LECTURE 2:

BIOMOLECULES: - PROTEINS,
LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES AND ENZYMES.

DR. SANAWAR IQBAL

BSc (PU), B.D.S (PMC),

M.S Health Administration

(IAS,PU)

PMS 2015

AD MOD 2019

Deputy Account Officer 2020

GENERAL SCIENCE Election Officer 2020

(BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES) CSS 2020

AC IRS
 General Science
LECTURE 2
 Biomolecules: - Proteins, Lipids, Carbohydrates and Enzymes.

BIOMOLECULE
 A biomolecule or biological molecule is a loosely used term for molecules
present in organisms that are essential to one or more typically biological
processes, such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development.

 Biomolecules include large macromolecules (or polyanions) such as

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules
such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites and natural products.

 A more general name for this class of material is biological materials.

 Biomolecules are an important element of living organisms, those

biomolecules are often endogenous,produced within the organism but
organisms usually need exogenous biomolecules, for example certain
nutrients, to survive.

METABOLISM:

 The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to

maintain life.

 Metabolism is the process by which your body converts what you eat and
drink into energy.
Types of metabolism

 Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two categories:

1. Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy.

2. Anabolism - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells

Basal Metabolic Rate is the number of calories required to keep your

body functioning at rest.

MACRONUTRIENTS:
 There are three macronutrients: carbohydrates, protein and fats.

 Macronutrients are essential for proper body functioning, and the

body requires large amounts of them.

 All macronutrients must be obtained through diet; the body cannot

produce macronutrients on its own.
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found
in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products.
 Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic
food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
DEFINITION
“A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–
oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical
formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may or may not be different from n).”

Saccharide = sugar

"Carbohydrates are macronutrients, meaning they are one of

the three main ways the body obtains energy, or calories.
Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. They are called
carbohydrates because, at the chemical level, they contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.

 The recommended daily amount (RDA) of carbs for adults is 135 grams,
according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH); however, the NIH also
recommends that everyone should have his or her own carbohydrate goal.
 Carb intake for most people should be between 45% and 65% of total
calories.
 One gram of carbohydrates equals about 4 calories.
Function of carbohydrates

I. Carbohydrates provide fuel for the central nervous system.

II. Energy for working muscles.
III. Carbohydrates are important for brain function.
IV. They are an influence on "mood, memory, etc., as well as a quick energy
source.

Simple vs. complex carbohydrates

 Carbohydrates are classified as simple or complex.

 The difference between the two forms is
a. The chemical structure and
b. How quickly the sugar is absorbed and digested.

MONOSACCHARIDES:
 Simple carbohydrates contain just one or two sugars, such as fructose
(found in fruits) and galactose (found in milk products). These single sugars
are called monosaccharides.
 Three of the most important simple sugars—
I. glucose (also known as dextrose, grape sugar, and corn sugar),
II. fructose (fruit sugar), and
III. galactose—
 All three of them have the same molecular formula, (C6H12O6), but,
because their atoms have different structural arrangements, the sugars
have different characteristics; i.e., they are isomers.
 Simple carbs are also in candy, soda and syrups. However, these foods are
made with processed and refined sugars and do not have vitamins,
minerals or fiber. They are called "empty calories" and can lead to weight
gain, according to the NIH.
DISACCHARIDES:
 Carbs with two sugars — such as sucrose (table sugar), lactose (from dairy)
and maltose (found in beer and some vegetables) — are called
disaccharides.
I. lactose, found in milk, which is made up of glucose and galactose
II. sucrose, or table sugar, which is made up of glucose and fructose
 Simple carbs can lead to spikes in blood sugar levels and sugar highs, while
complex carbs provide more sustained energy.
GOOD CARBS VS BAD CARBS
 Carbs commonly considered bad include pastries, sodas, highly processed
foods, white rice, white bread and other white-flour foods. Bad carbs rarely
have any nutritional value.
 Carbs usually considered good are complex carbs, such as whole grains,
fruits, vegetables, beans and legumes. These are not only processed more
slowly, but they also contain a bounty of other nutrients.
Good carbs are:
a. Low or moderate in calories
b. High in nutrients
c. Devoid of refined sugars and refined grains
d. High in naturally occurring fiber
e. Low in sodium
f. Low in saturated fat
g. Very low in, or devoid of, cholesterol and trans fats

Bad carbs are:

a. High in calories
b. Full of refined sugars, like corn syrup, white sugar, honey and fruit
juices
c. High in refined grains like white flour
d. Low in many nutrients
e. Low in fiber
f. High in sodium
g. Sometimes high in saturated fat
h. Sometimes high in cholesterol and trans fats
  Carbohydrates in foods occur in various forms, including the following:
a. Dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate that the body cannot easily
digest. It occurs naturally in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans,
and whole grains.
b. Total sugars, which include sugars that occur naturally in foods, such
as dairy products, as well as added sugars, which are common in
baked goods, sweets, and desserts. The body very easily digests and
absorbs sugars.
c. Sugar alcohols, a type of carbohydrate that the body does not fully
absorb. They have a sweet taste and fewer calories than sugar. Sugar
alcohols are added to foods as reduced-calorie sweeteners, such as
in chewing gum, baked goods, and sweets.

