Volume 08 Issue 02 Published, May 10, 2004 ISSN 1535-864X

Intel
®

Technology
Journal
Optical Technologies and Applications

Optical Technologies
for Enterprise Networks

A compiled version of all papers from this issue of the Intel Technology Journal can be found at:
http://developer.intel.com/technology/itj/index.htm
 Optical Technologies for Enterprise Networks
Pierre Herve, Intel Communications Group, Intel Corporation
Shlomo Ovadia, Intel Communications Group, Intel Corporation

Index words: optical interconnects, 10 Gb/s transceivers, packaging, enterprise networks

ABSTRACT communication systems used Multimode Fibers (MMFs)

with lasers operating in the 850 nm wavelength band.
Optical networking technologies have been over the last These systems could transmit several kilometers with
two decades reshaping the entire telecom infrastructure optical losses in the range of 2 to 3 dB/km. A second
networks around the world. As network bandwidth generation of lasers operating at 1310 nm enabled
requirements increase, optical communication and transmission in the “second window” of the optical fiber
networking technologies have been moving from their where the optical loss is about 0.5 dB/km in a Single-
telecom origin into the enterprise. For example, today in Mode-Fiber (SMF). In the 1980’s, the telecom carriers
data centers, all storage area networking is based on fiber started replacing all their MMFs operating at 850 nm.
interconnects with speeds ranging form 1 Gb/s to Another wavelength window around 1550 nm was
10 Gb/s. As the transmission bandwidth requirements developed where a standard SMF has its minimum optical
increase and the costs of the emerging optical loss of about 0.22 dB/km. The development of fiber-
technologies become more economical, the adoption and based telecommunication systems in the 1990’s focused
acceptance of these optical interconnects within enterprise on increasing their transmission capacity. This was done
networks will increase. This paper, which provides the first by increasing the signal modulation speed from 155
framework for the different optical interconnect Mb/s to 622 Mb/s, to 2.5 Gps, and finally to 10 Gb/s,
technologies in this special optical issue of the Intel today’s modulation speed. The total available bandwidth
Technology Journal, is organized as follows. First, a brief of standard optical fibers is enormous; it is about 20 THz.
overview of the fiber optics interconnects technology Since it is impossible for a single-wavelength laser to
evolution and its current application within the enterprise, utilize this enormous bandwidth, multiple single-
is presented. Second, various interconnect evolution wavelength laser transmitters are typically multiplexed
paths, such as, board-to-board, chip-to-chip, and on-chip and transmitted on a single fiber. This scheme, which was
interconnects, are discussed. developed in the mid 1990’s, is called Wavelength-
Division-Multiplexing (WDM) [4]. Dense WDM
INTRODUCTION (DWDM) optical communication systems with more than
The birth of optical communications occurred in the 60 wavelengths, where each wavelength carries 40 Gb/s
1970’s with two key technology breakthroughs. The first data, have been demonstrated [5]. Thus, the demonstrated
was the invention of the semiconductor laser in 1962 [1]. total transmission capacity of an SMF is more than 2.5
The laser generates a tightly focused beam of light at a Tb/s.
single pure wavelength, a spot small enough to be Today, MMFs operating at 850 nm are primarily used for
connected to fiber optics. The second breakthrough short distances in the enterprise as the least expensive
happened in September 1970, when a glass fiber with an method. An SMF at the 1310 nm wavelength band is
attenuation of less than 20 dB/km was developed [2, 3]. primarily used for medium distances ranging from 2 km
In the 1960’s, glass-clad fibers had an attenuation of to 40 km. For long-haul telecommunications, WDM
about 1 dB/m, which was sufficient for medical imaging systems operating in the 1550 nm wavelength band
applications, but was too high for telecommunications. windows are deployed. From 850 nm to long wavelength
With the development of optical fibers with an and WDM, higher performance is being offered, but each
attenuation of 20 dB/km, the threshold to make fiber one comes with a higher price tag. Nowadays, all the
optics a viable technology for telecommunications was telecom infrastructure is fiber-based with the exception of
crossed. In 1977, AT&T installed the first optical fiber the famous last miles to homes, which is still based on
cables in Chicago [3]. The first field deployments of fiber coaxial cables and copper-twisted pairs. Inside enterprise

