Chapter 10

Why are metals ductile and ceramics brittle?

Metals are generally ductile because the structure consists of close-packed layers of

atoms that allow for low energy dislocation movement. Slip is then the preferred method of

releasing stress, resulting in observable ductility. Ceramics are generally regarded as

brittle because dislocation movement is hampered, partly due to the stronger bonding but

also because of electrostatic repulsion between similarly charged ions. Crack propagation

is often the preferred mechanism of releasing stress. The reason why ceramics tend to be

brittle and metals ductile is therefore not due to the presence of dislocations in metals and

their absence in ceramics, but because of the greater difficultly of slip in ceramics at normal

temperatures. However, temperature is important and ceramics show ductility at high

temperatures while metals become brittle and loose ductility at low temperatures.

What is the elastic modulus of a solid?

The simplest description of stress and strain is in terms of isotropic linear elastic

materials. For this group of solids, the ratio of the applied stress to the resulting strain is

the elastic modulus of the material. There is no single elastic modulus, but a number of

moduli, depending upon the nature of the stress although the elastic properties of isotropic

elastic materials are uniquely determined by any two of them. However, the term the

elastic modulus used alone usually refers to just one of these, Young’s modulus, that

relates tensile stress and strain.

Elastic moduli can also be specified for anisotropic materials, but take a more

complicated form.

What are solid lubricants?

 Solid lubricants are materials that possess low shear strength in at least one

dimension so that they are soft and feel greasy to the touch. They fall into three main

classes, inorganic solids with lamellar crystal structures, solids that suffer plastic

deformation easily and polymers in which the constituent chains can slip past each other in

an unrestricted way. The two categories of most importance are layer structures and soft

inorganic compounds. Typical layer structures used in this way are graphite derivatives

such as fluorinated graphite and molybdenum disulphide. A soft inorganic compound often

used at high temperatures is a eutectic mixture of calcium fluoride and barium fluoride.

Solid lubricants have advantages over the normal liquid lubricants in certain

conditions such as at high temperatures, low temperatures and in a vacuum.

Quick quiz

1. a; 2. b; 3. a; 4. c; 5. a; 6. b; 7. c; 8. b; 9. a; 10. c; 11. a; 12. b; 13. a; 14.

c; 15. b; 16. a; 17. b; 18. c; 19. c; 20. b; 21. a; 22. b; 23. c; 24. a; 25. c; 26. b;

27. b; 28. c; 29. a; 30. a; 31. c; 32. c; 33. b.

Calculations and questions

1. 15.6 MPa.

2. 194.2 MPa.

3. 85.4 cm.

4. 156.0 cm.

5. 60.14 cm.

6. 100.36 cm.

7. 152.2 GPa.

8. 108.4 GPa.
9. 0.5.

10. 102 x 9.93 x 9.93 mm.

11. 12.46 mm.

12. 21.2 kN.

13. (a) 0.29 mm, (b) -0.0055 mm.

14. (a) 111.1 kPa; (b) 0.32 mm; (c) 0.0011, (0.11 %); (d) 6.3 x 10-6 m.

15. (a) 733.4 kPa; (b) 0.63 mm; (c) 0.0018, (0.18 %); (d) 0.0063 mm.

16. (a) 0.126, (b) 12.6 %.

17. (a) 0.210, (b) 21 %.

18. (b) ~70 GPa; (c) ~1.2 GPa; (d) ~6500 N; (e) 6.4 %.

19. (b) ~138 GPa; (c) ~1.3 GPa; (d) ~973 MPa; (e) 4.1 %.

20. (a) 1.2 GPa; (b) ~350 MPa; (c) ~55.8 kN; 37.5 mm.

21. (a) ~1.8 GPa; (b) ~1.1 GPa; (c) ~0.7 GPa; (d) ~0.9 GPa; (e) ~0.6 GPa; (f) 1.4 %.

22. (a) 45.5 kN; (b) 100.27 mm.

23. 117 MPa.

24. 1.63 m.

25. 0.45 N m-2.

26. (a) 94.4 GPa; (b) 58.5 GPa.

27. (a) 202.7 GPa; (b) 125.4 GPa.

28. (a) Long, 39.5 GPa; (b) Trans, 58.5 GPa.

29. (a) Long. 155.2 GPa; (b) Trans. 6.72 GPa.

