Marisha Bhatti

19AE30010

Tensile Testing of Mild Steel Circular Bar

1. Aim of the experiment

Tension testing of mild steel to find out:

● Young’s modulus
● Ultimate stress
● Breaking stress
● Ductility
● Modulus of resilience
● Relative reduction in area 

2. Setup description:

● Testing machines
● Gripping devices
● Dimension-measuring devices
● Extensometers

Theory:
Stress is the force experienced by an object which causes a change in the dimensions of the
object. It is the force which is the resultant of the internal forces acting by the particles on their
neighboring particles.
Stress = Force acting on a body divided by its cross-sectional area.
Stress is measurable and its unit is N/m or Pa
2

Strain is defined as the change in the shape of an object when certain stress is applied. It is the
deformation representing the change in distance between particles relative to a reference length.
Strain = Change in dimension of the body / original dimension of the body
Strain is a dimensionless quantity.
For most of the materials, stress is proportional to the strain up to a limit where it behaves
elastically and then it starts exhibiting plastic behavior. That is the yield zone. Then there comes
a point when we reach the ultimate stress point. After that it will keep deforming even if we don’t
increase the load and then eventually rupture. Hence it is important to keep in mind that the
structural force never crosses the tensile limit.
The graph of the stress strain curve is shown in the next page.

A - Elastic limit B - Upper yield limit C - Lower yield limit

D - Ultimate stress limit E - Fracture point

 The Universal testing machine is a machine which this used to test the ultimate tensile
strength of the material. Its jaws are operated by hydraulics which apply a compressive or
tensile force on the rod which is to be subjected to the forces. We use the UTM to test the
ultimate tensile strength of the body so we know the strength of the body beforehand, so that
the structures that we build with those materials won’t fail. When we apply a lot of force then
the rod will extend, but the mass is constant. Hence the cross-sectional area in the center will
decrease and this is known as necking. The material will break at the thinnest point.

3.     Procedure:

1)Preparation of the Test Machine:

              —Upon startup, or following a prolonged period of machine

inactivity, the test  machine should be exercised or warmed up to normal operating
temperatures to minimize errors that may result from transient conditions.

2)Measurements of Dimensions of Test Specimens:

  To determine the cross-sectional area of a test specimen, measure the

dimensions of the cross section at the center of the reduced section. For referee testing
of specimens less than 5 mm [0.188 in.] in their least dimension, measure the
dimensions where the least cross-sectional area is found. Measure and record the
cross-sectional dimensions of tension test specimens as follows:

(1) Specimen dimension 5 mm [0.200 in.] to the nearest 0.02 mm [0.001 in.]. 

(2) 2.5 mm [0.100 in.]  Specimen dimension < 5 mm [0.200 in.] to the nearest
0.01 mm [0.0005 in.]

(3) 0.5 mm [0.020 in.] specimen dimension < 2.5 mm [0.100 in.] to the nearest
0.002 mm [0.0001 in.]. 
 (4) Specimen dimensions < 0.5 mm [0.020 in.], to at least the nearest 1 %
when practical but in all cases to at least the nearest 0.002 mm [0.0001 in.].

Determine the cross-sectional area of a full-size test specimen of uniform but

non symmetrical cross section by determining the mass of a length not less than 20
times longer than the largest cross-sectional dimension. 

Determine the weight to the nearest 0.5 % or less.

 The cross-sectional area is equal to the mass of the specimen divided by the
length and divided by the density of the material.

3)Gage length marking of Test Specimens:

The gage length for the determination of elongation shall be in

accordance with the product specifications for the material being tested. Gage marks
shall be stamped lightly with a punch, scribed lightly with dividers or drawn with ink
as preferred. For material that is sensitive to the effect of slight notches and for small
specimens, the use of layout ink will aid in locating the original gage marks after
fracture. For materials where the specified elongation is 3 % or less, measure the
original gage length to the nearest 0.05 mm [0.002 in.] prior to testing.

