Lab # 6: Verification of Maximum power Transfer theorem

Objectives:
 Emf and terminal potential difference
 Internal resistance of a battery
 Maximum power transfer theorem

Theoretical background:
Emf (Electromotive force):
Emf of a source is defined as the potential difference between its output terminals when either its internal resistance is
zero or no current is being drawn from it.

Terminal Potential Difference:

Terminal potential difference is the potential difference between output terminals of a source of emf when current
drawn from it.

Relation between Emf and Terminal Potential Difference:

Consider a cell (source) of emf E having internal resistance r connected in a circuit. The current I flowing through the
external resistance R is:

E
I=
R +r

E=IR+ Ir

E=V t + Ir

Where V t is the terminal potential difference.

Internal resistance of a battery:

The resistance offered by electrolyte present between the two electrodes of a cell to the flow of ions is called internal
resistance of a battery. It is denoted by r. If the internal resistance of a battery becomes equal to zero, then the terminal
potential difference becomes equal to the emf of the source as shown:

V t =E−Ir

V t =E−I (0)

V t =E

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that:

To obtain maximum external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the impedance of the load must
come equal to the impedance of the source i.e. R=r.

When the current flows through the resistance, the charges loss their potential energy while moving from high to low
potential. The loss of energy per second is VI and is known as power delivered to R by I.
The power delivered to R is:

E2 R
P=
( R−r )2+ 4 rR

When R=r the denominator becomes minimum. And output power becomes maximum.

E2 R
P=
( r −r )2+ 4 rR

E2 R
P=
0+ 4 rR

E2 R
P=
4 rR

E2
P=
4r

This is the maximum power output delivered to the load resistance.

Lab Work:
Procedure:
1. First take a small internal resistor and find its resistance with the help of ohmmeter.
2. Take a variable resistor and set its resistance with the help of ohmmeter.
3. Make a circuit in which a constant D.C voltage source, internal resistor and variable resistor are connected in
series.
4. Connect an ammeter in series in circuit.
5. Now find the current in the circuit and note the value of the current.
6. Now disconnect the variable resistor from the circuit and change its resistance value by the help of ohmmeter
and again connect it in the circuit in series.
7. Now again measure the current with ammeter.
8. Repeat this procedure several times.
9. Find the value of power with the help of the formula:
P=I 2 R L
where R L isthe variable resistance∧I isthe corresponding current ∈the circuit .
10. Plot the R L verses P graph and find the maximum point P and its corresponding R L value.
Circuit Diagram:

Table:

Sr r RL I P=I 2 R L
No
1 99.86 kΩ 0.082 kΩ 100 µA 0.6724
2 99.86 kΩ 32.9 kΩ 75.4 µA 187.041
3 99.86 kΩ 66.5 kΩ60.06 239.879
µA
4 99.86 kΩ 100.34 kΩ 50.06 µA 251.452
5 99.86 kΩ 120.75 kΩ 45.30 µA 247.789
6 99.86 kΩ 140.3 kΩ 41.67 µA 243.615
7 99.86 kΩ 160.71 kΩ 38.45 µA 237.594
8 99.86 kΩ 180.3 kΩ 35.74 µA 230.305
Graph:

Quick Search:
Question # 1: Why maximum power is transferred only when load resistance matches the
internal resistance?
Answer: Consider the equation of maximum power transfer:
E2 R
P=
( R−r )2+ 4 rR

To minimize this expression R must be equal to r, hence for max. power transfer R=r.

Question # 2: Can we measure the internal resistance of a battery through ohmmeter?

Answer: NO! There are ways to measure the internal resistance of a battery, but not with an
ohmmeter. An ohmmeter can be used only when there is not voltage present. Here is how
you can measure the internal resistance of a battery.
Measure the voltage of the battery without a load connected to it. Then, in series with a
load, connect an ammeter to the battery.

