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Application of Geographic Information Systems in the Geographical Research

Article  in  The Third Pole Journal of Geography Education · April 2009

DOI: 10.3126/ttp.v5i0.1951

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The Third Pole, Vol. 5-7, PP 37-42:2007 K. Poudel….. APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL /37
APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN THE
GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH
Krishna Poudel, PhD
Dapartment of Geography Education
[email protected]
Abstract
Geographical research is a search to get answers of questions or queries concerning about the phenomena of space,
society, humanity and natural processes. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) help to carry on the study through
enabling the data capture, database management, information handling and analyzing the complex phenomena within
an interactive user’s interface environment with high degree of accuracy and in a short time. Verticality and
variations are the properties of mountains landscape. Application of GIS on geographical research enables to analyze
those specific properties of mountain landscape with attainable accuracy level. This paper is an attempt to bring the
applicability of GIS in the geographical research in the mountain context based on the available secondary information
of various sources. Research queries in geographical subject, introduction of GIS and its development in Nepal,
research issues, application of GIS and challenges and the new strategy for the application of GIS in the mountain
context are explained in detail.

Key words: Geographical research, geographical information systems, mountain landscape, digital
database, national spatial data infrastructure,
geometric shapes. All the features of the earth
GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH surface could be generalized only into three types
i.e. point, line and area feature. However, the case
The term ‘research’ as defined in Webster’s New of point and line can be subjective with the scale
Collegiate Dictionary is ‘to search or investigate factor. Suppose a house can be a point. If further
thoroughly or studious inquiry or examination or zoom in to large scale drawing those may have
experimentation aimed at the discovery and plane. In the same way a river or road can be
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories depicted by a line in a small scale but they may
or laws in the light of new facts, or practical have sufficient breadth in large scale representation.
application of such new or revised theories or Therefore, the representation of a geographic object,
laws’. Howard and Sharp (1983) defines research in terms of WHAT, might be a subject of
as “seeking through methodical processes to add generalization of representation. In the cell
to one’s own body of knowledge and, hopefully, representation system, all the geographical objects
to that of others, by the discovery of non-trivial of the earth surface are presented in the row and
facts and insights” (Bell 1999:2). Bell (1999:2) also column system. The shape, size and boundary of
quotes Drew (1980) that research is conducted to an object is highly generalized and based on the
solve problems and to expand knowledge as well cell size. Often the continuous data like surface and
as it is a systematic way of asking questions, a large homogeneous features representation in GIS
systematic method of enquiry with the systematic environment use grid or cell system.
approach.
WHERE is related with the space or place. The place
Most often the geographical research intends to of the earth is referred in terms of location. There
search answer of certain questions originating from are two basic reference systems i.e. relative location
the interrogative terms like: what, where, when, and absolute location. The relative location system
how, and why. is basically explained in relation to another object.
The relative reference of the object could have a
WHAT often concerns with the geographical object. variable nature and may not be fixed universally.
The earth has different geographical objects and Absolute location of the objects on the earth surface
the investigation prefers to identify those objects is used to refer with the help of universally adopted
clearly. In computer based GIS environment latitude and longitude value of particular location.
geographic objects handles in two different ways Whole earth is divided into different latitude and
i.e. Cartesian system (which is displayed into x,y longitude line with reference to Equator, Pole,
coordinate system) and the cell or grid of row and Central Meridian and Prime Meridian lines. The
column. In the Cartesian system geographical lines of latitude start from the equator and ends at
objects are generalized into the geometric shape the pole. The equator is marked with 0° and the
and size or their nature of distribution. Those can Pole is with 90°. Similarly, the lines of langitude
be interpolated into two dimensional coordinate are drawn with marking 0° at the Greenwich or
38/The Third Pole

