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Changes in st udent s' use of lifelong learning skills during a problem-based learning project
Joanna Dunlap
Using Guided Relective
Journaling Activities to Capture
Students’ Changing Perceptions
By Joanna C. Dunlap

any professions are increasingly •฀ Encourages students to identify and

M emphasizing the role of relection,
encouraging educators to look for
appropriate ways to help students engage in
analyze their diiculties, make suggestions
for solving problems and ask and pursue
questions on their own (Clarke, Waywood,
relective practice during their professional & Stephens, 1993); and
preparation. Journal writing is an insightful and •฀ Makes conceptual and perceptual changes
powerful instructional technology utilizing visible for assessment purposes (Dunlap,
strategies that foster understanding and the 2005a, 2005b).
application of concepts (see Connor-Greene, Examples from three diferent professional
2000), enhance critical thinking (see Hettich, preparation courses, presented below, demon-
1990; Hodges, 1996), improve achievement strate the power of journaling to achieve these
and attitude (see Borasi & Rose, 1989; Jurdak outcomes by encouraging students to relect on
& Zein, 1998), encourage student relection and share their changing perceptions of their
and capture changes in students’ perception work, learning and achievements.
(Dunlap, 2005a, 2005b).
Changes in students’ perceived use of lifelong
learning skills over time
Examples of journaling writing as During a semester-long, undergraduate
an instructional technology C++ programming course, I engaged 26
computer science students (juniors and seniors)
One way of encouraging and documenting
in a journal-writing activity (see Dunlap,
relection is journal writing (see Erdman, 1983;
2005a). he course objectives were to develop
Flower & Hayes, 1981; Gipe & Richards, 1990,
students’ understanding and application of the
1992; Yinger & Clark, 1981). Journal writing is
C++ language syntax, object-oriented design
an efective instructional technology because
and programming techniques and lifelong
it:
learning skills needed to stay current in the ever-
•฀ Encourages students to relect on and
changing sotware development profession ater
articulate their thinking and problem-
graduation (a critical skill set sought ater by
solving strategies (Fogarty & McTighe,
information technology employers). To achieve
1993);
these objectives, the students took on the roles
•฀ Supports efective acquisition and
of contracted C++ programmers who needed
transferability of cognitive and
to solve authentic problems of practice. he
metacognitive skills (Perkins, Simmons,
programming projects required students to learn
& Tishman, 1990);
speciic content and skills in order to develop

20 TechTrends Volume 50, Number 6

viable solutions. Howard Barrows’ model documented changes in students’ self-eicacy
of problem-based learning (PBL) (Barrows, throughout the semester, allowing me to assess
1985, 1992; Barrows & Kelson, 1993; Barrows their progress throughout the project. he
& Tamblyn, 1980) informed the design of the guided journals showed a change in almost all of
course and programming projects. the students’ perceptions about their abilities to
To encourage students to share perceptions be sotware development professionals — from
of their development and use of these skills while a lack of self-eicacy before their semester-long
working on the authentic projects, I had them PBL experience to conidence at the end of the
respond to a set of guided journal questions at semester.
the end of each week. I designed the journal
questions to elicit the students’ perceptions of Changes in doctoral students’ self-eicacy and
their own lifelong learning skills — speciically, perceived use of conceptual tools over time
perceptions of their capacity for self-directed In this example, I used journaling to help
learning supported by metacognitive awareness. 12 doctoral students in a semester-long course
Because the journals were due each week, they on the theoretical bases of instructional tech-
allowed me to observe and assess changes in nology focus on their per-
students’ perceived use of lifelong learning sonal preparedness to par- “Provide students
skills during their authentic activity. hrough ticipate in the professional
the students’ journals, I observed an increase community of practice with cues or guided
through scholarship and
in their use of lifelong learning skills during the
PBL project. publication (see Dunlap, in questions to help
Changes in students’ self-eicacy over time
press). he course has two
purposes: 1) to examine
them focus their
During a required semester-long under-
graduate capstone course in sotware engi-
the potentials and limita- journal responses.”
tions of technology for
neering, I used journaling to track 31 students’ teaching and promoting learning, and 2) to ex-
perceptions about their abilities to be sotware amine contemporary theoretical and research
development professionals while they worked foundations of instructional technology. To
on real projects with real clients (see Dunlap, achieve these goals, students took on leadership
2005b). he purpose of the capstone course is roles — such as scholars, writers, reviewers and
to help students apply what they have learned collaborators — in a professional community of
in previously completed sotware engineering practice interested in instructional technology.
courses to professional problems of practice. his community of practice — the NOVAtions
Using problem-based learning (PBL), a learn- online journal — situated students’ learning to
er-centered teaching approach that engages support their enculturation into the commu-
students in an iterative, continuous process nity of educational scholarship and publication
of building and reshaping understanding as a using the community’s tools for scholarship and
natural consequence of their experiences and publication, and helping them identify them-
interactions with authentic problems of prac- selves as scholars, writers and reviewers in the
tice (Barrows, 1985, 1992; Barrows & Tamblyn, community of practice.
1980; Grabinger, Dunlap, & Duield, 1997; Wal- Students completed a guided relective
ton & Matthews, 1989), students took on the journal every two weeks throughout the course.
role of sotware engineers and worked in groups he journals helped students focus on their per-
of three or four to deine actual clients’ problems ceptions of personal preparedness to partici-
and associated needs, write proposals, conduct pate in the professional community of practice
analyses, design solutions and implement and through scholarship and publication. hrough
test those solutions. their journal writing, students documented
To capture changes in students’ self-eicacy, changes in their self-eicacy and perceived use
I had students respond to a set of guided journal of conceptual tools. he guided journals showed
questions. heir responses were due every three a change in most students’ perceptions about
weeks during the semester. Using the self- their abilities to contribute as scholars — from
eicacy literature for guidance, I designed the a lack of self-eicacy before their semester-long
questions to capture self-eicacy perceptions NOVAtions experience to conidence at the end
by asking students to relect on their ability to of the semester. A few students also revealed a
organize and implement the actions needed to change in their self-eicacy based on acquiring
perform efectively in the sotware development a more realistic view of what it means to contrib-
profession (Schunk, 1989) at diferent points ute to the professional community of practice
during the PBL experience. he journals through scholarship and publication — that it