30. (a) V, 287.7 GPa; (b) R, 167.1 GPa.

31. (a) Parallel, 114.2 GPa; (b) Perpendicular , 90.4 GPa.

32. 167.2 GPa. 33. 18.6 %.

Solutions
1 A weight of 500 kg is hung from a 2 cm diameter rod of brass. What is the engineering

stress?

Engineering stress,  = force / original area = F / A0

F = mass x acceleration = m g

= 500 x 9.8067 = 4903 N

A0 = r2 =  x 0.012

 = 4903 /  x 0.012 = 15.6 MPa

2 A weight of 3500 kg is hung from a 1.5 cm diameter rod of nickel. What is the

engineering stress?

Engineering stress,  = force / original area = F / A0

F = mass x acceleration = m g

= 3500 x 9.8067 = 34323 N

A0 = r2 =  x 0.00752

 = 4903 /  x 0.00752 = 194.2 MPa

3 A steel wire 75 cm long and 1 mm diameter is subjected to a load of 22 kN. Young’s

modulus of the steel 201.9 GPa. Calculate the new length.

Stress and strain are related by  = E

 = l / l0 = (l - l0) / l0

l = l0  / E

 = load / area = 22000 /  x 0.00052

 l = (0.75 x 22000) /  x 0.00052 x 201.9 x 109 = 0.104 m

New length = 75 + 10.4 = 85.4 cm

4 A rod of bronze 150 cm long and 3 mm diameter is subjected to a load of 30 kN.

Young’s modulus of the bronze is 105.3 GPa. Calculate the new length.

Stress and strain are related by  = E

 = l / l0 = (l - l0) / l0

l = l0  / E

 = load / area = 30000 /  x 0.00152

l = (1.5 x 30000) /  x 0.00152 x 105.3 x 109 = 0.060 m

New length = 1.5 + 0.06 = 1.56 m

5 A rod of copper 60 cm long is subjected to a tensile stress of 300MPa. Young’s

modulus of copper is 129.8 GPa. Calculate the new length.

l = l0  / E

l = (0.6 x 300 x 106) / 129.8 x 109 = 0.0014 m

New length = 60 + 0.14 = 60.14 cm

6 A rod of aluminium 100 cm long is subjected to a tensile stress of 250 MPa. Young’s

modulus of aluminium is 70.3 GPa. Calculate the new length.

l = l0  / E

l = (1 x 250 x 106) / 70.3 x 109 = 0.0036 m

 New length = 1 + 0.0036 = 1.0036 m

7 A cast iron rod of length 200 mm and dimensions 10 mm x 20 mm is subjected to a load

of 70 kN. An extension of 0.46 mm is observed. Calculate Young’s modulus of the cast

iron.

/ = E

 = l / l0 = (l - l0) / l0

l = l0  / E

 = load / area = 70,000 / (0.01 x 0.02)

 = l / l0 = 0.00046 / 0.2

E = 70,000 x 0.2 / (0.01 x 0.02) x 0.00046 = 152.2 GPa

8 A zinc bar of length 125 mm and dimensions 5 mm x 7.5 mm is subjected to a load of 40

kN. An extension of 1.23 mm is observed. Calculate Young’s modulus of zinc.

/ = E

 = l / l0 = (l - l0) / l0

l = l0  / E

 = load / area = 40,000 / (0.005 x 0.0075)

 = l / l0 = 0.00123 / 0.125

E = 40,000 x 0.125 / (0.005 x 0.0075) x 0.00123 = 108.4 GPa

9 Calculate Poisson’s ratio for a bar of metal originally 10 mm x 10 mm x 100 mm, which

is extended to 101 mm, if there is no change in the overall volume of the sample.
Assuming that the bar is isotropic

V(initial) = V(final) = 100 x 10 x 10 = 104 mm3

V(final) = 101 x w x w = 101w2 mm3

where the cross section of the bar is now w x w.

Hence w = (104 / 101) = 9.95 mm

z (longitudinal strain) = l / l0 = (101 – 100) / 100 = 0.01

x (lateral strain) = w / w0 = (9.95 – 10) / 10 = -0.005

 = -x (lateral strain) / z (longitudinal strain) = -(-0.005 / 0.01) = 0.5

10 A copper bar of 10 mm square section is subjected to a tensile load that increases its

length from 100 mm to 102 mm. The value of Poisson’s ratio for copper is 0.343.

