC) of 14 to 17.5% depending
on cultivar and production area. In some situations, the SSC/titratable acidity (TA) ratio of 20
or higher is used to determine maturity for early ripening varieties of early production areas.
For red and black colored varieties, there is also a minimum color requirement.
Optimum Temperature
Grapes can be stored at -1.0 to 0° C. The highest freezing point for berries is -2.1° C, but
freezing point varies depending on SSC.
Optimum Relative Humidity
90-95% RH and an air velocity of approximately 6-10 meter per minute (MPM) is suggested
during storage.
Table 5. Rates of Respiration (of grape clusters, i.e. berries + stems)
Temperature mL CO2 kg-1 hr-1*
0° C (32° F) 1-2
5° C (41° F) 3-4
10° C (50° F) 5-8
20° C (68° F) 12-15
Stem respiration rate is approximately 15 times higher than berry respiration.
* To calculate heat production, multiply ml CO2 kg-1 hr-1 by 440 to get BTU ton-1 day-1 or by
122 to get kcal metric-1 ton day-1.
Rates of Ethylene Production
<0.1 mL kg-1 hr-1 at 20° C (68° F)
Responses to Ethylene
Table grapes are not very sensitive to ethylene. However, exposure to ethylene (>10 ppm)
may be a secondary factor in shatter.

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1.6 Export Quality Assurance
Today the export of foods is strongly dependent on the quality certification of the product to
be exported and to the respect of quality and safety requirements of the Country where the
product will be sold. This mean that the grower/exporter must write an Export Quality
Manual where it is described all the process from the harvest through the handling to the
packing and shipping. This means that the product must be followed in the field, at harvest, in
the handling process, in the postharvest treatments and storage techniques, and finally in the
shipping, coding each single lot to match the requirement of traceability. Each box of table
grape must have, beyond all the information on the variety, net weight of the grapes, the
category, storage conditions, a code of traceability which permits, in any case, to go back to
the time of packing (Fig.12)

Figure 12. Detail of a table grape box.

1.6.1 Quality Standard for table grapes

a. Definition
This standard applies to table grapes of varieties (cultivars) grown from Vitis vinifera L. to be
supplied fresh to the consumer, table grapes for industrial processing being excluded.
b. Provisions concerning the quality
The purpose of the standard is to define the quality requirements for table grapes after
preparation and packaging.
Minimum requirements
In all classes, subject to the special provisions for each class and the tolerances allowed,
bunches and berries must be:
— sound; produce affected by rotting or deterioration to make it unfit for consumption is
excluded,
— clean, practically free of any visible foreign matter,
— practically free from pests,
— practically free from damage caused by pests,
— free of abnormal external moisture,
— free of any foreign smell and/or taste.
In addition, berries must be:
— intact,
— well formed,
— normally developed.
Pigmentation due to sun is not a defect.

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Bunches must have been carefully picked.
The juice of the berries shall have a refractometric index of at least:
— 12 º Brix for the Alphonse Lavallée, Cardinal and Victoria varieties,
— 13 º Brix for all other seeded varieties,
— 14 º Brix for all seedless varieties.
In addition, all varieties must have satisfactory sugar/acidity ratio levels.
The development and condition of the table grapes must be such as to enable them:
— to withstand transport and handling, and
— to arrive in satisfactory condition at the place of destination.
Classification
The table grapes are classified into three classes defined below:
i) `Extra' class
Table grapes in this class must be of superior quality. In shape, development and colouring
the bunches must to be typical of the variety, allowing for the district in which they are
grown, and have no defects. Berries must be firm, firmly attached, evenly spaced along the
stalk and have their bloom virtually intact.
ii) Class I
Table grapes in this class must be of good quality. In shape, development and colouring the
bunches must be typical of the variety, allowing for the district in which they are grown.
Berries must be firm, firmly attached and, as far as possible, have their bloom intact. They
may, however, be less evenly spaced along the stalk than in the `Extra' class.
The following slight defects, however; may be allowed, provided these do not affect the
general appearance of the produce, the quality, the keeping quality, and presentation in the
package:
— slight defects in shape,
— slight defects in colouring,
— very slight sun-scorch affecting the skin only.
iii) Class II
This class includes table grapes which do not qualify for inclusion in the higher classes, but
satisfy the minimum requirements specified above.
The bunches may show slight defects in shape, development and colouring, provided these do
not impair the essential characteristics of the variety, allowing for the district in which they
are grown.
The berries must be sufficiently firm and sufficiently attached, and, where possible, still have
their bloom. They may be less evenly spaced along the stalk than in Class I.
The following defects are allowed provided the table grapes retain their essential
characteristics as regards the quality, the keeping quality and presentation:
— defects in shape,
— defects in colouring,
— slight sun-scorch affecting the skin only,
— slight bruising,
— slight skin defects.

