Fly system

ing lowered toward the stage, and “flying out” when it is

being raised into the fly space. Battens may be just a few
feet in length or may extend from one wing (side) of the
stage to the other. A batten is suspended from above by
at least two lift lines, but long battens may require six or
more lift lines.
In manual rigging, a line set’s lift lines support weights
opposite their connections to the batten in order to bal-
ance the weight of the batten and whatever it carries. The
lift lines are reeved through a series of pulleys, known as
blocks, that are mounted above the stage to fly loft struc-
ture. An operating line (a.k.a. hand line or purchase line)
allows riggers on the fly crew to raise and lower the batten.
Fly loft of the Theater Bielefeld in Germany Automated rigging sometimes uses weights to help bal-
ance line set loads in a manner similar to manual coun-
terweight rigging. Otherwise it relies solely on the motor
A fly system, flying system or theatrical rigging sys-
power of an electric hoist to fly a line set.
tem, is a system of lines (e.g., ropes), blocks (pulleys),
counterweights and related devices within a theater that Together, a series of parallel line sets regularly spaced up
enables a stage crew to quickly, quietly and safely fly and down stage, commonly at 6 in (150 mm), 8 in (200
(hoist) components such as curtains, lights, scenery, stage mm), or 9 in (230 mm) centers, comprise the bulk of
effects and, sometimes, people (e.g., in Peter Pan). Sys- most fly systems. Theatrical rigging systems are made up
tems are typically designed to fly components between of hemp, counterweight and/or automated line sets able to
clear view of the audience and out of view, into the large serve various functions.
opening, fly loft, above the stage.
Fly systems are often used in conjunction with other the- 1.1 Line set functions
atre systems, such as scenery wagons, stage lifts and stage
turntables, to physically manipulate the mise en scène.[1] Line sets are typically general purpose in function, mean-
Theatrical rigging is most prevalent in proscenium the- ing they can perform any number of functions which vary
atres with stage houses designed specifically to handle depending upon the requirements of a particular theatre
the significant dead and live loads associated with fly sys- production. For example, a general purpose line set can
tems. Building, occupational safety, and fire codes limit usually be quickly transformed into a drapery or scenery
the types and quantity of rigging permitted in a theatre line set, but converting a general purpose line set into an
based on stage configuration. Theatrical rigging standards electrical line set is more involved.
are developed and maintained by organizations such as When a line set has a predetermined, relatively perma-
USITT and ESTA (now PLASA). nent, function it is known as a dedicated line set. Line set
functions include:

1 The line set Drapery and track line set Line sets often suspend
theater drapes and stage curtains such as travelers,
teasers (a.k.a. borders), legs, cycs, scrims and tabs,
The line set is the fundamental machine of a typical fly as well as associated tracks, in order to mask and
system. frame the stage and provide backdrops. Line sets are
The function of a typical line set is to fly (raise and lower) sometimes dedicated to particular draperies, such as
a slender beam (typically a steel pipe) known as a batten the main (grand) curtain and main border (valance)
(or a bar in the UK) by hoisting it with lift lines (typically that mask the proscenium opening, but drapery lo-
synthetic rope or steel cable). By hanging scenery, light- cations can often vary.
ing, or other equipment to a batten, they in turn may also
be flown. A batten is said to be “flying in” when it is be- Scenery line set

1
2 1 THE LINE SET

In many stage productions, theatrical scenery is mounted

to line sets in order to be flown in and out so as to quickly
change set pieces during the course of a performance. For
example, painted soft and hard flats (e.g., muslin drops)
and are commonly used to depict settings. Also, three-
dimensional sets (e.g., box sets) may be flown.

Shell cloud line sets flown out

Orchestra enclosure line set

It is not uncommon for the ceiling panels, clouds, of an

orchestra shell to be flown. Larger, multi-use theaters that
must frequently convert the stage from a drama theatre to
Electric line set flown in
a concert hall often make use of the fly system in this
way. Before being flown the cloud is pivoted to a vertical
Electrical line set orientation to minimize the space it requires for storage
in the fly loft.
Electrical line sets, commonly called electrics, are used
to suspend and control lighting instruments and, in many Focus chair line set
cases, microphones and special effects equipment as
well. Electrics may be temporarily “wired” with drop A less common use for the fly system is the use of a focus
boxes (electrical boxes with outlets) or multicable fanouts chair system. This is a system where a small chair with
dropped from the grid or draped from a fly gallery, or per- fall protection equipment is suspended from a track that
manently wired with connector strips (specialized electri- runs the length of a batten to which it is mounted. An
cal raceways).[2] electrician sits on the chair, and is flown out to the height
There are normally at least three electrical line sets pro- of the electrics, to focus lighting instruments.
vided above the stage, with one just upstage of the prosce-
nium wall, one mid-stage, and one just downstage of the Flying rig
cyclorama. Additional electrics are typically desirable.
Flying rigs are used to fly scenery or performers in a
Permanently wired electrical line sets are known as ded- more elaborate fashion than typical line sets. A flying
icated electrics, fixed electrics or house electrics. In addi- rig typically allows horizontal as well as vertical move-
tion to providing dimmed and switched outlets for light- ment by paying out individual lift lines to varying lengths
ing fixtures, connector strips may provide low-voltage and/or through the use of tracks. Flying rigs usually in-
controls (e.g., via DMX512 and Ethernet taps), for mov- volve specialized equipment and techniques operated by
ing lights and effects, as well as microphone jacks. Power a relatively experienced crew. Peter Foy is known for his
is fed to fixed electrics from terminal boxes at the grid innovations in manual flying rigs, especially those used
deck via multicable. Single and double-purchase cable in theatrical productions of Peter Pan. Automated flying
cradles mounted to lift lines can be used to drape the rigs, which synchronize multiple point hoists, are becom-
multicable, prolonging its lifespan and reducing the like- ing more common as motor control systems become safer
lihood of conflict with adjacent line sets or lighting instru- and more sophisticated.
ments. Pantographs are also used to drape the multicable
feeding dedicated electric line sets. Fire Safety curtain
Dedicated electrics typically employ truss battens (pipe
over pipe) to facilitate cable snaking and to maximize A permanently installed fire curtain line set, though not
lighting positions. In large professional theatres, such as used for productions, is a typical element of a theatrical
the Philadelphia Academy of Music, an electric may take rigging system installation. Building and fire codes typi-
the form of a flying bridge (catwalk) that provides a walk- cally require that either a fire curtain or water deluge sys-
able platform for electrician access to fixtures and effects. tem be installed to separate an audience from the stage in
Flying bridges may also be used for followspot positions. the event of a fire.
2.1 Hemp rigging system 3