4)Zeroing of the Testing Machine:

 The testing machine shall be set up in such a manner that zero force
indication signifies a state of zero force on the specimen. Any force (or preload)
imparted by the gripping of the specimen must be indicated by the force measuring
system unless the preload is physically removed prior to testing. Artificial methods of
removing the preload on the specimen, such as tearing it out by a zero adjust pot or
removing it mathematically by software, are prohibited because these would affect the
accuracy of the test results.

5)Gripping of the Testing Specimens:

For specimens with reduced sections, gripping of the specimen shall be

restricted to the grip section, because gripping in the reduced section or in the fillet
can significantly affect test results.

6) Speed of testing:

Speed of testing may be defined in terms of (a) rate of straining

of the specimen, (b) rate of stressing of the specimen, (c) crosshead speed, (d) the
elapsed time for completing part or all of the test, or (e) free-running crosshead speed
(rate of movement of the crosshead of the testing machine when not under load). 

 Specifying suitable numerical limits for speed and selection of the method are
the responsibilities of the product committees. Suitable limits for speed of testing
should be specified for materials for which the differences resulting from the use of
different speeds are of such magnitude that the test results are unsatisfactory for
determining the acceptability of the material. In such instances, depending upon the
material and the use for which the test results are intended, one or more of the
 methods described in the following paragraphs is recommended for specifying speed
of testing.

7) Rate of Straining: 

The allowable limits for rate of straining shall be specified in mm/mm/min

[in./in./min]. Some testing machines are equipped with pacing or indicating devices
for the measurement and control of rate of straining, but in the absence of such a
device the average rate of straining can be determined with a timing device by
observing the time required to effect a known increment of strain.

8) Rate of Stressing:

The allowable limits for rate of stressing shall be specified in megapascals per
second [pounds per square inch per minute]. Many testing machines are equipped
with pacing or indicating devices for the measurement and control of the rate of
stressing, but in the absence of such a device the average rate of stressing can be
determined with a timing device by observing the time required to apply a known
increment of stress.

9) Crosshead Speed:

The allowable limits for crosshead speed, during a test, may be specified in
mm/min [in./min]; in this case, the limits for the crosshead speed should be further
qualified by specifying different limits for various types and sizes of specimens. In
cases where different length specimens may be used, it is often more practical to
specify the crosshead speed in terms of mm [in.] per mm [in.] of length of the original
reduced section of the specimen (or distance between grips for specimens not having
reduced sections) per minute. Many testing machines are equipped with pacing or
indicating devices for the measurement and control of the crosshead speed during a
test, but in the absence of such devices the average crosshead speed can be
experimentally determined by using suitable length-measuring and timing devices.

10)Elapsed Time:

The allowable limits for the elapsed time from the beginning of force
application (or from some specified stress) to the instant of fracture, to the maximum
force, or to some other stated stress, shall be specified in minutes or seconds. The
elapsed time can be determined with a timing device.

11) Free-Running Crosshead Speed:

The allowable limits for the rate of movement of the crosshead of the testing
machine, with no force applied by the testing machine, shall be specified in mm per
mm [inches per inch] of length of reduced section (or distance between grips for
specimens not having reduced sections) per second [minute]. The limits for the
crosshead speed may be further qualified by specifying different limits for various
types and sizes of specimens. The average crosshead speed can be experimentally
determined by using suitable length-measuring and timing devices.
12) Speed of Testing When Determining Yield Properties:

Unless otherwise specified, any convenient speed of testing may be used up to

one half the specified minimum yield strength or up to one quarter of the specified
minimum tensile strength, whichever is smaller. The speed above this point shall be
within the specified limits. If different speed limitations are required for use in
determining yield strength,yield point elongation, tensile strength, elongation, and
reduction of area, they should be stated in the product specifications. In all cases, the
speed of testing shall be such that the forces and strains used in obtaining the test
results are accurately indicated. Determination of mechanical properties for
comparison of product properties against a specification value should be run using the
same control method and rate used to determine the specification value unless it can
be shown that another method yields equivalent or conservative results. In the absence
of any specified limitations, one of the following control methods shall be used. 