Calculate the new dimensions of the bar.

 = - x (lateral strain) / z (longitudinal strain)

z = l / l0 = 2 / 100 = 0.01

x = w / w0

w / w0 = -0.343 x 2 / 100 = -0.0069

As w0 = 10 mm, w = 10 x 0.0069 = 0.069 mm

New cross-sectional dimensions are 9.93 x 9.93 mm

The new dimensions are 102 x 9.93 x 9.93 mm

11 A brass rod of 12.5 mm diameter is subjected to a tensile load that increases its length

from 150 mm to 151.5 mm. The value of Poisson’s ratio for brass is 0.350. Calculate the

new diameter.
  = - x (lateral strain) / z (longitudinal strain)

z = l / l0 = 1.5 / 150 = 0.01

x = - 0.350 x 0.01 = -0.00350

The diameter of the rod is 12.5 mm and the change in diameter is d

-x = -d / 12.5 = -0.00350

-d = -0.04375

New diameter = 12.5 - 0.044 = 12.46 mm

The new dimensions are 151.5 mm x 12.46 mm diameter

12 A cylindrical titanium rod of diameter 15 mm is subjected to a tensile load applied along

the long axis. Young’s modulus of the metal is 115.7 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.321.

Determine the magnitude of the load needed to produce a contraction in diameter of 5 x 10-
3
mm if the deformation is elastic.

 = - x (lateral strain) / z (longitudinal strain)

z = l / l0

-x = -d / d0

x = -5 x 10-3 / 15 = -3.33 x 10-4

z = -x /  = 3.33 x 10-4 / 0.321 = 1.038 x 10-2

 = z E = 1.038 x 10-2 x 115.7 x 109 = 120.15 x 106 N m-2

Load = F =  A0 = 120.15 x 106 x  (7.5 x 10-3)2 = 21.2 kN

13 A steel rod of diameter 16.2 mm and length 25 cm is subjected to a force of 50,000 N

in tension along the long axis. Young’s modulus is 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.293.

Determine (a) the amount that the specimen will elongate in the direction of the applied

force and (b) the change in diameter of the rod.

(a)  = F / A0 = 50,000 /  (8.1 x 10-3)2

z = l / l0 = l / 0.25

 = z E

i.e. = 50,000 /  (8.1 x 10-3)2 = 210 x 109 x l / 0.25

l = 0.25 x 50,000 /  (8.1 x 10-3)2 x 210 x 109 = 0.00029 m = .29 mm

The bar will elongate by 0.29 mm

(b)  = - x (lateral strain) / z (longitudinal strain)

-x = -d / d0

 = (-d / d0) / (l / l0)

d = -  x (l / l0) x d0 = -0.293 x (0.29 / 250) x 16.2 = 0.0055 mm

The diameter will decrease by 0.0055 mm

14 A niobium bar of dimensions 15 mm square and of length 300 mm is subjected to a

tensile force of 25,000 N. Young’s modulus of niobium is 104.9 GPa NS Poisson’s ratio is

0.397. Determine (a), the engineering stress; (b), the elongation; (c), the engineering

strain; (d), the change in the cross section of the bar.

(a)  = F / A0 = 25,000 / (0.015 x 0.015) = 111.1 MPa

(b) z = l / l0 = l / 0.3

 = z E
Hence 111.1 x 106 = 104.9 x 109 x l / 0.3

l = 0.3 x 111.1 x 106 / 104.9 x 109 = 0.00032 m = 0.32 mm

(c) z = 0.00032 / .3 = 0.00106 = 0.106 %

(d)  = - x / z = (w / w0 ) / z

i.e. (w / 0.015 ) / 0.00106 = 0.397

w = 0.397 x 0.00106 x 0.015 = 6.3 x 10-6 m

15 A tungsten rod of 12.5 mm diameter and of length 350 mm is subjected to a tensile

force of 90,000 N. Young’s modulus of tungsten is 411.0 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.280.

Determine (a), the engineering stress; (b), the elongation; (c), the engineering strain; (d),

the change in the diameter of the rod.