To measure internal resistance, we need a voltmeter and a resistor of known resistance. Measure the
voltage of the battery with no load. Apply known resistance load and note the voltage drop. From this
we can work out the sum of the internal resistance and the known load resistance.

Question # 3: What are the limitations of this theorem?

Answer: the limitations are we cannot directly find the internal resistance and we have to do several
experiments to obtain the load resistance equal to internal resistance.

Conclusion:
In this experiment we verified the max power transfer, which was that when R=r the power transfer will be maximum.

Thevenin’s Theorem:
Theoretical Background:
Thevenin’s Theorem:
Thevenin theorem (also known as the Helmholtz–Thévenin theorem) states that “any linear circuit containing only
voltage, current sources, and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent combination of a voltage source (V Th) in
series with a single resistance (RTh) connected across the load. This simplified circuit is known as the Thevenin
Equivalent Circuit.”

Thevenin theorem is used to convert a complex electrical circuit to a simple two-terminal Thevenin equivalent circuit. A
Thevenin equivalent circuit contains one Thevenin resistance and Thevenin voltage source connected with a load, as
shown in the figure below.
Thevenin resistance (Rth) is also known as equivalent resistance. And Thevenin voltage (Vth) is an open circuit voltage
across load terminals.

This theorem is suited with only linear circuits. If the circuit has elements like semiconductor components or gas-
discharging components, we can not apply Thevenin’s Theorem.

Thevenin Resistance:
The Thevenin equivalent circuit contains one Thevenin resistance and therefore we have to find it in order to obtain
Thevenin equivalent circuit.

To calculate the Thevenin equivalent resistance, these steps are followed:

 All power sources are removed from the original circuit. And voltage sources are short-circuited, and current
sources are opened.
 Hence, the remaining circuit has only resistances. Now, calculate the total resistance between the open
connection points across load terminals.
 The equivalent resistance is calculated by making series and parallel connection of resistances. And find a value
of equivalent resistance. This resistance is also known as Thevenin resistance (RTh).

Thevenin Voltage:
The Thevenin equivalent circuit contains one Thevenin voltage and therefore we have to find it in order to obtain
Thevenin equivalent circuit.

To calculate the Thevenin equivalent voltage, these steps are followed:

 The load impedance is open-circuited. And find an open-circuit voltage across the load terminals.
 Thevenin equivalent voltage (Veq) is equal to the open-circuit voltage measured across two terminals of load.
This value of the ideal voltage source is used in Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Constructing Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit:
In order to construct the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, simply
connect the Thevenin’s voltage with Thevenin’s resistance and
then connect the load in series with Thevenin’s resistance. This
will give you the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Applications of Thevenin's Theorem:

Some applications of Thevenin’s theorem are as follows:

 Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in analyzing

power systems and other circuits where one particular resistor in the circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject
to change, and re-calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine
voltage across it and current through it.
 Source modeling and resistance measurement using the Wheatstone bridge provide applications for Thevenin’s
theorem

Lab Work:
Procedure to verify theorem:
Now we will verify the Thevenin’s Theorem by calculating voltage drop across a known resistor from the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit and then we will construct the same circuit on the bread board. Now, we will measure the voltage
drop across that same resistor of known resistance by using a multimeter. If these two voltage drops are the same, then
we will have verified the Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solved example circuit:

Consider the following circuit:

Suppose we have to find the potential drop across the resistor

RL from Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Let R 1 = 2.6484 KΩ, R2 = 99.58 KΩ, R3 =
0.6765 KΩ, RL = 99.75 KΩ and Vs = 5V.

1. First, remove RL and make an open circuit as shown.

 2. Now remove the voltage source and find the equivalent resistance of the circuit. This is the Thevenin’s
resistance.

1
RTh = + R3
1 1
+
R1 R2

RTh =3.2562 Ω

3. Again, connect the voltage source and now find the potential drop across the terminals of R L. It will be the
same as potential drop across the resistor R2 because both are in parallel.