13) Control Method A:

Rate of Stressing Method for Determining Yield Properties - In this method,

the testing machine shall be operated such that the rate of stress application in the
linear elastic region is between 1.15 and 11.5 MPa/s [10 000 and 100 000 psi/min].
The speed of the testing machine shall not be increased in order to maintain a
stressing rate when the specimen begins to yield. It is not recommended that the
testing machine be operated in closed-loop control using the force signal through
yield; however closed-loop control of the force signal can be used in the linear-elastic
portion of the test.

14) Control Method B:

Rate of Straining Control Method for Determining Yield Properties —In this
method, the testing machine shall be operated in closed-loop control using the
extensometer signal. The rate of straining shall be set and maintained at 0.015 6 0.006
mm/mm/min [in./in./min].

15) Control Method C:

Crosshead Speed Control Method for Determining Yield Properties–The

testing machine shall be set to a crosshead speed equal to 0.015 6 0.003 mm/mm/min
[in./in./min] of the original reduced section (dimension A in Fig. 1, Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig.
9, Fig. 13, Fig. 15, Fig. 17, Fig. 18, and Fig. 20, and 2 times dimension A in Fig. 19)
or distance between grips for specimens without reduced sections

16)Speed of Testing When Determining Tensile Strength:

In the absence of any specified limitations on speed of testing, the following

general rules shall apply for materials with expected elongations greater than 5 %.
When determining only the tensile strength, or after the yield behavior has been
recorded, the speed of the testing machine shall be set between 0.05 and 0.5 mm/mm
[or in./in.] of the length of the reduced section (or distance between the grips for
specimens not having a reduced section) per minute. Alternatively, an extensometer
and strain rate indicator may be used to set the strain rate between 0.05 and 0.5
mm/mm/min [or in./in./min].
17)Determination of Yield Strength:

Determine yield strength by any of the methods described in 7.7.1 to 7.7.4.

Where extensometers are employed, use only those which are verified over a strain
range in which the yield strength will be determined

18)Yield point elongation:

Calculate the yield point elongation from the stress-strain diagram or data by
determining the difference in strain between the upper yield strength (first zero slope)
and the onset of uniform strain hardening

19) Uniform elongation:

Uniform elongation shall include both plastic and elastic elongation. Uniform
elongation shall be determined using autographic methods with extensometers
conforming to Practice E83. Use a class B2 or better extensometer for materials
having a uniform elongation less than 5 %. Use a class C or better extensometer for
materials having a uniform elongation greater than or equal to 5 % but less than 50 %.
Use a class D or better extensometer for materials having a uniform elongation of 50
% or greater.  Determine the uniform elongation as the elongation at the point of
maximum force from the force elongation data collected during a test. Some materials
exhibit a yield point followed by considerable elongation where the yield point is the
maximum force achieved during the test. In this case, uniform elongation is not
determined at the yield point, but instead at the highest force occurring just prior to
necking .Stress-strain curves for some materials exhibit a lengthy, plateau-like region
in the vicinity of the maximum force. For such materials, determine the uniform
elongation at the center of the plateau.

20) Tensile strength/Ultimate tensile strength:

Calculate the tensile strength by dividing the maximum force carried by the
specimen during the tension test by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen

21)Elongation:

 In reporting values of elongation, give both the original gage length and the
percentage increase. If any device other than an extensometer is placed in contact with
the specimen’s reduced section during the test, this also shall be noted.