Central Meridian and 180° at Prime Meridian. Based GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

on these absolute lines, each and every location of SYSTEMS
the earth surface could be marked with exact
location. In the computer-based GIS environment Geographical Information Systems (GIS) were
‘georeference’ is a common terminology followed devised in the 1960s as computer applications for
to reference the object for the further analysis. handling volumes of information obtained from
maps as well as for performing operations that
WHEN refers to the time dimension of certain would otherwise be too tedious, expensive, or
events or activities or the position of the inaccurate to perform by hand (Aronoff 1989;
geographical facts. Most of the geographical facts Peuquet and Marble 1990:50). Recent trends have
are dynamic in nature. In geographical queries the been towards the development of GI Science and
time dimension is important to mark the dynamism Technology (Goodchild 2004:710). GIS, Remote
of the objects. The famous ‘Uniformity’ doctrine of Sensing (RS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
the study of origin of the earth surface morphology are jointly operating in a single sphere of GI science
describes the ‘the present is the key to the past’ and technology also called ‘3-S’ systems
placed the time dimension in the center of (Deichmann and Wood 2005).
geographical study. Change detection and
monitoring activities are closely linked with the The last decade witnessed an unprecedented growth
time factor. Therefore, WHEN is always marked and development in earth observation data and
its important role on geographical research. In the applications. Earth observation techniques through
computer-based GIS environment database are remote sensing are proving to be more cost effective
often time referenced which enables to answer the than ground-based techniques over large areas. RS
questions concern with the changes. data have the benefits of the synoptic view of a
large area, which helps in obtaining the proverbial
HOW is basically associated with the process. ‘bird’s eye-view’ of the features, especially of
Geography is a scientific discipline and always inaccessible mountainous terrain. Furthermore,
concerns with query of the process of changes or there has been an emergence of high-resolution
the dynamism of the geographical objects. The satellite data in recent years, with greater degree
change takes place with certain process and patterns of spatial and temporal variations than ever before.
specific to change and with certain time dimension. Similarly, GPS technology provides the ability to
Based on these reasons the role of HOW is important compute and capture position anywhere on the
in the geographical queries. In computer-based GIS, earth’s surface with 24-hour coverage. Systems like
environment ‘HOW’ usually derives from the Google Earth and Microsoft Virtual World have
geographical features overlay or superimposing revolutionized the way we access and visualize
in a single view window or a uniform single map satellite-based information seamlessly from local
extension. to global levels with unprecedented level of details.

WHY a statement is finally marked with the changes Advances in information and communication
which have been taken place and in the mean time technology combined with earth observation
‘what if’ the changes have taken place. The question technology and geographical analysis and
of WHY often follows a highly advanced level of modeling tools are now available to quantify,
search. Most of the investigation requires model, document, and disseminate information on
complicated test and methodologies to get the key socioeconomic, environmental, and natural
answer of WHY. In the computer-based GIS resources conditions and trends. This convergence
environment ‘what if’ is usually carried by of information technology (computers, databases,
simulating the geographical objects and the software, networks, especially the Internet), and
variables by spatial overlay, temporal overlay, space science technology (remote sensing, global
attribute overlay and mathematical or arithmetical positioning system, light detection and ranging
and logical operations. (LiDAR) have provided effective and promising
tools and methods for dealing with diverse
The other terms of the interrogative i.e. ‘WHO’ and mountain issues. Geo-Information (GI) Systems
‘WHOM’ are generally covered by answering the have emerged as powerful tools in integrating and
queries of the process of change and the pattern of analyzing information from divergent sources and
change by analyzing the variables of geographical presenting the results in an effective and efficient
objects and the attribute information. way. These factors have led to the creation of a
suitable context for institutional and technological
 K. Poudel….. APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL /39