2 Fly system types

Fly systems are broadly categorized as manual or auto-
mated (motorized). Manual fly systems are more specif-
ically categorized as “hemp” (a.k.a. rope line) or “coun-
terweight” systems.
"Hemp houses” (a reference to the manila hemp once
most commonly used to make the ropes) exclusively use
the centuries-old tradition of ropes, pulleys and sandbags
to fly theatrical scenery in and out. Hemp rigging incor-
porates many nautical rigging techniques and equipment A small pin-rail at stage level.
(e.g., block and tackle), and stems directly from that tra-
dition. Counterweight rigging evolved from hemp rigging
and generally handles scenery in a more controlled fash- the hemp system, although known for centuries, was not
ion. much used. The hemp system gained popularity first in
the United States in the mid nineteenth century. It soon
Counterweight rigging replaces the hemp rope and sand-
gained popularity in England, as it was inexpensive and
bags of rope line (hemp) rigging with wire rope (steel ca-
provided a great deal of flexibility for moving scenery.[3]
ble) and metal counterweights, respectively. Those sub-
Hemp systems are also known as rope line systems, or
stitutions permit the flying of greater loads with a high
simply as rope systems.
degree of control, but with a loss of flexibility inher-
ent to most hemp systems. Flexibility is lost because Stage rigging techniques draw largely from ship rigging.
most components of a hemp system may be repositioned, That origin is most obvious with hemp rigging, which
while counterweight system components are relatively uses closely related technology and terminology. To this
fixed. Old "hemp houses” lacked counterweight rigging, day, the stage is referred to as a deck in the manner of a
but today most manual rigging houses use a combina- ship’s deck. Other expressions and technology that over-
tion of counterweight rigging and, at least some, hemp lap the nautical and theatrical rigging worlds include: bat-
rigging. For example, theaters that incorporate built-in, ten, belay, block, bo’sun, cleat, clew, crew, hitch, lanyard,
grid-based counterweight fly systems often will also sup- pinrail, purchase, trapeze, and trim.
port additional, spot hemp system line sets for spot-rigging In a typical hemp system, a “line set” consists of multi-
(to spot something, in theatre jargon, simply means to ple hemp lines running from a batten above the stage up
(re)position something). to the grid, through loft blocks to a headblock and then
Manual rigging is also possible with hand (and drill- down to the fly floor where they are tied off in a group
operable) hoists (winches), but relatively limited operat- to a belaying in on the pin rail. The lift lines and hand
ing speeds preclude their use for most running applica- (operating) lines are one and the same. Typically, a lift
tions. line runs from the sand bag (counterweight) assigned to a
specific line set, up to “a single loft block” above the fly
Automated systems are becoming more prominent. They
floor and back down to the fly floor. A trim clamp (a.k.a.
have the potential advantages of relatively high precision,
knuckle-buster) or a “Sunday” (a circle of wire rope) is
speed and ease of control, but tend to be significantly
used to attach this sandbag to the “line set” to balance the
more expensive than manual systems. Hoists of various
load placed on the batten. The sandbags are usually filled
types (e.g., line shaft, chain motor, etc.) are used. A con-
to weigh the same as the loads, making the two weights
ventional counterweight system may be automated by the
(the weight of the batten and the weight of the bag) equal.
incorporation of a motor and controls, in what is com-
This arrangement assures greater safety. When the fly-
monly called a motor-assist system. By using counter-
man wishes to fly a batten (scenery or lights) “In” (i.e., to
weight in such a manner, motor sizes can be kept rela-
the floor), the flyman pulls down on the lift line thereby
tively small.
raising the sandbag off the fly floor and the batten de-
The use of a particular type of fly system in a theater usu- scends. When the flyman wishes to fly the batten “Out”,
ally does not preclude the use of other rigging methods in he pulls down on the line set (leaving it tied off) and the
the same theater. batten flies out as the sand bag descends to the flyfloor.
This arrangement allows the flyman to control the speed
of ascent and/or descent and provides greater safety for
2.1 Hemp rigging system people on the stage below. The proper “Out” position for
the batten is set when the sand bag reaches the fly floor in
A hemp fly system, so named for the manila hemp rope its descent (adjustable) and the proper “In” position for
that was once common in theatrical rigging, it was previ- the batten is established when the line set (previously tied
ously believed to be the oldest type of fly system. It is the off to the pin rail) is fully extended (adjustable). This
simplest type of fly system. Recent research shows that makes it unnecessary to “spike” or “mark” either the line
4 2 FLY SYSTEM TYPES

set or the lift line. (An “unbalanced working line set”

should never be allowed to exist over the stage.)
Another hand line, known as a jack line, may be used to
lift the sandbags if they are heavier than the batten load.
(UNSAFE condition) The jack line, which runs up to a
loft block and back down to the trim clamp, is tied off to
a belaying pin adjacent to the one used for the line sets
lift lines, either at the same, or a secondary, pin rail.
Pulling on the hand lines of a hemp set flies a line set out.
Pulling on the jack line flies a line set in.
Hemp systems can be easily configured for spot rigging,
where lift lines must be frequently relocated. They are
much less expensive and easier to install than counter-
weight fly systems, though somewhat more difficult to op-
erate.

2.2 Counterweight rigging system

Locking rail and arbors

A
B rigging systems are the most common fly systems in per-
forming arts facilities today.
In a typical counterweight fly system, an arbor (carriage)
C is employed to balance the weight of the batten and at-
tached loads to be flown above the stage. The arbor,
D which carries a variable number of metal counterweights,
moves up and down vertical tracks alongside an offstage
wall. In some lower-capacity fly systems, cable guide
wires are used instead of tracks to guide the arbors and
limit their horizontal play during vertical travel (move-
E F ment).
The top of the arbor is permanently suspended by several
wire rope lift lines, made of galvanized steel aircraft cable
(GAC). The lift lines run from the top of the arbor up to
G H
the top of the fly tower, around the head block, across the
stage to evenly spaced loft blocks, then down, terminating
at the batten, a load-bearing pipe that spans much of the
width of the stage.
If the loft blocks are mounted to the grid deck, at the
I loft block wells, the system is called a grid-mount, or up-
right counterweight rigging system. If the loft blocks
are mounted to roof beams (loft block beams), the sys-
tem is called an under-hung counterweight rigging sys-
tem. Under-hung systems have the advantages of main-
taining a clear grid deck surface for spot rigging and fa-
cilitating crew movement across the grid.
Graphic depiction of a single lineset and the parts of a counter-
weight system. (A) Hoisting cables, (B) Turnbuckles, (C) Pur-
The arbor’s vertical position is controlled by means of a
chase line, (D) Arbor rod, (E) Spreader plates, (F) Cut steel rope known as the operating line, hand line, or purchase
line. The operating line forms a loop by running from
counterweight, (G) Rope stop/lock (brake)/Lock rail, (H) Locking
the bottom of the arbor down to and around the tension
safety ring, (I) Tension sheave (block). Not shown: head sheave,
loft sheaves, and batten. block, through the rope lock, up and over the head block
and back down (alongside the lift lines), where it termi-
First introduced in Austria in 1888,[4][5] counterweight nates at the top of the arbor. The head and tension blocks
2.3 Automated rigging system 5