Volume 50, Number 6 TechTrends 21

 “Situate journal entails a lot more than they been working alone? What do you think
thought it did initially. you would have achieved working alone?”
questions in hese three examples In response to this set of questions, one
illustrate how guided re- student wrote:
students’ actual lective journaling activi- he development team has been an
ties can encourage students incredibly useful resource this week.
work context.” to recognize their accom- One member had a good solution
plishments throughout an instructional event for the initialization part of the
(activity, project, course), and relect on their program. One member found the
personal development of important profession- H-P list class library. One member
al content, skills and dispositions. he journals found information on protecting
in all three examples gave students a voice by the data in the classes. here was
allowing them to describe — in their own words some confusion about the readings,
— the changes they were experiencing and the so I provided a summary, double-
accomplishments they were achieving, enabling checked it with the instructor, and
me to track changes in their perceptions about then presented it to the team. So I
their professional development. feel we have all been contributing
this week, with important solutions
Recommendations for to problems, and I know I wouldn’t
structuring journal-writing have been able to do it all without
everyone’s help.
activities
his student’s journal response illustrates
hese three examples illustrate the power of
how this set of questions helped him relect
journal-writing activities as a way of encourag-
on and articulate his perspectives related to
ing students’ relective thinking, and giving fac-
the collaborative activities of the week.
ulty a way to assess students’ relective practice
2.Situate journal questions in students’ actual
and perceptual changes. Based on my experi-
work context. Situating journal questions
ences and the lessons I have learned while us-
in a work context helps students make
ing guided relective journals with students in
connections between what you are asking
several of my courses, I have deined a number
them to relect on and their actual activities.
of strategies that can increase the likelihood of
For example, in Point 1 above, I could have
this instructional technology’s success for self-
asked students, “What is the value of working
and instructor assessment in the classroom. My
collaboratively with others?” By asking them
recommendations for structuring journal-writ-
to consider speciic collaborative activities of
ing activities with students are presented below
the week, and what everyone accomplished
within four categories: constructing journal
because of that speciic collaboration,
questions that work, scheduling journal writing
students not only addressed the “what is
activities, reinforcing the value of journaling,
the value of…” question but also engaged
and supporting students’ journaling.
in important relection about what they had
Constructing journal questions that work learned and achieved.
1.Provide students with cues or guided 3.Construct the guiding questions to capture
questions to help them focus their journal the conceptual and perceptual changes in
responses. Open-ended journaling can which you are interested. I use the literature
be useful to encourage creativity and to help formulate the questions used in
brainstorming, but if you are looking for my courses. his helped me to construct
evidence of particular outcomes, be speciic questions that focus the students’ responses
about what and how much you want students on the issues I want to track. For example,
to share. In all three examples above, I was when using journaling activities to track
looking for evidence of speciic perceptual changes in students’ perception regarding
changes, so used guided questions to help their use of lifelong learning skills, I used
students focus on those aspects of their the literature to deine lifelong learning
activity. For example, to capture changes skills, which in turn enabled me to construct
in students’ perceptions about the value speciic journal questions that would
of working collaboratively with others, I encourage students to relect on those
asked, “Describe your contributions to a skills. One of the lifelong learning skills I
collaborative efort this week. What did you was tracking, based on the literature, was
achieve? What did others achieve? What ability to activate relevant prior knowledge
would you have done diferently if you had and assimilate new learning. herefore, I
22 TechTrends Volume 50, Number 6
 asked students to respond to the following adjustment to the question — “What human
questions in their journals: resources (such as your peers, practitioners
What did you already know that was available via online forums or in the ield,
helpful this week? Don’t restrict your or your instructor) did you use this week,
answer to things learned in this course. and why? How did it work out?” — solved
Did you learn something in other the problem.
computer science courses that was useful? 5. Change up your questions so students do
Any debugging techniques? Any work not get bored answering the same ones
experience? Any way of approaching a repeatedly. Even if you want to track the
problem? How were these things useful? same change over time, you can ask the
What new information did you question in a diferent way. For example,
acquire this week that changed your instead of asking, “What new skills have
understanding of the problem that you you learned over the last two weeks?”
had last week? How did you acquire this each time, you can gather the same
information? information by asking learners to do the
4. Conduct a formative evaluation of the following, “Update your resume to relect
journal questions before using them with the new skills you have learned over the
students to make sure they elicit the desired last two weeks.” Because I was interested in
responses. he formative evaluation can tracking speciic changes throughout the
identify poorly formed questions that instructional event, I worked very hard to
receive short and shallow responses, and create sets of questions that were worded
questions that generate responses that are diferently and had students thinking about
not successful in capturing the intended the topic in diferent ways (such as the two
conceptual or perceptual change. For questions above), but helped me achieve
example, one question I designed early on my tracking objective.
was, “What human resources did you use
Scheduling journal-writing activities
this week, and why?” During formative
6.Weekly journaling can
evaluation, I realized three problems with
the question:
lead to burnout, which
diminishes the quantity
“ I always ask three to
•฀ Many students did not know what I and quality of students’ ive students who are
journal responses. As
meant by human resources; not members of my
an alternative to weekly
•฀ If they did know what I meant, they
journaling, ask students
focused their response on how they
used the instructor to answer questions
to submit journals every ultimate audience
two or three weeks. his
instead of considering how they used
is the strategy I used to respond to the
their peers or practitioners available via
online discussion forums; and
in two of the examples
presented above, and the
questions before I use
•฀ I did not get all of the information I
desired because I wanted students to
spacing helped maintain them in a course.”
students’ willingness to
also evaluate the efectiveness of their
journal and the value of their responses over
use of human resources.
the course of the semester (in the irst example,
I discovered these problems by working
students engaged in weekly journaling over a
with a focus group. I always ask three to
ive-week period, so burnout did not set in).
ive students who are not members of
Another option is to time journal-writing
my ultimate audience to respond to the
activities to coincide with key points during
questions before I use them in a course.
projects (e.g., ater a presentation to the
hen, ater looking at their responses to
client, at milestone and go/no-go points and
determine which questions provide me with
at the conclusion) and learning activities
the information I want and which do not, I
(e.g., before and ater a signiicant teaching
invite the same students to help me enhance
event such as a ield trip or debate, or ater
the questions that did not work. his focus
a midterm examination). Besides giving
group structure allows me to ask “what if ”
students a break from a weekly activity, this
questions about possible enhancements,
timing provides students with a clear context
and encourages me to consider diferent and
for relection; helps them articulate new
unique ways of asking for the information I
learning, achievements and appreciations;
want. In working with the focus group on
reinforces that relection is a normal, on-
the question above, I found that a simple