framework for the use and access of geographic support of the MENRIS on hardware, software and
information for improved decision-making. technical human resources National Planning
Commission, Tribhuvan University and many
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION other governmental institutions started to work
SYSTEMS IN NEPAL on GIS platform since early 1990s. In the meantime
UNDP and other international organizations also
Different formal or informal academic gatherings started to give support to capacity building,
of the recent days in Kathmandu people of various database preparation and application studies of
academic backgrounds used to talk about various purposes and interests. Nepal GIS Society
geographic information systems, its application and is also working for dissemination, networking and
use. Many of those interpretations and observations awareness creation through training, seminars,
have been based on the basis of applications of the workshop and exhibition frequently. Because of
discipline so far made in the local context. In Nepal, these activities GIS and Remote sensing activities
the application of space technology in the form of in the country are getting popularity at various
remote sensing was introduced in the later part of level and capacity.
1970s. The successful LANDSAT mission of NASA
and the new development of earth observation RESEARCH ISSUES IN THE MOUNTAINS
satellite technology in 1970s have encouraged the
donor communities to establish the mapping Mountains are the most prominent features of the
technology even in developing countries. Remote landscape on the earth surface covering 15 to 20
sensing data analysis laboratory was established percent of land area (Ives 1989:289) and exist in
in Kathmandu in 1979 from the support of USAID almost all continents. These are the homeland of
with the capability of Landsat MSS data processing, about 10 percent of total human population
mapping and monitoring the regional land cover (Grötzbach and Stadel 1997:17) and provide
information within the government framework. livelihood for several millions more. Mountains
are distributed all over the continents with different
Given the policy significance accorded to forestry location, direction and extensions. Mountain
resources during the 1970’s, remote sensing geography is highly varied and complex. The
technologies in Nepal were heavily employed in physiographic characteristics of the mountains of
mapping forest coverage. This Center tried all continents have some commonalities whereas
somehow to disseminate the importance of space the human and socio-economic dimensions,
technology in the early stage. However, the resources potentialities, intensity of natural
activities of the Center were confined in limited disasters and development perspectives have large
users and narrow applications. The application of diversities and variations (Stone 1992). Many
spatial technologies has gradually expanded to spatial complexities are visible and active on
cover other areas of environmental management. determining the surface, sub-surface and interior
More noteworthy development in this regard has forces of landscape changes. Mountains are highly
been initiated by United Nation’s Environmental sensitive because of their geophysical and
Programme (UNEP) at the venue of ICIMOD geological basement and are also highly fragile
during first half of 1990s when systematic efforts because of their outer surface morphometry like
were launched to create digital database with slope, elevation, aspect, coverage, and other human
diverse thematic orientations (Poudel 2005). induced activities.
ICIMOD established the Mountain Environmental
Resources Information Systems - MENRIS within Several sudden and local scales to global and long-
its structure with well strong Geographical term events and threats are directly associated with
Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) the mountain environments. The United Nations
capabilities in 1989 (ICIMOD 2006). Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 had
GIS is becoming a cross-cutting technology for the identified three major environmental issues facing
sustainable development of the mountain region. the global community in the 21st century namely
Since the establishment of MENRIS, priority has climate change, biodiversity and desertification.
constantly been accorded on GIS and remote sensing The follow up World Summit held in Johannesburg
based capacity building and networking, database South Africa in 2002 reviewed progress after the
management, and thematic applications. It has also Rio Summit. The Summit has pointed out that over
been continuing partnerships with key software 600 million people living in the mountains and
vendors of spatial data analysis technologies like foothills are within the direct impact of the climate
ESRI, ERDAS and IDRISI. By the initiation of the changes and retreat of mountain glaciers (United
40/The Third Pole
Nations University 2005:375). The Human for a long time. The chapter 13 of the Agenda 21 of
Development Report (2006) clearly indicates that UNCED 1992 emphasized upon raising public
the rural and urban slum areas of the world are awareness and ensuring adequate political,
under the severe water crises and closely institutional, financial commitments for concrete
interconnected with poverty, poor health quality, action towards implementation of sustainable
