UNIT 9 DECISION-MAKING AND

PROBLEM-SOLVING
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Clarifying Problem-solving and Decision-making
9.4 Approaches to Problem-solving
9.5 Need and Significance of Problem-solving and Decision-making
9.5.1 Decision-making Process
9.5.2 Types of Decisions
9.6 Decision-making Styles
9.6.1 Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker
9.7 Problem-solving Model
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9.8 Let Us Sum Up
9.9 References and Suggested Readings

9.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on two key management functions in schools: Decision-making
and Problem-solving. Exccptions apart, the work performed by school heads involves
or is related to decision making in the institution. Problems are addressed. Choices
are made. Resources are committed. Consequences are experienced. These
decisions have the potential to have a considerable impact on the school and its
metnbers.

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
e define decision-making and problem-solving;
explain the importance of decision-making and problem-solving skills;
e understand the types of decisions and decision-making styles;
a describe the attributes of an effective decision maker;
discuss a model for problem-solving: and
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apply the model as a way to inlprove your decision-making styles.

9.3 CLARIFYING PROBLEM-SOLVING AM)

DECISION-MAKING
To begin, let's clarify what we mean by problem solving and decision-making and
how they relate to one another and why it is important to the functioning of a head
teacher.
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Problem-solving Decision-making and
I Problem-solving
Problem solving is a set of activities designed to analysd a situation systematically
and generate, implement, and evaluate solutions. This involkes the seeking of solutions
to problems that arise in an institution. The problemtsolving process leads to
fdrmulation of decisions intended to resolve the recogniqed problems.
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Decision-making is a mechanism for making choices at ,each step of the problem-

solving process. This is the process of identifying and selecting a course of action
from two or more courses of action to be taken to solve a problem. It can further
be defined as the process through which information, ideas; objectives and knowledge
are brought together for action. Decision-making is a patt of problem-solving, and
decision-making occurs at every step of the problem-solking process.

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There are many approaches to problem-solving, depending on the nature of the
problem and the people involved in the problem. 1
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Rational Approach
The rational approach involves clarifying, giving description of the problem, analysing
causes, identifying alternatives, assessing each alternative, choosing one, implementing
it, and evaluating whether the problem was solved or not.
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Appreciative Inquiry ,
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This approach asserts that "problems" are often the resulit of our own perspectives
on a phenomenon. For example, if we look at a particular' situation as a "problem,"
then it will become one and we'll probably get very stuck with the "problem".
Appreciative inquiry includes identification of our best tibes about the situation in
the past, wishing and thinking about what worked best then, envisioning what we
want in the future, and building from our strengths to wqrk toward our vision.

Activity
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A) List the various problems you encounter as a school head. For example:
- Students coming late

- Teachers coming late

- Corporal punishment
- Bullying by some students
- Financial problems in running the institutidn

B ) Describe briefly your approach to solving any three problems.

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As you prepare this list you will also appreciate the need for decision-making in
problem solving. 55
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Principles and Techniques

of School Management 9.5 NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PROBLEM-
SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING
A problem is an intricate unsettled question: a source of perplexity, distress or
vexation. It refers to the existence of a gap between where a person is and where
helshe would like to be.

School heads have to make decisions because they have their set of problems.
Having effective problem-solving and decision-making skills would help them to:

make decisions more rationally and wisely.

recognise that we really do have a choice about many important things in our
lives.

avoid making decisions sloppily or by default.

avoid a variety of irrational ideas, false assumptions, fears, needs, and other
emotions that block good decision-making.

9.6.1 Decision-making Process

The basic characteristics of decision-making are as follows:

It is the process of choosing a course of action from among the alternative

courses of action.

It is a human process involving to a great extent the application of intellectual

abilities.

It is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning.

It is mostly related to the environment. A decision may be taken in a particular

set of circumstances and another in a different set of circumstances.

e It involves a time dimension and a time lag.

It always has a purpose. Keeping this in view, there may just be a decision not
to decide.

It involves multiple actions like defining the problem and probing and analyzing
the various alternatives before a final choice is made.