(a)  = F / A0 = 90,000 /  (0.00625)2 = 733.4 MPa

(b) z = l / l0 = l / 0.350

 = z E

Hence 733.4 x 106 = 411 x 109 x l / 0.35

l = 0.35 x 733.4 x 106 / 411 x 109 = 0.000625 m = 0.625 mm

(c) z = 0.000625 / .35 = 0.00179 = 0.179 %

(d)  = - x / z = (d / d0 ) / z

i.e. (d / 0.0125 ) / 0.00179 = 0.280

d = 0.280 x 0.00179 x 0.0125 = 6.265 x 10-6 m = 0.006265 mm

16 A tensile test specimen of magnesium has a gauge length of 5 cm. The metal is

subjected to a tensile loading until the gauge markings are 5.63 cm apart. Calculate (a)

the engineering stress and (b) the percentage elongation.

(a)  = l / l0 = (5.63 – 5) / 5 = 0.126

(b) 12.6%

17 A tensile test specimen of brass has a gauge length of 5 cm. The metal is subjected

to a tensile loading until the gauge markings are 6.05 cm apart. Calculate (a) the

engineering stress and (b) the percentage elongation.

(a)  = l / l0 = (6.05 – 5) / 5 = 0.210

(b) 21%

18 An aluminium alloy specimen 3 mm diameter with 50 mm gauge length was tested to

destruction in a tensile test. The results are given in the Table. The maximum load

applied was 810 N and the final length between the gauge marks was 54 mm. (a) Plot an

engineering stress versus engineering strain curve. (b) Determine Young’s modulus of the

alloy. (c) The tensile strength. (d) The 0.2% offset yield strength of the alloy. (e) The

percentage elongation at fracture.

Load / N Extension / mm

1000 0.10

2000 0.20

3000 0.290
4000 0.402

5000 0.504

6000 0.697

7000 0.900

7500 1.297

8000 2.204

7150, Fracture 3.200

(a) Data for the graph:

Load / Stress / Extension / Strain

N MPa mm

1000 141.4 0.10 0.0020

2000 282.8 0.20 0.0040

3000 424.3 0.290 0.0058

4000 565.8 0.402 0.00804

5000 707.2 0.504 0.01008

6000 848.7 0.697 0.01394

7000 990.1 0.900 0.01800

7500 1060.8 1.297 0.02594

8000 1131.5 2.204 0.04408

7150 1011.3 3.200 0.06400

Note: values derived from the graph are only approximate.

(b) E is given by the initial slope  707.2 x 106 / 0.01008 = 70.2 GPa

(c) The tensile strength is the maximum value of :  1.2 GPa

(d) The 0.2 % offset line intersects the curve at  920 MPa

(e) The % elongation at fracture = (l / l0) x 100 = (3.2 / 50) x 100 = 6.4 %

19. A steel specimen 12 mm diameter with 50 mm gauge length was tested to destruction

in a tensile test. The results are given in the Table. The maximum load applied was 152

kN. (a) Plot an engineering stress versus engineering strain curve. (b) Determine Young’s

modulus of the alloy. (c) The tensile strength. (d) The 0.1% offset yield stress of the alloy.

(e) The percentage elongation at fracture.

Load / kN Extension / mm

10 0.030

20 0.064

30 0.098

40 0.130

50 0.170

60 0.195
70 0.218

80 0.256

90 0.294

100 0.335

110 0.400

120 0.505

130 0.660

140 0.898

150 1.300

152 (max) 1.500

150 1.700

140 1.960

133, 2.070

Fracture

(a) Data for the graph:

Load / kN Stress / MPa Extension / mm Strain

10 88.4 0.030 0.00060

20 176.8 0.064 0.00128

30 265.3 0.098 0.00196

40 353.7 0.130 0.00260

50 442.1 0.170 0.00340

60 530.5 0.195 0.00390

70 618.9 0.218 0.00436

80 707.4 0.256 0.00512

90 795.8 0.294 0.00588

100 884.2 0.335 0.00666

110 972.6 0.400 0.00800

120 1081.0 0.505 0.01010

130 1149.5 0.660 0.01320

140 1237.9 0.898 0.01796

150 1326.3 1.300 0.02600

152 (max) 1346.0 1.500 0.03000

150 1326.3 1.700 0.03400

140 1257.9 1.960 0.03920

133 1176.0 2.070 0.04140

Note: values derived from the graph are only approximate.