1.6.2 Safety
Today special attention is given by the market to the safety of the product. HACCP (hazards
analysis critical control points) has become mandatory in all the Developed Countries and the
Quality Certification is still voluntary but most of the Companies are today quality certified.
Thus, farmers from Developing Countries to export in Developed Countries must know the
commercial quality standards but above all the safety requirements. GAP (good agricultural
practice) and GMP (good manufacture practice) are always requested from the Importers and

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the big Distribution Companies. Handling and storage are the two points which requires more
attention. For table grapes, the problem related to the concentration of SO2 in the storage
room as well as in the shipping box are update and several times lots of table grapes are
blocked in the European Market due to high concentration of SO2. Unfortunately the
concentration of SO2 in the box is conditioned by the relative humidity inside the plastic bag
and so difficult to control. In Fig13 the injury provoked by the SO2 on the berries and on the
rachid is shown.

Figure 13. Bunch injured by SO2 treatment

Moreover other problems are the mycosis and the mycotoxins. Cleaning and disinfestations
are the prerogative to reduce the potential for contamination. The condition of the evaporator,
floor, ceiling, and walls such as shown in Fig.14 are not tolerable.

Figure 14. Untolerable sanitary condition of a cold room for table grapes.
Mycotoxins are even more dangerous than mycosis. Raisins, decayed grapes, and wine are
most of the time contaminated, but the concentration usually is low and the type of
mycotoxins is not so dangerous for the consumer. The risks are not only for the ingestion of
the product but even for the workers which take up the mycotoxins with the respiration.
Anyway the European Commission is lowering the threshold of concentration which is today
2 μg/kg for the aflatoxin B1 (the most dangerous toxin which can kill the human being) and
10 μg/kg for the total content in raisins. The aflatoxins are caused by the fungus Aspergillus
flavus and A. parasiticus which are very diffuse and proliferate in conditions of high relative
humidity and room temperature. In table grapes and in wine the most important mycotoxin is
the ochratoxin A which is produced by Aspergillus ochraceous and Pennicillium verucosum .
The colonisation occur in the field after the color turning of the berries. For the wine the EC

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 24

legislation has not fixed a threshold but most of the Countries are checking the wine for
ochratoxin with a threshold of 0.5 μg/l. Contamination in winery is very common and the
condition of bottle or wood containers storage as shown in Fig.15 is not any more tolerable.

Figure 15. The presence of moulds in the cave to store the wine is not anymore tolerable

2. Postharvest Operations
2.1 Harvest
Harvest represents the moment of detachment of bunches from the vine at the proper level of
maturity. It should be performed without mechanical damage and product loss, as quickly as
possible, minimizing the costs. At the present, hand harvest is the only harvesting system for
table-grapes. The primary advantages of hand harvest are:
- human picker can handle with care bunches avoiding mechanical damage;
- selection of fruits starts on the vine because the picker selects maturity and appearance;
- multiple (generally no more than two) harvest for grading the bunches on the vine;
- minimum of capital investment.
Harvest rate depends on the grapes vine growing system, the number and expertise of
workers, and packing system adopted. Very high harvest rate could be obtained using
growing system called Italian pergulate (Tendone) which permits a fast harvesting
considering that bunches are concentrate in the middle of the row more o less 1.7 m height
from the ground; the picker picks bunches walking down the vine without need of ladder or
stool (Fig.6).
The main problems with hand harvest are due to labor management and picker skill.
Moreover quality is such an important aspect in successful marketing that hand harvest is still
the only method used for table grapes. Management should be very careful for effective use
of hand labor. A short training period is necessary for harvesting and packaging grape
according to the market request. At the present, table grapes harvesting is carried out by the
picker that selects the bunch and cuts the stem using very sharp shears. Before releasing the
bunch in the box, the picker generally removes brown and moldy berries.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 25

Thus, the picker performs the following operations:
 bunch selection using color and eventually dimension as selection criteria;
 detachment of the bunch selected by keeping the bunch in one hand and than
with sharp scissor cut the stem
 bunch trimming and cleaning (removal or decayed and moldy berries)
 place gently the bunch in the box, without pressing or squeezing

In the case of ―field packing‖, table grapes may be picked, sorted and packed directly into the
shipping container by the picker (Fig.16).