The decision-making process comprises the following components:

The decision-maker

The decision problem

The environment in which the decision is to be made

The objectives of the decision maker

The alternative courses of action

The outcome expected from various alternatives

.
The final choice of the alternative
 The stages of decision making are indicated in Figur 9.1 Decision-making and
'f Problem-solving

Implement

objectives silent, new) Control

Passive Process
(familiar, low
significance)

Fig. 9.1: Stages of ~ecision-mdking

The first leg of decision-making is goals and objective(. The second stage is problem
recognition. Here the decision-maker has to be aleq to know what is happening
and also to recognize the discrepancies which exist/. During the third stage, the
decision-maker must evaluate the discrepancy whether it is an important one or
not. Next, it has to be found out how the problem occurred i.e., 'information-search
phase'. This stage is crucial but least handled well. In the next stage 'course of
action' must be explored i.e., number of alternatites be explored. This is the
'alternative-generation' phase. Next comes the evaluation of alternatives that is the
'choice phase'. Here the pros and cons of each alternative have to be thought
about before taking a decision which is known as chbice of action. The last phase
of the process involves the implementation and evaluiation of the decision.

9.5.2 Qpes of Decisions II

A decision is a determination arrived at after considelration, a conclusion. It is the

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strategic implementation of a resolution to a problem,

Decisions may be classified into five major types. These are:

1 8 Organisational and personal decisions

8 Routine and strategic decisions

8 Policy and operating decisions

8 Programmed and non-programmed decisions

8 Individual and group decisions

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Let us discuss each type in brief.
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i) Organizational and personal decisions: personal decisions are those decisions
• that cannot be delegated to others. These decisions are meant only to achieve
personal goals. Organisational decisions are thode decisions that are taken to
achieve organizational goals. For example, you wgnt to solve food habits related
i- problems of your students. Advising them to take nutritious food is a personal

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decision. Your school students do not perform yell in science and maths. As
head teacher you discuss this issue with teacheds and decide to use different
teaching methods to improve the performance cjf the students. These are for
organizational goals because good performance qnhances the credibility of the
Principles and Techniques
of School Management

Illustrate with reference to your school on what occasions you had to take
organizational or personal decisions.
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ii) Routine and strategic decisions: Routine decisions are those which are
repetitive in nature. For example, certain established rules, procedures and
policies are to be followed. When a teacher goes on leave you engage another
teacher who is free at that time to take the class. This is a routine decision.
'Strategic' decisions are those decisions which have to be deliberated upon in
depth. For example, highlighting the characteristics of the school, before giving
an advertisement for admissions, can bring more revenue to the school.

Cite an example with reference to your school regarding a strategic

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iii) Policy and operating decisions: Policy decisions are those decisions which
are taken at the higher level. For example, fixing pay scales for teachers or
developing a new curriculum framework. Operating decisions are those decisions
which lay down procedure of execution of the policy made. For example, how
to disburse the arrears accumulated to a teacher (e.g. calculations) or
implementing the national curriculum in the framework of your school.

What operating decisions you would take to implement the new curriculum.
Hint: ( i ) Teacher training, (ii) New or additional resources
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iv) Programmed and non-programmed decisions: Non-programmed decisions

are those decisions which are unstructured. For example, if a child is often
absent, as head teacher you may analyse the reasons for hislher absenteeism
from the information provided by the child and then help the child to improve
the situation. Whereas programmed decisions are of routine type and repetitive
in nature. For example, when should children take their breakfast, lunch or
 Decision-making and
Activity I Problem-solving

Differentiate between programmed and non-programmed decisions citing

appropriate examples. I

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v) Individual and group decisions: A decision taken by an individual in the

organisation is known as 'individual' decision, where autocratic style of
functioning prevails. For example, if only the head teacher takes a decision
c without the participation of teachers, it is an individual decision. 'Group' decisions
are collective decisions which are taken by a committee with a proper
representation. For example, decisions taken c b ~ ~ e c t i vby e l ~parents, teachers
..- and head teacher for the welfare of students.

