CHAPTER 1

Databases and Database Users

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 1- 1

OUTLINE
◼ Types of Databases and Database Applications
◼ Basic Definitions
◼ Typical DBMS Functionality
◼ Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY)
◼ Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
◼ Types of Database Users
◼ Advantages of Using the Database Approach
◼ Historical Development of Database Technology
◼ Extending Database Capabilities
◼ When Not to Use Databases

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What is data, database, DBMS
◼ Data: Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning;
raw
◼ Database: a highly organized, interrelated, and structured set of data
about a particular enterprise
◼ Controlled by a database management system (DBMS)
◼ DBMS
◼ Set of programs to access the data

◼ An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use

◼ Database systems are used to manage collections of data that are:

◼ Highly valuable

◼ Relatively large

◼ Accessed by multiple users and applications, often at the same time.

◼ A modern database system is a complex software system whose task is to

manage a large, complex collection of data.
◼ Databases touch all aspects of our lives
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Types of Databases and Database Applications
◼ Traditional applications:
◼ Numeric and textual databases
◼ More recent applications:
◼ Multimedia databases
◼ Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
◼ Biological and genome databases
◼ Data warehouses
◼ Mobile databases
◼ Real-time and active databases
◼ First part of book focuses on traditional applications
◼ A number of recent applications are described later in the book (for example,
Chapters 24,25,26,27,28,29)

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Recent Developments (1)
◼ Social Networks started capturing a lot of information about people
and about communications among people-posts, tweets, photos,
videos in systems such as:
- Facebook
- Twitter
- Linked-In
◼ All of the above constitutes data
◼ Search Engines, Google, Bing, Yahoo: collect their own repository of
web pages for searching purposes

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Recent Developments (2)
◼ New technologies are emerging from the so-called non-SQL, non-
database software vendors to manage vast amounts of data generated
on the web:
◼ Big data storage systems involving large clusters of distributed computers
(Chapter 25)
◼ NOSQL (Non-SQL, Not Only SQL) systems (Chapter 24)
◼ A large amount of data now resides on the “cloud” which means it is in
huge data centers using thousands of machines.

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What is “big data”?
◼ "Big data are high-volume, high-velocity, and/or high-
variety information assets that require new forms of
processing to enable enhanced decision making, insight
discovery and process optimization” (Gartner 2012)
◼ Three Vs? Other Vs?
◼ Veracity: refers to the trustworthiness of the data
◼ Value: will data lead to the discovery of a critical causal effect?
◼ Bottom line: Any data that exceeds our current capability
of processing can be regarded as “big”
◼ Complicated (intelligent) analysis of data may make a small
data “appear” to be “big”

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Why is “big data” a “big deal”?
◼ Government
◼ Private Sector
◼ Walmart handles more than 1 million customer
transactions every hour, which is imported into databases
estimated to contain more than 2.5 petabytes of data
◼ Facebook handles 40 billion photos from its user base
◼ Falcon Credit Card Fraud Detection System protects 2.1
billion active accounts world-wide
◼ Science
◼ Large Synoptic Survey Telescope will generate 140
Terabyte of data every 5 days
◼ Biomedical computation like decoding human Genome
and personalized medicine
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Lifecycle of Data: 4 “A”s

Acquisition

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 Computational View of Big Data

Data Visualization

Data Access Data Analysis

Data Understanding Data Integration

Formatting, Cleaning

Storage Data
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
 Big Data & Related Disciplines

Human-Computer Interaction
Data Visualization

Databases Information Retrieval Machine Learning

Data Access Data Analysis

Data Mining
Computer Vision Speech Recognition
Data Understanding Data Integration
Natural Language Processing Data Warehousing

Formatting, Cleaning
Signal Processing Many Applications!

Storage Data
Information Theory
Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Basic Definitions
◼ Database:
◼ A collection of related data.

◼ Data:
◼ Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.

◼ Mini-world:
◼ Some part of the real world about which data is stored in a database. For example, student
grades and transcripts at a university.
◼ Database Management System (DBMS):
◼ A software package/system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a computerized
database.
◼ Database system:
◼ The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are also included.