Figure 16. Table grape harvesting and field packaging.

Generally the pickers and the packer work together: the picker detaches, trims and cleans the
bunch, the packer places the bunch in the shipping container and arranges the packing
materials like the sponges tissue paper that are used to improve product appearance and to
reduce bruising among the bunches during the following operations. The pickers walk down
the vine. The packer move all the packing materials and the table used to support the
container during the filling operation. Empty and filled container are left on ground and
carried by another worker. This system minimizes rehandling of the fruit, but makes the
quality control on the product more difficult than in the packinghouse.
A particular type of field packing is the so called ―avenue packing‖. In this system pickers
and packers do not work in pair, but they are located in different places. The picker picks and
trims the bunches and places them into field lugs. When the lug is filled, it is transferred to
the packer that use a working table located in the avenue between vineyard blocks. Packing
materials are located close to the packing place. In this case quality control is still difficult,
because the supervisor has to move around the vineyard in order to control the different
packers
In case of field packing picker productivity is reduced in the range 50÷80 kg/h . The working
efficiency depend on bunches density in the vine; bunch size, uniformity of berry color and
size.
In Developing Countries where local investment are difficult, this type of harvest for table
grapes more than for other fruits should be promoted for few important reasons:
the cost of labour is lower than in Developed Countries
high availability of workers

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training of picker and packer is low cost comparable to buy equipment
no great investments are required
In the ―shed packing‖ (in the packinhouse), bunches are harvested by pickers and placed in
field lugs untrimmed; in this case field lugs are generally made in plastic with the following
dimension 0.6 x 0.4 x 0.25 m, the weight of grape is generally into the following range 18÷20
kg (Fig.17).

Figure 17. Table grape harvesting in field lug for shed packaging.
Usually grapes tolerate this depth, but it could be decreased to avoid bruising due to
compression of bottom layers of table grapes. The lugs are vented on sides and bottom to
facilitate air circulation. To avoid fruit cutting, ventilation slots are normally rounded so that
inside surfaces is easy to clean and smooth to reduce fruits abrasion injury. Rough handling
and impacts can increase roughness of the internal surface and create fruit abrasion problems.
If wood lugs are used, they should be coated (paint or varnish-type) to reduce this problem.
The picker productivity range 100 ÷ 150 kg /h if the bunches are placed in filed lug and
subsequently cleaned, trimmed and packed in the packinghouse..
The first step in fruit protection from mechanical injury is a careful field supervision.
Inaccurate picking or packing procedures like over-filling the containers or beating bunches
against container hard surface dramatically reduce the product quality and postharvest life of
table grape.

2.2 Packinghouse (shed) operations

The lug should remain in the shade to wait for the transport to the shed. At the shed, grapes
are precooled as soon as they arrive from the field (generally late in the morning or in the first
hours of the afternoon). Grape bunches are packed the day after or later, in relation with the
market request. Often the packinghouse operations are carried on when the weather forecast
does not permit the field packing for more than one day.
In the packing line, table grape is not dumped on a packing belt but it is packed directly into
the shipping container (box, plastic bag, basket) from field lugs. Generally the worker stands
in front of a work-table where the hole for trimmed materials, the shipping container
positioned on the scale pan, and the field lug are located (Fig.18).
The worker picks the bunch from the filed lug, trims and cleans it by using small and sharp
scissor, and places it in the shipping container using the packing materials. When the

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 27

shipping container is ready it is moved on a belt-conveyer which carries the container to the
end of the line where it is stacked on a pallet for the shipment.
The packing line is generally completed with idle roller conveyer for empty shipping
container, that is located 0.40÷0.50 m over the belt conveyer. The trimming material can be
collected in individual container located down the working table or, even better, on a belt-
conveyer that moves the materials in the opposite direction of the packed grapes (Fig.19).