Carbohydrate deficiency
1) Not getting enough carbs can cause problems.
2) Without sufficient fuel, the body gets no energy.
3) Additionally, without sufficient glucose, the central nervous system suffers,
which may cause dizziness or mental and physical weakness.
4) A deficiency of glucose, or low blood sugar, is called hypoglycemia.
5) People who don't consume enough carbohydrates may also suffer from
insufficient fiber, which can cause digestive problems and constipation.
 PROTEINS
 Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that are comprised of
one or more long chains of amino acid residues
 A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide.
 A protein contains at least one long polypeptide.
 Short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely
considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes
oligopeptides.
 The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds
and adjacent amino acid residues.
 The sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the
sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code.
 Some proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called
prosthetic groups or cofactors
 Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who in 1838 coined the term protein,
a word derived from the Greek prōteios, meaning “holding first place.”
 Proteins are species-specific; that is, the proteins of one species differ from
those of another species.
 They are also organ-specific; for instance, within a single organism, muscle
proteins differ from those of the brain and liver.

SOURCES:
1. Plants can synthesize all of the amino acids; animals cannot, even
though all of them are essential for life.
2. Plants can grow in a medium containing inorganic nutrients that
provide nitrogen, potassium, and other substances essential for growth.
3. They utilize the carbon dioxide in the air during the process of
photosynthesis to form organic compounds such as carbohydrates.
4. Animals, however, must obtain organic nutrients from outside
sources.
5. All food made from meat, poultry, seafood, beans and peas, eggs,
processed soy products, nuts and seeds are considered part of the protein
group
Amino acid composition of proteins
 The common property of all proteins is that they consist of long chains of α-
amino (alpha amino) acids.
 The general structure of α-amino acids is shown below.
 The α-amino acids are so called because the α-carbon atom in the molecule
carries an amino group (―NH2); the α-carbon atom also carries a carboxyl
group (―COOH).
 It is customary to write the structure of peptides in such a way that the free
α-amino group (also called the N terminus of the peptide) is at the left side
and the free carboxyl group (the C terminus) at the right side.
 Proteins are macromolecular polypeptides—i.e., very large molecules
(macromolecules) composed of many peptide-bonded amino acids.
How much protein?
 The Institute of Medicine recommends that 10 to 35 percent of daily
calories come from protein. How that equates to grams of protein depends
on the caloric needs of the individual.
What does protein do in the body?
 Protein is present in every body cell, and an adequate protein intake is
important for keeping the muscles, bones, and tissues healthy.
 Protein plays a role in many bodily processes, including:
1. blood clotting
2. fluid balance
3. immune system responses
4. vision
5. hormones
6. enzymes
7. Protein is important for growth and development

Protein and calories

 Protein is a source of calories. Generally, protein and carbohydrates contain
4 calories per gram. Fats contain 9 calories per gram.
Protein deficiency
 Protein deficiency can lead to malnutrition, such as kwashiorkor and
marasmus, which can be life threatening.
Causes of protein defeciency
Protein deficiency can arise if a person has a health condition,
including:
1. An eating disorder, such as anorexia nervosa
2. certain genetic conditions
3. advanced stages of cancer
4. difficulty absorbing nutrients due to a health issue such as irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS) or gastric bypass surgery Trusted Source
Effects of Low protein intake
I. weak muscle tone
II. edema or swelling due to fluid retention
III. thin, brittle hair
IV. skin lesions
V. in adults, a loss of muscle mass
VI. in children, growth deficits
VII. hormone imbalances
 LIPIDS
 A lipid is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in water and
soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.
 Lipids are an important component of living cells.
 Lipids include fatty acids, neutral fats, waxes and steroids (like cortisone).
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1. Chemical messengers
2. Storage and provision of energy
3. Maintenance of temperature
4. Membrane lipid layer formation
5. Cholesterol formation
6. Prostaglandin formation and role in inflammation
STRUCTURE OF LIPIDS
 ENZYMES
 Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts (biocatalysts).
 Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions.
 The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the
enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as
products.
 Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to
occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.
 Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze individual steps.
STRUCTURE OF ENZYMES
 Enzymes are generally globular proteins, acting alone or in larger
complexes.
 The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn
determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme.
 Enzyme structures unfold (denature) when heated or exposed to chemical
denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of
activity
HOW ENZYME WORKS?

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES:
1. Enzymes catalyze all kinds of chemical reactions that are involved in
growth, blood coagulation, healing, diseases, breathing, digestion, reproduction,
and many other biological activities.
2. On biological aspects, enzymes are instrumental substances to many
functions in living organisms
3. Signal Transduction
4. Macromolecules Degradation
5. Energy Generation
6. Ion Pumps
7. Defense and Clearance
8. Cell Regulation
9. Generate movement, with myosin hydrolyzing ATP to generate muscle
contraction
10. Transport intracellular substances around the cell as part of the
cytoskeleton.
11. Enzymes are important players in many other functions, including immune
responses and aging processes.
TYPES OF ENZYMES
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