are located above and below the full extent of the arbor’s tional blocks increase friction, resulting in linesets that are
travel (movement), respectively, thereby enabling an op- more difficult to operate. In addition, double-purchase
erator to pull the operating line up or down to move the linesets are more expensive to install and maintain. For
arbor. When the arbor is raised via the operating line, the those reasons, double-purchase line sets are generally
lift lines slacken, which causes the batten to lower under avoided, or limited to a few sets within a counterweight
its own weight (and the weight of its load, if any). Con- system, unless space issues preclude the use of a single-
versely, when the arbor is lowered, the lift lines increase purchase system. The use of an arbor pit is an alternative
in tension, which in turn causes the batten to rise. approach to dealing with limited space for arbor travel.
The combined weight of the arbor and its counterweights
initially matches that of the batten so that when the bat-
ten is not being raised or lowered, it will tend to remain 2.3 Automated rigging system
motionless at any arbitrary elevation above the stage. As
more weight is added to the batten (in the form of cur-
tains, scenery, lighting equipment, and rigging hardware),
the system is rebalanced by adding more counterweights
to the arbor. When the system is properly balanced, an
unassisted operator (flyman) can lift the batten and its ar-
bitrarily heavy load from the stage (“fly it out”, in theatri-
cal jargon), completely above the proscenium and out of
view of the house, sometimes to heights in excess of 70
feet (21 m).
Some large theatres, such as the Metropolitan Opera
House (Lincoln Center), have more than 100 inde-
pendent, parallel counterweight line sets, while smaller
venues may only have a few line sets for the most fre-
quently adjusted loads, such as electrics.

2.2.1 Double-purchase counterweight system

Double purchase counterweight systems are sometimes

used where the vertical travel of the counterweight arbor
A fly system winch mounted to the floor behind the locking rail.
would be inadequate due to limited fly space or stage-level
This winch, which operates a high capacity electric lineset, has a
wing space. In systems of this type, the operating and lift
quad-wide arbor and is rated for 1,200-pound (540 kg) loads.
lines are double-purchased so that the batten will travel
twice the distance of the arbor. In other words, for every
foot of arbor travel, the batten travels two feet. This oftenElectrical hoists (also referred to as winches) can facilitate
results in the arbors remaining well above the stage deck, coordination with cues, move extremely heavy line-sets,
leaving the otherwise occupied wing space usable for cast and significantly limit the required population of the fly
and crew.[6] crew. Despite those potential benefits, most hoists can fly
line sets at only a fraction of the speed that an experienced
In a conventional counterweight system the operating and flyman can achieve manually.
lift lines terminate at the top of the arbor after passing
There are two general categories of motorized fly systems,
over the head block. In a double-purchase system, how-
ever, after passing over the head block the operating and motor-assist and dead-haul.
lift lines pass through another block, which is mounted to Motor-assist systems very closely resemble standard
the top of the arbor, before rising back up and terminat- counterweight fly systems described above, however a
ing below the head block. In addition, the opposite end drum winch, typically mounted behind the locking rail
of a double-purchase operating line terminates at the fly below the arbor, is used to drive a steel cable purchase
gallery, off-stage wall, or stage deck, instead of the under- line. The purchase line is still terminated at the top and
side of the arbor, after passing through a block mounted bottom of the arbor, but a rope lock is not used on the
at the underside of the arbor.[6] The additional blocks re- motor-assist line set. Weight on the arbor helps balance
sult in the arbor moving at half the rate of the lift and the batten load so that hoist motor size can remain rela-
operating lines. tively small. It is often feasible to retrofit a standard coun-
In order to compensate for the reduced arbor travel, the terweight line set to become a motor-assist set.
loaded arbors must weigh twice as much as the batten Dead-haul systems fly the entire load placed on a line set
load, resulting in arbors that are twice as tall. The addi- without the assistance of counterweight. Therefore, dead-
tional mass on the arbor increases inertia, and the addi- haul motor sizes are relatively large.
6 3 FLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Hoist (winch) motors are either fixed speed or variable unsupported, cantilevered, ends of a batten, beyond the
speed. Fixed speed motors are used at heavy-load and/or last lift line pick points, are generally no longer than 3
slow-speed line sets (e.g., electrics and orchestra shell line feet (0.9 m) unless a bridle is used to effectively limit the
sets). Variable speed motors are used at line sets requiring cantilever.
dynamic motion that may be viewed by the audience (e.g.,
drapery and scenery line sets). Scenery hoists commonly Standard pipe batten
allow travel at rates of hundreds of feet per minute.
Digital control systems incorporating computers or pro- Battens were originally made from wood, but have been
grammable logic controllers (PLCs) have become com- replaced by steel pipe. In the United States they are typi-
monplace as well, bringing their advantages of high ac- cally fabricated from 21-foot (6.4 m) sections of 1.5-inch
curacy, safety and repeatability to fly systems. (38 mm) nominal diameter, 1.9-inch (48 mm) outside di-
ameter, schedule 40 steel pipe that are spliced together
(with internal pipe sleeves and bolts) to provide a contin-
3 Fly system components uous member that stretches the width of a stage. Schedule
80 pipe is also used. Standard pipe battens are typically
designed to support 15 to 30 pounds (6.8 to 13.6 kg) of
3.1 Battens live load per foot of length.
Main article: Batten (theater)
Battens are linear members to which live loads may be at- Truss batten

Truss battens, sometimes referred to as double battens,

use a pipe-over-pipe arrangement (often 12 inches (300
mm) center-to-center), with vertical struts welded be-
tween the upper and lower pipes to provide rigidity. Truss
battens generally permit greater loads than single-pipe
battens and may not require as many lift lines due to im-
proved ability to span between lift lines. Truss battens are
typically designed to support 25 to 50 pounds (11 to 23
kg) of live load per foot.

Electric batten

Battens near the grid in the flyspace. An electric batten, a.k.a. lighting batten, may be a single-
pipe or truss batten. Electric battens typically incorporate
tached for flying. Battens were made of wood originally, steel straps that are used as brackets for the support of
but today they are typically steel pipe. Loads mounted to electrical equipment such as connector strips (raceways).
battens include lights, curtains and scenery so they may The same straps supporting electrical equipment may also
travel vertically, be raised up into the fly space (flown out) connect the two-pipe arrangement of a truss batten. The
or lowered near to the stage floor (flown in) by its asso- center-to-center spacing of electric truss pipe, often from
ciated line set. Battens typically stretch the width of the 1.5 to 2.5 feet (0.46 to 0.76 m), is typically greater than
stage, parallel with the proscenium wall, and are main- for a standard truss batten to allow for the proper mount-
tained level (parallel to the stage deck) regardless of ele- ing and focusing of lighting instruments. It is typical for
vation. When a batten is flown all the way out (close to an electric batten to support thousands of pounds of live
the grid) it is at high trim. When it is flown all the way in load.
(usually to about 4 feet (1.2 m) above the stage deck) it is
at low trim. Light ladder batten
Loads are attached to the batten in various ways. Most
lighting fixtures, for example, utilize a C-clamp to rigidly Light ladder battens are a special type of electric bat-
secure the light onto the batten, in conjunction with a ten oriented perpendicular to and beyond the proscenium
safety cable that is looped around the batten to prevent opening, at the stage wings. They suspend light ladders
the light from falling should the C-clamp connection fail. (pipe frames) to which lighting fixtures may be attached.
Non-traveling curtains (e.g., borders) often employ cloth When provided, light ladder battens are usually of the
ties, similar to shoestrings, that are hand tied onto the bat- truss type and may be fitted with heavy-duty track to per-
ten. mit repositioning of the light ladders up and down stage.
Battens are suspended by evenly spaced lift lines, with
pick points generally 9 to 12 feet (3 to 4 m) apart. The Tab batten
3.2 Lines 7

Tab battens are oriented perpendicular to the proscenium

opening, parallel to and just off stage of light ladder bat-
tens. When provided, they are single-pipe or truss battens
for the support of tab draperies, which are used to mask
the stage wings.