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Impact of Databases and Database Technology
◼ Businesses: Banking, Insurance, Retail, Transportation, Healthcare,
Manufacturing
◼ Service industries: Financial, Real-estate, Legal, Electronic Commerce,
Small businesses
◼ Education : Resources for content and Delivery
◼ More recently: Social Networks, Environmental and Scientific
Applications, Medicine and Genetics
◼ Personalized applications: based on smart mobile devices

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A simplified architecture for a database system
View level: what application
programs see; views can also hide
information (such as an instructor’s
salary) for security purposes.

type instructor = record

ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
Physical level:
describes how a
record (e.g.,
instructor) is stored.

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A simplified architecture for a database system

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 1- 15

A simplified architecture for a database system

Copyright © 2016 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 1- 16

A simplified architecture for a database
system

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What a DBMS Facilitates
◼ Define a particular database in terms of its data types, structures, and constraints
◼ Construct or load the initial database contents on a secondary storage medium
◼ Manipulating the database:
◼ Retrieval: Querying, generating reports
◼ Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its content
◼ Accessing the database through Web applications
◼ Processing and sharing by a set of concurrent users and application programs –
yet, keeping all data valid and consistent

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Other DBMS Functionalities
◼ DBMS may additionally provide:
◼ Protection or security measures to prevent unauthorized access
◼ “Active” processing to take internal actions on data
◼ Presentation and visualization of data
◼ Maintenance of the database and associated programs over the lifetime
of the database application

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Application Programs and DBMS
◼ Applications interact with a database by generating
- Queries: that access different parts of data and formulate the result of a
request
- Transactions: that may read some data and “update” certain values or
generate new data and store that in the database

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Example of a Database
(with a Conceptual Data Model)
◼ Mini-world for the example:
◼ Part of a UNIVERSITY environment
◼ Some mini-world entities:
◼ STUDENTs
◼ COURSEs
◼ SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
◼ (Academic) DEPARTMENTs
◼ INSTRUCTORs

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Example of a Database
(with a Conceptual Data Model)
◼ Some mini-world relationships:
◼ SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
◼ STUDENTs take SECTIONs
◼ COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
◼ INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
◼ COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
◼ STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs
◼ Note: The above entities and relationships are typically expressed in a conceptual
data model, such as the entity-relationship (ER) data or UML class model (see
Chapters 3, 4)

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Example of a Simple Database

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The relational model

E.F. “Ted” Codd

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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
◼ Self-describing nature of a database system:
◼ A DBMS catalog stores the description of a particular database
(e.g. data structures, types, and constraints)
◼ The description is called meta-data*.
◼ This allows the DBMS software to work with different database
applications.
◼ Insulation between programs and data:
◼ Called program-data independence.
◼ Allows changing data structures and storage organization
without having to change the DBMS access programs
◼ E.g., ADTs

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Example of a Simplified Database Catalog

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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
(continued)
◼ Data abstraction:
◼ A data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a
conceptual view of the database.
◼ Programs refer to the data model constructs rather than data storage
details
◼ Support of multiple views of the data:
◼ Each user may see a different view of the database, which describes only
the data of interest to that user.

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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
(continued)
◼ Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing:
◼ Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve from and to update the database.
◼ Concurrency control within the DBMS guarantees that each transaction is correctly
executed or aborted
◼ Recovery subsystem ensures each completed transaction has its effect permanently
recorded in the database
◼ OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a major part of database applications; allows
hundreds of concurrent transactions to execute per second.

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Database Users
◼ Users may be divided into
◼ Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who
design, develop and maintain database applications (called “Actors on the
Scene”), and
◼ Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related tools, and
the computer systems operators (called “Workers Behind the Scene”).

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 Database Users – Actors on the
Scene
◼ Actors on the scene
◼ Database administrators
◼ Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating and
monitoring its use, acquiring software and hardware resources, controlling its
use and monitoring efficiency of operations.
◼ Database designers
◼ Responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints, and
functions or transactions against the database. They must communicate with
the end-users and understand their needs.