Volume 50, Number 6 TechTrends 23

 “Change up your going activity in which the doctoral students. I asked the doctoral
professionals engage; students to relect on the journaling activities
questions so students and promotes a habit of for the entire semester and to provide feedback
relection. on how to improve it in the future. Instead of
do not get bored Reinforcing the value of
providing me feedback, they focused on and
were fascinated by the changes they discerned
answering the same journaling
7.Explain why you are ask-
in their responses over time. he debrieing
process ended up reinforcing how much they
ones repeatedly. ing students to respond
had achieved during the course, how much
to journal questions. he
Weekly journaling their ideas and perspectives had evolved and
journal-writing process
how much more conident they were about
helps people learn from
can lead to burnout, experience by prompting
their abilities.
10.Respond to students, either individually or
them to engage in relec-
which diminishes the tion-in-action (relection
collectively. If you do not respond, students
will question the value of the process and the
quantity and quality while involved in the
activity) and relection-
value of what they have shared. When you as
an instructor respond to the students’ journal
of students’ journal on-action (relection af-
entries it establishes your commitment to the
ter the activity) (Schön,
responses.” process and sends a clear message that you
1987), which is founda-
care about what they have to say. If you have
tional to being relective
a large group, or student responses have some
practitioners. Share this
uniformity, you can respond to students as
belief with students, and share examples of
a group, focusing on common comments,
relective activities in professional contexts
issues, concerns, revelations and so on. I did
(e.g., project debriefs, milestone presenta-
not use this strategy in the courses described
tions and reports and project/status tracking
in this article because they were part of a series
journals; see the next section). In my courses,
of research studies and the research design
the journaling is part of students’ class par-
prohibited instructor feedback. Responding
ticipation grade, but I do not formally evalu-
to students’ journal responses in my other
ate students’ journal responses for content.
courses, however, has encouraged students
herefore, in order to elicit insightful re-
to take the journaling more seriously; helped
sponses consistently over time, students need
create a safe environment for students to
to understand how and why relection is an
express themselves, share their ideas and
important professional value so they do not
ask questions; and helped me anticipate
come to see the relective process as strictly
and proactively address students’ questions
an academic exercise.
and potential problem areas. For example,
8. Make the journal format relect professional,
relecting on the value of the journaling
workplace journal formats when appropriate.
activity, one student shared:
In some professions, keeping a journal is a
Previously and within other cours-
required activity for tracking status, ideas,
es there was not as much freedom and
decisions and so forth and takes on legal
encouragement to express your own
implications. Using an existing professional
professional views. Because you [the
format helps students learn about the value of
instructor] have read and answered
journal writing in the workplace. For example,
and commented on my journals I feel
in the computer science courses, students
that my learning has been enhanced
were introduced to project diaries as a way of
and supported in a very positive way
tracking all work done on a particular project,
with this course. My conidence has
including the details of conversations with
been given a boost and I hope to con-
stakeholders, decisions made, goals achieved
tinue on this path.
and lessons learned.
9. Encourage students to revisit their previous 11.Making journal-writing activities a formal
responses so they can witness their own requirement of your courses and assigning
growth and development over time. his is points accordingly is another way to value
a powerful relection activity for students the students’ efort and time. Students in all
because it reinforces achievements and shows three examples shared in this article received
them how far they have come. I discovered points for complete and timely responses.
the value of this strategy when working with

24 TechTrends Volume 50, Number 6

Supporting students’ journaling journal questions a few “ Students need to