3.2 Lines

Arbor top plate connections

Hand and lift lines at T-bar wall

Lift line connection to batten

It is standard practice for overhead rigging lines and hard-

ware to be rated with at least an 8-times safety factor
to help ensure the protection of cast and crew. In other
words, a line intended to support 100 pounds should have
a safe working load of at least 800 pounds.
Lift lines carry and transfer the loads of a fly system to the
fly system infrastructure. The lift lines for manual rigging
Belayed rope lines run from the batten up to loft blocks, across the stage to
a head block, and down to the counterweight balancing
Lines are the ropes, cables (wire ropes) and proof coil the load of the line set. When running horizontally, be-
chains that enable a fly system to function. Steel bands tween loft blocks and head block, lift lines typically follow
are a relatively new type of line used in steel band hoists. a transverse path (from side to side) across the stage.
8 3 FLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Operating lines, also known as hand lines or purchase linesterminate counterweight system lift lines, after the ca-
are what the crew uses to manipulate manual fly systems. ble has been looped around a thimble. Cable clips ter-
Operating lines are connected to sandbags (in a hemp sys- minations maintain less load capacity than swage fittings,
tem) or the top and bottom of arbors (in a counterweight typically require three clips, and are greatly reduced in
system). Operating lines are typically 5 ⁄8 inch (16 mm) load capacity if the installer happened to “saddle a dead
or 3 ⁄4 inch (19 mm) in diameter. horse”. Both swage and cable clip terminations perma-
Lift and operating lines were commonly made of manila nently crimp (deform) the wire rope.
hemp. The rope was often referred to simply as manila. Trim chains and shackles, or turnbuckles and pipe clamps,
Use of manila had a number of issues. Splinters of fiber typically connect the lift lines of a line set to the batten
could get into hands and eyes. Humidity and temperature they support. Those connections facilitate minor adjust-
changes could significantly affect the length of the rope. ments to, trim, the effective length of a lift line. By trim-
Over time the rope slowly rots. ming the lift lines, loads are more evenly distributed to
Synthetic rope can reduce or eliminate these issues, while them. Turnbuckles are moused (secured against free ro-
providing greater strength by volume. Some riggers have tation) to prevent the jaws from slowly unscrewing over
complained that rope burn is more likely with synthetics, time due to vibrations incurred during normal use.
and that wear and damage on a synthetic rope is harder to Counterweight lift lines typically connect to the tops of
detect. The two most common brands of polyester rope in arbors with shackles.
the theatre world are Stage-Set X (parallel-fiber core) and
Multiline II (braided strand). Over time polyester rope
became more popular than manila in hemp systems and 3.3 Blocks
for use as the operating lines in counterweight systems.
The lift lines of a counterweight rigging systems are typ-
ically a specific type of steel wire rope known as galva-
nized aircraft cable (GAC). Oil-free 0.25-inch (6.4 mm)
diameter, 7 x 19 strand, GAC is the most common coun-
terweight system lift line. It has a minimum cable break-
ing strength of approximately 7,000 pounds (3,200 kg).

Line control

Load-bearing lines must be safely tied off, locked, termi-

nated and/or connected to other rigging components to
ensure line control and the safety of a fly system. Various Grid-mount upright loft blocks
methods are employed.
Belaying pins are used to belay, temporarily tie off, the
rope lines of a hemp system. Each belaying pin serves
as an anchor to which the loose end of a rope may be
quickly secured. A standardized method is used to tie off
the rope so that it is subjected to friction from itself as well
as from the pin rail, thus ensuring a secure connection
that is unlikely to fail. Belaying pins are typically made
of hickory wood or steel.
Knots, such as the clove hitch and half hitch, are used for
rope line terminations. For example, hitches are used to
terminate hemp lift lines at battens and operating lines at
counterweight arbors.
Rope locks are cam-actuated devices through which a
counterweight system operating line passes. The ad- Under-hung loft & mule blocks
justable cam, or dog, inside the rope lock constricts and
releases the operating line as the flyman lowers and raises A block is a pulley used to support and direct lift and oper-
a hand lever. Rope locks are mounted in series to the ating lines. A block consists of a grooved wheel, known
locking rail. A single rope lock can typically secure a as a sheave (pronounced “shiv”), steel side plates, spac-
static unbalanced load to 50 pounds (23 kg). Rope locks ers, shaft, flange bearings, mounting angles and clips, etc.
are not intended to slow a running line. Blocks are sized based on anticipated live loads, operating
Swage (compression) fittings or cable clips are used to speeds, line type and other factors. Sheaves were tradi-
3.3 Blocks 9

tionally fabricated of cast iron, but steel and nylon sheaves

are now common.
Blocks are either upright, when mounted atop a support
structure, or under-hung, when mounted to the underside
of a support structure.
The side plates of blocks preferably fully cover the profile
of (fully enclose) the sheaves to lend the block greater
stability and limit the sheave’s (and crew’s) potential for
damage from foreign objects. Nevertheless, blocks are
available with exposed sheaves.

Loft block

A Loft block is an overhead block that supports a single lift Upright head blocks
line. A loft block supports and redirects a lift line from
the batten to the head block of a line set. Under-hung
loft blocks typically mount to loft block beams (fly loft redirect all the lift lines from loft blocks to sand bags (of
roof beams). Upright loft blocks typically mount to loft a hemp set), counterweight arbor (of a counterweight set)
block wells (grid-level structural channels). A spot block or hoist (of an automated line set).
is a readily movable loft block for mounting anywhere on Rope line (hemp) head blocks are typically upright blocks
the grid deck for spot rigging. that mount to the rope line head block well channels at the
The diameter of a loft block sheave for galvanized air- grid level.
craft cable is typically at least 32 times the diameter of In a counterweight rigging system the head block sheave
the cable. For example, 8-inch (200 mm) loft blocks are is grooved for both the steel cable lift lines and an oper-
typically used with 0.25-inch (6.4 mm) GAC, but 12-inch ating line, with the groove for the operating line provided
(300 mm) blocks may be used to facilitate flying heavier at the middle of the multi-grooved sheave, between the
line sets (e.g., electrics). lift lines. Counterweight head blocks mount atop or at
Loft blocks may be equipped with idler pulleys or sag bars the underside of the head block beam, depending on the
to limit the sag of horizontally running lift lines on under- beam’s vertical position.
hung systems. The diameter of a head block sheave used for galvanized
In under-hung counterweight systems that use upright aircraft cable is typically at least 48 times the diameter of
head blocks the series of loft blocks immediately follow- the cable. For example, 12-inch (300 mm) head blocks
ing the head blocks are typically multi-line loft blocks in- are typically used with 0.25-inch (6.4 mm) GAC, but 16-
stead of single-line to account for built-in vertical mis- inch (410 mm) blocks may be used to facilitate flying
alignment between head blocks and loft blocks. heavier line sets (e.g., electrics).