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Database End Users
◼ Actors on the scene (continued)
◼ End-users: They use the data for queries, reports and some of them
update the database content. End-users can be categorized into:
◼ Casual: access database occasionally when needed
◼ Naïve or parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user
population.
◼ They use previously well-defined functions in the form of “canned transactions” against
the database.
◼ Users of mobile apps mostly fall in this category
◼ Bank-tellers or reservation clerks are parametric users who do this activity for an entire
shift of operations.
◼ Social media users post and read information from websites

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Database End Users (continued)
◼ Sophisticated:
◼ These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others thoroughly familiar
with the system capabilities.
◼ Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely with the
stored database.
◼ Stand-alone:
◼ Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged applications.
◼ An example is the user of a tax program that creates its own internal database.
◼ Another example is a user that maintains a database of personal photos and
videos.

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Database Users – Actors on the Scene
(continued)
◼ System analysts and application developers
◼ System analysts: They understand the user requirements of naïve and
sophisticated users and design applications including canned transactions
to meet those requirements.
◼ Application programmers: Implement the specifications developed by
analysts and test and debug them before deployment.
◼ Business analysts: There is an increasing need for such people who can
analyze vast amounts of business data and real-time data (“Big Data”) for
better decision making related to planning, advertising, marketing etc.

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Database Users – Actors behind the Scene
◼ System designers and implementors: Design and implement
DBMS packages in the form of modules and interfaces and test
and debug them. The DBMS must interface with applications,
language compilers, operating system components, etc.
◼ Tool developers: Design and implement software systems called
tools for modeling and designing databases, performance
monitoring, prototyping, test data generation, user interface
creation, simulation etc. that facilitate building of applications and
allow using database effectively.
◼ Operators and maintenance personnel: They manage the
actual running and maintenance of the database system hardware
and software environment.

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Advantages of Using the Database Approach
◼ Controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and
maintenance efforts.
◼ Sharing of data among multiple users.
◼ Restricting unauthorized access to data. Only the DBA staff uses
privileged commands and facilities.
◼ Providing persistent storage for program Objects
◼ E.g., Object-oriented DBMSs make program objects persistent– see
Chapter 12.
◼ Providing storage structures (e.g. indexes) for efficient query processing
– see Chapter 17.

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Advantages of Using the Database Approach
(continued)
◼ Providing optimization of queries for efficient processing
◼ Providing backup and recovery services
◼ Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users
◼ Representing complex relationships among data
◼ Enforcing integrity constraints on the database
◼ Drawing inferences and actions from the stored data using deductive
and active rules and triggers

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Data Models
◼ Data Model:
◼ A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database, the operations for
manipulating these structures, and certain constraints that the database should
obey.
◼ Data Model Structure and Constraints:
◼ Constructs are used to define the database structure
◼ Constructs typically include elements (and their data types) as well as groups of
elements (e.g. entity, record, table), and relationships among such groups
◼ Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these constraints must be
enforced at all times

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Data Models (continued)
◼ Data Model Operations:
◼ These operations are used for specifying database retrievals and
updates by referring to the constructs of the data model.
◼ Operations on the data model may include basic model operations
(e.g. generic insert, delete, update) and user-defined operations
(e.g. compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

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Categories of Data Models
◼ Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data.
◼ (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
◼ Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the
computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner through DBMS
design and administration manuals
◼ Implementation (representational) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many
commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational data models used in
many commercial systems).
◼ Self-Describing Data Models:
◼ Combine the description of data with the data values. Examples include
XML, key-value stores and some NOSQL systems.
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Schemas versus Instances
◼ Database Schema:
◼ The description of a database
◼ Includes descriptions of the database structure, data types, and the
constraints on the database.
◼ Schema Diagram:
◼ An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a database schema.
◼ Schema Construct:
◼ A component of the schema or an object within the schema, e.g.,
STUDENT, COURSE.

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Example of a Database Schema

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Schemas versus Instances
◼ Database State:
◼ The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment in
time. This includes the collection of all the data in the database.
◼ Also called database instance (or occurrence or snapshot).
◼ The term instance is also applied to individual database components,
e.g. record instance, table instance, entity instance

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Database Schema
vs. Database State
◼ Database State:
◼ Refers to the content of a database at a moment in time.
◼ Initial Database State:
◼ Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into the system.
◼ Valid State:
◼ A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database.

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Database Schema
vs. Database State (continued)
◼ Distinction
◼ The database schema changes very infrequently.
◼ The database state changes every time the database is updated.