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Intel Technology Journal, Volume 8, Issue 2, 2004

networks, fiber has been deployed since the early 1980’s loss with optical losses as low as 0.2 dB/km around 1550
initially with supercomputers, and later in Local Area nm for conventional SMF (i.e., SMF-28∗) [6].
Networks (LANs) as well as more recently in Storage
The optical fiber is a dispersive waveguide. The
Area Networks (SANs). With continuously increasing
dispersion results in Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) at the
demands for high-speed data, optical fibers and
receiver. There are three primary types of fiber
interconnects will continue to play an increasing role
dispersions: modal dispersion, chromatic dispersion, and
within the enterprise network.
polarization-mode dispersion. The fiber modal dispersion
In this paper, we first discuss the fundamentals of optical depends on both the fiber core diameter and transmitted
components for communication such as optical fibers, wavelengths. For a single-mode transmission, the step-
laser transmitters, and receivers. Second, we review the index fiber core diameter (D) must satisfy the following
optical packaging trends for optical modules and optical condition [2]:
transceivers. Then, after a review of the various optical
interconnect topologies in the enterprise, we discuss their
applications and cost trends. We then move on to discuss
the next-generation optical interconnects dividing them
into four main categories: box-to-box, board-to-board,
chip-to-chip, and on-chip interconnects. Finally, the where λ is the transmitted wavelength and n1 and n2 are
evolution of optical interconnects and technical the refractive indices of fiber core and cladding layer,
challenges in enterprise networks are discussed. respectively. Consequently, for a single-mode operation
at 850 nm wavelength, the fiber must have a core
diameter of 5 µm. Since a conventional SMF has typically
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF OPTICAL
a core diameter of 9 µm, single-mode operation can be
COMPONENTS only supported for wavelengths in the 1310 nm
A basic optical communication link consists of three key wavelength band or longer.
building blocks: optical fiber, light sources, and light
The fiber chromatic dispersion is due to the wavelength-
detectors. We discuss each one in turn.
dependent refractive index with a zero-dispersion
Optical Fibers wavelength occurring at 1310 nm in conventional SMF
[6]. At 1550 nm, the fiber dispersion is about 17
In 1966, Charles Kao and George Hockmam predicted ps/nm/km for SMF-28. When short duration optical
that purified glass loss could be reduced to below 20 dB pulses are launched into the fiber, they tend to broaden
per kilometer, and they set up a world-wide race to beat since different wavelengths propagate at different group
this prediction. In September 1970, Robert Maurer, velocities, due to the spectral width of the emitter. Optical
Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz of Corning succeeded in transmission systems operating at rates of 10 Gb/s or
developing a glass fiber with attenuation less than 20 higher and distances above 40 km are sensitive to this
dB/km: this was the necessary threshold to make fiber phenomenon. There are other types of SMFs such as
optics a viable transmission technology. The silica-based Dispersion Shifted Fibers (DSFs) where the zero
optical fiber structure consists of a cladding layer with a dispersion occurs at 1550 nm.
lower refractive index than the fiber core it surrounds.
This refractive index difference causes a total internal Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) is caused by small
reflection, which guides the propagating light through the amounts of asymmetry and stress in the fiber core due to
fiber core. There are many types of optical fibers with the manufacturing process and environmental changes
different size cores and cladding. Some optical fibers are such as temperature and strains. This fiber core
not even glass-based such as Plastic Optical Fibers asymmetry and stress leads to a polarization-dependent
(POFs), which are made for short-distance index of refraction and propagation constant, thus limiting
communication. For telecommunications, the fiber is the transmission distance of high speed (≥ 10 Gb/s) over
glass based with two main categories: SMF and MMF. SMF in optical communication systems. Standard SMF
SMFs typically have a core diameter of about 9 µm while has a PMD value of less than 0.1 ps/√km [6]. Special
MMFs typically have a core diameter ranging from 50 to SMFs were developed to address this issue.
62.5 µm. Optical fibers have two primary types of
impairment, optical attenuation and dispersion. The fiber
optical attenuation, which is mainly caused by absorption
∗
and the intrinsic Rayleigh scattering, is a wavelength- All other trademarks are the property of their respective
dependent owners.