Mule block

Lift lines sometimes require diversion to avoid obstacles,

support non-linear loads and battens, deal with excessive
fleet angles, or be reoriented from the typical transverse
path across the stage (e.g., for tab and light ladder line
sets). Mule blocks are single or multi-line blocks able to
divert the path of those lines. Mule blocks may be perma-
nently installed as part of counterweight rigging systems,
or used for spot rigging, where they are often equipped
with swivel-pivots to divert lines across a large range of
angles.

Under-hung head blocks Tension block

Head block Tension blocks are single-sheave blocks located at the

lower end of the arbor guide track, beneath the arbor. The
Head blocks are overhead multi-line blocks used for the operating line is reeved through the tension block from
lift lines and operating lines. Head blocks support and the bottom of the arbor through the rope lock. Tension
10 3 FLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

blocks typically ride vertically along the arbor guide sys- form, an arbor consists of two horizontal steel plates, a top
tem tracks, instead of being fixed, to allow for variation plate and bottom plate, tied together by two vertical steel
in the length of the operating line. connecting rods. Counterweights are stacked as required
on the arbor’s bottom plate to balance the line set load,
with the weights held in place by the connecting rods.
3.4 Counterweights A flat tie bar at the rear of the arbor also connects the top
and bottom plates. Guide shoes at the top and bottom of
Counterweights are heavy objects that are used to bal-
the tie bar guide the arbor along tracks mounted to the
ance the lineset loads in a fly system. In hemp systems, a
side stage wall. UHMWPE pads on the guide shoes limit
counterweight consists of one or more sandbags, whereas
friction between guide shoe and track as the arbor travels.
counterweight systems employ metal bricks as counter-
weights. The term counterweight is commonly used to Spreader plates are thin steel plates with holes through
refer specifically to the metal counterweight bricks. which the arbor connecting rods pass. Spreader plates are
lowered onto the counterweights in a distributed fashion
Metal counterweights are lead, cast iron, or flame-cut
as the counterweight stack is being built. Typically one
steel. Flame cut steel bricks are most common. In any
spreader plate is placed on top of every two feet of coun-
particular fly system all counterweights typically share
terweight in the stack. Finally, a locking plate is lowered
a common, standardized footprint that matches the sys-
onto the completed, interleaved stack of counterweights
tem’s arbors, which in turn are sized to conform to line set
and spreader plates and secured in place with a thumb-
spacing. Counterweight systems are most often designed
screw.
to use either 4 or 6-inch (150 mm) wide weights. Weights
vary in thickness, typically in half-inch increments rang- Spreader plates serve to maintain consistent spacing be-
ing from 1/2 to 2 inches (51 mm), with each thickness tween the arbor rods to ensure reliable containment of the
corresponding to a different mass. 1 in (25 mm) thick counterweights under normal operating conditions. Also,
weights are most common. Counterweights are some- in the event of a “runaway” (loss of control of an unbal-
times also known as bricks or simply steel. Often a rigging anced lineset), the spreader plates will prevent the arbor
worker will be asked to load a number of inches of steel, rods from bending outward, and thus releasing the coun-
which correlates to a specific mass. Weights are usually terweights upon arbor impact at the end of its travel.
loaded from the loading bridge, but can also be loaded A new type of arbor was introduced by Thern Stage
from the fly gallery or stage deck in some circumstances. Equipment in 2010. It is referred to as a front loading
When viewed from the top, metal counterweight is ba- counterweight arbor. This arbor has shelves and a gate to
sically rectangular, typically with 45-degree angle cham- secure the counterweights in the arbor. Spreader plates
fers cut at two opposing corners. A slot is cut into each are not required with the front loading arbor. The ar-
end of the weight so as to enable the weight to straddle, bor counterweights are loaded from the front, rather than
and be laterally secured by, the arbor rods. In order to from the sides.
facilitate removal of weights with angle cuts, it is cus- Counterweight arbors are commonly between 8 and 12
tomary to stack the weights in alternating orientations so feet in length and can often support stacks of weights be-
that the square corners of any weight will be aligned with tween 1500 and 2400 pounds, or beyond. In order to
the angled corners of adjacent weights. This simplifies re- avoid unreasonably tall counterweight stacks at high ca-
moval because the square corners of each weight protrude pacity line sets, arbors may employ more than one coun-
beyond the angled corners of the weight below, serving terweight stack. Such arbors use multiple-width top and
as handles that can be easily gripped, even with gloved bottom plates with a tie bar and pair of connecting rods
hands. provided at each counterweight stack.
It is customary to apply paint (typically yellow) or colored Counterweight rigging systems use either tracked or wire-
tape to the weights that counterbalance the batten (pipe) guided arbor guide systems. The tracks or wire guides
to indicate that they should not be removed from the ar- limit lateral movement of the arbors during arbor travel.
bor. As an additional precaution, they may be strapped Wire-guided systems have lower capacities and are not in
in with steel strapping. When a dedicated line set carries common use.
a permanent load (e.g., main drape, orchestra cloud, etc.)
the counterweight balancing the additional load may be In addition to guiding the arbors, a tracked counterweight
treated in a similar fashion. system is provided with bump stops at arbor high and low
trim that establish the limits of an arbor’s travel.
^ Steel to lead density ratio is 1 : 1.448
A tracked guide system is sometimes referred to as a T-
bar wall, as the tracks are commonly made of steel T-
3.5 Arbors sections. Aluminum arbor guide tracks are a relatively
recent alternative, often using a J profile, instead of a T
A counterweight arbor is a sturdy mechanical assembly profile, to facilitate system installation.
that serves as a carriage for counterweights. In its simplest
3.6 Hoists 11