12.Allow students to practice relective days in advance so they
journaling under “low stakes” circumstances. can schedule their jour- understand how
In each of my courses, I give students up to naling when it makes
three opportunities to practice journaling sense for them. I used and why relection
so the unfamiliarity of the activity does to have students jour-
not get in the way of their ability to express nal at the end of class is an important
sessions, which result-
themselves. I grade journal responses on
thoughtful relection, not on content. I do ed in rushed respons- professional value
not downgrade students for incomplete or es and compromised so they do not come
overly terse responses without irst ofering quality. Now I send the
the student an opportunity to elaborate journal questions to to see the relective
on inadequate responses. For example, students via email or
one student wrote, “I don’t understand a Web form ater class process as strictly an
Chapter 6 and what it has to do with project and give them a certain
management,” so I went back to the student amount of time (e.g., academic exercise.”
and asked him to elaborate on what he did 48 hours) to respond.
not understand. 16.Stop guiding the journal-writing activi-
13.Model relective thinking by providing ex- ties once you believe students can journal
amples of journal responses. hese examples without cues. Although I did not do this in
will also show students how much detail you the three courses shared in this article since
want or expect them to provide. For example, they were part of a research study series, I
I provide students with my own responses to typically discontinue my guidance three-
the journal questions or a set of responses quarters of the way through the semester
from a previous student if I have her or his or project. You may ind that your guided
permission. questions in and of themselves have helped
14.Email journal questions and have the students students see what questions they should be
return their responses to you via email using asking themselves during learning and per-
word-processed documents (or, alternatively, formance activities, and that even without
make journal questions available via a Web your cues they are able to relect on their
form that students can ill out and submit). work and practice appropriately. Moreover,
his allows students time to compose you ultimately want relection to become
thoughtful, detailed responses, and makes it part of students’ normal practice and for
easier to sort, search and save their responses them to feel ownership over the process.
for future reference. Encourage students to Otherwise, it will just be an assignment and
save a backup copy of their journal responses not an integrated, internalized part of their
before emailing them or pasting them into professional activities.
a Web form. his will help eliminate “he
computer ate my journal!” excuses. I handled Conclusion
the journal submissions for all three examples Journaling is “a method of promoting
described in this article electronically, making exploration and facilitating relection on
it very easy for me to (a) compile responses learning and new experiences within the context
into a spreadsheet so I could track individual in which the learning unfolds” (Gillis, 2001, p.
students over time, and (b) create documents 49). Because journal writing focuses students’
for each student so they could also relect on attention on personal development of cognitive
their journal responses over time. and metacognitive skills, students’ ability to
15.Allow students to compose their journal re- analyze their own learning and put learning
sponses in their own space and on their own into practice is facilitated (Schön, 1983, 1987).
time. Relection is not something that can be In the examples described above, the journal-
rushed or scheduled to occur during the last writing activities gave students an opportunity
ten minutes of class. It is important for stu- to relect on and articulate their perceptions of
dents to be comfortable and stress-free when their learning processes and achievements, and
they respond to journal questions so they allowed me to track and assess the conceptual
can really focus their attention on the pro- and perceptual changes students experienced
cess. Relection may come easier for some to determine if speciic learning goals were
students when they are in their pajamas with being achieved. Journaling engaged students in
a cup of tea! To this end, send students the the type of relective activity that put them in a