 When the specified elongation is greater than 3 %, fit ends of the fractured
specimen together carefully and measure the distance between the gage marks to the
nearest 0.25 mm [0.01 in.] for gage lengths of 50 mm [2 in.] and under, and to at least
the nearest 0.5 % of the gage length for gage lengths over 50 mm [2 in.]. A percentage
scale reading to 0.5 % of the gage length may be used. When the specified elongation
is 3 % or less, determine the elongation of the specimen using the following
procedure, except that the procedure given in may be used instead when the measured
elongation is greater than 3 %. Prior to testing, measure the original gage length of the
specimen to the nearest 0.05 mm [0.002 in.]. 
 Remove partly torn fragments that will interfere with fitting together the ends
of the fractured specimen or with making the final measurement.  Fit the fractured
ends together with matched surfaces and apply a force along the axis of the specimen
sufficient to close the fractured ends together. If desired, this force may then be
removed carefully, provided the specimen remains intact. Measure the final gage
length to the nearest 0.05 mm [0.002 in.] and report the elongation to the nearest 0.2
%. Elongation measured per paragraph may be affected by location of the fracture,
relative to the marked gage length. If any part of the fracture occurs outside the gage
marks or is located less than 25 % of the elongated gage length from either gage
mark, the elongation value obtained using that pair of gage marks may be abnormally
low and non-representative of the material. If such an elongation measure is obtained
in acceptance testing involving only a minimum requirement and meets the
requirement, no further testing needs be done. Otherwise, discard the test and retest
the material. Elongation at Fracture: Elongation at fracture shall include elastic and
plastic elongation and may be determined with autographic or automated methods
using extensometers verified over the strain range of interest . Use a class B2 or better
extensometer for materials having less than 5 % elongation, a class C or better
extensometer for materials having elongation greater than or equal to 5 % but less
than 50 %, and a class D or better extensometer for materials having 50 % or greater
elongation. In all cases, the extensometer gage length shall be the nominal gage length
required for the specimen being tested. Due to the lack of precision in fitting fractured
ends together, the elongation after fracture using the manual methods of the preceding
paragraphs may differ from the elongation at fracture determined with extensometers.
Percent elongation at fracture may be calculated directly from elongation at fracture
data and be reported instead of percent elongation as calculated in . However, these
two parameters are not interchangeable. Use of the elongation at fracture method
generally provides more repeatable results.

22)Reduction of area:

The reduced area used to calculate reduction of area  shall be the minimum
cross section at the location of fracture. Specimens with Originally Circular Cross
Sections— Fit the ends of the fractured specimen together and measure the reduced
diameter to the same accuracy as the original measurement.

Specimens with Original Rectangular Cross Sections—Fit the ends of the

fractured specimen together and measure the thickness and width at the minimum
cross section to the same accuracy as the original measurements. Calculate the
reduced area based upon the dimensions determined . The difference between the area
thus found and the area of the original cross section expressed as a percentage of the
original area is the reduction of area. If any part of the fracture takes place outside the
middle half of the reduced section or in a punched or scribed gage mark within the
reduced section, the reduction of area value obtained may not be representative of the
material. In acceptance testing, if the reduction of area so calculated meets the
minimum requirements specified, no further testing is required, but if the reduction of
area is less than the minimum requirements, discard the test results and retest.Results
of measurements of reduction of area shall be rounded using the procedures of
Practice E29 and any specific procedures in the product specifications. In the absence
of a specified procedure, it is recommended that reduction of area test values in the
 range from 0 to 10 % be rounded to the nearest 0.5 % and test values of 10 % and
greater to the nearest 1 %.

23)Rounding reported test data for yield strength and tensile strength:

Test data should be rounded using the procedures of Practice E29 and the
specific procedures in the product specifications. In the absence of a specified
procedure for rounding the test data, one of the procedures described in the following
paragraphs is recommended.  For test values up to 500 MPa [50 000 psi], round to the
nearest 1 MPa [100 psi]; for test values of 500 MPa [50 000 psi] and up to 1000 MPa
[100 000 psi], round to the nearest 5 MPa [500 psi]; for test values of 1000 MPa [100
000 psi] and greater, round to the nearest 10 MPa [1000 psi]. For all test values, round
to the nearest 1 MPa [100 psi]. For all test values, round to the nearest 5 MPa [500
psi].

24)Replacement of specimens:

A test specimen may be discarded and a replacement specimen selected from

the same lot of material in the following cases: The original specimen had a poorly
machined surface, The original specimen had the wrong dimensions, The specimen’s
properties were changed because of poor machining practice, The test procedure was
incorrect,The fracture was outside the gage length, For elongation determinations, the
fracture was outside the middle half of the gage length, or  There was a malfunction
of the testing equipment.