Activity
Cite examples where lvou have taken group decisions.
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Decisions can also be classified on the basis of dihensionality i.e., complexity of

the problem and certainty of outcome of following the decision. These are described
below:
Mechanistic decisions: Mechanistic decisions are routine and repetitive in nature
where the outcomes are known. For example, if a child misbehaves in the class,
you reprimand the child.
Analytical decisions: In this type of decision one has to analyse the situation and
take a decision. For example, if students are not performing well in science, the
reasons have to be explored. It can be because d the teacher or the method of
teaching science followed, lab-facilities provided. etc.
Adaptive decisions: In this kind of decision outcomes are not known which are
often unpredictable. It varies from situation to situation. For example, you take a .
decision to introduce a new area of learning in the school where you have no prior
experience of the outcome.

Activity
Analyse the decisions you have made in the past years as head teacher.
Categorise them into the above type of decisjons.
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Principles and Techniques
of school Management 9.6 DECISION-MAKING STYLES
There are four styles of decision-making based on who makes the decision:
Individual decision-making
In individual decision-making, the leader must make the decision alone, and input
from others is limited to collecting relevant information.
Decision-making through consultation
In consultation, the leader discusses the issue with one or more people-seeking
ideas, opinions, and suggestions-and then makes a decision. The leader considers
the input of others, but the final decision may or may not be influenced by it.
Group decision-making
In this case, the leader and others work together until they reach a consensus
decision. Each group member's opinion and point of view is considered. As a result
of participating in the decision making, group members buy into the final decision
and commit to supporting its implementation.
Delegating the decision
When delegating a decision, the leader sets the parameters, and then allows one or
more colleagues to make the final decision. Although the leader does not make the
decision, he or she supports it.

Activity
I. Make a few notes on the extent to which you encourage members of
your staff to take part in decision-making in various areas.
2 . Prepare a list of those factors that you believe can adversely affect
decision-making.
3. What in your view is good decision-making style? Justify your view.
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9.6.1 Attributes of an Effective Decision-maker

Effective decision makers tend to have the following attributes:
e Knowledge: The most important requirement for making sound decisions is a
deep understanding of all factors. The soundness of the decision depends on
how informed the decision maker is.
Initiative: Effective decision makers assume responsibility for beginning the
decision-making process and seeing it through. They take an active part in
making things better.
e Advice seeking: Good decision-makers know that they need help from others.
They identify people who can make specific contributions to the decision-making
process and ask them for their advice and counsel.
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 Selectivity: Effective decision makers seek pe~inentdata. They avoid getting Decision-making and
bogged down by extraneous facts and figures. Problem-solving

Comprehensiveness: On the other hand, they look at all available options

and consider every possible alternative so as td make the best choice.
Currency: Good decision makers consider current conditions and take advantage
of opportunities that exist at the time.
Flexibility: Effective decision makers remain open-minded about new concepts
and ideas. They are willing to change course br try a different approach if
better results seem likely.

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Good judgment: Sound decisions will not always result from merely following
procedures. Decision-makers must exercise their best judgment in considering
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factors particular to the situation.
Calculated risk-taking: The risks and results of various alternatives must be
weighed and the consequences accepted, whether positive or negative.
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Self-knowledge: Good decision makers know their own abilities, biases and
limitations well.

Activity 1

Identify your strengths and weakness as a deciiion maker.

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9.7 PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL I

There are many different decision-making / problem- olving models that you can
use. The five-step model shown below has proven effe tive in emergency situations.
It is not necessary to document each step, but it is impbrtant to think through every
d
step.

Step 1: Identify 1

Step 5 . Evaluate ) Step 2: Explore

the situation I alternatives
Principles and Techniques Step 1 - Identify the problem
of School Management
Problem identification is undoubtedly the most important and the most difficult step
in the process. All subsequent steps will be based on how you define and assess
the problem at hand. A problem is a situation or condition of people or the organization
that exist but members of the institution consider that undesirable.
Delineating the problem parameters
Identifying the problem also involves analysing the situation to determine the extent
of the problem. Problem parameters include:
What is happening (and is not happening)?
Who is involved?
What the stakes are?
Presented below is a checklist for identifying, defining, and analysing problems.
The checklist prcsents a set of questions that can help you define a problem
accurately.
Checklist for identifying, defining, and analysing problems
1. Is this a new problem?
2. Is the problem clearly and precisely stated?
3. What assumptions am I making about the problem? Are they true?
4. What would h.appen if nothing were done about this problem?
5. C'an the problem be restated in other terms? If yes, how?