vulnerability and powerlessness (UNDP 2006). The development.
distribution of the area under severe water crises
covers the mountain region of the world. The scientific communities strongly pleaded the
quality of database for the prediction of the factual
Nepal is located at the central part of the result, better scientific explanation based on the
Himalayan mountain system. Out of 4000 geospatial data, creating good archives for
kilometers long stretch of the Himalayan systems networking and sharing among the concerned
from Afghanistan to Myanmar and eastern part of stakeholders, implementers and scientific
China, Nepal has nearly one-thirds of its length. communities. One of the major challenges of
Within a narrow belt of some 200 meter average mountain related problems in the region has got
width of west to east elongated country has to do with limited availability and accessibility of
elevation ranges from slightly below 60 meter from geo-information and affordable tools and methods.
the mean sea level to 8848 meters on its highest Because of that, in the later days, major focus has
peak Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) and several other been given to the collection of accurate geospatial
peaks above the 8000 meters. Therefore the vertical information, their proper documentation, analysis
difference of the country has great diversity. Owing and scientific interpretation.
to these physiographic characteristics the country
is specifically termed as ‘mountainous country’ United Nations Organizations are playing a
although nearly one-thirds of its area is confined decisive role on networking the importance of
in the low-land tarai belt. Over 25 million people geospatial data infrastructure in the global arena.
with different economic activities, social systems, In 1994 the US President Bill Clinton first publicly
cultural groups, language, religion and economic emphasized the importance of geospatial data as
status live in the country; however, their “… to promote economic development, improve
concentration is not uniform. Tarai has generally our stewardship of natural resources, and to protect
dense population besides the urban centers. the environment.” (US President Clinton, 1994 cited
Mountain belt has sparse population distribution in UNGIWG 2007) and then after the UN Geographic
living amidst of inaccessibility and difficulties. In Information Strategic Plan (UNGISP) in 2001-2002
several contexts the high land-low land interactive has highlighted its role in a wider scale (UNGIWG
systems are visible even though the country is 2007).
divided into three distinct ecological and
physiographic regions. Report of the Inter-Agency Meeting on Outer Space
Activities on its twenty-fourth session (Geneva, 21-
APPLICATION OF GIS IN THE RESEARCH 23 January 2004) has reported United Nations
ISSUES OF THE MOUNTAINS General Assembly meeting that UNEP had
continued its participation in the Sponsors’ Group
The authors of ‘the state of the world’s mountains- for the Global Observing Systems, helping to
a global report’ have clearly envisaged the promote the Global Climate Observing System, the
situation in early 1992, the sustainable mountain Global Ocean Observing System, the Global
development discourse has laid a three basic steps Terrestrial Observing System and the combined
i.e. “be aware of, study and supports the many Global Observing Systems strategy, as well as
courageous efforts of the mountain inhabitants remaining active in the Committee on Earth
themselves to reverse the present trends; create Observation Satellites. Similarly the report has
more awareness on a worldwide scale concerning mentioned the UNOSAT had been used by United
the formidable dangers looming over the Nations entities to respond to inter-agency
mountains and build up relevant, effective mapping needs in Afghanistan (United Nations
mountain constituency on all continents; and build Environment Programme (UNEP)), Benin (UNEP/
up an cooperative network of national, regional United Nations Development Programme
and international institutions dealing with the (UNDP)), Iraq (for humanitarian planning maps),
issues of sustainable mountain development” Nepal (UNEP), Nicaragua (UNITAR) and the West
(Stone 1992:9-10). This is an instance of the scientific Bank Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
concerns about the sustainable mountain Affairs (United Nations General Assembly 2004).
development which has been a hot topic of discourse The United Nations charters have clearly
 K. Poudel….. APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL /41
emphasizing the mandate of the application of Mountains have specific geographical settings pose
global geospatial data infrastructure and earth technical level and practical interaction and
observation satellite for humanitarian, poverty, exchange among the experts and stakeholders. Great
environmental and disaster application in a wider spatial heterogeneity requires refined technical
scale. UNEP, UNESCO, FAO, WFP like several UN approaches and accurate input of information.
organizations are closely working with GIS and
remote sensing technology based geospatial For the sake of effective application of GIS in the
database application in their respective regular mountain environment some new strategies are
work and field programme. suggested, which are as follows:

Physiographic heterogeneity, verticality and Capacity building and knowledge management of

variation of the mountain terrain, climatic the human resources of the government and
variability and variation and social diversities are institutions in the country are the first need.
the major characteristics of the mountains. Mountain has large diversity on its geographical
Mountain environment involves special characteristics, without understanding those
consideration in the use of GIS. Three-dimensional characteristics and the proper handling of hardware
mapping and virtual modeling from the and software that make a big problem on
topographic data, global positioning systems, implementation of GIS. On the other hand country
satellite imageries and aerial photographs can be has not well equipped academic institution for the
used. Environmental monitoring, climate change GIS so far. Therefore, establishment of a national
mapping, local and regional level planning, land level GIS Center with adequate infrastructural
use cover mapping and change monitoring, disaster capacity is mandatory. University has to take
and hazard mapping, suitability assessment, initiation to establish and develop.
natural resources mapping and so on are the major
applications of GIS. The applications are specifically Database is a big issue of the object-oriented
based on the nature of the organization and the research and development planning, however, the
work mandate. In the present context of existing status of the spatial database infrastructure
‘construction of new Nepal’ GIS can be used on is not satisfactory. Different organizations have
identification of federal units, poverty mapping different sources and style of database collection,
and identification of planning gaps too. To these preparation and management. Very poor database
points GI Sciences can be applied in various sharing and networking often creates work
purposes and aspects. duplication and unnecessary budgetary investment.
It is said that GIS-based project requires around 70
SUGGESTIONS FOR NEW STRATEGIES percent of its cost involvement during the data
collection and preparation phase and only around
Mountains have high degree of heterogeneities and 30 percent for the remaining jobs. Therefore,
complexities. Amidst of these contextual settings strategy has to be developed for the database
the geographic information and earth observation sharing and networking among the institutions
systems in mountainous regions generally present working with the GIS. For the effective database
considerable challenges. Heywood et al. (1994) sharing and networking a national level governing
observe a common set of issues to apply GIS to body has to be constituted from the representation
management and research in the mountain context of the technical team of public and private
are data, organizational and theoretical. GIS is a institutions. The body has to be authorized the legal
‘post industrial technology’ developed for the needs and technical issues and policy design for the
of North America and Europe and to apply this ‘National Spatial Data Infrastructure’ (N-SDI).
technology in the developing countries generally Within the guidelines of the NSDI all the sectoral
have considerable challenges (Heinimann et al. ministries and departments of the government and
2003). Specifically, those issues of GIS activities in the private institutions working on GIS have to
the developing countries have been observed as bring under the compulsion to follow actions.
organizational level that is to alter power relations National Planning Commission Secretariat (NPCS)
in governmental structure, adequate funding and and High Level Commission for Information
staffing over a reasonable period of time, Technology (HLCIT) have to take initial initiation.
empowering of local technical staff through the
transfer of know-how and by continued Existing working methods and mentality have to
backstopping based on a long term commitment. upgrade by individual, organizational and
Data issues concerns with the availability, sharing instructional level with a view to changing global
and exchange by solving pertaining legal matters. context along with the development of ICT and the
42/The Third Pole
‘digital data revolution’. So far country has poor Ives, J. D. 1989. Mountain environments. In G. B.
institutional linkages, weak technical Martini-Bettolo (ed) Study Week On: A Modern
competencies, lack of adequate funding and staffing, approach to the Protection of the
passiveness on commitment of the government to Environment. November 2-7, 1987. New York:
work on objective output of the investment made Pergamon Press
in the annual and periodic budget outflow, paper
Peuquet, Donna J. and Marble, Duene F. 1990. What
work and invoice based monitoring practices are
is a Geographic Information System? In Donna
some of the decisive drawbacks of the effective
J. Peuquet and Marble F. Duane (eds.)
implementation of GIS and technology in the
Introductory Reading in GISs. New York.
country. Because GIS pleads the facts with the object-
Taylor and Francis
based spatial database in which the conventional
tendency of working style does not match. Poudel, K. 2005. GIS and remote sensing in Nepal:
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budget flow and progress has to be made based on 10-12
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Stone, Peter B. (ed.) 1992. The State of the World’s
Mountains: A Global Report. London and New
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