(b) E is given by the initial slope  707.4 x 106 / 0.00512 = 138 GPa

(c) The tensile strength is the maximum value of :  1.34 GPa

(d) The 0.1 % offset line intersects the curve at  972.6 MPa

(e) The % elongation at fracture = (l / l0) x 100 = (2.070 / 50) x 100 = 4.1 %
20. Figure 10.41 shows the engineering stress – engineering strain behaviour of a carbon

steel. Determine: (a) Young’s modulus. (b) The stress at 0.2% offset strain, (proof stress).

(c) The maximum load that can be sustained by a rod of diameter 12.5 mm. (d) The change

in length of a rod originally 250 mm long subjected to an axial stress of 400 MPa.

Working from an enlarged photocopy of Fig 10.41:

(a) Young’s modulus is given by the initial slope of the graph:

E  300 / 0.025  1.2 x 104 Mpa = 12 GPa

(b) The 0.02 % offset line intersects the curve at  350 MPa0.15

(c) The maximum load corresponds to the tensile strength,   455 MPa.

 = F / A0 so Fmax  455 x A0 = 455 x  (0.00625)2

Fmax  45508 kN

(d) At  = 400 MPa,   0.15

 = l / l0  l / 250  0.15

l  37.5 mm
21 A tensile test carried out on a sample of polypropylene of dimensions 12.5 mm width,

3.5 mm thick, gauge length 50 mm, gave the data in the Table. The maximum load

applied was 625 N and the length between the gauge marks at fracture was 53.8 mm.

Estimate: (a) The initial modulus. (b) The secant modulus at 0.2% strain. (c) The tangent

modulus at 0.2% strain. (d) The secant modulus at 0.4% strain. (e) The tangent modulus at

0.4% strain. (f) The percentage elongation at break.

Force / N Extension / mm

25 0.018

50 0.042

75 0.071

100 0.115

125 0.145

150 0.187

175 0.230

200 0.285

225 0.345

250 0.387

275 0.460

300 0.543

286, Break 0.720

Plot extension versus load:

(a) The initial slope of the graph  300 / 0.188 N mm-1 = (F / l)

 = F / A0;  = l / l0;  = E

E =  /  = (F / A0) x (l0 / l)

E  (300 x 50) / (0.0125 x 0.0035 x 0.188)  1.82 GPa

(b) 0.2 % strain = 0.2 % of 50 = 1 mm

The slope for the secant modulus, from the graph,  96 / 0.1 N mm-1

E =  /  = (F / A0) x (l0 / l)

E  (96 x 50) / (0.0125 x 0.0035 x 0.1)  1.10 GPa

(c) Taking the slope for the tangent modulus at 0.2 % strain, from the graph:

 128 / 0.2 N mm-1 [Note: not very accurate.]

E =  /  = (F / A0) x (l0 / l)

E  (128 x 50) / (0.0125 x 0.0035 x 0.2)  0.73 GPa

(d) 0.4 % strain = 0.4 % of 50 = 0.2 mm

The slope for the secant modulus, from the graph,  159 / 0.2 N mm-1

E =  /  = (F / A0) x (l0 / l)

E  (159 x 50) / (0.0125 x 0.0035 x 0.2)  0.91 GPa

(e) Taking the slope for the tangent modulus at 0.4 % strain, from the graph:
  111 / 0.2 N mm-1 [Note: not very accurate.]

E =  /  = (F / A0) x (l0 / l)

E  (111 x 50) / (0.0125 x 0.0035 x 0.2)  0.63 GPa

(f) The % elongation at break  (0.720 / 50) x 100 = 1.4 %

22 A copper – nickel alloy has a 0.1% offset yield strength of 350 MPa and Young’s

modulus of 130 GPa. (a) Determine the maximum load that may be applied to a specimen

of cross section 10 x 13 mm, without significant plastic deformation occurring. (b) If the

original specimen length is 100 mm, what is the maximum length that it can be stretched to

elastically?