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Intel Technology Journal, Volume 8, Issue 2, 2004

Optical fiber is never bare. The fiber is coated with a thin in a Continuous-Wave (CW) mode at a fixed operating
primary coating by the fiber manufacturer; then a cable point. An electrical drive signal is applied to an optical
manufacturer, not necessarily the fiber manufacturer, modulator, which is external to the laser. Consequently,
cables the fiber. There is a wide variety of cable the applied drive signal modulates the laser output light
construction. Simplex cable has a single fiber in the on and off without affecting the laser operation.
center while duplex cables contain two fibers. Composite
One important feature of the laser diode is its frequency
cable incorporates both single-mode and multimode fiber.
chirp. The frequency of the output laser light changes
Hybrid cables incorporate mixed optical fiber and copper
dynamically in response to the changes in the modulation
cable. In the enterprise, the MMF is housed in a cable
current. A typical DFB has a frequency chirp of about
with an orange colored jacket, and the SMF is housed in a
100-MHz/mA. This spread of the wavelength interacts
yellow jacket cable.
with the fiber dispersion. As previously mentioned, as the
data rate is increased, this interaction limits the
Light Sources
transmission distance of optical transmission systems due
The light source is often the most costly element of an to the additional ISI generated at the receiver [1−4].
optical communication system. It has the following key
characteristics: (a) peak wavelength, at which the source Optical back-reflection is one of key issues when
emits most of its optical power, (b) spectral width, (c) coupling the output light from a laser source to a fiber.
output power, (d) threshold current, (e) light vs. current The optical back-reflection disturbs the standing wave in
linearity, (f) and a spectral emission pattern. These the laser cavity, increasing its noise floor, and thus
characteristics are key to system performance. making the laser unstable. One practical way to reduce
the phenomenon of back-reflection is to place an isolator
There are two types of light sources in widespread use: between the laser cavity and the fiber, which adds a
the Laser Diode (LD) and the Light Emitting Diode significant additional cost to the laser [1, 4]. Temperature
(LEDs). All light emitters that convert electrical current also affects the peak wavelength of the laser; threshold
into light are semiconductor based. They operate with the current also increases with temperature as slope efficiency
principle of the p-n semiconductor junction found in decreases. For DWDM applications, which require very
transistors. Historically, the first achievement of laser precise operating wavelengths, most of the current laser
action in GaAs p-n junction was reported in 1962 by three diode designs need to be cooled to within ± 0.3 °C.
groups [1-4]. Both LEDs and LDs use the same key
materials: Gallium Aluminum Arsenide (GaAIAs) for As previously explained, the direct modulation of a laser
short-wavelength devices and Indium Gallium Arsenide diode has several limitations, including limited
Phosphide (InGaAsP) for long-wavelength devices. propagation distance due to the interaction between the
laser frequency chirp and fiber dispersion. This is not an
Semiconductor laser diode structures can be divided into issue for enterprise networks which are short distance, but
the so-called edge-emitters, such as Fabry Perot (FP) and could be a serious limiting factor for telecommunications
Distributed Feedback (DFB) lasers and vertical-emitters, applications. To overcome this limitation, the laser diode
such as Vertical Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs). is operated in a CW mode, and output light is externally
When edge-emitters are used in optical fiber modulated by an optical modulator. Intensity modulators
communication systems, they incorporate a rear facet can be divided into two main groups: Mach-Zehnder
photodiode to provide a means to monitor the laser Interferometer (MZI) and Electro-Absorption (EA)
output, as this output varies with temperature. modulators. In an MZI modulator, a single input
In today’s optical networks, binary digital modulation is waveguide is split into two optical waveguides by a 3 dB
typically used, namely on (i.e., light on) and off (no light) Y junction and then recombined by a second 3 dB Y
to transmit data. These semiconductor laser devices junction into a single output. A Radio Frequency ( RF)
generate output light intensity which is proportional to the signal, which is applied to a pair of electrodes constructed
current applied to them, therefore making them suitable along the waveguides, modulates the propagating optical
for modulation to transmit data. Speed and linearity are beam. The modulator key parameters are its modulation
therefore two important characteristics. bandwidth, linearity, and the required drive signal voltage
for π phase shift. MZI modulators based on LiNbO3 are
Modulation schemes can be divided into two main
high-performance modulators with a large form-factor
categories, namely, a direct and an external modulation.
(about 2.5 inches) that are not suitable for optical
In a direct modulation scheme, modulation of the input
integration [4, 7]. EA modulators are based on a voltage-
current to the semiconductor laser directly modulates its
induced shift of the semiconductor bandgap so that the
output optical signal since the output optical power is
modulator becomes absorbing for the lasing wavelength.
proportional to the drive current. In an external
The advantages of an EA modulator is its low driving
modulation scheme, the semiconductor laser is operating

