Soil Mechanics

SRGI (Dip. 5th Sem)

Code: 220515 (20)
Topic – Unit 3
By
Monkeshwar Chandrakar
(Asst. Prof)
Dept. of Civil Engineering
RSR - Rungta College of Engineering and Technology,
Bhilai (C.G.)
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 Chapter – 3 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
Definition of :
• Coarse and fine grained soil
• Homogeneity
• Consistency
• Cohesiveness
• Toughness
• Shear strength
• Compressibility
• Difference between coarse and fine grained soil
• Two methods of soil classification,
• Grain size classification of soil as per I.S.I and classification of
soil using plasticity chart
 Chapter-3
• Sieve analysis
• Stoke’s law
• Sedimentation analysis of soil
• Particle size - Distribution curve on semi log scale
• States of consistency and its diagram
• Consistency limits- Liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage
limit and plasticity index (P.I)
• Laboratory methods to find out these limits
• Field identification tests
Definitions
 Coarse and Fine grained soil
COARSE GRAINED SOIL:
• Coarse grained soils are identified primarily on the basis of particle
size or grain size. Individual particles are visible by naked eye.
• Coarse grained soils are divided into two groups, Sand & Gravel.
Particles having diameter larger than 4.75 mm is called Gravel and
particles having diameter in between 4.75 mm to 75 micron is
called Sand.
• Verbal description of coarse grained soil is done on the basis of its
gradation (well or poor), particle shape (angular, sub-angular,
rounded or sub-rounded) & mineralogical components.
 Coarse grained soil
• Coarse grained soil exhibit a good load bearing capacity.
• Coarse grained soil posse’s good drainage qualities.
• There is no volume change with change in moisture condition.
• There is no appreciable amount of change in strength
characteristic by change in moisture condition.
• Vibration accentuates volume change in loose state, by
arranging the soil fabric.
• Engineering properties are controlled by the grain size of the
particles and their structural arrangement.
• When touched by hand it feels gritty.
 FINE GRAINED SOIL
FINE GRAINED SOIL:
• Fine grained soils are identified on the basis of its plasticity.
Individual particles are not visible by naked eye.
• Fine grained soils are also divided in two groups, Silt & Clay.
Particles having diameter in between 75 micron to 2 micron
are called Silt and particles having diameter smaller than 2
micron is called Clay.
• Verbal description of fine grained soil is done on the basis
of its dry strength, dilatancy (It is the volume change
observed in granular materials when they are subjected to
shear deformations.), dispersion and plasticity.
 FINE GRAINED SOIL
• Fine grained soil exhibit a poor load bearing capacity.
• Fine grained soil is practically impermeable in nature
because of its small particles size.
• Volume change occurs with change in moisture content.
• Strength changes with change in moisture condition.
• Fine grained soil is susceptible to frost action.
• Engineering properties are controlled by mineralogical
factors.
• When touched by hand it feels smooth, greasy and
sticky.
 Homogeneity
• homogeneous material or system has the
same properties at every point; it is uniform
without irregularities.
Consistency
Consistency
Cohesiveness
Cohesion
 Toughness
• Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy
and plastically deform without fracturing. One definition
of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit
volume that a material can absorb before rupturing.
• This measure of toughness is different from that used
for fracture toughness, which describes load bearing
capabilities of materials with flaws. It is also defined as a
material's resistance to fracture when stressed.
• Toughness requires a balance of strength and ductility.
 Shear Strength
• Shear strength of a soil is indicative of its resistance
to erosion. Specifically, it is defined as the resistance
to deformation by the action of tangential
(shear) stress.
• Soil shear strength is made up of cohesion between
particles and resistance of particles sliding over each
other due to friction or interlocking.
What is shear?
• Shear is nothing but the relative displacements f soil particle
when subjected to loading (ext. or int.). Hence the loading
causes motion in soil particles.
What is shear strength?
• The shear strength is the maximum resistance or stress that a
particular soil can offer against failure over its improper surface
loading.
The main constituents of shear strength are :
• the structural resistance offered by interlocking of particles
• the frictional resistance offered by particles due to their shape
and surface
• the cohesion and adhesion
 Shear Strength
• “The capacity of a soil to resist the internal and
external forces which slide past each other” Shear
Strength in Soils : - The shear strength of a soil is its
resistance to shearing stresses. - It is a measure of the
soil resistance to deformation by continuous
displacement of its individual soil particles.
• Shear strength in soils depends primarily on
interactions between particles. -Shear failure occurs
when the stresses between the particles are such that
they slide or roll past each other
 The various types of shear tests are:
1. Direct shear test
2. Triaxial shear test:
• Consolidated drained (CD) test
• Consolidated undrained (CU) test
• Unconsolidated undrained (UU) test
• 3. Vane shear test
 Compressibility
• Soil compressibility is the ease with which
a soil decreases in volume when subjected to a
mechanical load.
• The process that describes the decrease in soil volume
(soil densification) under an externally applied load is
defined as compression.
• When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force,
its volume decreases. The property of the soil due to
which a decrease in volume occurs under compressive
force is known as the compressibility of soil.
The compression of soil can occur due to:
• Compression of solid particles and water in the
voids
• Compression and expulsion of air in the voids
• Expulsion of water in the voids
The compression of saturated soil under a steady
static pressure is known as consolidation. It is
entirely due to expulsion of water from the voids.
 Atterberg Limits (Consistency Limits)
In 1911, the Swedish agriculturist Atterberg
divided the entire range of soil state (from liquid
to solid state) into four stages, which is known as
Atterberg Limits or Consistency Limits.
1. The liquid state,
2. The plastic state,
3. The semi-solid state, and
4. The solid state.
• He set arbitrary limits, known as consistency
limits or Atterberg limits, for these divisions in
terms of water content.