Figure 19.View of a modern packing line for

Figure 18. View of typical packing line for
table grape: workers use gloves, overall and
table grape
cap.
Wrong design of sorting space and lack worker expertise is probably the most limiting factor
of the packing facilities, considering that the main operation for product preparation are done
by hand. In the packing line worker productivity range from 50 ÷ 120 kg /h: the smallest
shipping plastic basket is 250÷500 gr, the maximum is 7.5 kg shipping container.
It should be considered that packinghouse operation is indispensable if wrapped, labeled and
weighted container (bag, basket, tray) should be produced as required by the supermarkets.
Moreover the hygienic conditions that could be guaranteed in the packinghouse make this
packing system much more open to future development.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 28

Figure 20. Scheme of typical packing line for table grape with the particular of working table.
Cross section and side view (dimension in meters). A Empty field lugs; B Field lugs with table
grape untrimmed; C Empty shipping container or package and package materials; D Packed
grape; E Scale; F Field lugs with table grape untrimmed ready to be worked; G Lug for
trimmed materials; H Light.

2.2.1 Packing and packaging materials

Packing can be viewed as simply a convenience to create the minimum commercial unit for
each step of the product commercial life. For instance basket, box and pallet respectively
represent the commercial unit for retail, gross and shipment.
Considering that shipping container represent a convenient unit to transfer of grape from the
point of production to the point of final sale or consumption, it must be designed and used in
order to protect individual bunches. This is very important in Developing Countries allowing
to reduce the cost of investment if the harvest and sorting operations are performed in the
field.
The most important requirements of grape package are the following:
bunches must be immobilized within the container and they should be cushioned against
impact.
the package should be higher than the bunches and it is necessary to avoid over-filling to
protected the berries from compression.
Some grape intended for export and some high-quality grapes for domestic market are ―wrap
packed‖. Here, individual bunches are wrapped in tissue paper or sponge before being placed
in their shipping container (Fig.21a).
Wooden containers are generally used because easy to handle in filed and resistance to high
level of relative umidity in the field and during the storage (Fig.21b). Anyway the use of
cardbox corrugated containers is increasing especially for grape that will be sold without
prior storage (Fig.21c).

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Figure 21. (a) Individual bunches are wrapped in sponge (left); (b) Wooden package with grape
packed in plastic bag (middle); (c) Carton package with paper stripe separating bunches (right).
Plastic containers are even used especially in Developing Countries due to higher resistance
(at relative humidity, mechanical) compare to wood and cardboard, easy to wash, light
compare to wood, well perforated. For these reasons, and above all for food safety reason, the
plastic container is recommendable but for the problem related to the plastic recycle, today
most of the Developed Countries prefer wood or cardboard, the latter the best because is even
not returnable.
The package's size changes among Countries. Generally dimension is in relation to the
quantities that can be exposed, in a day or two, in the retailer. In addition, exporters should
use package sizes that meet the requirements of metric shipping containers. Standardized
pallet are the 1200 by 1000 mm (47.24 by 39.37 in) pallet base or 1200 by 800 mm
(Europallet), which is very closely with the 48 by 40 in (1219 by 1016 mm) pallet base used
by most food chains in the United States. Size of shipping packages that should be considered
for export are: (outside base dimensions) 400 by 300 mm (15.75 by 11.81 in), 500 by 300
mm (19.69 by 11.81 in), 600 by 300 mm (23.62 by 11.81 in). Height range from 100 to 130
mm (3.94 by 5.12 in).
The label on the container will contain the producer brand name, the type of product (i.e.
grape), the variety, weight, and all the information required by the local regulation (producer
identity, production area, etc.). Traceability coding is today very frequent. The used
languages on the label should be the native language of the country receiving the product. On
the container illustrations of the packed product are recommended in order to facilitate
product identification and handling. Post harvest treatments should be clearly marked on
container if it is required. It should be considered that fungicide treatment should have the
approval of the Country importing the product.

2.2.2 Cooling system

In grape postharvest, one of the most important factor affecting product quality is water loss
from the stem due to its large surface to mass ratio. The condition of the stem in terms of
color and turgor is an important quality factor and an excellent indicator of the postharvest
treatment. The stem green color and its freshness are necessary conditions to maintain high
quality level for the market.
The rate of water loss could be especially high before and during the cooling phase, if grapes
are harvested during the hot dry season. The following actions can help to protect grapes:
Harvest early in the morning,
stack the pallets in the shade,
transport with covered trailer could improve the quality of the product.
The use of adequate precooling techniques, rapidly removing the field and the respiration
heats, can reduce the water loss because minimizes the exposure of grapes to low vapor
pressure conditions. In each condition flow and temperature level of cooling air through the