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voltage, high-speed operation, and suitability for optical photodiodes is the primary cost driver. These packages
integration with InP-based laser diodes [8]. are sometimes called Optical Sub-Assemblies (OSAs).
The Transmitter OSA package is called a TOSA and the
A tunable laser is a new type of laser where its main
Receiver OSA package is called a ROSA.
lasing longitudinal mode can be tuned over a wide range
of wavelengths such as the C band (1510−1540 nm) of an Figure 1 shows, for example, a three-dimensional
Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA), which is schematic view of a DFB laser diode mounted on a
commonly used for DWDM systems [1−4]. The use of Thermo-Electric Cooler (TEC) inside a hermetically
tunable lasers is driven by the potential cost savings in sealed 14-pin butterfly package with an SMF pigtail [9].
DWDM transport networks since a significantly reduced Most of the telecom-grade laser diodes are available in
inventory of fixed-wavelength lasers could be maintained the so-called TO can or butterfly packages. The standard
for a robust network operation. The technical challenges butterfly package is a stable and high-performance
are to provide both broad wavelength tunability and package, but it has a relatively large form-factor and it is
excellent wavelength accuracy over the laser life. A costly to manufacture. These packages are typically used
broadly tunable External Cavity Laser (ECL) employing for applications where cooling is required using a TEC
micromachined, thermally tuned silicon etalons has been [4].
designed to achieve these goals.

Light Detectors
Light detectors convert an optical signal to an electrical
signal. The most common light detector is a photodiode.
It operates on the principle of the p-n junction. There are
two main categories of photodetectors: a p-i-n (positive,
intrinsic, negative) photodiode and an Avalanche
Photodiode (APD), which are typically made of InGaAs
or germanium. The key parameters for photodiodes are
(a) capacitance, (b) response time, (c) linearity, (d) noise,
and (e) responsivity. The theoretical responsivity is 1.05
A/W at a wavelength of 1310 nm. Commercial
photodiodes have responsivity around 0.8 to 0.9 A/W at
the same wavelength [1-4]. The dark photo-current is a
small current that flows through the photo-detector even
though no light is present because of the intrinsic
resistance of the photo-detector and the applied reverse
voltage. It is temperature sensitive and contributes to Figure 1: Three-dimensional view of a DFB laser
noise. Since the output electrical current of a photodiode diode configuration with single-mode fiber pigtail
is typically in the range of µA, a Transimpedance (after Ref. [8] ( 1990 IEEE))
Amplifier (TIA) is needed to amplify the electric current
to a few mA [2−4]. The TEC requires a large amount of power to regulate the
temperature of a laser inside the package. This type of
APDs provide much more gain than the pin photodiodes, optical packaging was used for the early 10 Gb/s
but they are much more expensive and require a high modules. More recently, tunable 10 Gb/s lasers are using
voltage power to supply their operation [2]. APDs are a similar butterfly optical package. The butterfly package
also more temperature sensitive than pin photodiodes. design uses a coaxial interface for passing broadband data
into the package, which requires the use of a coaxial
PACKAGING: PACKAGING: OPTICAL interface to the host Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
SUB-ASSEMBLY (OSA) AND OPTICAL Although coaxial cables and connectors have been
TRANSCEIVERS reduced in size, they still consume valuable real estate in
As previously described, laser diodes and photodiodes are the optical transceiver.
semiconductor devices. To enable the reliable operation The evolution of optical module packages is toward
of these devices, an optical package is required. In smaller footprint packages. If relatively easy for receivers,
general, there are many discrete optical and electronic the trend toward smaller packages is particularly
components, which are based on different technologies challenging for laser transmitter modules due to the
that must be optically aligned and integrated within the power and thermal dissipation constraints. Figure 2 shows
optical package. Optical packaging of laser diodes and the evolution of 10 Gb/s optical module packaging