6. What data are known that have bearing on the problem'?

7. Is the information accurate?
8. Are there any precedents or rules about other procedures that apply to the
problem? If so, what precedents or rules apply?
9. What additional facts are needed to analyze the problem? (List them)
10. Do I have to make this decision, or will someone else? If this decision is
someone else's to make, whose is it?
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Activity
Think c?j' a problem situation in your school and then prepare a checklist
to identqy and define the problern.

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Step 2 - Explore alternatives

The second step in the decision-making process is to explore alternative solutions
to the problem identified in step 1. This step really consists of two parts:

, Generating alternatives
Evaluating alternatives
I Techniques for generating alternatives
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Decision-making and
Problem-solving
I There are three ways to generate alternatives:
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Brainstorming can be done individually or in a group. Brainstorming requires

an environment in which the participants (individuals or group members) are
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free to "think out loud." Participants blurt out as pany ideas as possible within
a specified time period. No evaluation of ideas is permitted so as to encourage
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the free flow of creative ideas.
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Surveys economically tap the ideas of a large gkoup of respondents. Surveys

present respondents with the problem and a seri&sof alternative solutions.
Discussion groups should consist of those who art directly involved in decision
making.
Step 3 - Select an alternative ,
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The third step in the problem-solving model is to delect one of the alternatives.
After you have evaluated each alternative, one should stand out as coming closest
to solving the problem with the most advantages and fewest disadvantages.
However, implementing the solution inay not be easi. Carefully consider how the
solution will be implemented before selecting an altedative. Selecting an alternative
is a critical step in the problem-solving process.
When selecting an alternative, the following factors may play a major role:
Political factors
Safety factors
Financial factors
Ethical factors
Environmental considerations I

The following four criteria have to be kept in mind for making the right choice
ainong available alternatives: I

Risk
Economy of effort I

liming
Limitation of resources
Step 4 - Implement the solution I
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The fourth step involves the following. I

Develop an action plan

Implementation requires a series of steps to:
- articulate who has to do what, with what resaurces, by what time, and
toward what goal
- identify who must know about the decision ,
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Determine objectives
Objectives are measurable targets that are: 63
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Principles and Techniques -- used to monitor progress and establish priorities.
of School Management
- based on analysis of the situation and contingencies.

Identify needed resources

Resources include people, information (data), and things. Ask yourself:
- what resources do I need?
-- where will I get them?
- how long will it take?
-- what can others offer?
- are there any special requirements?

Build a plan
Your plan should state:
- who will do?
- will do what (and with whom)?

- by when?
- where?
- how?
Implement the plan
Use the action plan to put the decision in place.
Step 5 - Evaluate the Situation
Evaluation involves two parts:

moi~itoringprogress
- has the situation changed?
- are more (or fewer) resources required?
- is a different alternative solution required?

evaluating the results

Monitoring the success and results of a decision is an ongoing process that is critical
to fine tuning a course of action.
Problem-solving hints and wisdom
Take time to examine and explore the problem thoroughly before setting out in
search of a solution. Often, to understand the problem is to solve it.
Breaking the problem into smaller parts will often make solving it much easier.
Solve each part separately.
The resources for problem-solving are immense and ubiquitous.
You can always do something.
A problem is not a punishment; it is a challenge and an opportunity to increase
the happiness of the world, an opportunity to show how powerful you really
 The formulation of a problem determines the range of choices: the questions Decision-making and
you ask determine the answers you receive. Problem-solving