3.6 Hoists 1.5–2.0°) cause unpredictable line behavior and can dam-
age lines, blocks, and drums. As a result, fleet angles limit
Hoists of various types are used in manual automated rig- how close a dead-haul drum hoist can be mounted to the
ging systems. The terms hoist and winch are often used head block (usually about 10 feet).
interchangeably in theatre jargon. Hoists are generally A moving drum hoist, or traveling drum hoist, is a varia-
assumed to be motorized unless “manual” is used as a tion on the traditional drum hoist. Moving drum hoists
descriptor. effectively eliminate the fleet angle between drum and
block by shifting the drum along its axis as it spins. The
Manual hoist amount of shift per drum revolution is equal to the pitch
of the drum’s helical groove. With the fleet angle prob-
Manual hoists, or hand winches, are typically composed lem resolved, moving drum hoists can combine drum
of a drum, gear box, and crank (operating handle). A and head block into a single, relatively compact, unit for
worm gear is commonly used to provide mechanical ad- mounting to fly loft structure, with a corresponding re-
vantage as the crank is turned, which coils a single line duction of installation cost.
around a smooth or helically-grooved drum. The drum Yo-yo, pile-up, or pilewind, hoists use yo-yo type devices
line is connected to the lift lines with a clew, triangu- instead of helically grooved drums. The yo-yos lines
lar plate with holes used for line terminations. From the are coiled into overlapping layers of cable in the narrow
clew, the lift lines run over a head block and loft blocks slots. The pile-up drum hoists are usually used in low
down to a batten. The clew may be wire-guided to limit load. As the hoists are narrower than helically grooved
lateral play. Drill-operable hand winches permit the han- drum hoists, these can be used in the places with limited
dle to be removed so that an electric drill may operate the space.[7] Pile-up drum hoists can be mounted in many lo-
hoist. cations including ceiling, floor or wall mounting. Typical
applications are to have a pile-up drum hoist with many
pulleys to control a batten.[8] Since the line is piled up on
itself, this type of drum hoist provides a zero fleet angle
solution.[9]

Line shaft hoist

Drum hoists and head blocks ready to be installed at a theater.

Drum hoist

Drum hoists are typically composed of an electric brake

motor and a multi-line helically-grooved drum. Helical Drum on a line shaft hoist
drums are preferable to smooth drums for cable longevity
and the precise and repeatable control of travel. Line shaft hoists are typically composed of an electric
brake motor, line shaft (drive shaft) and evenly spaced
Drum hoists are used for motor-assist, engaging an oper- single-line drums aligned above the batten pick points. By
ating line, and dead-haul, engaging the lift lines, applica- placing an individual drum over each pick point, line shaft
tions. sets have the advantage, over drum sets, of eliminating
A dead-haul drum hoist uses the single drum to support the need for blocks.
all the lift lines running from the head block of a line set. To avoid lateral drift of the batten as the lift lines pay
The lift lines neatly wrap and unwrap in a side-by-side out of the grooved drums, the helical groove orientation
arrangement on the drum as it is spun by the motor. on the drums of the line shaft may be alternated between
As a lift line coils and uncoils from the drum of a drum drums to balance competing fleet angles. However the
hoist, its fleet angle (angle of a line between drum and elimination of drift by this method is typically compro-
sheave) changes. Excessive fleet angles (e.g., greater than mised by limited batten travel.
12 4 FLY SYSTEM INFRASTRUCTURE

Line shaft hoists can also use yo-yo type devices instead fly space, the tower height is ideally at least 2.5 times the
of helically grooved drums. Yo-yo hoists are typically height of the proscenium. This allows a full-height curtain
used where lighter loads are imposed (e.g., for operat- or set piece to be located completely out of view of the au-
ing an Austrian puff curtain). Because yo-yos lines are dience without exceeding the travel distance of standard
wrapped over themselves, the velocity and travel of the (single-purchase) counterweight arbors.
lines are relatively difficult to accurately control.[7]

4.2 Grid deck

Point hoist

Point hoists, also known as spot line winches, control a

single lift line and are commonly used for automated spot
rigging or flying rigs. A point hoist may operate in soli-
tude, or in unison with other point hoists to comprise a
line set.
Chain hoists, more commonly referred to as chain mo-
tors, are the most common form of point hoist, especially
with touring musical shows (e.g., rock-and-roll shows),
but are relatively slow. Chain motors can be mounted at
the grid to hoist a load from above, or mounted at the load
to “climb” towards the grid.
Point hoists using wire rope (GAC) are common, and
steel band point hoists are also used. While generally
more expensive than chain hoists, wire rope and steel
band point hoists can operate at relatively high speeds.
Wire rope spot line winches may be configured to pay
out to the side (horizontally), for use in conjunction with
a loft block, so that the position of the relatively heavy
winch can be static and only the loft block need be spot-
ted above the pick point.

4 Fly system infrastructure

Underhung system with grid
Fly system infrastructure consists of the relatively perma-
nent load-bearing and load-transferring structures of a
stage house. The infrastructure, generally fabricated of
structural steel members, is sized by a structural engineer
during the design of a new theatre, or theatre renovation.
Rigging system infrastructure ultimately limits a fly sys-
tem’s capacity.
Building codes generally require that fly system beam de-
sign meets the L/360 rule: beams shall not deflect by more
than the length of a span divided by 360. For example, a
30 feet (9.1 m) head block beam should not deflect more
than 1 in (25 mm) under the system design’s maximum
loading condition. Beam design using the L/360 rule typ-
ically results in beams with a yield-strength significantly
higher than the maximum loading condition, effectively
providing a factor of safety. Underhung system without grid

The grid deck, gridiron deck, or grid, is a permeable work-

4.1 Fly loft ing surface present at the top of many fly lofts that is
used to support and provide access to many of a rigging
The fly loft, fly tower or fly space, is the large volume system’s components. Though originally constructed of
above the stage into which line set battens are flown, along wood, down-facing three-inch steel channels with three-
with whatever loads they may be carrying. In a full-size inch gaps became the prevalent grid decking in the 20th
4.4 Fly gallery 13

century. Today, large-opening heavy-duty steel bar grat- 4.4 Fly gallery
ing is most common in new theatres. The grid deck sur-
face is usually rated to support live loads as well as all A fly gallery is a catwalk running from the proscenium
anticipated dead-hung equipment and hemp and motor- wall to upstage wall to which a pinrail and/or locking rail
ized (e.g., chain hoist) spot rigging. Its permeability fa- may be mounted used by the fly crew to operate the fly
cilitates the mounting of equipment and the passing of system. The fly gallery elevation is typically at about
lift lines and electrical cables. Spot rigging is not feasible proscenium height, providing a good view of the stage
without a grid. and fly loft. Fly galleries may be provided stage left and
The grid deck allows access to the “head block beam” right, or at just one side. Where provided at both sides
and “loft block beams” of counterweight systems. Span- of the stage they may be connected by a cross-over cat-
ning from the proscenium wall to the upstage wall, these walk at the upstage wall. It is possible to load arbors (add
beams support the dead and live loads of a fly system. As or remove counterweights) at the fly gallery, but standard
per their names, counterweight system head blocks and practice is to load arbors at the loading bridge.
loft blocks may be directly mounted to these beams. The
head block beam is situated directly above the loading
gallery. The loft block beams are spaced to match the
“pick points” of the lift lines suspending the battens. The 4.5 Pin rail
loft block beams may also be used to suspend the grid
deck support structure.
Rope line (hemp) head block well channels sit atop the
grid deck and are used for mounting hemp system head
blocks. They are situated above the pinrail(s) below.
Loft block wells are ten inch gaps between pairs of face-
to-face steel channels flush with the grid deck that occur
beneath each loft block beam. The loft blocks of a hemp,
or grid-mount counterweight, rigging system can mount
to the loft block well channels. The loft block wells may
also act as clear openings through which the lift lines of
under-hung counterweight, or automated, systems may
pass.
A grid deck is indispensable in professional and touring
theatres, and desirable in all theatres with a fly tower,
providing invaluable access and flexibility to fly systems. A pin-rail above stage level.
However, due to height limitations, not all fly towers are
equipped with a grid. Transverse catwalks are sometimes A pin rail, originally a wood beam, is typically a large-
provided as compensation for the lack of a grid. San diameter round steel tube with vertical through-holes that
Francisco’s War Memorial Opera House, not burdened accept belaying pins used in a hemp rigging system. De-
by height limitations, has two grid decks. pending on the pin rail design, the pins may be remov-
able or permanently fixed to the rail. Pin rails are typi-
cally installed permanently at the onstage edge of the fly
gallery(ies), extending from the proscenium wall to up-
stage wall, sometimes in a stacked (rail over rail) arrange-
ment. Mobile pin rails may also be used and are bolted
4.3 Loading bridge down to the stage deck where needed.

