Lecture 5:

GIS Data Management

GE 118: INTRODUCTION TO GIS

 Simple list
 Ordered sequential files
 Indexed files

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Simple List
 Simplest file structure
 Unordered/unstructured
 Arrangement is by whichever comes first

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Ordered Sequential Files
 Simple lists that are arranged according to
some order (ex. Alphabetical order)

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Indexed Files
 An index to the directory is needed for more
efficient searches involving finding entries
given certain criteria
 Can be developed as direct files or inverted
files

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Direct Indexed Files
 Records are used to provide access to other
pertinent information

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Indirect Indexed Files
 Index is based on possible search criteria,
not on the entities themselves
 Attributes are the primary search criteria and
the entities rely on them for selection

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Database
 An integrated set of data on a particular
subject
 Collection of interrelated data stored
together with controlled redundancy to
serve one or more applications in an
optimal fashion
 Requires more elaborate structure
called a database structure or
database management system

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Significance of Database
 Most GIS activities consist of storing entity and
attribute data so that we can retrieve any
combination of these objects.
 Each graphical feature must be stored explicitly with
its attributes so that their combined search becomes
faster.

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Advantages of Database over
File-based datasets
 Collecting data at a single location reduces
redundancy and duplication
 Lower maintenance cost due to better organization
and decreased data duplication
 Multiple applications can use the same data and can
evolve separately over time

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Advantages of Database over
File-based datasets
 User knowledge can be transferred between
applications more easily because database remains
constant
 Facilitated data sharing, with a corporate view
provided to data managers and users
 Security and standards for data and data access
can be established and enforced

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Database Management System
 A software application designed to organize
the efficient and effective storage and access
to data
 A suite of software programs designed to
store, retrieve and manipulate data within a
database

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Types of Database Structure
1. Hierarchical Data Structures
2. Network Systems
3. Relational Database Structures

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Hierarchical Data Structure
 ‘one-to-many’ or ‘parent-child’ relationship
 Implies that each element has a direct relationship
to a number of symbolic children
 Each child is capable of having the same direct
relationship with his/her own offspring, and so on.

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Hierarchical Data Structure

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Hierarchical Data Structure
Advantages:
 Simple and straightforward data access since parent
and children are directly linked
 Easy to search since structure is well defined
 Relatively easy to expand by adding new branches
and formulating new decision rules

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Hierarchical Data Structure
Disadvantages:
 Confined to queries along one branch only
 Difficult restructuring to allow other possible search
criteria
 Creates large index files
 Redundant entries for searching

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Network Systems
 ‘many-to-many’ relationship
 Each individual data is linked directly to
anywhere in the database using pointers,
without the parent-child relationship.

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Network Systems

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Network Systems
Advantages:
 Less rigid compared to hierarchical structure
 Can handle many-to-many relationships
 Allows much greater flexibility
 Reduced redundancy of data

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Network Systems
Disadvantages:
 In very complex GIS, the number of
pointers can become large, thus requiring
a lot of storage space
 Linkages between data must still be
explicitly defined using pointers
 Numerous possible linkages can become
extremely tangled, resulting to confusion
and incorrect linkages
 Not recommended for novice users

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Relational Database
Management Systems
(RDBMS)
 Data are stored as ordered records or rows of
attribute values called tuples
 Tuples are grouped with corresponding data
rows in a form called relations
 Each column represents data for a single
attribute for the entire dataset

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Relational Database
Management Systems
(RDBMS)
Primary key – a column which is used to define
the search strategy or criterion
Foreign key – column in the second table to
which the primary key is linked

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Relational Database
Management Systems
(RDBMS)
Normal forms – set of rules to indicate the
forms that the tables should take

1. First Normal Form

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First Normal Form
 Table must contain columns and
rows
 Because the columns are to be
used as search keys, there should
only be a single value in each row
location

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Second Normal Form
 Requires that every column that is
not a primary key be totally
dependent on the primary key
 Simplifies the tables
 Reduces redundancy by imposing the
restriction that each column be only
searchable using the primary key

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Third Normal Form
 States that columns that are not
primary keys must “depend” on the
primary key, whereas the primary
key does not depend on the
nonprimary key
 Primary key must be used to find other
columns
 But the other columns are not needed to
search for values in the primary key
column
 Idea is to reduce redundancy

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Relational Database
Management Systems
(RDBMS)
Advantages:
 Allow us to collect data in reasonably simple tables,
keeping organization also simple
 Capable of doing relational joins, as long as there is
at least one column common to the tables to be
joined
 Allows greatest flexibility, both in design and
querying

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Data Storage in a DBMS
 Object classes/layers are stored in database
tables
 Each layer is stored as a single database
table in a database management system
 Rows contain objects, while columns contain
attributes/properties of the objects

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Data Storage in a DBMS
 Geographic database tables have a geometry
column (or shape column), which non-geographic
tables don’t have
 Each layer is stored as a single database table in a
database management system
 Rows contain objects while columns contain
attributes/properties of the objects

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Basic Database
Functions/Operations
 Join
 Tables are joined together using common row/column
values or keys
 After joining two or more tables, a new table is created
which contains all the values of the joined tables
Database tables can be joined together to create new
relations, or views of the database.

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Basic Database
Functions/Operations
 Link
 Tables are linked using common row/column values or
keys
 Unlike in joining, linking tables does not result to a new
table. The original tables are retained but accessing one
enables the user to also access a table linked to it

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Database Design
 Involves three stages: conceptual, logical,
and physical
 Involves six practical steps (see Figure)

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 Stages of Database Design
Conceptual Model
Logical Model
User View
Physical Model
Geographic
Database
Object Types
and Database
Relationships Schema
Geographic
Database
Geographic Structure
Representation

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Conceptual Model
Steps involved are:
1. Model the user’s view
2. Define objects and their relationships
3. Select geographic representation

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Model the User’s View
 Identifying organizational functions,
determining data requirements of these
functions, organizing data into groups for
data management
 May be presented using a report with tables

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Define Objects and Their
Relationships
 Specification of object types/classes and
functions, and their relationships
 May be presented using diagrams

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Select Geographic
Representation
 Choosing between the types of discrete objects
(point, line, or polygon) or field to represent the
data
 Selection has a critical impact on the database
use
 Although it is possible to switch between
representations later on, it would be
computationally expensive and would lead to
information loss

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Logical Model
Steps involved are:
1. Match to geographic database types
2. Organize geographic database structure

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Match to Geographic Database
Types
 Matching of object types to be studied to
specific data types supported by the GIS

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Organize Geographic Database
Structure
 Defining topological associations, specifying
rules and relationships, and assigning
coordinate systems

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Physical Model
Step involved is:
1. Define database schema
 definition of the actual physical database
schema that will hold the database data values
 usually created using the DBMS software’s data
definition language (ex. SQL)

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Database
Organization/Structuring
 Necessary for efficient query, analysis, and
mapping

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Structuring Techniques
1. Topologic Creation
2. Indexing

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Topologic Creation
 Can be created for vector data using either batch or
interactive techniques
Batch Topology – for CAD, survey, simple feature and
other unstructured vector data
– an iterative process
Interactive Topology – performed dynamically at the
time objects are added to the database

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Indexing
 Can help speed up certain types of queries
 Three main indexing methods in GIS are grid
indexes, quadtrees, and R-trees.

Database index – a special representation of

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Thank you!

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