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 30

containers and exposure of the fruit to this air dramatically affect the grape cooling rate.
Moreover the location and amount of venting of the containers (if they are present),
alignment of the containers (air channels), and packing materials such as curtains, bunch
wraps, and pads represent a barrier to the cooling process.
Table grape requires air precooling since most of the varieties is picked in hot season It could
be performed using the following different system: room cooling or conventional system,
tunnel cooling and pressure cooling. The use of eachone of these systems should be
considered in term of cooling time, plant investment, and energy costs. Packaging type,
design and materials dramatically affect the cooling time. Grape closed in plastic bag with the
bunches wrapped in paper tissue o separated by a sponge layer and covers by a SO2 generator
pad require a cooling time 20 times longer than those packed in a open tray.
Room cooling
The use of existing cold storage rooms is one of the most common system. The cold air flow
across the packed containers and refrigeration capacity have to be increased in order to
guarantee the adequate air circulation with respect the normal flow in a cold storage rooms.
In the room precooling the distribution of pallet and container respect to the air flow is
determinant. Air should flow in channels created between the rows of pallets. Pallets and
container should be aligned in order to avoid obstruction of the air flow between and across
the container. Adequate precooling rate are obtained if is possible to maintain on and around
the product the cold air speed close to the value of 0.5 m/s and the refrigeration power inside
of the cold storage room should be more than 0.28 kW/t considering a product average
density of 0.20 t/m3.
It is necessary sometime to improve the air movement inside the cold room with mobile fans
or/and to put the warm grapes quantity in proportion to the installed cooling power (generally
this amount range between the 10÷20% of the total storage capacity of a cold storage room).
A great advantage of this technique is that the pallets may be cooled and subsequently stored
in the same place without other moving. The design and subsequent use of the plant is very
simple and, in relation to the precooling time which longer than other methods, the power of
refrigeration machinery results lower respect to faster methods.
In contrast, the disadvantages are that longer precooling time do not permit a dynamic
organization of production. Long precooling time imposes a long pause in handling and rapid
shipping is not possible. In the case of table grapes for long term storage, deterioration due to
the long time exposure to an incorrect temperature, makes room cooling to be too slow.
Tunnel type forced air cooler
In the tunnel cold air is forced to flow around fruit trough the vented side of the container.
Generally the containers are placed in the cooler so that the air must pass through the
containers before returning to the evaporator surface (Fig.22). Precooling time is reduced
increasing the air speed but an air speed over 3.5 m/s could injury the berries and break the
paper use for packing, dramatically improving the energy consumption and plant cost (Fig.23
and 24). Using an air speed over 1 m/s is possibile to cool much more grape per day than in
room cooling. Due to the short cooling time, despite the high air speed, the water loss rate
from the fruit is negligible.
In tunnel cooling heat is carried away primarily by flow of air trough the bunches inside the
containers rather than by flow past the outside of the containers as in room cooling. Using
high air speed value and container adequately vented, more than a single row of pallet can be
cooled at the same time. In this case air movement is always from colder fruit upstream to
warmer fruit downstream, which avoids the sweating, but this flow cause a gradient of
temperature among the parallel rows of pallets.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 31

 The use of precooling tunnel reduces cooling time, removing very fast the field heat.
Potential for bunches deterioration is reduced and soon after the treatment, grapes can be
stored or shipped in the best condition.
Compare to room cooling, the plant and energy cost are higher but, considering that they are
specialized plant, the space required for a specific volume of product and the refrigeration
losses are much more lower than in room cooling. Anyway, the use of this method requires
higher cost for product movement if it is assigned to storage. Adeguate package design is
required in relation to the fixed air speed and cooling time.

Pressure cooling plant. The fan produce low pressure level in the space between the pallets row.
The pressure level should be lower -30 mm H2O respect the environmental pressure. The air
speed around the product is generally maintained around 0.8÷1 m/s

Cold wall cooling plant. The fan produce low pressure level on one side of pallet. The pressure
level should be lower -30÷40 mm H2O respect the environmental pressure. The air speed around
the product is generally maintained around 1.0÷1.2 m/s. The pallets cooling result more uniform
respect to other methods. This results more effective for plastic bag rapped product.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 32

Tunnel precooler. The fan produce a high pressure level on one side of the tunnel (about 20 mm
H2O) respect the environmental pressure. The air speed around the product is generally
maintained around 2.5÷3.5 m/s. The air cross the pallets row. Cooling rate result lower respect to
other methods.