R2
V Th = ∗V s
R1 + R2

V Th =4.8704 V

4. Now that we have the Thevenin’s voltage and Thevenin’s

resistance, we can easily make Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
as shown below.

5. From this Thevenin’s equivalent circuit we can easily find the potential drop across R L by the voltage divider
rule.
RL
VR= ∗V Th
RTh + RL
L

V R =4.7164 V
L

6. Now, in order to verify our theoretical result, we made the same circuit on the bread board and found the
potential drop across R L by using a DMM. The experimental value of potential drop across R L came out to be
4.6975V which is very close to our theoretical value and hence this verifies the Thevenin’s Theorem.
Quick Search:
Why was there a difference between calculated and measured values of Voltage across
load?
This could be due to multiple factors. These factors might include:

 Human Error
 Faulty Equipment
 Inexperience of the person performing the experiment
 Least count of the measuring instrument

Difference between Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem.

 Norton’s theorem uses a current source, whereas Thevenin’s theorem uses a voltage source.
 Thevenin’s theorem uses a resistor in series, while Norton’s theorem uses a resister set in parallel with
the source.
 Norton’s theorem is actually a derivation of the Thevenin’s theorem.
 The Norton’s resistance and Thevenin’s resistance are equal in magnitude.
 The Norton’s equivalent circuit and Thevenin’s equivalent circuit can be easily interchanged.

Conclusion:
We were able to successfully verify the Thevenin’s theorem because our measured value of potential drop
across the load resistor was quite close to the experimental value. This experiment thus proves that the
Thevenin’s theorem can be used to solve complex linear circuits easily by reducing them to a very simple
circuit.
 VERIFICATION OF KCL AND CURRENT DIVIDER RULE:
OBJECTIVE:
 KCL Verification and implementation
 Current divider rule

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
KCL with its applications
This is also called as the law of conservation of charge because charge or current cannot be created or destroyed
at the junction or node. It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any node is
zero. Thus, the current entering at a node must be equal to sum of current out of
the node.

In this figure, currents and are entering to the node while the currents
I1 I2 I3

and are leaving from the node. By applying KCL at the node, assume that
I4

entering currents are positive and leaving currents are negative, we can write as

I 1 + I 2 + (- I 3) + (- I 4) = 0
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

The practical application of KCL is to determine the amount of current flowing through individual electronic
component in a circuit. Using that law, we can manipulate current to the component by controlling resistance to
it.

Current divider rule:

In electronics, a current divider is a simple linear circuit that produces an output current (IX) that is a fraction of
its input current (IT). Current division refers to the splitting of current between the branches of the divider. The
currents in the various branches of such a circuit will always divide in such a way as to minimize the total energy
expended.

The current divider rule formula for two resistors in parallel, is as follow:

R1
I 1= I
R 1+ R 2

R2
I 2= I
R 1+ R 2

The current divider rule formula for multiple resistances in parallel, are:
 G1 G2
I 1= I I 2= I
G 1 +G 2 +G 3 T G 1 +G 2 +G 3 T

G3
I 3= I Where G=1/R.
G1+G2 +G 3 T

Lab work:
Solved example for current divider rule:
PROCEDURE TO VERIFY CURRENT DIVIDER RULE:
1. Take 3 resisters R1, R2 and R3 and find their resistance with the help of ohmmeter.
2. Now connect these resistors in the mixed form such that the current will divide in resistors R 2 and R3
after flowing through resistor R1.
3. Now find the current I1 using ammeter.
4. Next find the current I2 and I3 that flows in the resistors R2 and R3 respectively by using the current
divider formula.
5. Next find the currents I2 and I3 that flows in the resistors R2 and R3 respectively by breaking the circuit
and connecting ammeter in series with these resistors one by one.
6. Now if our calculated values match our measured values then we would have verified the current
divider rule.

SOLVED EXAMPLE:
Consider the following circuit:

Suppose that we have to find the current flowing through resistor R 2 an

d R3.