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technology. To operate with high-performance, uncooled Optical Transceivers

designs must be implemented with more advanced control
For telecommunication applications, the optical
systems that can adjust the laser and driver parameters
transmitter and receiver modules are usually packaged
over temperature. The smaller packages utilize a coplanar
into a single package called an optical transceiver. Figure
approach to the broadband interface, which more closely
3 shows an example of different transceivers and Figure
resembles a surface-mount component and enables much
4 shows an example of the printed circuit board of
smaller RF interfaces.
a transceiver. There are several form factors for this
TO-can-based designs, which have been used extensively optical transceiver depending on their operating speed
in lower data rate telecom and datacom systems up to 2 and applications. The industry worked on a Multi-Source
Gb/s as well as CD players and other high-volume Agreement (MSA) document to define the properties of
consumer applications, are now maturing to support high- the optical transceivers in terms of their mechanical,
performance 10 Gb/s optical links. Leveraging the fact optical, and electrical specifications. Optical transponders
that these packages are already produced in high volume operating at 10 Gb/s, based on MSA, have been in the
will further reduce the cost of the 10 Gb/s optical modules market since circa 2000, beginning with the 300-pin
in optical transceiver designs. MSA, followed by XENPAK, XPAK, X2, and XFP.
Table 1 summarizes the key MSA specifications for the
different form-factor 10 Gb/s optical transceivers and
their release dates.

Which are the Most Popular Form-Factor

Transceivers in the Enterprise?
For the 1/2/4 Gb/s transceivers, the Small Form-Factors
(SFFs) and the small Form-Factor Pluggables (SFPs) are
the most recently developed and the ones that are finding
new sockets into systems. It should be noted, however,
that the older GBIC form factors for 1 Gb/s Ethernet
(GbE), despite no new development, is still shipping in
large volumes due to the large installed base of this
design. The SFF transceiver is used in a Network
Interface Card (NIC) for the LAN or in the Host Bus
Adaptor (HBA) in SANs. The SFP transceiver is typically
Figure 2: Trends in 10 Gb/s optical transmitter
used for enterprise switches such as Ethernet or Fiber-
packaging technology. To decrease size and power
Channel (FC) switches. In these high-capacity switches,
dissipation, the trends are from cooled to uncooled
switching is done by electrical ICs while the optical
packages, from coaxial to planar RF interfaces, and
transceivers provide optical-to-electrical electrical (O-E)
from pigtailed to pluggable optical interfaces.
or electrical-to-optical (E-O) conversion.
The current TOSA/ROSA package form factors are
trending toward smaller packages, and it will not end at
the 10 Gb/s TO-can implementation. These TOSA/ROSA
form factors are still too large and too expensive to
compete in the market segment where today copper
interconnects dominate. Leadframe-type packages could
be an attractive choice for high-speed optical modules
since similar packages are already in use in the
semiconductor industry [10]. Using insert molded or pre-
molded thermoplastic housing, different optical
components can be passively aligned in a fully automated
manufacturing process. For example, integrated modules
with VCSEL and photodiodes in leadframe packages
have been developed for the automobile industry, but are
limited today in the 20 Mb/s bit rate. Additional research
and development is needed to define the packaging
specifications for optoelectronic modules based on size
and cost.

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Figure 3: Next-generation 10 Gb/s enterprise optical OPTICAL TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN

transceivers: (from left) XFP, XPAK/X2, XENPAK. THE ENTERPRISE
These modules are electrically hot-pluggable and
Enterprise network topology can be divided into four
optically pluggable.
main categories: horizontal cabling, vertical cabling, data
In general, not all the switches’ ports are populated with center interconnects, and campus backbone. Table 2
transceivers when they are shipped to customers. The shows the use of various technologies in each of these
customer has the option to buy these transceiver modules topologies based on distance and speed. Within a data
as the demand for ports increases. It also gives the center, the LAN, which is based on the Ethernet protocol,
customer the choice of optics: MMF or SMF. Therefore, is based mostly on copper interconnects operating at
these modules have been designed to be pluggable. speeds of up to 1 Gb/s for all distances below 100 m.
Some MMFs at 850 nm are also used at speeds of up to
The choice between the different 10 Gb/s form-factor
10 Gb/s. However, within a SAN, which is based on the
optical transceiver packages is guided by reach, cost, and
Fiber Channel (FC) protocol, only MMFs at 850 nm are
thermal and size constraints and requirements.
used for transmission rates ranging form 1 Gb/s to
Table 1: Summary of different form-factor 10 Gb/s 10 Gb/s. Optical interconnects based on SMFs at 1310 nm
optical transceiver packages are typically used within a campus-size network with
transmission distances up to 10 km and rates of up to 10
MSA XENPAK XPAK/X2 XFP Gb/s. All the optical interconnects used in enterprise
MSA Date March March April networks today are box-to-box connections typically
2002 2003 2003 between a server to a switch connection and a switch to a
switch connection. The most popular optical modules are
Application Enterprise Enterprise Telecom SSF and SFP form-factor modules operating at speeds of
switch switch Datacom up to 4 Gb/s, while the 1 Gb/s GBIC for LAN is still
NIC shipping in volume. For the 10 Gb/s modules, the
Storage XENPAK is the most commonly used today within
Electrical 4 bit 4 bit 1 bit enterprise networks. However, the new optical module
Interface designs are trending towards smaller form-factor modules
XAUI XAUI XFI such as XPAK and XFP.
Optical SC SC or LC LC Table 2: Used technology in each of the enterprise
interface pluggable pluggable pluggable network topologies
Dimension 4.8x1.4x0. 2.7x1.4x0. Segment Distance Speed Technology
7 4
Horizontal 100 m 10/100/1000 Mb/s Copper
Max Power 11W 5W 3W Vertical 300 m 10/100 Mb/s Copper
1/10 Gb/s MMF

Data 100 m 10/100Mb/s Copper

center
1Gb/s-10Gb/s Copper/MM
LAN F
1/2/4 Gb/s SAN MMF

Campus 2-10 km 1- 10 Gb/s SMF

In today’s enterprise networks, copper-based

interconnects dominate the box-to-box connections due to
their cost advantage over comparable optical
Figure 4: Intel® TXN13220 FR-4 printed circuit board interconnects. For example, in the 1 Gb/s LAN (i.e.,
showing optical modules, Mux/DeMux, and Ethernet-based) market, Dell’Oro in January 2004 was
microprocessor forecasting the shipment volume to grow from about a
total of 13 million switch ports in 2003 to 158 million
ports in 2008 [11]. Out of the total number of switch