Figure 22. Different type of air precooler

Figure 23. Refrigeration power and cooling time in relation to the air speed in table grape
precooling packed in open trays. Starting from the cooling time it is possible to calculate air
speed and refrigeration power required.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 33

Figure 24. Refrigeration power and cooling time in relation to the air speed in table grape
precooling packed in plastic bag. Starting from the cooling time it is possible to calculate air
speed and refrigeration power required.

2.2.3 Storage
Cold storage
Recommended storage temperatures for table grapes are -1 ÷ 2 °C. The relative humidity
should be maintained around 95%. Although temperatures as low as -2°C have not been
injurious to well-matured fruit of some varieties, other varieties of low sugar content have
been reported damaged by exposure to - 1.7 °C. Generally 0°C can be considered the
optimum value for storage temperature. In the cold storage rooms uniform air circulation
should be provided, but air velocity should be lower than 0.1 m/s in the channels between the
pallets in order to minimize the loss of moisture from the stems. Large diameter fan, possibly
with double speed, should be installed in order to adapt air movement to temperature level
and quantity of product stored.
High and continuous ventilation rate are required to exhaust sulfur dioxide from room air
following fumigation.
The greatest change that takes place in grapes in storage is loss of water. The first noticeable
effect is drying and browning of stems and pedicels. This effect becomes evident with a loss
of only 1 to 2% of the weight of the whole bunch. When the loss reaches 3 to 5%, the fruit
loses its turgidity and softens.
Maintaining relative humidity of 92 to 95% in grape storage is often a problem especially at
the beginning of the storage season when the rooms are being filled with dry lugs. Using
large cooler (aeroevaporator) surface that means a minimum specific surface of 30 cm2/m3 of
cold storage room, with a specific power of 0.12 kW/m2, it is possible to have an optimal DT
of 3°C. The use of water for defrosting the cold surface increases the relative humidity inside
the storage room despite humidification increase the risk of liquid water presence on the
berries surface. For this reason this defrosting technique is not advisable in cold storage

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 34

rooms for grape. The most usual system to keep high grapes turgor during the long term
storage is to pack the bunches in a plastic bag; in this way respiration heat removal results
more difficult but relative humidity inside the bag will be close to saturation point. In order to
avoid product reheating, inside the plastic bag, air velocity in the storage room have to be
increased to 0,2÷0,3 m/s.
In Developing Countries where the potential for investment is low, cold room storage is
sometime impossible to propose. Since the storage requirements of table grapes are low
temperature and high relative humidity, the technique called ―evaporative cooling‖ can
represent a simple, low cost technique for removing heat from grapes. The reduction of
temperature is only partial, down to 15-17°C depending on the kind of construction and the
outside temperature and relative humidity. The principle is to close the grapes, or other fruits,
in an environment where the walls are done by water absorbing materials such as straw or
bricks. The walls are wetted with water which, depending on the outside temperature and
relative humidity, evaporates cooling down the storage environment which keeps even a high
level of relative humidity (Fig.25). The major requirement of this system is the availability of
water.
Another simple technique, depending on outside atmosphere conditions, is the ―ventilated
wet air‖ consisting in a room in which a couple of fans are located on opposite walls, one
pushing the air from outside inside and the other, on the opposite wall, removing air from
inside to outside (exhaust). The box of table grapes can be placed over the pallets on the floor
of the room, which is successively wetted completely with a thin layer of water. During the
night, when the temperature is down and relative humidity is high, the fans work at low speed
creating a continuous flow of air. During the day, when the temperature starts to rise, the
floor is wetted and the fan work at high speed to accelerate the water evaporation from the
floor, cooling down the storage atmosphere (Fig.26).

Figure 25. Evaporative cooling can be used for table grapes storage in certain areas.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 35

Figure 26. Similar wet air cooled can be used for table grapes storage in certain areas.
Modified atmospheres
Modified or controlled atmospheres (CA) are not used for industrial application in table grape
packinghouse. The use of CA condition matched with sulphur dioxide fumigation has shown
that CA alone does not control decay but fruit treated with S02 have been stored in good
condition.