Be careful not to look for a solution until you understand the problem, and be
careful not to select a solution until you have a whole range of choices.
The initial statement of a problem often reflects a preconceived solution.
A wide range of choices (ideas, possible solutions) allows you to choose the
best from arnong many.
People work to implement their own ideas and solutions much more energetically
than they work to implement others' ideas and solutions.
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Remember the critical importance of acceptance in &ing problems. A solution
that is technologically brilliant but socially not appekling is not a good solution.
When the goal state is clear but the present state is ambiguous, try working
backwards.
Procrastinators finish last.
Denying a problem perpetuates it.
Solve the problem that really exists, not just the symptoms of a problem, not
the problem you already have a solution for, not the problem you wish existed,
and not the problem someone else thinks exists.
A maker follows a plan; a creator produces a plan.
Creativity is the construction of new things out of old things, through effort and
imagination.

Case 1
Mr. Singh is the head teacher of a leading school in Azadpur city. The school
is rated among top 10 schools of India. The school has been built by assiduous
eSforts of Mr. Singh over last 10 years as he has always focussed on quality
of students rather than the fee-paying capacity of their parents. The school
has large number of facilities that include a good library, swimming pool,
gym, computer lab and a sports club.
However, as the competition is increasing the school is facing crunch of funds
to maintain the quality of education and stay among the top rated schools.
Only lust year the school ranking has dropped by two points largely for low
rating on quality of school infr~tstructure.The situation is compounded by the
increasing inflation making the various facilities being offered by school more
expensive and also the increase in the salary of the stag
Mr. Singh has to thus raise funds by almost 50% to meet the increasing
requirements. He is in a dilemma. How should he go about it? What other
alternatives he has?

Case Analysis
ldentify the problem:
What is happening (and is not happening)?
Increasing competition
Need to invest funds for upgradation 1 maintenance of facilities offered by
school
Principles and Techniques School has students spanning from upper to lower socio-economic Strata
of School Management
Who is involved?

Students
Parents
School management
Teachers
What the stakes are?
Ensuring top quality of education to the students

Reputation / Standing of the school

Problem Definition
School needs to generate 50% extra funds vs. the current levels. However, not all
students would be able to pay for such a steep hike in fees.
Explore Alternatives
Generating Alternatives through:
Brainstorming with a group of teachers to generate ideas.
Evaluating the likely response of the ideas generated within a core group
Identification of possible areas of raising funds

Monthly fees,

School admission fee (Donations etc.),

Charity shows,
Renting of school resources (play-ground, au&torium etc.)
Use of premium facilities like Computer lab, Sports Club, Pool etc.

Graded fees structure based on the economic status of the student.

Across the board fee hike but giving scholarships to the deserving students
(economic criterion)
Managing and controlling school expenditure
Combination of the above

Selection of Alternatives
Doing internal assessment of the feasibility of various ideas:
Political factors: Does the law of land allow graded fee structures?
Safety factors: Acceptability of the solution to the parents. Least the school
can take at this stage is to gain unpopularity based on its decisions.
Financial factors: Does implementation of various solutions give a cost benefit
or could there be hidden pitfalls?
Ethical factors: Would the school be seen as discriminating against students?
Environmental considerations: What are other competitive schools doing?
The following b u r criteria have to be kept in mijd for making the right choice Decision-making and
among available alternatives: Problem-solving

Risk: Does the school run the risk of adversely affected by various political /
safety / financial / ethical / environmental factors?
Economy of effort: The suggested method of selecting the alternative should
not mean a big cost for the institution. Can the school afford a survey with all
the parents or would it like to do a random suryey? Can school manage renting
of resources and yet earn profits? I
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Timing: When was the last fee hike done? This can be a positive if the fee is
being raised after several years. Can the school look at phased fee increase?
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Limitation of resources: Does the school have resources to manage the suggested
solution? Pay per use facilities, scholarship system, renting of school resources,
etc.
Implement the Solution: I

Develop an action plan. Implementation requires a series of steps:

- Planning
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Creating a core team to implement - Not everything can be done by