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ports, the number of 1 Gb/s copper-based interconnects is multipoint high-speed interconnects with typical lengths
expected to grow from about 7 million in 2003 to about of under 1m. The key advantages of optical backplane
141 million in 2008. This anticipated growth of copper- interconnects are low-crosstalk among the optical signals,
based interconnects is driven by the deployment of 1 Gb/s and their large bandwidth. However, most of today’s
to the desktop. The average selling price of copper-based optical backplanes are more like patch panels rather than
switch ports is $181 in 2003. For the lowest cost segment replacements for backplanes. Many different optical
of the copper-based 1 Gb/s switch port market, the technologies have been demonstrated including polymer
average selling price is forecasted to decline from about waveguides integrated on Si, planar light wave circuit
$59 to $9 over the same period. In comparison, out of the interconnects, and fiber ribbon arrays integrated with
total number of switch ports, the 1 Gb/s optical VCSELs and photodiodes. However, none of these
interconnects market is expected to grow from about 6 optical technologies today have displaced copper
million ports in 2003 to 17 million ports in 2008 with the interconnects outside of some niche applications. The
average selling price about $416 in 2003 [11]. The market transition to optical backplanes might be induced by the
for the SAN, which is based on the FC protocol standard, accumulating technical challenges of electrical
is planned to transition from optical interconnects interconnects. However to be widely adopted, optical
operating at 2 Gb/s to 4 Gb/s during the 2005-2006 interconnects must be able to advance toward a smaller
period. The forecasted volume for the FC-based switch form-factor with a lower power consumption at a lower
ports is expected to grow from 1.8 million of 2 Gb/s ports cost. Meeting these requirements is critical to the
in 2003 to 6.4 million of 4 Gb/s ports in 2007, according technology evolution of optical interconnects from box-
to the IDC forecast published in August 2003 [12]. Over to-box to board-to-board to chip-to-chip. Several new
the past year, the average selling price of optical 10 GbE technical breakthroughs will need to occur in order to
switch ports has been dropping from about $30K to about meet these challenging requirements.
$10K per port today. The average selling price of these 10
GbE switch ports must be below $3K per port for a wide Chip-to-Chip Interconnects
deployment within enterprise networks. Extrapolation of Moore’s law shows that microprocessors
are expected to be clocked at about 10 GHz by the end of
NEXT-GENERATION OPTICAL the decade [13, 14]. Consequently, it is becoming
INTERCONNECTS extremely difficult to route enough bandwidth through a
PCB or a module using the existing electrical wires. It has
In general, interconnects can be divided into four main
been shown that frequency-dependent loss for copper
categories: box-to-box, board-to-board, chip-to-chip, and
traces on FR4 circuit boards rapidly rises above 1 GHz,
on-chip interconnects. Today, optical interconnections in
reducing the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and
the enterprise are mostly used for the box-to-box
introducing timing errors. In addition, the resultant high-
interconnects. The optical transceivers are either plugged
frequency crosstalk among the different copper traces
into high-capacity Ethernet or FC-based switches, or
limits the wiring density on the circuit board. High-speed
placed on a NIC/HBA, which are implemented into
short-distance (L < 10 cm) chip-to-chip optical
servers. Will optical interconnects move into the other
interconnects have several advantages over copper
categories? A brief overview of each optical interconnect
interconnects. Optical interconnects are low-loss
category is provided in the next subsections.
interconnects with a large transmission bandwidth.
Board-to-Board Interconnects Another key advantage is their inherent immunity to
Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI). The density of
The move of the communications industry, both telecom copper traces on FR4 boards is constrained by these EMI
and datacom toward a Modular Communication Platform and electrical crosstalk problems. Over the last 20 years,
(MCP) favors the deployment of bladed architecture. many different optical technologies were demonstrated to
Functions that were traditionally housed in a standalone overcome the electrical bottleneck [14, 15]. However,
box, such as between servers and switches, have started to their relative high costs due to implementation complexity
be implemented into a board-level form-factor, which is and use of exotic materials made them unsuitable for
called a blade, and they plug into a common chassis. high-volume manufacturing and thus prevented the
Therefore, interconnect opportunities at the board level adoption of these technologies.
are becoming more important. As the transmission speed
increases, copper-based interconnects are facing technical On-Chip Interconnects
challenges in terms of speed, reach, EMI, and routing.
The design of on-chip electrical interconnects is
Backplanes are potential applications for optical becoming increasingly difficult given the continuous
interconnects. These are point-to-point or point-to- growth in the complexity of integrated circuits operating

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at multi-GHz. Can on-chip optical interconnects

