Economics

Class - XI
Presentation of Data - Notes
The presentation of data means exhibition of data in a clear and attractive manner so that the data can
be easily understood and analysed.

Forms of presentation of data

1. Textual or Descriptive Presentation
2. Tabular Presentation
3. Diagrammatic Presentation (Bar diagrams, Pie diagrams, Frequency diagrams, Arithmetic line
graphs)

1. Textual or Descriptive presentation of data:

In textual presentation, data is described within the text. When the quantity of data is not too large
this form of presentation is more suitable.
• For example: ‘Census of India 2001 reported that Indian population had risen to 102 crores of
which only 49 crore were females against 53 crore males. 74 crore people resided in rural India
and only 28 crores lived in towns or cities.’

Merits
It often enables one to emphasise certain specific points of the presentation.
Demerits
• A serious drawback of this method of presentation is that one has to go through the complete text
of presentation for comprehension.
• It is not suitable when the amount of data to be presented is too large.

2. Tabular presentation of data (Tabulation):

Tabulation is a systematic presentation of numerical data in horizontal rows and vertical columns.

Classification Vs Tabulation
Classification Tabulation
Classification is the process of arranging data Tabulation is a systematic presentation of
into different groups according to their numerical data in horizontal rows and vertical
similarities and dissimilarities. columns.
It precedes tabulation. Data can be tabulated only after classification.
It is a method of statistical analysis. It is a method of presenting data.

Classification used in tabulation is of four kinds: (Same as in organisation of data)

1. Qualitative classification 3. Temporal (Chronological) classification

2. Quantitative classification 4. Geographical (Spatial) classification
Parts or components of a table
1) Table Number: Table number is assigned to a table for identification purpose. It is the table
number that distinguishes one table from another. It is given at the top or at the beginning of the
title of the table.
2) Title: The title of a table narrates about the contents of the table. It has to be clear, brief and
carefully worded so that the interpretations made from the table are clear and free from
ambiguity. It is placed at the head of the table succeeding the table number or just below it.
3) Caption or Column Headings: At the top of each column in a table, a column designation is
given to explain figures of the column. This is called caption or column heading.
4) Stubs or Row Headings: Each row of the table has to be given a heading to explain the figures
of the row. These are also called stubs (or stub items) or row headings.

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5) Body of the Table: It is the main part of the table and it contains the actual numerical data.
Location of any one figure/data in the table is fixed and determined by the row and column of the
table.
6) Unit of Measurement: The unit of measurement of the figures in the table (actual data) should
always be stated along with the title. If different units are there for rows or columns of the table,
these units must be stated along with stubs or captions.
7) Source: It is a brief statement or phrase indicating the source of data presented in the table. If
more than one source is there, all the sources are to be written in the ‘source’. Source is generally
written at the bottom of the table.
8) Note (or Footnote): Note is the last part of the table. It explains the specific feature of the data
content of the table which is not self-explanatory and has not been explained earlier.

For example: Tabulate the given data.

Table No.1

Advantages of tabular presentation of data:

• The most important advantage of tabulation is that it organises data for further statistical
treatment and decision making.
• It makes comparison of data easier.
• It is economical and easy to understand.

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3. Diagrammatic presentation of data:
Diagrammatic presentation is a technique of presenting numerical data using diagrams such as
bar diagrams, pie diagrams or frequency diagrams etc. It is the most attractive and appealing way
to represent statistical data.

Diagrammatic presentation of data

Frequency Arithmetic
Bar Diagrams Pie Chart Line Graph
Diagrams

Simple Bar Diagram

Histogram

Multiple Bar Diagram

Frequency Polygon/
Curve

Component
or
Ogive
Sub-divided Bar Diagram

Percentage Bar Diagram

• Bar Diagram
A bar diagram is one dimensional. It is only the height (or length) and not the width of the bar that
matters.
➢ In case of bar diagrams, the magnitude of the characteristic is shown by the height or length of
the bar.
➢ Bar diagram comprises of a group of equi-spaced and equi-width rectangular bars for each
category of data.
➢ Bar diagram can be drawn both for discrete and continuous variables.

Types of bar diagrams

i. Simple Bar Diagram
It is a bar diagram which represents only one characteristic and is the simplest form of bar diagram.

For example: The bar diagram given below shows the number of students in class XI in different
streams in the year 2018.
No of students in class XI in 2018
Year Humanities Commerce Science
2018 550 350 200

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 Number of students in class XI in 2018 Scale:
y-axis: 1cm = 100 students
Number of Students 600

500

400

300

200

100

0
Humanities Commerce Science
Streams

ii. Multiple Bar Diagram

It is a diagram depicting two or more characteristics in the form of adjacently placed bars of height
proportional to the magnitude of the characteristics.

For example, a chart comparing the number of students in Humanities, Commerce and Sciences may
be represented with 3 bars for each stream, drawn side by side (adjacent to each other) for each year.