Specific to a stage house using a counterweight system,

the loading bridge, or loading gallery, is a catwalk ver- 4.6 Locking rail
tically positioned below the headlock beam, and above
the fly gallery. The loading bridge is used to add or re-
move counterweights from arbors. The floor of the load- A locking rail is typically a steel angle or rectangular tube
ing bridge is also typically used as a storage area for un- to which the rope locks of a counterweight system are
committed counterweights that are available for loading mounted. Locking rails are located on the stage deck
onto counterweight arbors. Stage houses with especially and/or fly gallery and typically extend from the prosce-
tall fly towers, or double-purchase systems, may have two nium wall to the upstage wall.
loading bridges, one stacked over the other to facilitate A stage-level locking rail may be provided with an engag-
the loading of relatively tall arbors. ing bar for a portable capstan winch.
14 5 OPERATION

5.2 Unbalanced loads

Unbalanced loads are of great concern in manual rigging.

Minor imbalance is sometimes desirable, for example so
that as an operating line is let out a line set will fly in of
its own accord. However, as it is common for many thou-
sands of pounds of equipment and scenery to be flown
above cast and crew, major imbalance is a grave hazard,
and, if left unaddressed, can result in runaways.
The use of block and tackle or capstan winch is com-
mon to handle line sets that have significantly unbalanced
Locking rail with arbors, counterweights, rope locks (red) and loads. Block and tackle sets use the mechanical advantage
pins for spot lines visible. (e.g., 6 : 1) of multi-purchase blocks to enable a crew
to manually raise an imbalanced line set. The standing
block is secured at the grid level and the running block to
4.7 Arbor pit the batten or arbor (whichever is overloaded). Where an
engaging bar has been designed into the stage level lock-
Arbor pits, where provided, are troughs at the stage edge ing rail, a portable electric capstan winch may be used to
that provide additional vertical travel to a counterweight counteract an imbalanced counterweight line set. Pulling
system’s arbors. Providing a counterweight arbor pit can on (constricting) a rope wrapped a few times around the
help compensate for height limitations of a fly tower. The capstan, a drum spinning at a constant rate, generates
trough depth typically ranges from 2 to 10 feet. Shallower enough traction (through friction) to tug the imbalanced
pits may be accessible only from above at the stage deck. load.
Deeper pits are sometimes accessible from a trap room Especially tall fly towers pose a balance problem for stan-
or orchestra pit. dard counterweight line sets. As a line set is lowered to
the stage, the weight of the lift lines is added to the total
weight of the line set that a rigger must be able to control.
For example, a batten with 6 lift lines of ¼" aircraft ca-
5 Operation ble that travels 50 feet effectively weighs about 40 pounds
more when flown in than when it is flown out. To address
Because fly systems involve large amounts of weight, this issue, a compensating mechanism may be added to
and particularly because the weight is usually suspended the counterweight system. Either chain or thick wire-rope
above people, there are a number of common precautions may be used.
taken to ensure safety and prevent injuries. Communica-
One end of a compensating chain (typically roller chain)
tion, inspection, and loading procedure are key to the safe
is suspended from the underside of the counterweight ar-
operation of a fly system.
bor, the opposite end mounted to the adjacent wall, at a
point corresponding to half the travel of the arbor. The
compensating chain is about half the length that the arbor
5.1 Calling movement travels, and sized to weigh twice as much as the combined
weight of the lift lines per linear foot. At arbor low trim,
Except for during performances and some rehearsals, a the compensating chain is fully supported by the wall. At
standard practice in theatre is for the flyman to always arbor high trim, the chain is fully supported by the arbor.
call (shout) out a warning before moving a lineset so as Paying out at half the speed of arbor travel, a compensat-
to alert personnel (e.g., rehearsing performers and tech- ing chain effectively eliminates imbalance along the full
nicians) who are on the stage. People on stage typically path of travel.
acknowledge the operator’s warning by yelling out a con- A compensating wire rope line is attached to the top and
firmation that the warning was heard. to the underside of an arbor and runs through sheaves near
The flyman’s warning specifies what is moving and its di- those for the operating line. This wire rope line follows a
rection of movement. For example, a particularly verbose similar path to the operating line. The compensating line
call might be something like “lineset three, first electric is made of two lengths of wire rope: a thick heavy wire
flying in to the deck, downstage” (in USA) or “Heads on- rope (e.g. 1” diameter), and a thin wire rope (e.g. 1/4”
stage, Bar 3, LX 1 coming in.” (in UK). In many theaters, diameter). One end of each length is attached together.
all people on stage are expected to respond with “thank The free thick end of the compensating line is attached
you.” Upon completion of the lineset motion, some op- to the underside of the arbor and the free thin end is at-
erators may call again (e.g., “lineset three locked”) to an- tached to the top. As fly pipe lowers and the arbor rises,
nounce that the lineset has stopped moving. more of the thick heavy wire rope hangs beneath the ar-
 15

bor and compensates for the additional weight of the fly 6 References

lines. This mechanism works well with T-track counter-
weight systems. [1] Gillette (1981). Stage Scenery (Third ed.). Harper and
Row. ISBN 0-06-042332-3.

[2] Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Designing With Light: An In-

troduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition. McGraw Hill.
p. 84. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.
5.3 Runaways
[3] Jay O. Glerum (2007). Stage Rigging Handbook, Third
Edition. Southern Illinois University Press. p. 65. ISBN
A runaway is a moving lineset that cannot be safely con- 978-0-8093-2741-6.
trolled by its operator. Runaways can occur when the
weight on the arbor is not equal to the weight of the bat- [4] Boychuk, R. W. (Rick) (March 2015). Nobody Looks
ten and its load. Linesets are often intentionally unbal- Up: The History of the Counterweight Rigging Systsem:
anced to facilitate quick flying in one direction and, in 1500 to 1925. Toronto: Grid Well Press. p. 153. ISBN
such cases, runaways are more likely to occur. 9781508438106.