The current I1 through resistor R1 is determined by using DMM. This will be the total current that will divide in R 2
and R3. Now to find current through resistors R2 and R3 we will use the current divider rule. To use the current
divider rule we will first calculate the conductance.

1
As G= , so:
R

1 1
G1= = =4.866 ×10− 4 Ω−1
R 1 2.055 k Ω
 1 1
G2= = =1 ×10−5 Ω−1
R 2 100 k Ω

1 1
G3= = =1.475 ×10−3 Ω−1
R 3 0.6778 k Ω

Next, we will calculate the current flowing through resistors R 2 and R3 by the current divider formula as given
below:

G2 1×10−5
I 2= I 1= × 4.39=22.27 µA
G 1 +G 2 +G 3 4.866 ×10−4 +1 ×10−5 +1.475 ×10−3

G3 1.475 ×10−3
I 3= I 1= × 4.39=4.329 mA
G1+G2 +G 3 −4 −5
4.866 ×10 +1 ×10 +1.475 ×10
−3

Now, in order to verify our theoretical result, we will find the currents I2 and I3 that flows in the resistors R2 and
R3 respectively by breaking the circuit and connecting ammeter in series with these resistors one by one. The
experimental values of I2 and I3 are 30.52µA and 4.36mA respectively, which are very close to our theoretically
calculated values.

Procedure to verify KCL:

PROCEDURE:
By using the voltage divider rule find the theoretical values of current in each junction. Now by using ammeter
find the experimental values of current of each junction. Now check the result by first proving the formula
I1=I2+I3, if the values on both sides are equal or neatly equal then it proves the KCL. Do the experiment for both
experimental and theoretical values.

EXPERIMEMT:

I2 I3
For measured
v values: I1 For measured values:
I1=I2+I3 I1=I2+I3
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated
4.39mA=30.52µA+4.36mA 6.044mA=40.96µA+6.031mA
4.39mA4.391mA 6.072mA
15 4.39mA 30.52µA 22.27µA 4.36mA 4.329mA

20 6.044mA 40.96µA 30.7µA 6.031mA 4.528mA

For Calculated values: For Calculated values:

I1=I2+I3 I1=I2+I3
4.39mA=22.27µA+4.329mA For
6.044mA=30.7µA+4.528mA
4.39mA4.341mA V=15V
6.044mA4.559mA
For V=20V
Since, for all the experiments, the input current I 1 is approximately equal to the output current I 2 and I3, hence this
verifies the KCL.

Why KCL is basically law of Conservation of charge

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of branch currents flowing into and out
of a node is equal to zero. This is an outcome of the principle of the conservation of electric charge.
If any new charge enters a node some equal amount of charge must exit. The term “algebraic sum”
indicates that the summation takes place with regards to the signs of the individual quantities.

QUICK SEARCH
Is there any limitation of KCL?
KCL is applicable on the assumption that current flows only in conductors and wires. While in High Frequency
circuits where, parasitic capacitance can no longer be ignored. In such cases, Current can flow in an open circuit
because in these cases, conductors or wires are acting as transmission lines.

Are there any limitations of current divider rule?

Current divider rule is only applicable to the circuits having only resistors or capacitors or inductors. It is not
applicable to circuits having combination of different elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors).

On which factors conductance of a resistor depends

Resistance of a conductor depends on:
1. Length of the conductor (more the length, less the conductance)

2. Cross-sectional area of conductor (more the cross-sectional area, more is the conductance)

3. Temperature of conductor (more the temperature, more is the conductance as conductors generally have
positive temperature coefficient)

4. Nature of material of the conductor.

Why is conductance represented by the symbol G?

Conductance is represented by G but not C because in electronics the C represents Capacitance, that’s why a
new shortcut term G is used to represent Conductance.
Conclusion:
In this experiment we used the formula of current divider rule to find the individual current through the
junctions and checked it by using ohmmeter which results in the verification of current divider rule. We also
proved the KCL by first finding the individual currents through current divider rule and checked that the input
current is equal to the output current.