Year Humanities Commerce Science

2018 550 350 200
2019 650 450 300
2020 400 500 400

Multiple Bar Diagram Scale:

y-axis: 1cm = 100 students
700

600
Number of students

500

400

300 Humanities
Commerce
200
Science
100

0
2018 2019 2020
YEARS

iii. Component Bar Diagram (or Sub-Divided Bar Diagram)

A component bar diagram shows the bar and its sub-divisions into two or more components.
Component bar diagrams is also called sub-divided bar diagrams.
To construct a component bar diagram, first of all, a bar is constructed on the x-axis with its height

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equivalent to the total value of the bar and the respective components are then marked. It can also be
constructed by drawing each component one by one, each on top of the previous one in the given
order.
For example: Draw a sub-divided bar diagram for the given data.
Year Humanities Commerce Science Total
2018 550 350 200 1100
2019 650 450 300 1400
2020 400 500 400 1300

Sub-divided Bar Diagram Scale:

y-axis: 1cm = 200 students
1600

1400
Number of Students

300
1200
400
1000 200
450
800
350
500 Humanities
600
Commerce
400
650
550 Science
200 400

0
2018 2019 2020
Years

iv. Percentage Bar Diagram

When the components are represented as percentages of the whole, it is known as a percentage bar
diagram. The main feature of this component diagram is that all bars are of the same height since it
represents 100%.
For example: Represent the following data using a percentage bar diagram.
Year Humanities Commerce Science Total

2018 550 350 100 1000

2019 700 800 500 2000
2020 800 900 300 2000

The first step, hence, is to calculate the component percentages and then plot the bar diagram with
percentages on y-axis.

Year Humanities (%) Commerce (%) Science (%) Total (%)

2018 55 35 10 100

2019 35 40 25 100
2020 40 45 15 100

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 Percentage Bar Diagram Scale:
y-axis: 1cm = 10%
100%
10 15
90%
25
80%
70% 35
% of Students

60% 45
40
50%
40%
Humanities
30%
55
Commerce
20% 40
35
10% Science
0%
2018 2019 2020
Years

• Pie Diagram or Pie Chart

A pie diagram is also a component diagram, but it is a circle whose area is proportionally divided
among the components it represents.

Steps in the construction of a pie diagram

Step 1: The value of each component is first expressed as a percentage of the total value of all
the components:

Step 2: Conversion of percentages of components into angular components of the circle:

A circle in a pie chart, irrespective of its value of radius, is thought of having 100 equal parts of 3.6°
(360°/100) each.
To find out the angle, which the component shall subtend at the centre of the circle, each percentage
figure of every component is multiplied by 3.6°.

Note: To find out the angle or degree of the component without using percentages :
Degree of the component = Value of the component X 360◦
Total value of all the components

For example: Construct a pie chart for the following data.

Items Cost Percentage Degrees
Wages 16000 40 % 144◦
Interest 8000 20 % 72◦
Rent 12000 30 % 108◦
Miscellaneous 4000 10 % 36◦
Total Cost 40000 100 % 360◦

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 Pie Diagram

Wages
Interest
Rent
Miscellaneous

• Frequency diagrams
Data in the form of grouped frequency distributions are generally represented using graphs by
frequency diagrams like histogram, frequency polygon, frequency curve and ogive.

Histogram
It is a graph of a frequency distribution consisting of rectangles in which the class intervals are plotted
along the x-axis and their respective frequencies on the y-axis.
• A histogram is a two-dimensional diagram.
• A histogram is never drawn for a discrete variable. It is drawn for continuous variables only.

Case I: If the class intervals are of equal width

Since, for continuous variables, the lower-limit of a class interval fuses with the upper-limit of the
previous interval, the rectangles are all adjacent and there is no space between two consecutive
rectangles.
For example: Draw a histogram for marks obtained in statistics by 30 students of class XI.

Scale:
x-axis: 1cm = 10 marks
y-axis: 1cm = 2 students

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Obtaining Mode Graphically
• Graphically, mode is obtained by drawing a histogram. The rectangle with the greatest height
will give the modal class.
• We join the top right point of the rectangle of the modal class with the top right point of the
rectangle of the preceding class, and the top left point of the rectangle of the modal class with the
top left point of the rectangle of the succeeding class.
• From the point of intersection of these lines, we draw a perpendicular on the x-axis intersecting
the x-axis at a point, which gives the value of the mode.

For example: Calculate the mode graphically for the given data.

Since the classes have gaps, they first need to be converted to exclusive series for continuity.

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 Scale:
x-axis: 1cm = `5
y-axis: 1cm = 2 earners

Case II: If the class intervals are of unequal/varying width

When classes vary in their width, the frequencies are to be adjusted to yield comparable
measurements. The answer in such a situation is to divide the actual frequency by the adjustment
factor to get the adjusted frequency. The histogram is then drawn using the adjusted frequency.

Width of the class

Adjustment factor (A) =
Width of smallest class

For example: Draw a histogram for the following data.