Volume 50, Number 6 TechTrends 25

better position to translate theory into practice (Argyris & Connor-Greene, P. (2000). Making connections: Evaluating the
Schön, 1987), and succeeded in encouraging them to relect efectiveness of journal writing in enhancing student learning.
on their personal practice and development. he questions Teaching of Psychology, 27, 1, 44-46.
gave students cues as to issues they should consider, helped Dunlap, J. C. (2005a). Changes in students’ use of lifelong learning
skills during a problem-based learning project. Performance
them focus on what and how they were learning and helped
Improvement Quarterly, 18(1), 5-33.
them assess what they had done and what they would do Dunlap, J. C. (2005b). Problem-based learning and self-eicacy: How
diferently in the future. a capstone course prepares students for a profession. Educational
Journal writing is both a product and a process that Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 65-85.
helps us “capture an experience, record an event, explore Dunlap, J. C. (2006, in press). he efect of a problem-centered,
our feelings, or make sense of what we know” (Boud, 2001, enculturating experience on doctoral students’ self-eicacy. he
p. 9). Using guided relective journal writing to capture Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1(2). [http://
students’ experiences, perspectives and stories — their docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/all_issues.html]
perceptions and perceptual changes — as they participate Erdman, J. (1983). Assessing the purposes of early ield placement
in various learning experiences provides educators with a programs. Journal of Teacher Education, 34, 27-31.
unique technology for assessing cognitive and perceptual Flower, L., & Hayes, J. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing.
College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387.
changes that are hard to measure with conventional evalu-
Fogarty, R., & McTighe, J. (1993). Educating teachers for higher order
ation methods (e.g., exams, essays, PowerPoint presenta- thinking: he three-story intellect. heory into Practice, 32(3),
tions). Additionally, journal-writing activities recognize 161-169.
that “humans are storytelling organisms who, individually Gillis, A. (2001). Journal writing in health education. New Directions
and collectively, lead storied lives” (Connelly & Clandinin, for Adult and Continuing Education, 90, 49-58.
1990, p. 2). he use of journaling as an instructional tech- Gipe, J., & Richards, J. (1990). Promoting relection about reading
nology gives students a voice by allowing them to describe instruction through journaling. Journal of Reading Education,
— in their own words — the cognitive and perceptual 15(3), 6-13.
changes they experience and the accomplishments they Gipe, J., & Richards, J. (1992). Relective thinking and growth in
achieve during their learning experiences. novices’ teaching abilities. Journal of Educational Research, 86(1),
52-57.
Joanna C. Dunlap, PhD, CPT is an associate professor at the University Grabinger, R.S., Dunlap, J.C., & Duield, J. (1997). Student-centered
of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center. Her teaching and learning environments in action: Problem-based learning.
research interests focus on the use of sociocultural approaches to enhance Association for Learning Technology Journal (ALT-J), 5(2), 5-17.
adult learners’ development and experience in post-secondary settings. Hettich, P. (1990). Journal writing: Old fare or nouvelle cuisine?
Teaching of Psychology, 17, 36-39.
Hodges, H. (1996). Journal writing as a mode of thinking for RN-
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26 TechTrends • November/December 2006 Volume 50, Number 6