Mr. Thomas alone.
Identifying the resources needed by the implementing team: Support
staff etc.
Setting the timelines for implementing team - Any delay in
implementation can derail the process.
- Keeping the school management informed about the solution and likely
outcome.
Determine objectives. Set the likely outcome, drive the team to achieve those
and monitor the progress vs. the set targets.
Identify needed resources. E.g. if the school decides to earn through public
use of its resources, it may need to commit resources to manage this operation.
What resources do 1 need? (People to manage the operation)
Where will I get them? (Could be internal administrative team /
outsourced?)
How long will it take? (How soon can the school get it started?)
What can others offer? (Need to benchmark the rate of facilities with the
market rates)
Are there any special requirements? (Any district/ state clearances to be
taken etc.)
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Build a plan. Plan should be made delegating J fixing various responsibilities,

resource commitments, timelines and process (if required) etc.
Implement the plan. Use the action plan to put the decision in place.
Principles and Techniques
of School Management Case 2
Mr. Dilber is the head teacher of a school in Vaishalipuram. The pass
percentage of the students of the senior-most class in the mid-tern examination
has fallen to 83% (vs. 95% plus pass percentage over last 5 years). Mr. Dilber
has to submit a report to the school management on the mid-term per$ormance
of the school. Thus, he needs to assess why there is a down fall in the results
as well as how he intends to+addressthe problem. He has one week time to
build his case with corrective measures taken.

Case Analysis

Step 1 - Mr. Dilber digs deep into the issue to understand the exact problem. For
that he did the analysis of:
a Subject teacher-based pass percentage of the students
a Attendance records of the teachers
a Attendance records of the students
a Performance records of the students during the year.
a Relative complexity of the question papers in 2003 vis-8-vis previous years

Step 2 - Based on the analysis, Mr. Dilber found out that maximum number of
1
students failed in Mathematics. The class was taught by a newly appointed teacher,
Mr. Gonsalves.
Step 3 - Post analysis, Mr. Dilber did the appraisal of Mr. Gonsalves. In his appraisal,
Mr. Dilber:

Checked the attendance records as well as the diary maintained by Mr.

Gonsalves

Checked the results of the unit tests to find out whether Mr. Gonsalves made
extra efforts to help the students who did not perform well in the past
a Took qualitative feedback from the students on:
a Their interest in mathematics subject, class sessions and progress on the
syllabus

Their perception regarding the difficulty level of how they found the mid-
term question paper
a Sat through the classes of Mr. Gonsalves over next three days to understand if
there was a scope for improvement in the teaching method of the teacher and
how to help the teacher.
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Step 4 - On the basis of the above exercise, Mr. Dilber found that the concerned
teacher lacked sufficient knowledge and experience to teach the senior most class.

Step 5 - In his report to school management, Mr. Dilber spelt out his assessment of
the results and shared the corrected steps taken by him.
a Giving the responsibility of teaching the senior most class to a teacher of junior
class who had proven record of consistent performance.
Arranging orientation programme for the newly appointed teacher.
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 Decision-making and
Activity Problem-solving

Think of a problem situaticn in your school and then prepare a checklist

to identify and define the problem. The checklist must have a set of questions
that can help you identify and define a problem accurately.
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9.8 LET US SLM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the concepts of decision making, problem solving
and different approaches to problem solving. We have also discussed the importance
of decision making, the process involved and different styles of decision making
and how decision making is helpful in every day life. Examining the attributes and
characteristics of effective decision makers may help you to realise your strengths
and weaknesses as a decision maker. We have discussed problem solving model
with the hope that it may help you to develop problem solving models as and when
you need to do so.

9.9 REFERNCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Chhabra, T.N., (2002): Principles and Practices of Management, Delhi: Dhanpat
Rai & Co.
IGNOU, (1987): Management Functions and Behaviours, MS-I, New Delhi.
Jits, Chandan, (1998): Organisational Behaviour, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd.
Mitchell, T.R. and Larson., (1987): People in Organisation: An Introduction to
Organizational Behaviour, McGraw Hill International Edition.
Raju, R.S. and Parthasarthy, A., (2000): Management Text and Cases, India:
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
NOTES