Marks No. of Students (F) Adjusted Frequency = F/A

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 Scale: x-axis: 1cm = 10 marks
y-axis: 1cm = 1 student

Difference between Bar Diagram and Histogram

Bar Diagram Histogram
A bar diagram is one dimensional. A histogram is two-dimensional, i.e., the
It is only the height (or length) of the bar and width of the class and class frequency both are
not the width of the bar that matters. taken into consideration. The width in a
histogram is as important as its height.
Bar diagram has equi-spaced and equi-width In Histogram, no space is left between two
bars. rectangles. In case of unequal classes, width of
the rectangles may differ.
Bar diagram can be drawn both for discrete and Histogram is drawn only for a continuous
continuous variables. variable.

Frequency Polygon
A frequency polygon is a plane closed figure bounded by straight lines used for depicting frequency
data.

Case I: Frequency polygon derived from histogram itself

The simplest method of drawing a frequency polygon is to join the midpoints of the topside of the
consecutive rectangles of the histogram using straight lines.
The figure so obtained is closed by joining the two endpoints to the base line at the mid-values of the
two extreme classes (on both sides) with zero frequency.
For example: Draw a histogram and frequency polygon for the given data.

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 Scale: x-axis: 1cm = `100
y-axis: 1cm = 2 workers

Case 2: Frequency Polygon without drawing a histogram

Class-marks or class midpoints can be used along the x-axis. Frequencies are plotted against the mid-
points of class intervals.

For example: Draw a frequency polygon for the given data.

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Frequency Curve
It is obtained by drawing a smooth free-hand curve passing through the points of the frequency
polygon as closely as possible.

Ogive (or Cumulative Frequency Curve)

A cumulative frequency curve or ogive is obtained by plotting the cumulative frequencies along the
y-axis and the class limits along the x-axis in a cumulative frequency distribution. As there are two
types of cumulative frequencies — ‘less than’ type and ‘more than’ type, accordingly there are two
ogives for any grouped frequency distribution data.
• For ‘less than’ ogive, cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper limits of the class
intervals.
• For ‘more than’ ogive, cumulative frequencies are plotted against the lower limits of the class
interval.

NOTE: ‘Less than’ ogive is never decreasing and ‘More than’ ogive is never increasing.

Obtaining Median Graphically

Median can be obtained graphically using ogives.

Case1: Obtaining median from less-than and more-than ogives

From the point of intersection of the two ogives, draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis. The point
where the perpendicular line meets the x-axis, is the median.

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Case2: Obtaining median from either ‘less than’ or ‘more than’ ogive

• Locate N/2 on the y-axis (where N = Sum total of all frequencies) and from this point draw a line
parallel to the x-axis to intersect the ogive.
• From this point, draw a perpendicular line on the x-axis. The point where the perpendicular line
meets the x-axis, is the median.

Scale:
x-axis:
1cm = 10 marks
y-axis:
1cm = 5 students

N/2 = 32 N/2 = 32

Arithmetic Line Graph

An arithmetic line graph is also called time series graph. In this graph, time (hour, day/date, week,
month, year, etc.) is plotted along x-axis and the value of the variable (time series data) along y-axis.
A line graph by joining these plotted points, thus, obtained is called arithmetic line graph (time series
graph). It helps in understanding the long-term trend, periodicity, cyclicity etc., in a long-term time
series data.

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For example:

Scale:
y-axis: 1cm = ` 10 lakhs

False Baseline
A false base line is used when figures in a series on the y-axis start with very high values or the
difference between the zero and the smallest value on the y-axis is very large.
It is used to break the continuity of y-axis with the origin. For example:

False Baseline

Advantages of Diagrammatic Data Presentation

• Attractive and impressive – Diagrams and graphs are always attractive and impressive and
many newspapers and magazines use them frequently to explain certain facts or phenomena.
• Simplified presentation – Large volumes of complex data can be presented in a simplified
manner using diagrams which makes it easier for a common man to understand the data.
• Facilitates comparisons – Diagrammatic presentation helps in comparison of data and analysing
the relationships between variables.

Limitations of Diagrammatic Presentation

• Diagrams and graphs do not depict perfectly accurate data. They are usually based on
approximations. So, these are suitable for general guidance and not for taking particular
decisions.
• Diagrams can provide misleading results if not correctly drawn.

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Recap

➢ Data (even voluminous data) speak meaningfully through presentation.

➢ For small data (quantity) textual presentation serves the purpose better.
➢ Tabulated data can be presented through diagrams which enable quicker comprehension of the
facts presented otherwise.
➢ For large quantity of data tabular presentation helps in accommodating any volume of data for
one or more variables.

Click on the following links for further explanations of the topics discussed above:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xr0BgvtXWwA( Tabulation of Data and Parts of a Table)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g0qmf4z766w (Presentation of data)

Summary

Presentation of data
Tabular
Textual Presentation
Presentation

Diagrammatic Arithmetic Line

Presentation Graph

Frequency
Diagrams

Histogram
Bar Pie
Diagrams Chart
Ogive

Frequency
Polygon /
Frequency
Multiple Curve
Percentage Bar
Simple Bar Component
Bar Diagram Diagram
Diagram or
Subdivided
Bar Diagram

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