4.     Results and discussion (Contains tables and plots):

(1) Initial Diameter of specimen:

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5

Diameters(mm) 9.18 9.11 9.21 9.2 9.09

Avg. Diameter= 9.158mm 10-5

Cross section area=65.87mm2
Gauge Length of extensometer= 120mm
Gauge length of specimen= 188mm
Total length of specimen= 275mm

(2)For Loading and Unloading:

Max gauge length measured by extensometer=120mm
Hence Strain=∆x/120
Stress=Load/(65.87 X 10-6)

Load Load Left Disp. Right Disp. Avg. Disp. Strain Stress
S.No. (Tonne (N) (mm) (mm) ∆x (mm) (10-5) (MPa)
force)

1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2. 0.2 1960 0.02 0.01 0.015 12.5 29.75

3. 0.4 3920 0.04 0.02 0.03 25 59.51

4. 0.6 5880 0.06 0.04 0.05 41.66 89.27

5. 0.8 7840 0.08 0.05 0.065 54.16 119.02

6. 1 9800 0.09 0.07 0.08 66.67 148.78

7. 1.2 11760 0.11 0.10 0.105 87.5 178.53

8. 1.4 13720 0.13 0.11 0.12 100 208.29

9. 1.6 15680 0.14 0.13 0.135 112.5 238.04

10. 1.4 13720 0.12 0.10 0.11 91.66 208.29

11. 1 9800 0.09 0.07 0.08 66.67 148.78

12. 0.8 7840 0.07 0.05 0.06 50 119.02

13. 0.6 5880 0.05 0.04 0.045 37.5 89.27

14. 0.4 3920 0.03 0.02 0.025 20.83 59.51

15. 0.2 1960 0.02 0 0.01 8.33 29.75

16. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(3) Breaking:
Data for breaking of mild steel bar is taken from the given excel sheet. 4 ton
load is taken to find stress and then displacement is used to find strain. And then
stress vs strain curve is plotted.

Yield Point
Ultimate Stress

Fracture Point

Coefficient of Resilience

(4) Necking:
S.No. 1 2 3 4
Diameter(mm) 6.10 6.64 6.15 6.07

Avg. Necking Diameter=6.24mm

Reduced Cross Section Area at necking=30.58mm 2
 5. Results

1. Slope of the Stress-Strain Curve for loading

S.No. Slope(GPa)
1. 203.81
2. 204.03
3. 208.29
4. 211.59

Young’s Modulus of Mild Steel= 206.93 GPa

Relative Reduction in area = (65.87-30.58)/65.87 = 0.536

1. Yield Stress = 54.37 GPa

2. Ultimate Stress = 58.32 GPa

3. Breaking Stress = 49.25 GPa

4. Coefficient of Resilience = Area of the triangle marked = 1.28 GPa

5. Ductility = 0.13 X 100 = 13%

6. Conclusions:

The stress-strain curve of mild steel has been plotted for loading and unloading. The
stress-strain curve for breaking stress has been plotted. The values of Young’s
Modulus, Yield Stress, Ultimate Stress, Coefficient of Resilience, Relative reduction
in area, ductility, fracture point of Mild Steel have been found.

7.     Suggestion and general discussion:

We observed in the loading and unloading section that whenever we subjected the rod to a
force which lies within the elastic limit, then the rod has a tendency to slowly go back to its
original form. But if we apply a force larger than the elastic limit. It will behave plastically,
which means that it won’t regain its original shape when the force is removed. After this point
the material will stretch and eventually break. If the material is very brittle, then it won’t
behave plastically and it will break as soon as it crosses the elastic limit.

As the material gets stretched, the cross-sectional area decreases until it eventually breaks.
The breakage of the mild steel forms in a cup cone formation. This means that one of the
parts is shaped like a cup and the other part is a bit hollow like a curved cone.