2.3 Shipping
The selection of transport system and right temperature level is not enough to ensure the
success of grape transport that depends on many factors like the initial temperature, the
refrigeration power, the air circulation system efficiency, quantity of grape and package
adopted. For best results, temperatures should be maintained as close as possible to that level
of the storage temperature. However to reduce the risk of freezing injury of grape, especially
of packages located close to the cold air outlet, the thermostat setting (temperature control)
should be set above not lower than 0°C. .
Grape should be loaded in truck trailer or container at the optimum temperature level and this
level should be strictly maintained in order to preserve the grape quality during the transport
period. Adequate cooling rate could not be obtained using the truck refrigeration system that
is generally designed to hold the product loading temperature. In order to maintain the
temperatures uniform throughout the load with a variation of ±0.5 °C, leakage from the
insulated surface or from the doors gasket, long exposure to sun radiation, inadequate air
circulation should be avoided because they produce dangerous and local increasing of grape
thermal level. Horizontal airflow refrigeration system is the most common for air circulation
in van-truck. It could be increased with channels, ducts or local vents that improve air
distribution and circulation trough the stacked product especially far from the refrigerant i.e.
close to the door. In conventional van-truck it is necessary to prevent obstruction of the
discharge air duct and to ensure the air suction by the air-refrigerant fans. For this reason it is
advisable to use a spacer between the front of the van container and the first row of pallet of

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 36

the van or container. The pallets have to be loaded tightly, front to rear in the van containers.
The presence of loose space among pallets could cause falling of packages with product
damage, and obstruction of the air flow (Fig. 27).

Figure 27. Air distribution systems in truck trailers for table grapes.

2.4 Pest control

Medium and long-term storage of table grapes is possible not only because of the improved
refrigeration practices but also because of the development of effective fumigation practices
to control decay. Long-keeping varieties, ie Emperor, Ribier, and Calmeria, Italia ecc. further
contribute to the longterm storage of this commodity.
S02 fumigation to control decay
The main fungus causing decay of grape during the storage at 0°C is Botryris cinerea Pers.
This fungus is capable to grow at this storage temperature. Spores of this mould are killed by
the fumigation if they are present on the surface of the berries. but if the infection started in
the vineyard before harvest SO2 (sulfur dioxide) fumigation is unable to disinfect the grapes..
In fact SO2 inactivates spores and reduces their growing rate, so in infected berries the mould
continues the development (in relation to the storage temperature) and it could became visible
in few hours after removal of SO2 from storage environment (room or single package).
SO2 fumigation reduces the mould distribution inside the package due to its action on the
spores and it prevents the formation of 'nests' of mouldy berries.
S02 fumigation to maintain stem condition
Stem color is greatly affected by SO2 fumigation. SO2 presence in the storage room avoids
stem browning and give it a light green or amber color. After long term storage stem and

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 37

pedicel result much more elastic than without fumigation, so it reduces berries detachment
during the transport.
Fumigation methods
Table grapes may be fumigated in storage room, in the transport vehicle, or within individual
packages. Various combinations of these methods also may be used. Fumigation in transport
vehicle is more complex to remove SO2 from the internal trailer or container atmosphere
before door opening or during the transit.
The minimum toxicant concentration and the time required to perform this action is generally
considered 100 ppm for 60 min. This means that the same action could be performed using
double concentration for half hour or the opposite. Maturity in term of sugar percentage in the
juice, grape phisiological condition at harvesting time represent the main factors that affects
this choice.
In South Italy storage room, table grapes generally are fumigated using a concentration of
0.2÷0.3 % S02 of room volume for 15÷20 min, followed by periodically applications (7-10
days) of 0.1÷ 0.2 % S02 for 15 to 20 minutes. Concentration and time adopted for
fumigations depends on the particular weather conditions during the harvesting time
(September-December). Rapid alternance of high and low temperature and wet weather
conditions (high relative humidity or rainfall) increase the risk of Botrytis attack, so it is
necessary to dry the berries surface and as soon as possible to fumigate the bunches in order
to kill the spores eventually present on berries surface.
Longer time are required for lower concentration, some experience reports good results using
fumigation with 0.01÷0.02 % S02 for 60 to 120 min. Automatic control equipment has been
developed to maintain storage atmospheres that contain 20 ppm S02 over periods of three or
more months. Grapes stored in such an atmosphere absorb 10-15 ppm S02. More recent work
has shown that S02 concentrations of 7-10 ppm in the room atmosphere provide satisfactory
decay control without excessive S02 injury.
Gas distribution should be done quickly and uniformly in the storage room volume. Nozzles
uniformly distributed on the ceiling could guarantee uniform distribution. Most common is
the installation of one nozzle in front of each continuous running fan present in the cold
storage room. Proper pallet alignment and proportionate fan capacity that guarantee uniform
air distribution are required. Gas penetration in the package should be improved reducing to
the minimum the free volume around or over the pallet in order to avoid that the gas could
by-pass the channels between the pallets and though the package.
In large cold storage room gaseous S02 is generated by liquid sulfur dioxide that is vaporized
using hot water and it flows to the storage room through the delivery line. Precaution must be
adopted to provide enough air flow to mix the pure gas before it reaches the fruit. Large
amount of S02 can be released in few second using this system.
In order to treat all the bunches in the package, the air in contact with the berries should be
moved, so in the cold storage rooms fans should be preset for continuous functioning during
the fumigation. At the end of the fumigation, the S02 is removed from the storage room either
with an exhaust fan or by dissolution of the gas in the water depending on local regulation.
Other factors that may influence the selection of S02 concentration are the relative humidity
in the storage room and the type of package used. High relative humidity (90 to 95%) like
those required in cold storage rooms for table grape and the use of wooden lugs, due to the
absorption, reduce the effective S02 concentration in the storage atmosphere.
Decision about the S02 dosage should be taken considering the grape potential decay that
depends on the weather conditions in the last days before the harvest.
The best SO2 removing system in terms of efficiency and environmental impact consists of
atmosphere washing system. It is a tower connected to the cold storage room by pipes. A low
power centrifugal pump, installed at the base of the tower, provides the closed cycle