potentially solve these issues? On-chip point-to-point and
point-to-multipoint optical interconnects with typical where n = 3.46 in the effective refractive index of the
lengths under 1 cm are potentially attractive because of silicon waveguide, Λ = 2.445 µm is the Bragg grating
the following reasons: (a) they decrease the existing pitch, and m = 11 is the Bragg grating order. Using the
electrical interconnect delays, (b) provide a higher strong thermo-optics effect in silicon, these Bragg grating
bandwidth to keep pace with the speed of transistors, (c) filters can be made tunable [17]. Such WDM Bragg
reduce electrical power consumption, and (d) minimize grating filters with a 3-dB bandwidth of 100 GHz and 200
sensitivity to EMI. The potential primary application of GHz, insertion loss of about 4 dB and tunability over 12
on-chip optical interconnects in microprocessors, for
nm for 100 °C temperature variation were demonstrated.
example, are in high-speed signaling and clock
These tunable Bragg filters can be used as channel filters
distribution. For on-chip signal distribution, four key
in a low-cost WDM communication system.
benchmark parameters are typically used: signal delay
normalized by clock cycle, available bandwidth per unit Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) optical modulators based on
area or bandwidth density, bandwidth density/delay ratio, current injection had a modulation bandwidth of only 20
and cost. For on-chip clock distribution, the critical MHz. Consequently, these devices were not suitable for
parameters are timing, skew, and jitter. The primary today’s high-speed communication networks.
challenges for implementing these optical interconnects is
Recently, an MZI silicon optical modulator with a
the integration of multiple VCSEL and photodiode arrays
modulation bandwidth of 2.5 GHz around 1550 nm was
with their corresponding drivers and TIAs, and on-chip
demonstrated [18]. The high-speed operation was
light coupling into optical waveguide arrays over the
achieved by using a novel phase shifter design based on a
entire chip. Currently, such optoelectronic integration is
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) capacitor embedded
not only in its early stages of development, but it is also
in a passive silicon waveguide with doped and undoped
very expensive relative to copper-based interconnects
polysilicon regions in MZI configuration. The
with limited or no performance advantages. In order to
accumulated charges in the MOS capacitor induce fast
take advantage of on-chip optical interconnects, today’s
refractive index changes in the silicon waveguide due to
microprocessor architecture might need to evolve from a
the free carrier plasma dispersion effect [19]. The 1.5 cm
single superscalar chip to a mesh of optically
long silicon MZI modulator had an extinction ratio of
interconnected processors with their associated memories.
more than 16 dB with an applied peak-to-peak voltage of
The WDM scheme could be used, for example, to send
about 7.7 volts.
multiple wavelengths in the same optical waveguide to
significantly increase the overall communication
bandwidth.
Silicon-Based Optical Interconnects
In order to enable the chip-to-chip or on-chip optical
interconnects, silicon-based optical components should be
developed. As previously noted, optical components such
as tunable WDM filters, photodiodes, optical waveguides,
and electronic components such as laser drivers and TIA
circuits are all based on different materials and
technologies precluding them from an optoelectronic
monolithic integration. The attractiveness of silicon-based
optical interconnects is the potential integration with
CMOS integrated circuits for high-volume
manufacturing. The first prototype of such silicon-based
optical components includes thermally tunable WDM
Bragg filters, high-speed optical MZI modulators and a
Si/Ge high-speed photodiode [16].
A narrow-band Bragg grating filter has been made in
silicon waveguides with alternating Figure 5: Future vision of hybrid optical integration of
polycrystalline/crystalline layers. The Bragg grating a four-channel WDM optical transceiver with silicon
reflects only the wavelengths that satisfies the Bragg photonic components and conventional CMOS drivers
condition [1−4]

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Intel Technology Journal, Volume 8, Issue 2, 2004

However, the demonstrated modulator had a total of 12 to chip-to-chip. Several new technology breakthroughs
dB insertion loss, which can potentially be reduced to will need to occur in order to meet these challenging
about 4−5 dB if the polysilicon is replaced with a single- requirements.
crystal silicon and tapered waveguides are used to
efficiently couple the light in and out of the modulator ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
through a diabatic transformation of the optical mode. The authors would like to thank Dr. Mario Paniccia for
The development of tapered waveguide technology for technical discussions and support. Pierre would like to
this high-index contrast optical system is one of the key acknowledge Pete Kirkpatrick, Marc Epitaux, Eric
challenges to developing a hybrid integration of these Zbinden, Mark Finot, Marc Verdiell, and Jeff Bennett for
devices. their technical support.
Such SOI-based modulators and Bragg filters can lead to
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AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Pierre Herve is currently director of Enterprise Strategic
Planning at Intel in the Communication Infrastructure
Group. He has been with Intel since 1996 and has held
various marketing positions including director of optical
strategy, wireless senior marketing manager, and CATV
product manager. Before joining Intel, Pierre managed an
online services provider based in Northern California for
five years. He graduated with a M.S. degree in
Telecommunications from the Institut National des
Telecommunications in 1988. His email is pierre.m.herve
at intel.com.
Shlomo Ovadia received a Ph.D. degree in Optical
Sciences from the Optical Sciences Center, University of
Arizona in 1984. After two years as a postdoctoral fellow
at the University of Maryland, Shlomo held various
technical positions at IBM, Bellcore, and General
Instruments. In 2000, Shlomo joined Intel in San Jose,
California, as principal architect in CTG, where he was
leading the effort on the architecture, design, and
development of optical burst switching in enterprise

Optical Technologies for Enterprise Networks 82

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