(a) Significant deformation occurs at loads higher than the yield strength, hence:

yield strength = 350 x 106 Pa = (F / A0) = F / (0.01 x 0.013)

F = 350 x 106 x 0.01 x 0.013 = 45.5 kN

(b) The maximum extension is equal to that at the yield point, hence:

 = l / l0 = l / 0.1 =  / E = 350 x 106 / 130 x 109

l = (350 x 106 x 0.01 / 130 x 109 = 0.269 mm

Maximum length is l0 + 0.269 = 100.269 mm

23 Using the Griffith criterion, [c = (2  E /  a)½ ], estimate the stress at which a glass

plate containing a surface crack of 1.2 m deep will fracture due to a force applied

perpendicular to the length of the crack. Young’s modulus of the glass is 71.3 GPa and the

surface energy of the glass is 0.360 J m-2.

c = (2  E /  a)½
 = [( 2 x 0.360 x 71.3 x 109) / ( x 1.2 x 10-6)] ½

= 116.7 x 106 N m-2 = 116.7 MPa

24 A glass plate has to withstand a stress of 10 8 N m-2. Using the data in the previous

question, what will be the critical crack size for this to be achieved?

c = (2  E /  a)½

1 x 108 = [( 2 x 0.360 x 71.3 x 109) / ( x a)] ½

1 x 1016 = ( 2 x 0.360 x 71.3 x 109) / ( x a)

a = 1.63 x 10-6 m = 1.63 m

25 A plate of high-density polyethylene has a surface crack 7.5 m in one face. The plate

fractures in a brittle fashion when a force of 6 x 10 6 N m-2 is applied in a direction

perpendicular to the crack. Young’s modulus of the polyethylene is 0.95 GPa. Estimate

the surface energy of the material.

c = (2  E /  a)½

6 x 106 = [( 2 x  x 0.95 x 109) / ( x 7.5 x 10-6)] ½

3.6 x 1013 = (2 x  x 0.95 x 109) / ( x 7.5 x 10-6)

 = (3.6 x 1013 x  x 7.5 x 10-6) / (2 x 0.95 x 109)

= 0.446 Jm-2
26 Determine (a) the upper bound and (b) the lower bound Young’s modulus of an ingot of

magnesium metal containing 30 volume % magnesia (MgO) particles. Young’s modulus of

magnesium is 44.7 GPa and that of magnesia is 210.3 GPa.

(a) The upper bound limit, Ec = EmVm + EpVp

= 44.7 x 0.7 + 210.3 x 0.3 = 94.4 GPa

(b) The lower bound limit, Ec = Em Ep / (EmVp + EpVm)

= (44.7 x 210.3) / (44.7 x 0.3 + 210.3 x 0.7) = 58.5 GPa

27 An aluminium alloy is to be strengthened by the incorporation of beryllium oxide (BeO)

particles. Calculate (a) the upper and (b) the lower bound elastic moduli of a composite

consisting of 40 weight % alloy and 60 weight percent BeO. Young’s modulus of the alloy

is 70.3 GPa and its density is 2698 kg m-3. Young’s modulus of BeO is 301.3 GPa and its

density is 3010 kg m-3.

The composite contains 40 wt % alloy and 60 wt % BeO, i.e. we have 40 kg alloy + 60 kg

BeO

volume of alloy = 40 / 2696 = 0.01484 m3

volume of BeO = 60 / 3010 = 0.01993 m3

volume fraction of alloy = 0.01484 / (0.01484 + 0.01993) = 0.4267

volume fraction of BeO = 0.01993 / (0.01484 + 0.01993) = 0.5733

(a) The upper bound limit, Ec = EmVm + EpVp

 = 70.3 x 0.4267 + 301.3 x 0.5733 = 202.7 GPa

(b) The lower bound limit, Ec = Em Ep / (EmVp + EpVm)

= (70.3 x 301.3) / (70.3 x 0.5733 + 301.3 x 0.4267) = 125.4 GPa

28 Compute Young’s modulus of a composite consisting of continuous and aligned glass

fibres of 50 % volume fraction in an epoxy resin matrix under (a) longitudinal and (b)

transverse loading. Young’s modulus of the glass fibres is 76 GPa and that of the resin is 3

GPa.

(a) Under longitudinal loading, Elong = EmVm + EfVf

= 3 x 0.5 + 76 x 0.5 = 39.5 GPa

(b) Under transverse loading, Etrans = Em Ef / (EmVf + EfVm)

= (3 x 76) / (76 x 0.5 + 3 x 0.5) = 5.77 GPa

29 Compute Young’s modulus of a composite consisting of continuous and aligned carbon

fibres of 60 % weight fraction in an epoxy resin matrix under (a) longitudinal and (b)

transverse loading. Young’s modulus of the carbon fibres is 290 GPa and the density is

1785 kg m-3. Young’s modulus of the resin is 3.2 GPa and its density is 1350 kg m -3.

The composite contains 60 wt % C fibre and 40 wt % epoxy, i.e. we have 60 kg C fibre + 40

kg epoxy

volume of C fibre = 60 / 1785 = 0.0336 m3

volume of epoxy = 40 / 1350 = 0.0296 m3

 volume fraction of C fibre = 0.0336 / (0.0336 + 0.0296) = 0.53

volume fraction of epoxy = 0.0296 / (0.0336 + 0.0296) = 0.47

(a) Under longitudinal loading, Elong = EmVm + EfVf

= 3.2 x 0.47 + 290 x 0.53 = 155.2 GPa

(b) Under transverse loading, Etrans = Em Ef / (EmVf + EfVm)

= (3.2 x 290) / (290 x 0.47 + 3.2 x 0.53) = 6.72 GPa

30 Determine (a) the Voigt and (b) the Reuss bounds to Young’s modulus of a ceramic

material consisting of layers of alumina and a high silica glass. Young’s modulus of the

alumina is 380 GPa and that of the glass is 72.4 GPa, and the glass comprises 30 volume

% of the solid.

(a) For the Voigt bound, E(Voigt) = EmVm + EpVp

= 380 x 0.7 + 72.4 x 0.3 = 287.7 GPa

(b) For the Reuss bound, E(Reuss) = Em Ep / (EmVp + EpVm)

= (380 x 72.4) / (380 x 0.3 + 72.4 x 0.7) = 167.1 GPa

31 A mineral with an approximate formula Mg7Si8O23 has a structure that is made up of

alternating layers with compositions of 7MgO and 8SiO2. Estimate Young’s modulus of the

material when stressed (a) parallel and (b) perpendicular to the layers. Young’s modulus
and density of MgO are 210.3 GPa and 3580 kg m-3, and for silica are 72.4 GPa and 2650

kg m-3.

The mass of an MgO layer is 7 x molar mass MgO

= 7 x 40.31 = 282.17 g

The mass of an SiO2 layer is 8 x molar mass an SiO2

= 8 x 60.09 = 480.72 g

To simplify, take these as kg so:

volume of MgO fraction = 6282.17 / 3580 = 0.0788 m 3

volume of SiO2 fraction = 480.72 / 2650 = 0.1814 m3

volume fraction of MgO = 0.0788 / (0.0788 + 0.1814) = 0.303

volume fraction of SiO2 = 0.1814 / (0.0788 + 0.1814) = 0.697

As SiO2 is the greater volume fraction, take this as the matrix.

(a) E parallel to layers is equal to the Voigt bound, E(Voigt) = EmVm + EpVp

= 72.4 x 0.697 + 210.3 x 0.303 = 114.2 GPa

(b) E perpendicular to the layers is equal to the Reuss bound,

E(Reuss) = Em Ep / (EmVp + EpVm)

= (72.4 x 210.3) / (72.4 x 0.303 + 210.3 x 0.697) = 90.4 GPa

32 Young’s modulus of sintered calcia stabilised zirconia with a porosity of 5 % is 151.7

GPa. Estimate Young’s modulus of completely pore free material.

Young’s modulus is approximately given by:

Ec = E0[1 - 1.9 Vp + 0.9 Vp2]

where Vp is the volume fraction of pores.

Hence 151.7 = E0[1 - 1.9 (0.05) + 0.9 x 0.052] = 0.9072 E0

E0 = 167.2 GPa

33 Young’s modulus of sintered silicon carbide with 5 % porosity is 468.9 GPa. What is

the porosity of a specimen with a Young’s modulus of 350 GPa?

Young’s modulus is approximately given by:

Ec = E0[1 - 1.9 Vp + 0.9 Vp2]

where Vp is the volume fraction of pores.

Hence 468.9 = E0[1 - 1.9 (0.05) + 0.9 x 0.052]

350 = E0[1 - 1.9x + 0.9 x2]

468.9 / [1 - 1.9 (0.05) + 0.9 x 0.052] = 350 / [1 - 1.9x + 0.9 x2]

468.9 / 0.90725 = 350 / [1 - 1.9x + 0.9 x2]

[1 - 1.9x + 0.9 x2] = 0.6772

Solving the quadratic equation gives x = 0.186 as the only reasonable answer, thus

porosity = 0.186 = 18.6 %