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 38

circulation in the tower of the atmosphere containing SO2 (from the bottom) against water
(raining from the top). SO2 is removed from the atmosphere by mean the solubilization in the
water. Furthermore, the use of water in closed cycle permits enrichment of the ambient of
water vapour and therefore maintains a high hygrometric level (close to saturation) in the
storage room (Fig.28).

Figure 28. Typical installation for grape sulphure dioxide fumigation. 1- Cold storage room (in
not sealed and adequately protected require jacket system); 2- Jacket system; 3-Addition fan for
air circulation; 4- SO2 tank; 5- SO2 dosimeter; 6- SO2 vaporizator; 7- fan; 8- air inlet; 9-water
flow meter; 10 air washing tower.
SO2 readily forms a corrosive acid in combination with water so all the metal surfaces should
be in stainless steel or should be protected. The internal surface of cold storage rooms, built
with sandwich panel should be protected with epoxy resins . Gas tight doors and fans should
be in stainless steel, air cooler in stainless steel or normal cooler treated with tin plate.
Interesting for Developing Countries, in order to adapt old storage rooms to SO2 fumigation
the jacket system could be adopted. Using this system the following advantages are obtained:
 refrigeration of table grape is indirect, thus it is possible to reach high relative
humidity levels;
 easy to manage
 different size plastic room can be created and placed in one single cold room

Table grapes are stored within the polyester wrappers placed inside normal cold-stores and
the refrigeration of the product occurs indirectly through the walls of the wrappers and not by
effect of direct ventilation onto the fruit. The jacket system permits the division of large
refrigerated space into several cells (wrappers) of small capacity that give the opportunity to
improve efficiency of loading and unloading operations. The main parts of the plant are:
sulfur dioxide dosimeter, SO2 gasificator generally based on hot water, groups of fans to
distribute SO2 and to circulate cold air across the product, SO2 removing system similar to the
one above described based on water dissolution. The foregoing discussion of storage
fumigation was based primarily on practices followed in Italy and United States. Fumigation
procedures in other countries, such as South Africa, include the continuous exposure of table
grapes to low concentrations of S02 in storage.

GRAPE: Post Harvest Operations Page 39

In-package fumigation
Several SO2-producing compounds have been developed for in-package fumigation of table
grapes. This technique is mainly useful for table grape subjected to long term shipment but
when are not available plant adequate for fumigation it result the best solution for long term
storage of table grape.
The SO2 generators contain sodium bisulphite between layers of polyethylene coated paper.
The generators are placed at the top of the box when the grapes are packed and provide
protection of the fruit for as long as three months. The generators are generally used with
bunches packed in polyethylene bag in order to prevent SO2 dispersion in the storage
environment. The release of SO2 depends on the relative humidity inside the bag and so it is
hard to obtain standard concentration in all the boxes. This is the reason because it is easy to
find SO2 injury in the berries and in the stem.

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