In the rare event that an unbalanced lineset gains so much [5] Sachs, Edwin O. (1896). “Supplements” “Modern Opera
momentum that the operator cannot stop it, a specified Houses and Theatres” Volume 3. London: Batsford. p.
safety procedure is usually followed. Venues typically es- 55.
tablish a standard call for this event, which might sound [6] J. Michael Gillette (2000). Theatrical Design and Pro-
something like “Runaway 47, upstage, heads.” Operators duction, Fourth Edition. Mayfield Publishing Company.
are trained not to attempt to stop a runaway lineset but p. 56. ISBN 0-7674-1191-9.
rather to warn others and safely escape. The reason for
this is that it is unlikely that they will be able to stop it, [7] “Pile Up (Yo-yo) Hoists” (PDF). JR Clancy. Retrieved 22
and very likely that they will burn their hands or be lifted July 2014.
by the lineset, potentially injuring themselves on struc- [8] “Applications (Electric Pilewind Hoist)". Stage Lifting.
ture above and/or from a subsequent fall. Furthermore, Retrieved 22 July 2014.
this might position the operator in the path of the batten,
arbor, or sandbag as they accelerate downward. Spreader [9] “Pilewind Hoists (Yo-Yo Style)". Thern Stage. Retrieved
plates are used in counterweight arbors to keep the ar- 22 July 2014.
bor’s vertical rods from bending and releasing the coun-
terweights in the event of a runaway, while the locking
plate prevents the counterweights from bouncing out of
the arbor.

5.4 Counterweight system loading proce-

dure

When loading a batten, or arbor in a counterweight sys-

tem, it is imperative to control the balance of a set. The
lineset should be balanced before loading begins, then
the batten flown in, the set added, and then the counter-
weight added from the loading bridge. The specific order
is important because it keeps the set from being unbal-
anced in a position where it could run away. When it is
batten-heavy (after the set is added, but before the coun-
terweights) the arbor does not have anywhere to run away
to as it is already at its grid stop (the upper end of the
track). In cases where the set is too tall for the batten to
be all the way in, it should be kept as far down as pos-
sible. It is always best to add the load in pieces as small
as practical and counterweight them one at a time so the
system can never get too out of balance. Improper load-
ing procedure is a common cause of accidents in many
theaters.
16 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1 Text
• Fly system Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_system?oldid=694220924 Contributors: Gazpacho, Adam850, Eric Shalov, R.
S. Shaw, Giraffedata, Beyondthislife, Aswilson, SteinbDJ, Hotshot977, Rjwilmsi, Zbxgscqf, Bgwhite, 48v, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot,
Sn00kie, Chris the speller, Agateller, Badger151, Bardsandwarriors, Mr.Z-man, Davipo, Ourai, Xexos, Moojoe, SilkTork, Gregorydavid,
LACameraman, Larrymcp, Mfield, Iridescent, KeepOnTruckin, CmdrObot, Keithh, Lekogm, Islander, Crisdopher, Quintote, Z22, JW-
Green, Websterwebfoot, Daemon Lotos, Bryson430, Freedo50, Leaderofearth, Pbroks13, Rod57, It Is Me Here, Aervanath, Joedamadman,
The Realms of Gold, SieBot, Phe-bot, Keilana, Faradayplank, Lightmouse, Hamiltondaniel, Mild Bill Hiccup, Blue bear sd, Gandaliter,
Alexbot, Found5dollar, Lambtron, WikHead, Addbot, Ledieu~enwiki, Download, Catsquisher, Lightbot, Yobot, KamikazeBot, AdvCen-
tral, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Eumolpo, LilHelpa, Trappist the monk, Zink Dawg, Beyond My Ken, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot,
Daturtleman, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Fylbecatulous, Khazar2, Frederick G Hunt, BionicBurke and Anonymous: 59

7.2 Images
• File:Arbor_lift_lines.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Arbor_lift_lines.jpg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Lambtron
• File:Arbor_spreader_plates.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Arbor_spreader_plates.jpg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lambtron
• File:Arbor_top_plate_connections.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2e/Arbor_top_plate_connections.jpg Li-
cense: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Counterweight-system.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Counterweight-system.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: en::Image:Counterweight-system.jpg Original artist: --LACameraman
• File:Counterweight_lines.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a0/Counterweight_lines.jpg License: PD Contribu-
tors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Drum_hoists_and_head_blocks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Drum_hoists_and_head_
blocks.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: z22
• File:Drum_on_line_shaft_hoist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b0/Drum_on_line_shaft_hoist.jpg License:
PD Contributors:
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Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Electric_flown_in.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f8/Electric_flown_in.jpg License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Fixed_pin_rail.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bd/Fixed_pin_rail.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Fly_Loft_Grid.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Fly_Loft_Grid.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: JWGreen
• File:Fly_Tower_Battens.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Fly_Tower_Battens.JPG License: CC
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• File:Fly_gallery_pin_rail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/Fly_gallery_pin_rail.jpg License: PD Contribu-
tors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Fly_system_arbor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Fly_system_arbor.jpg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Lambtron
• File:Fly_system_winch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Fly_system_winch.jpg License: CC0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Lambtron
• File:Grid_from_below.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Grid_from_below.JPG License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JWGreen
• File:Large_counterweight_arbor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Large_counterweight_arbor.jpg
License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lambtron
7.2 Images 17

• File:Lift_line_connection_to_truss_batten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0e/Lift_line_connection_to_

truss_batten.jpg License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Lock_Rail.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Lock_Rail.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: JWGreen
• File:Locking_rail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Locking_rail.jpg License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
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• File:Loft_Blocks.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Loft_Blocks.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contribu-
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Contributors:
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Tkgd2007
• File:SWHS_grid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/SWHS_grid.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Hotshot977
• File:SWHS_loading_bridge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/SWHS_loading_bridge.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hotshot977
• File:SWHS_locking_rail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/SWHS_locking_rail.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hotshot977
• File:Shell_clouds_stored_in_fly_loft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/Shell_clouds_stored_in_fly_loft.jpg
License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Small_pin_rail.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f5/Small_pin_rail.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contrib-
utors:
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• File:Theater_Bielefeld_Schnürboden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Theater_Bielefeld_Schn%
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• File:Under-hung_loft_and_mule_blocks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/74/Under-hung_loft_and_mule_
blocks.jpg License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Underhung_head_blocks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Underhung_head_blocks.jpg License: PD
Contributors:
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Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Underhung_system_with_grid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Underhung_system_with_grid.jpg Li-
cense: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Underhung_system_without_grid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d6/Underhung_system_without_grid.
jpg License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Upright_head_blocks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/87/Upright_head_blocks.jpg License: PD Contrib-
utors:
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Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
• File:Upright_loft_blocks_on_channel_grid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/13/Upright_loft_blocks_on_
channel_grid.jpg License: PD Contributors:
User:Catsquisher
Original artist:
User:Catsquisher
18 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

7.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0