◼ Schema is also called intension.

◼ State is also called extension.

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Example of a Database Schema

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Example of a database state

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
◼ Program-data independence.
◼ Support of multiple views of the data.
◼ Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products, but has been
useful in explaining database system organization

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
◼ Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage structures and
access paths (e.g indexes).
◼ Typically uses a physical data model.
◼ Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure and
constraints for the whole database for a community of users.
◼ Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
◼ External schemas at the external level to describe the various user views.
◼ Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

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The three-schema architecture

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform requests
and data.
◼ Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by the DBMS
to the internal schema for execution.
◼ Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted to match
the user’s external view (e.g. formatting the results of an SQL query
for display in a Web page)

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Data Independence
◼ Logical Data Independence:
◼ The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to
change the external schemas and their associated application
programs.
◼ Physical Data Independence:
◼ The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.
◼ For example, the internal schema may be changed when certain file
structures are reorganized or new indexes are created to improve
database performance

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Data Independence (continued)
◼ When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings
between this schema and higher-level schemas need to be
changed in a DBMS that fully supports data independence.
◼ The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged.
◼ Hence, the application programs need not be changed since they
refer to the external schemas.

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DBMS Languages
◼ Data Definition Language (DDL)
◼ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
◼ High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These include the
relational language SQL
◼ May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded in a
programming language
◼ Low Level or Procedural Languages:
◼ These must be embedded in a programming language

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DBMS Languages
◼ Data Definition Language (DDL):
◼ Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual
schema of a database.
◼ In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external
schemas (views).
◼ In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and
view definition language (VDL) are used to define internal and
external schemas.
◼ SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the DBA and
database designers

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DBMS Languages
◼ Data Manipulation Language (DML):
◼ Used to specify database retrievals and updates
◼ DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-
purpose programming language (host language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
◼ A library of functions can also be provided to access the DBMS from a
programming language
◼ Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly
(called a query language).

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Types of DML
◼ High Level or Non-procedural Language:
◼ For example, the SQL relational language
◼ Are “set”-oriented and specify what data to retrieve rather than how to
retrieve it.
◼ Also called declarative languages.
◼ Low Level or Procedural Language:
◼ Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
◼ Constructs such as looping are needed to retrieve multiple records,
along with positioning pointers.

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DBMS Interfaces
◼ Stand-alone query language interfaces
◼ Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS interactive SQL
interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in ORACLE)
◼ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in programming
languages
◼ User-friendly interfaces
◼ Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.
◼ Mobile Interfaces:interfaces allowing users to perform transactions
using mobile apps

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DBMS Programming Language Interfaces

◼ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a programming

languages:
◼ Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C, C++, etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
◼ Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC (Open Databse Connectivity) for
other programming languages as API’s (application programming interfaces)
◼ Database Programming Language Approach: e.g. ORACLE has PL/SQL, a
programming language based on SQL; language incorporates SQL and its data types as
integral components
◼ Scripting Languages: PHP (client-side scripting) and Python (server-side scripting) are
used to write database programs.

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User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces

◼ Menu-based (Web-based), popular for browsing

on the web
◼ Forms-based, designed for naïve users used to
filling in entries on a form
◼ Graphics-based
◼ Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.
◼ Specifying a query on a schema diagram
◼ Natural language: requests in written English
◼ Combinations of the above:
◼ For example, both menus and forms used
extensively in Web database interfaces
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Other DBMS Interfaces
◼ Natural language: free text as a query
◼ Speech : Input query and Output response
◼ Web Browser with keyword search
◼ Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using function keys.
◼ Interfaces for the DBA:
◼ Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
◼ Setting system parameters
◼ Changing schemas or access paths

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Database System Utilities
◼ To perform certain functions such as:
◼ Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data conversion
tools.
◼ Backing up the database periodically on tape.
◼ Reorganizing database file structures.
◼ Performance monitoring utilities.
◼ Report generation utilities.
◼ Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data compression,
etc.

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Other Tools
◼ Data dictionary / repository:
◼ Used to store schema descriptions and other information such as
design decisions, application program descriptions, user information,
usage standards, etc.
◼ Application Development Environments and CASE (computer-
aided software engineering) tools:
◼ PowerBuilder (Sybase), JBuilder (Borland), JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)

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Typical DBMS Component Modules

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