• Thus, the consistency limits are the water

contents at which the soil mass passes from one
state to the next.
The Atterberg limits which are most useful for
engineering purposes are the liquid limit, plastic
limit, and shrinkage limit. These limits are
expressed as percent water content.

Liquid Limit.
Liquid Limit is defined as the minimum water
content at percent on dry bases at which the soil
changes its state from Liquid to Plastic State.
• With reference to the standard liquid limit device,
it is defined as the minimum water content at
which a part of soil cut by a groove of standard
dimensions, will flow together for a distance of
12 mm under an impact of 25 blows in the
device.
Plastic Limit.Plastic Limit is defined as the
minimum water content at percent on dry bases at
which a soil enters from Semi-Solid State to Plastic
State.
 Shrinkage Limit.

Shrinkage limit is defined as, the maximum water

content at which a reduction in water content will
not cause a decrease in the volume of a soil mass.

It is lowest water content at which soil can still be

completely saturated.
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 Plasticity Index.

The range of consistency within which a soil exhibits

plastic properties is called plastic range and is
indicated by plasticity index.

The plasticity index is defined as, the numerical

difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit of a soil: P.I = LL – PL.
In the case of sandy soils, the plastic limit should be
determined first. When plastic limit cannot be
determined, the plasticity index is reported as NP
(non-plastic).

When the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the

liquid limit, the plasticity index is reported as zero.
 Plasticity.

Plasticity is defined as that property of a soil

which allows it to be deformed rapidly, without
rupture, without elastic rebound, and without
volume change.
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 Soil Grain Analysis
Grain Size Distribution
(Particle Size Analysis)
(Coarse and Fine grain analysis)

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1. Sieve Analysis:
A standard set of IS sieve is used. A weighed
quantity of air-dried soil is taken and placed on the
top most set of sieves, and sieved by through-
shaking or by using an automatic sieve-shaker.The
percentage of the material retained on each sieve,
and the cumulative percentage retained is obtained.
The percentage passing through each sieve, or the
“percent finer” as it is called, is obtained by
deducting the percentage of the material retained,
from 100.
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The resulting data are conventionally presented as a
grain size distribution curve, with the sieve size on a
horizontal logarithmic scale and the percent finer by
weight on a vertical arithmetic scale.A wide range
of particle sizes can be shown in a single plot
(including the fine fraction-silt and clay) by using
the logarithmic scale. The result of sieve analysis
can be tabulated as shown in Table
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 2. Sedimentation Analysis:

Sedimentation analysis is the most convenient

method for determining the grain size distribution
of the soil fraction finer than 75 micron in size. The
analysis is based on Stokes’ law, according to
which the velocities of free fall of spherical, fine
particles, through a liquid are different for different
sizes.
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According to Stokes’ law, the terminal velocity v is
given by –
Procedure of Sedimentation Analysis:

It consists in preparing a soil specimen in suspension

(of fine fraction) in a jar and sampling at different
time intervals (by pipette), or determining the
specific gravity of the suspension (by hydrometer), at
the sampling depth. This would provide the means of
determining the content of particles of different sizes.
Since the soil particles are dispersed uniformly
throughout the suspension, and according to
Stokes’ law, particles of the same size settle at the
same rate, particles of a given size, wherever they
exist, have the same degree of concentration as at
the commencement of the test.As such, particles
smaller than a given size will be present in the
same degree of concentration as at the start, and
particles larger than this size would already have
settled below the sampling depth.
Thus, the percentage of particles finer than a
specified size may be got by determining their
concentration at that depth at different times either
with the aid of a pipette or a hydrometer.
Although there are some limitations in the use of
Stokes’ law for sedimentation analysis, satisfactory
results are obtained with small but appropriate
modifications in the actual procedure of the
conduct of the test.
If a pipette is used, it is called ‘pipette analysis’ and if
a hydrometer is used, it is called ‘hydrometer
analysis’. The pipette analysis is more direct and
simple in concept, but needs sensitive weighing
apparatus to obtain satisfactory results.
Similarly, if a hydrometer is used, several corrections
to the observed hydrometer readings, namely,
meniscus correction, temperature correction, and
deflocculating agent correction may have to be applied
before they could be used for the computation of unit
weight of the soil suspension.
2. The soil particles in the soil suspension may have
different values of specific gravity. But in the
computations, an average value of G is used.
3. The lower limit of particle size for validity of
Stokes’ law is 0.0002 mm. However, the upper limit
for the same is 0.2 mm. For particles of size less than
0.0002 mm, Brownian movement affects their
settlement and in the case of particles larger than 0.2
mm, turbulence affects the settlement.
Corrections in Hydrometer Analysis
 Methods of Soil Classification
• Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups
each having similar characteristics and potentially similar
behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes should be
based mainly on mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness,
strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its
description.
• The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions
which will allow useful comparisons to be made between
different soils. The system must be simple. The relevant criteria
for classifying soils are the size distribution of particles and
the plasticity of the soil.
• https://archive.org/details/gov.in.is.1498.1970
 Indian Standard Soil Classification System
• Classification Based on Grain Size
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very large:
from boulders with dimension of over 300 mm down to clay
particles that are less than 0.002 mm. Some clays contain
particles less than 0.001 mm in size which behave as colloids,
i.e. do not settle in water.
• In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS), soils
are classified into groups according to size, and the groups are
further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups.
• The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil
particles into boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.
 Indian Standard Soil Classification System

Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group

symbols G, S, M, and C respectively
• Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than
50% of the soil material by weight has particle sizes
greater than
0.075 mm. They are basically divided into
either gravels (G) or sands (S).
• According to gradation, they are further grouped as
well-graded (W) or poorly graded (P). If fine soils are
present, they are grouped as containing silt fines (M)
or as containing clay fines (C).
• For example, the combined symbol SW refers to well-
graded sand with no fines.
• Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil
can aid in establishing its identity and description. Some
typical grading curves are shown.
Curve A - a poorly-graded medium SAND

Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having equal

amounts of gravel and sand)

Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND

Curve D - a sandy SILT

Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand)

• Fine-grained soils are those for which more than
50% of the material has particle sizes less than 0.075
mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which water
adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
• A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit
(WL) and plasticity index (IP), is provided in ISSCS to
aid classification. The 'A' line in this chart is
expressed as IP = 0.73 (WL - 20).
• Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays
(C), silts (M), or organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed
as a percentage of the mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil
to the mass of the dry soil solids. Three divisions of plasticity are
also defined as follows.

• The 'A' line and vertical lines at WL equal to 35% and 50% separate
the soils into various classes.
• For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of high
plasticity.
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows: