Field Guide to

Visual and
Ophthalmic
Optics

Jim Schwiegerling
 Field Guide to

Visual and
Ophthalmic
Optics
Jim Schwiegerling
University of Arizona

SPIE Field Guides

Volume FG04

John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor

Bellingham, Washington USA

 Field Guide to

Visual and
Ophthalmic
Optics
Jim Schwiegerling
University of Arizona

SPIE Field Guides

Volume FG04

John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor

Bellingham, Washington USA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Schwiegerling, Jim.
Field guide to visual and opththalmic optics / Jim Schwiegerling.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8194-5628-4
1. Physiological optics. I. Title.

QP475.S385 2004
612.8'4--dc22 2004020668

Published by

SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering

P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
Phone: +1 360 676 3290
Fax: +1 360 647 1445
Email: [email protected]
Web: http://spie.org

Copyright © 2004 The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation

Engineers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

distributed in any form or by any means without written permission
of the publisher.

The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the
author(s). Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate
information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the
validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance
thereon.

Printed in the United States of America.

 Introduction to the Series

Welcome to the SPIE Field Guides! This volume is one of the

first in a new series of publications written directly for the
practicing engineer or scientist. Many textbooks and
professional reference books cover optical principles and
techniques in depth. The aim of the SPIE Field Guides is to
distill this information, providing readers with a handy desk or
briefcase reference that provides basic, essential information
about optical principles, techniques, or phenomena, including
definitions and descriptions, key equations, illustrations,
application examples, design considerations, and additional
resources. A significant effort will be made to provide a
consistent notation and style between volumes in the series.

Each SPIE Field Guide addresses a major field of optical

science and technology. The concept of these Field Guides is a
format-intensive presentation based on figures and equations
supplemented by concise explanations. In most cases, this
modular approach places a single topic on a page, and provides
full coverage of that topic on that page. Highlights, insights
and rules of thumb are displayed in sidebars to the main text.
The appendices at the end of each Field Guide provide
additional information such as related material outside the
main scope of the volume, key mathematical relationships and
alternative methods. While complete in their coverage, the
concise presentation may not be appropriate for those new to
the field.

The SPIE Field Guides are intended to be living documents.

The modular page-based presentation format allows them to
be easily updated and expanded. We are interested in your
suggestions for new Field Guide topics as well as what
material should be added to an individual volume to make
these Field Guides more useful to you. Please contact us at
[email protected].

John E. Greivenkamp, Series Editor

Optical Sciences Center
The University of Arizona
 Field Guide to Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Visual optics is a scientific field that brings together many

disciplines. Optical engineering and biology are interwoven to
produce the most sophisticated imaging system known. The
human visual system functions over a broad range of
conditions, adapts to its surroundings and is capable of
quickly processing complex visual information at enviable
speeds. Many of the great names of optical physics such as
Newton, Maxwell, Young, Helmholtz, and Alvarez have all
made significant contributions to the field of visual optics.
This book assembles much of the anatomy, physiology, and
functioning of the eye, as well as the engineering and design
of a wide assortment of tools for measuring, photographing
and characterizing properties of the surfaces and structures of
the eye. Finally, descriptions of our attempts to correct vision,
reverse the aging process, and improve on Mother Nature are
given.

I would like to express my gratitude to several colleagues for

their help with this book. First, I’d like to thank John
Greivenkamp for granting the opportunity to write this book
and for his mentoring and friendship. Second, I’d like to
thank Joseph Miller, whose enthusiasm for engineering is
contagious, and whose ideas are always elegant. Finally, I’d
like to thank Charlie Campbell for passing on a bit of his
wisdom and knowledge and for providing an outlet for my
babbling about Zernike polynomials.

This book is dedicated to my wonderful wife Diana, my son

Max, and my daughter Marie.

Jim Schwiegerling
Dept. of Ophthalmology and Optical
Sciences Center, University of Arizona
 Table of Contents

Glossary x

Ocular Function 1
Eyeball 1
Cornea 2
Retina 3
Photoreceptors 4
Retinal Landmarks 5
Properties of Ocular Components 6
Accommodation 7
Pupil Size and Dark Adaptation 8
Transmission and Reflectance 9
Axes of the Eye 10
Stiles-Crawford Effect 11
Photopic V(λ) and Scotopic V′(λ) Response 12
Eye Movements 13
Vergence 14
Paraxial Schematic Eye 15
Arizona Eye Model 16
Aberrations 17
Visual Acuity 19
Visual Acuity and Eye Charts 20
Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) 21
Emmetropia and Ametropia 23
Far and Near Points 24
Presbyopia 25

Correction of Ocular Errors 26

Spectacles: Single Vision 26
Spectacle Lenses 27
Lensmeter 28
Spherical and Cylindrical Refractive Error 29
Prismatic Error 30
Astigmatic Decomposition 31
Special Ophthalmic Lenses 32
Variable Prisms and Lenses 33
Contact Lenses 34
Radiuscope 35

vii
 Table of Contents (cont.)

Spectacle and Contact Lens Materials 36

Surgical Correction of Refractive Error 37
Cataract Surgery 38

Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 39

Purkinje Images 39
Fluorescein Imaging 40
Indocyanine Green Imaging 41
Keratometry 42
Corneal Topography 43
Corneal Topography: Axial Power 44
Corneal Topography: Instantaneous Power 45
Anterior Segment Imaging 46
Wavefront Sensing: Shack-Hartmann Sensing 47
Wavefront Sensing: Tscherning Aberrometry 48
Wavefront Sensing: Retinal Raytracing 49
Wavefront Sensing: Spatially Resolved Refractometry 50
Wavefront Sensing: Reconstruction 51
Zernike Polynomials: Wavefront Sensing Standard 53
Zernike Polynomials: Cartesian Coordinates 54
Zernike Polynomials: Useful Formulas 55
Ophthalmoscopy 57
Retinal Imaging 58
Field of View and Perimetry 59
Retinoscopy 60
Autorefraction 61
Badal Optometer and Maxwellian View 62
Common Ophthalmic Lasers 63
Eye Safety: Laser Sources 64
Eye Safety: Non-laser Sources 65

Color 66
Photometry 66
Colorimetry: RGB and CIE XYZ Systems 67
Colorimetry: Chromaticity Diagram 68
Colorimetry: Primaries and Gamut 69
Colorimetry: CIELUV Color Space 70
Colorimetry: CIELAB Color Space 71

viii
 Table of Contents (cont.)

Chromatic Adaptation 72
L, M, and S Cone Fundamentals 73

Appendices 74
Aspheric and Astigmatic Surfaces 74
Differential Geometry 75
Trigonometric Identities 76
CIE Photopic V(λ) and Scotopic V′(λ) Response 77
1931 CIE 2° Color Matching Functions 78
1964 CIE 10° Color Matching Functions 80
Stockman & Sharpe 2° Cone Fundamentals 82
Incoherent Retinal Hazard Functions 85
Zernike Polynomials: Table in Polar Coordinates 87
Zernike Polynomials: Table in Cartesian Coordinates 88
Equation Summary 89

Bibliography 99
Index 105

ix
 Glossary

A Accommodation
A A-constant
a* Color coordinate in CIELAB space
A(λ) Aphakic & infant retinal hazard function
A(θ) Oblique astigmatism
ACD Anterior chamber depth
AK Astigmatic keratotomy
ARMD Age-related macular degeneration
ArF Argon fluoride
Axis Cylinder axis
B Blue channel in RGB space
b* Color coordinate in CIELAB space
B(λ) Blue light retinal hazard function
b (λ ) Color matching function in CIE RGB space
BD Base down
BI Base in
BO Base out
BU Base up
CA, CB, CC Constants for laser exposure calculations
* *
Cuv , Cab Chroma
cd Units of candelas
CIE Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
CK Conductive keratoplasty
CMF Color matching function
CSF Contrast sensitivity function
Cyl Cylinder power
D Units of diopters (inverse meters)
D Pupil diameter
d Distance
dφ Power error
D65 6500° K reference white light source
E Component of the first fundamental form
Eν Illuminance
F Component of the first fundamental form
f Focal length
fo Spatial frequency
FOV Field of view
G Green channel in RGB Space

x
 Glossary (Continued)

G Component of the first fundamental form

g(λ) Color matching function in CIE RGB space
H Mean curvature
hab, huv Hue
HDTV High-definition television
Iν Luminous intensity
ICG Indocyanine green
IOL Intraocular lens
J0 Horizontal crossed cylinder
J45 Oblique crossed cylinder
JCC Jackson crossed cylinder
K Conic constant
K Keratometry values
K Gaussian curvature
L Luminance
L Axial length
L Component of the second fundamental form
L*, Lν, Lλ Luminance
L(λ) Long-wavelength cone fundamental
LA LogMAR acuity
LASEK Laser epithelial keratomileusis
LASIK Laser in situ keratomileusis
LOS Line of sight
LCA Longitudinal chromatic aberration
lm Units of lumens
LSA Longitudinal spherical aberration
LTK Laser thermal keratoplasty
lux Units of lumens/m2
M Spherical equivalent power
M Component of the second fundamental form
M(λ) Middle-wavelength cone fundamental
MPE Maximum permissible exposure
N Component of the second fundamental form
n,n′ Index of refraction
nk Keratometric index of refraction
OCT Optical coherence tomography
OD Oculus dexter (right eye)

xi
 Glossary (Continued)

OS Oculus sinister (left eye)

OU Oculus uterque (both eyes)
P Prism power
PI-PIV Purkinje images
PAL Progressive addition lens
PD Interpupillary distance
PIOLs Phakic intraocular lenses
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate
PRK Photorefractive keratectomy
q′ Center of rotation of the eye
R Radius of curvature
R Red channel in RGB space
r Radial position in polar coordinates
Rx, Ry Radii of curvature along the x and y axes
R(λ) Thermal retinal hazard function
r (λ ) Color matching function in CIE RGB space
RGP Rigid gas permeable
RK Radial keratotomy
ROC Radius of curvature
S Snellen fraction
S(λ) Short-wavelength cone fundamental
SEP Spherical equivalent power
SF Surgeon factor
SLO Scanning laser ophthalmoscope
SLT Selective laser trabeculoplasty
Sph Spherical power
t Thickness
t Exposure time
Td Units of troland
U Object vergence
u*,u Color coordinates in CIELUV space
V Image vergence
v*, v′ Color coordinates in CIELUV space
V(λ) CIE photopic response
V’(λ) CIE scotopic response
V*(λ) Stockman & Sharpe corrected photopic response
W Wavefront error
X Tristimulus value in CIE XYZ space

xii
 Glossary (Continued)

x Chromaticity coordinate in CIE XYZ space

x Horizontal Cartesian coordinate
x(λ) Color matching function in CIE XYZ space
Y Tristimulus value in CIE XYZ space
y Chromaticity coordinate in CIE XYZ space
y Vertical Cartesian coordinate
y(λ) Color matching function in CIE XYZ space
Z Tristimulus value in CIE XYZ space
z Chromaticity coordinate in CIE XYZ space
z Axial Cartesian coordinate
z (λ ) Color matching function in CIE XYZ space
Znm (ρ, θ) Zernike polynomial
∆ Units of prism diopters
∆E Color difference in CIELAB and CIELUV spaces
∆λ Wavelength interval
∆x, ∆y, ∆z Translation along Cartesian axes
Φ,φ Power
Φa Axial power
Φi Instantaneous power
Φν Luminous flux
Φ(λ) Radiometric power
κ1, κ2 Principal curvatures
λ Wavelength
θ Angle in polar coordinates
ρ Normalized radial position in polar coordinates
τ Transmission

xiii
Ocular Function 1

Eyeball

Top View of Right Eye

Cornea – Transparent membrane on the front of the eye. It

contributes roughly two-thirds of the total power of the eye.
Aqueous Humor – Waterlike fluid in the anterior chamber
between the cornea and the crystalline lens.
Iris – Pigmented diaphragm that is the eye’s aperture stop.
Crystalline Lens – Gradient-refractive-index lens that
changes shape to focus on near and distant objects. It
contributes the remaining one-third power of the eye.
Vitreous Humor – Jellylike fluid in the posterior chamber
between the crystalline lens and the retina.
Retina – Photosensitive surface of the interior of the eyeball
that converts light to neural signals.
Fovea – The central, high-resolution portion of the retina.
Optic Disk – The “blind spot” where nerve fibers and blood
vessels enter the eyeball.
Optic Nerve – The bundle of nerve fibers that carry the
information from the retina to the brain.
Sclera – The “white” of the eye, which acts as a protective
outer coating to the eyeball.
Choroid – An internal opaque membrane that absorbs stray
light and provides structural support of the retina.
2 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Cornea

Cross-Section of Cornea Showing Five Distinct Layers

Epithelium – Thin surface layer of cells 50–100 µm thick on

the front of the cornea that blocks foreign bodies from
entering the cornea and absorbs oxygen and nutrients for the
underlying layers. These cells regenerate quickly if they are
damaged by trauma or surgery.
Bowman’s Membrane – Collagen boundary roughly 12 µm
thick that divides the epithelium and the underlying stroma.
Stroma – Internal material of the cornea composed mainly of
cross-linked collagen bands. The ordering of these bands is
somewhat regular to promote transparency. The thickness of
the stroma is about 500 µm. The collagen fibers are somewhat
regularly organized, introducing corneal birefringence
Descemet’s Membrane – Collagen boundary roughly 4 to
10 µm thick that separates the endothelium and the stroma.
Endothelium – Thin surface layer of cells 5 µm thick on the
back of the cornea that regulates corneal nutrition and
removes excess water from the cornea to maintain its clarity.
Unlike the epithelial cells, these cells do not regenerate.

The cornea does not have a direct blood supply, so it must

exchange its nutrients and waste products through its front
and back surfaces. Damage or interference with these
transfer mechanisms can lead to corneal edema (swelling) and
opacities.
Ocular Function 3

Retina

Rods &
Cones

Horizontal

Bipolar

Amacrine

Retinal
Ganglion

Light

Light passes through multiple cell layers to reach the

photoreceptors. Once absorbed, a signal is transmitted from
the receptor through the bipolar cells to the retinal
ganglion cells. From there, the signal propagates up into the
brain for further processing. Amacrine and horizontal cells
allow cells in a localized neighborhood to communicate with
one another.
4 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Photoreceptors

Two types of photoreceptors reside in

the retina: cones and rods. The cones
are responsible for daytime vision,
while the rods respond under dark
conditions. The cones come in three
varieties: L, M, and S types (for long,
middle, and short wavelength). Each
cone type responds to a different
portion of the visible spectrum, allowing
for color vision. Rods have a spectral
sensitivity that differs from the cones.
Photoreceptors are specialized cells for
detecting light. They are composed of
the outer nuclear layer that contains the cell nuclei, the
inner segment that houses the cell machinery, and the
outer segment that contains photosensitive pigment. The
outer segment of a rod has discrete disks saturated with
rhodopsin molecules, while the outer segment of a cone
contains similar photosensitive molecules in a series of folds.
The outer segment absorbs photons, which initiates an
electrochemical transmission through the cells and retinal
nerve fibers, up into the brain.

Cones Rods
Color Vision Monochromatic
No sensitivity in the dark High sensitivity in the dark
Respond in bright light Bleached in bright light
Slow temporal response Fast temporal response
Mostly in fovea Mostly in periphery
Some in peripheral retina None in fovea
High visual acuity Low visual acuity
In fovea, one neuron per cone Many rods per single neuron

Cone diameter is roughly 2.5 µm in the fovea and rapidly

increases outside fovea to 10 µm in periphery. Rod diameter is
roughly 3 µm at a field angle of 18° and increases in size to
5.5 µm in periphery. The central 200 µm of the retina is free
of rods. The total number of cones in the retina is 6.4 million.
There are roughly 125 million rods in the retina.
Ocular Function 5

Retinal Landmarks

Looking into the eye, blood vessels are visible on the retinal
surface. The blood vessels appear to emanate from an oval
region known as the optic nerve head. The optic nerve head
is located on the nasal side of the eye. It has a physical size of
about 1.5 × 2 mm and subtends 5° × 7° from the rear nodal
point. The blood vessels curve around an avascular region
known as the fovea centralis, which is about 1.25 mm in
diameter. The cen-
ter of the fovea
centralis is the
foveola, which is
only 0.25 mm in
diameter. The fig-
ure below shows a
view of the left eye
with the dimension
and angular sub-
tense of each of
these landmarks.

The Amsler grid is a device used to rapidly assess early

problems in macular function. It is composed of a grid of 20 by
20 squares, each 5 mm on a side. The grid is held at reading
distance and subtends roughly 20° of visual angle. The
projection of the grid onto the retina appears below.
6 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Properties of Ocular Components

Mean and Range

Anterior corneal radius: 7.80 mm (Range 7.00–8.65 mm)
Posterior corneal radius: 6.50 mm (Range 6.20–6.60 mm)
Anterior chamber depth: 3.68 mm (Range 2.80–4.60 mm)
Crystalline lens power: 20.35 D (Range 15.00–27.00 D)
Crystalline lens thickness: 4.00 mm
Anterior lens radius: 10.20 mm (Range 8.80–11.90 mm)
Posterior lens radius: 6.00 mm
Axial length: 24.00 mm (Range 20.00–29.50 mm)
Ocular power: 59.63 D (Range 54.00–65.00 D)

Material Index Abbe

Number
Cornea 1.3771 57.1
Aqueous Humor 1.3374 61.3
Crystalline Lens 1.36 to 1.41 47.7
Vitreous Humor 1.336 61.1

The crystalline lens has a gradient index structure, such

that its index of refraction varies both axially and radially.
This distribution is not well documented in vivo, so good
measures of the values across large populations do not
currently exist. The lens paradox arises from a steepening of
the lens surfaces with age, suggesting an increase in lens
power, while the overall ocular power tends to reduce with
age. The effective index of refraction of the crystalline lens
must reduce with age, to account for the lens paradox.
Ocular Function 7

Accommodation

Accommodation is the
mechanism that adjusts the
power of the eye to allow near
objects to be in focus on the
retina. This power change is
accomplished by modifying the
shape of the crystalline lens. The
capsule is an elastic membrane
that encases the crystalline lens.
The capsule and lens are
supported by a series of fibrils
called the zonules of Zinn. The zonules are attached to the
ciliary muscle. The Helmholtz Theory of
Accommodation states that when the ciliary muscle is
relaxed, the tension on the zonules is high, resulting in
tension on the capsule and the equator of the lens. The
tension flattens the surface curvatures (i.e., reduction in lens
power). When the ciliary muscle constricts, the tension on the
zonules is reduced and the crystalline lens curvatures
steepen, thus increasing the power of the lens. In addition to
the curvatures of the lens steepening during accommodation,
the thickness of the lens increases and the lens shifts towards
the cornea. The radius of the anterior lens decreases by about
0.4 mm per diopter of accommodation, while the posterior
radius decreases at 0.2 mm per diopter of accommodation.
The shape, size, and position of the crystalline lens are highly
dependent upon age. For an unaccommodated eye, Koretz et
al. found age dependencies for the anterior chamber depth
(ACD), the lens thickness, and the anterior and posterior lens
radius of curvature (ROC). There is a large standard
deviation among individuals for all values presented.
ACD = −0.0215 Age + 4.274
Thickness = 0.0194 Age + 3.088
Anterior ROC = −0.0759 Age +13.949
Posterior ROC = 0.0106 Age – 6.436
The distance from the corneal vertex to the posterior lens
surface appears to remain constant with age, suggesting that
the lens moves toward the cornea as it thickens.
8 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Pupil Size and Dark Adaptation

The pupil varies in size with illumination level. Individual

variation is large, so mathematical fits to pupil size can vary
by ±2 mm for a given luminance level. In the general
population, the average pupil size is given by D = 4.9 – 3
tanh[0.4(log L + 1)], where D is the pupil diameter in mm and
L is the luminance in cd/m2. The pupil size also varies with
age. The pupils exhibit a consensual light reflex, in which
stimulation of one eye causes an equal pupillary response in
the other eye. The pupils also tend to constrict roughly 15%
moving from a distant to near object. This effect is known as
the near reflex. In response to illumination, the pupil
shrinks in less than a second. In darkness, the pupil takes
several seconds to
Luminance (cd/m2) Diameter (mm)
dilate, while the
0.684 8.046−0.043 (Age)
retina takes min-
334 4.070−0.015 (Age)
utes to dark adapt.

Dark adaptation: If the eye views a bright light source for

an extended period, the photopigments in the rods and cones
will become bleached or depleted. Regeneration of the
pigments takes time, once the source has been removed. Cone
photopigment regenerates more quickly than rod pigment,
with the time course being 6–10 minutes for cones and 30
minutes for rods. Below is a plot of the threshold retinal
illuminance in trolands (Td) required to detect a small violet
spot. The eye views fields of different illuminance levels prior
to immersion in the dark. Above the cone threshold, the spot
appears colored. Below the threshold, it is achromatic.
Ocular Function 9

Transmission and Reflectance

Ocular transmission: The eye transmits wavelengths from

roughly 400 nm to 1400 nm. The cornea and aqueous humor
are responsible for absorbing infrared radiation beyond
1400 nm. The crystalline lens absorbs ultraviolet radiation
(UV) below 400 nm. Below is a plot of the cumulative
transmission of the eye. As the eye ages, the crystalline lens
tends to yellow, which affects the transmission of blue
wavelengths. Intraocular lens (IOL) implantation following
cataract surgery increases transmission in the ultraviolet and
blue end of the spectrum. Most IOLs contain UV absorbing
chromophores to reduce the risk of retinal damage.

Retinal reflectance: Of the light that makes it to the retina,

a portion of it is reflected out of the eye. This reflectance
varies with wavelength and skin pigmentation.
10 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Axes of the Eye

Since the eye is not rotationally symmetric (i.e. the centers of

curvature of each surface do not lie on a common axis),
several axes can be defined which all collapse to the optical
axis in rotationally symmetric systems. A line passing
through the centers of curvature of the optical surfaces in a
least squares sense is taken as the optical axis of the eye. In
general, this axis is ill-defined due to the complex shapes of
the various ocular surfaces.

The visual axis connects the fixation point to the front nodal
and the rear nodal to the fovea. Usually denoted by angle
α measured from optical axis. Typically 4º ≤ α ≤ 8º.

Optical Axis Visual Axis

The pupillary axis strikes the cornea at right angles and
passes through the center of the entrance pupil. The line of
sight (LOS) connects the fixation point to the center of the
entrance pupil, and the center of the exit pupil to the fovea.
The LOS is equivalent to the chief ray from the fixation point.
The LOS, with angle κ from pupillary axis, typically has κ ≤ α.

Pupillary Axis Line of Sight

The fovea is usually displaced temporally and is slightly
inferior to the intersection of the optical axis and the retina.
Ocular Function 11
Stiles-Crawford Effect

The effect of a ray incident upon the eye is dependent upon

the pupil entry location. Rays entering the central portion of
the pupil have a higher efficiency than rays entering the pupil
periphery. This variation is known as the Stiles-Crawford
effect. The theory behind the Stiles-Crawford effect is that an
individual photoreceptor acts as a waveguide, and has a cone
of acceptance angles for incident light. The benefit of this
arrangement is that scattered and aberrated light within the
eye is less likely to cause a response in the photoreceptors.
While the origin of the Stiles-Crawford effect is retinal in
nature, it is modeled as an apodizing filtering. The filter
transmission t(x,y) is typically a Gaussian function given by

−α ⎡( x − xo )2 + ( y − yo ) 2 ⎤ −α ⎡( x − xo )2 + ( y − yo )2 ⎤ / ln10
t ( x, y ) = e ⎣ ⎦
= 10 ⎣ ⎦
.
The apodization factor, α, is 0.116 ± 0.029. The filter is
typically decentered superior-nasally with respect to the
center of the pupil. The center (xo,yo) falls 0.47 ± 0.68 mm
nasally and 0.20 ± 0.64 mm superiorly. Most raytracing
software allows an apodization filter to be incorporated into
an optical system, so the Stiles-Crawford effect is simple to
add into schematic eye models. The Stiles-Crawford effect is
phototropic, meaning that the location of the peak can change
with external stimuli. By placing a decentered artificial iris
over the pupil, the peak location can be made to change.
12 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Photopic V(λ) and Scotopic V′(λ) Response

The human visual system does not respond uniformly to all

wavelengths in the visible spectrum. It is most responsive in
the middle portion of the spectrum and less responsive for red
and blue wavelengths. Furthermore, the two classes of
photoreceptors, the rods and cones, have different spectral
response curves.

Under photopic conditions, the rods are saturated and only

the cones are producing a visual signal. Under scotopic
conditions, the light levels are too low to activate the cones,
but the rods still respond. Mesopic conditions refer to the in-
between state where both rods and cones are active.
Lighting Condition Luminance (cd/m2)
Photopic >3
Mesopic 0.03 – 3
Scotopic < 0.03
The peak of the photopic curve occurs at a wavelength of 555
nm. The peak shifts to a wavelength of 505 nm for scotopic
conditions. This shift in sensitivity towards the blue end of
the spectrum in dim illumination is called the Purkinje
shift. A table of values for V(λ) and V′(λ) can be found in the
Appendix. The Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(CIE) defined V(λ) as a standard in 1924. However, more
recent studies have demonstrated that this curve is too low
for wavelengths less than 460 nm. Judd, Vos, and Stockman
have made corrections to this curve.
Ocular Function 13
Eye Movements

The center of rotation of the eye is ~13 mm behind the

corneal vertex. In theory, the eye can make three motions:
horizontal rotation, vertical rotation, and cyclo-rotation or
rotation about the visual axis. In general, the latter only
occurs under special circumstances. Donders’ Law states
that for every gaze position, there is only one position for
rotation about the visual axis. When gazing at an object, the
eye cannot rotate about the visual axis, thus limiting the
number of orientations the eye can assume. Listing’s Law
states Donders’ Law in a mathematical manner. There is a
plane (Listing’s Plane) through the center of rotation that is
perpendicular to the visual axis. Listing’s Law states that any
rotation of the eye is about an axis lying within this plane.
Cyclo-rotation of the eye occurs when a patient is supine. On
average, the rotation is 2°, but can be as high as 10°, with left
eyes rotating clockwise and right eyes rotating counter-
clockwise (binocular excyclo-torsion). The maximum eye
rotation is 25°–35°. However, the optimal required eye
rotation for devices should be kept to ±15° for comfort.

The visual axis of each eye needs to converge to the same

point in space to avoid diplopia (double vision). Ideally, the
visual axis of each cross at the fixation point and the
accommodation of the eye adjusts to bring this point into
focus. The AC/A ratio describes the amount of convergence
(AC) required for a given level of accommodation (A):
AC
= PD + d ( Δ n − Δ d ) ,
A
where PD is the interpupillary distance in cm, Δn is the
prismatic deviation for a near object, Δd is the prismatic
deviation of a distant object and d is the near object distance
in meters.

Example: Suppose the eyes are 6 cm apart (PD = 6). If the

visual axes are parallel for a distant object (Δd = 0 D) and
converge to a point 1 meter (d = 1 m–1) from the eyes when
accommodating 1 D, then Δn = 3 Δ and the AC/A = 3 Δ / D.
14 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics
Vergence

Vergence is a concept in ophthalmic optics in which

distances are converted to a dioptric power. Vergence is
defined as
Ver gen ce = ± n d ,

where d is the absolute distance between an object and a

plane of interest, and n is the refractive index of the space. By
convention, converging light has a positive vergence and
diverging light has a negative vergence. Zero vergence occurs
when the object is at infinity. Vergence is in units of diopters
for d in meters.

Based on vergence, the lens formula is

U +Φ=V ,

where U is the object vergence, Φ is power of the lens, and V

is image vergence. For a thin lens, the plane of interest for
both vergences is at the lens. For thick lenses, the planes of
interest are the front and rear principal planes. The
magnification is U / V.

Object Distance Object Distance

Vergence (D) Vergence (D)
–0.25 4m –5.00 20 cm
–0.50 2m –6.00 16.6 cm
–1.00 1m –7.00 14.2 cm
–2.00 50 cm –8.00 12.5 cm
–3.00 33 cm –9.00 11.1 cm
–4.00 25 cm –10.00 10 cm
Ocular Function 15

Paraxial Schematic Eye

A variety of eye models exist that are used to examine the

optical properties of the eye, as well as design ophthalmic
accoutrements such as spectacle and contact lenses. Different
levels of sophistication exist in eye models, ranging from
paraxial spherical models to wide-angle aspheric models. In
general, spherical surface models can only match the first-
order properties of the eye. They do a poor job at matching
aberration content or off-axis properties of real eyes.
Consequently, they should only be used to examine cardinal
points, pupils, magnification, and other first-order effects
such as location of the Purkinje images. Aspheric eye models
are much better suited for illustrating clinical levels of
aberration, both on- and off-axis. A common paraxial model is
the LeGrand full theoretical eye, sometimes called the
Gullstrand-LeGrand schematic eye. This model approximates
the gradient index of the crystalline lens with a uniform
effective index of 1.42. The model is composed of four surfaces
as follows:
N am e Radius Index Thickness

7.8 m m
Cornea 1.3771 0.55 m m
6.5 m m
Aqueous 1.3374 3.05 m m
10.2 m m
Lens 1.4200 4.00 m m
-6.0 m m
Vitreous 1.3360 16.5966 m m

The focal points F and F′, the nodal points N and N′ and the
principal points P and P′, as well as the pupil locations E and
E′ are given in the table below. All distances are in
millimeters from the corneal vertex V.
VF = –15.089 VN = 7.200 VP = 1.595 VE = 3.038
VF′ = 24.197 VN′ = 7.513 VP′ = 1.851 VE′ = 3.682
The anterior cornea of this model has a power of 48.346 D.
The posterior cornea has a power of –6.108 D. The total
corneal power is 42.356 D. The anterior and posterior lens
surfaces have powers of 8.098 D and 14.000 D, respectively.
The total crystalline lens power is 21.779 D. The total power
of the eye model is 59.940 D.
16 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Arizona Eye Model

The following eye model is designed to match clinical levels of

aberration, both on and off-axis fields. The eye model can also
accommodate by varying parameters with the accommodation
level A in diopters. The Arizona Eye Model is defined by

Name Radius Conic Index Abbe Thickness

7.8 mm –0.25
Cornea 1.377 57.1 0 55 mm
6.5 mm –0.25
Aqueous 1.337 61.3 taq
Rant Kant
Lens nlens 51.9 tlens
Rpost Kpost
Vitreous 1.336 61.1 16.713 mm
–13 4 mm 0.00
Retina

where
Rant = 12.0 – 0.4A Kant = –7.518749 + 1.285720A
Rpost = -5.224557 + 0.2A Kpost = –1.353971 – 0.431762A
taq = 2.97 – 0.04A tlens = 3.767 + 0.04A
nlens = 1.42 + 0.00256A – 0.00022A2

The parameters and dimensions of the eye model have been

chosen to be consistent with average human data. The
crystalline lens has a uniform index and consequently does
not model the true gradient index structure of the human
lens. However, the crystalline lens index, dispersion, and
conic constants can be used to make the eye model match
clinical levels of aberration. The Arizona Eye has been
designed to match a fit to the longitudinal chromatic
aberration of the eye given by Atchison and Smith.
Furthermore, the eye model approaches the average
longitudinal spherical aberration (LSA) found by Porter
et al. for a 5.7 mm pupil. For three diopters of
accommodation, the LSA is designed to approach zero. For
fields less than 40°, the model is similar to the fit proposed by
Atchison and Smith for clinical levels of oblique astigmatism.
The retina curvature is designed to split the tangential and
sagittal foci off-axis. The total power of the unaccommodated
eye model is 60.61 diopters.
Ocular Function 17

Aberrations

Defocus is calculated by finding the point M that is conjugate

to the retina (far point). The power error dφ is then the
reciprocal of the distance from the front principal plane P of
the eye to M. If M is in front of the eye, then the distance PM
is negative. In the presence of axial astigmatism, the location
of M will move back and forth with meridian.

Longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA) is calculated by

finding the difference in power of the eye for a given
wavelength and a reference wavelength (commonly 589 nm).
n′ n′
dφ = − ,
P ′Fλ′ref P ′Fλ′
where n′ is the refractive index of the vitreous and P ′Fλ′ is
the effective focal length at wavelength λ. There is roughly 2.5
diopters of LCA across the visible spectrum. LCA can be
approximated by [Atchison and Smith, Eq. 17.30]
633.46
Φ λ = 1.68524 − .
λ − 214.102

Longitudinal spherical aberration (LSA) is the difference

in power between marginal and paraxial rays:
n′ n′
dφ = − ,
P M P ′F ′
′ ′
where n′ is the index of the vitreous, P ′M ′ is the distance
from the rear principal plane to the marginal focus, and P ′F ′
is the distance between the rear principal plane and the rear
focal point. By convention, if the marginal rays focus in front
of the paraxial rays, then LSA is positive. The location of M ′
varies with pupil size in the presence of LSA. There is about
1.25 diopters of LSA for a 6 mm pupil diameter.

Oblique astigmatism is calculated by examining the

difference in power between the tangential plane and the
sagittal plane for different field angles. Atchison and Smith
fit human data of oblique astigmatism and found
A(θ) = 0.00266 θ2 – 2.09 × 10–7 θ4, where θ is the field angle in
degrees. [Atchison and Smith, Eq. 15.31a]
18 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Aberrations (Continued)
Ocular Function 19

Visual Acuity

Distance visual acuity is typically measured using an eye

chart. Various forms of eye charts have been proposed and are
in use today. The most familiar is the Snellen eye chart.
Snellen acuity is given in terms of a Snellen fraction S,
which is defined as

Greatest distance subject can just read a given line on the chart
S=
Greatest distance a "normal" observer can just read the same line

Typical testing distances for the Snellen chart are 20 feet and
6 meters. If a subject can read a line at 20 feet and the
“normal” observer can see the same line at 40 feet, then the
subject has 20/40 Snellen acuity. Two drawbacks to the
Snellen chart are that the chart has a different number of
letters on each line and the size change of letters is not
constant between lines. The Bailey-Lovie and ETDRS
charts overcome these weaknesses by having a logarithmic
reduction in letter size from line to line and a constant
number of letters on each line. Visual acuity is sometimes
specified in terms of LogMAR acuity to give a continuous
number for acuity. LogMAR and Snellen acuity are related by

1  1 
LA = log 10   e.g., LA = log 10   = 0.3
S  20 / 40 

LogMAR Snellen Snellen

(English) (Metric)
–0.3 20/10 6/3
–0.2 20/12.5 6/3.75
–0.1 20/16 6/4.75
0.0 20/20 6/6
0.1 20/25 6/7.5
0.2 20/32 6/9.5
0.3 20/40 6/12
0.4 20/50 6/15
0.5 20/63 6/19
0.6 20/80 6/24
0.7 20/100 6/30
20 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Visual Acuity and Eye Charts

Near visual acuity is typically tested with a reading card to

assess a subject’s ability to accommodate. Jaeger scores
(designated J1, J2…) are sometimes used to rate near acuity.
However, these values are not standardized for size or test
distance. Confusion can result from their use. A common near
acuity card is the Rosenbaum card. This card is designed
for testing at a distance of 14 inches. A table comparing
Jaeger values, equivalent Snellen distance acuities and point
sizes for Times New Roman font is shown below. Newsprint is
typically between 10- and 14-point or between J7 and J10.
Jaeger Snellen Point
J1+ 20/20 3
J1 20/25 4
J2 20/30 5
J3 20/40 6
J5 20/50 8
J7 20/70 10
J10 20/100 14 ETDRS Chart
Alternatively, numbers, symbols, and shapes can be used as
optotypes for testing visual acuity. Common examples are the
Tumbling E’s, Landolt C’s, and the Lea Symbols. In this
task, the observer simply states the direction of the openings
in the letter. These tests are useful in pediatric and illiterate
subjects. The contrast of the chart symbols can also be
reduced to determine the acuity under different conditions.

Tumbling E’s

Landolt C’s

Lea Symbols®
Ocular Function 21

Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF)

While visual acuity measures the smallest resolvable high-

contrast detail, contrast sensitivity testing probes visual
function with larger targets and lower contrasts. Typically,
sinusoidal patterns of diminishing contrast are used to test
contrast sensitivity, such that the lowest detectable contrast
at a given spatial frequency is found. Contrast sensitivity is
the reciprocal of this minimum contrast. The CSF is the
sensitivity across multiple spatial frequencies. Aberrations
and scatter reduce the CSF, making contrast sensitivity
testing more sensitive to subtle changes than visual acuity
assessment. The CSF for a young population is shown below.

Gabor patches are often used for CSF testing as well. These
are sinusoids modulated by a Gaussian envelope such that

I ( x , y) = cos(2πfo x ) exp − 
(
  fo 2 x 2 + y2 )  
 ,
 σ2 
  
where fo is the sinusoidal spatial frequency in cycles/degree
and σ is the standard deviation of the Gaussian in cycles.

The fundamental spatial frequency, fo, of an optotype is

related to the Snellen fraction, S. For example, a 20/20 letter
E is comprised of 2.5 cycles in the vertical direction and
subtends 5 arcmin. Consequently, 20/20 letters correspond to
30 cycles/degree. In general, fo (cycles/degree) = 30S. The
same letter is 25 µm on the retina, or has a fundamental
frequency of 100 cycles/mm. In general, fo (cycles/mm on
retina) = 100S.
22 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Contrast Sensitivity (Continued)

The CSF is also tested by bypassing the eye’s optics.

Interference fringes are formed on the retina and their
contrast varied. This retinal CSF avoids the contrast loss
from ocular aberrations and diffraction. Consequently, it is a
measure of the capability of the retinal and neural functions
to transmit information to the brain. The ratio of the external
CSF to the retinal CSF is the modulation transfer
function of the eye. The reciprocal of the retinal CSF is the
modulation threshold function, and describes the
minimum retinal contrast required for detection.

The eye is also sensitive to temporal variations in

illumination. A uniformly illuminated field that varies in
brightness over time gives a contrast defined by the
maximum and minimum brightness. The temporal CSF for
different average retinal illuminance levels is below.
Ocular Function 23

Emmetropia and Ametropia

Emmetropia is a state of refraction where a point at an

infinite distance from the eye is conjugate to the retina.
Ametropia is a state where refractive error is present, or
when distant points are no longer focused properly to the
retina. Myopia or near-sightedness (short-sightedness) is
one form of ametropia where the eye is effectively too long or
has too high a power. Consequently, a point at infinity focuses
in front of the retina. In myopia, a point lying between
infinity and the eye is conjugate to the retina. Hyperopia or
far-sightedness is a form of ametropia where the eye’s
power is too weak or the eyeball too short. In this case, a point
at infinity focuses behind the retina. A point behind the eye is
therefore conjugate to the retina. Astigmatism is a form of
ametropia in which refractive error changes with meridian.

Myopia

Hyperopia

Distribution of Refractive Error

24 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Far and Near Points

The far point is the point conjugate to the retina when the
eye is unaccommodated. The level of refractive error is
typically given in units of diopters (m–1). If the distance from
the front principal point of the eye to the far point is
measured in meters, then the reciprocal of this value is the
refractive error of the eye in diopters. By convention, the
refractive error is negative when the far point is in front of
the eye, and positive when the far point is behind the eye. The
corneal vertex is typically used as the reference point in lieu
of the front principal point for convenience.

For myopic eyes the far point is in front of the eye, and
consequently the refractive error is negative. For hyperopic
eyes, the far point lies behind the eye and the refractive error
is positive. The sign of the refractive error determines the
lens power required to correct the refractive error. For
myopia, a negative lens corrects the refractive error. This lens
images a point from infinity to the eye’s far point. The eye’s
optics then images the far point to the retina. For hyperopia,
positive lenses focus light from infinity to the far point behind
the eye. The eye then images this point to the retina.

The crystalline lens accommodates or increases its power to

allow the eye to focus on near objects. The near point is the
point conjugate to the retina under maximum
accommodation. The region between the far and near points
describes the range of distances that clear vision can be
achieved through accommodation. For myopia, the near point
lies between the eye and the far point. Myopes can clearly
focus on objects that lie between their far point and near
point. For hyperopia, the near point can either lie between the
far point and –∞ behind the eye, or if sufficient
accommodation exists, then the near point can lie in front of
the eye. In the former case, objects at any distance cannot be
brought into focus. In the latter case, the hyperope can focus
on objects located between +∞ and the near point. Full
accommodation for long periods causes eyestrain and
headache. Usually, half the accommodative amplitude can be
used over extended periods of time.
Ocular Function 25

Presbyopia

Presbyopia is the progressive loss of the amplitude of

accommodation with age. Accommodation loss is typically not
a problem until the near point moves beyond reading
distance. This level of presbyopia usually occurs in the fourth
decade. The most likely cause of presbyopia is the continual
growth of the crystalline lens within the eye. With age, the
lens becomes both larger, which reduces the tension on the
zonules that support it, and thicker, which makes it stiffer.

Numerous modalities exist to aid presbyopes, including:

Accommodating intraocular lenses: IOLs that change
shape and/or shift location to restore accommodation.
Bifocal spectacles: An “add” lens on the lower portion of a
spectacle lens, providing the wearer with near vision.
Diffractive contact and intraocular lenses (IOLs): A lens
with diffractive elements that form multiple foci used to
provide simultaneous vision, or in other words, in-focus and
blurred images of near and far targets.
Monovision: Spectacle, contact lenses, or IOLs used to
correct one eye for distant objects and one eye for near tasks.
Multi-zone refractive contact and IOLs: Lenses with
multiple regions (typically concentric annular rings) of near
and distance power that provide simultaneous vision
Progressive addition lenses (PALs): A spectacle lens with
a vertically continuous change in power that provides near
vision.
26 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Spectacles: Single Vision

Single vision spectacle lenses contain a single optical power

and are typically composed of two spherical surfaces. The rear
surface of the spectacle lens is usually placed about 14 mm
from the cornea. This distance gives sufficient space to keep
the eyelashes from brushing against the lens. The eye is
mobile and moves about the center of rotation relative to
the optical axis of the spectacle lens. Since the eye looks
through different portions of the lens, off-axis aberrations
become important in designing spectacle lenses. Astigmatism
is the primary cause of degradation in image quality in
eccentric viewing. Using a thin lens approximation, the
required total lens power that eliminates astigmatism can be
determined for a given front surface. The rear surface power
is the difference between the total and front surface powers:
2
2   n − 1
φ12 (n + 2) − φ1  (n2 − 1) + Φ(n + 2) + n Φ + =0,
 q ′   q ′ 
where
φ1 = the power anterior surface of the lens
Φ = total power of the lens
n = index of refraction of the lens
q′ = spectacle lens to center of rotation distance (~27 mm).

The preceding equation describes Tscherning’s ellipse. The

exact shape and position of the ellipse depends upon the index
and the value of q′. The lower portion of the ellipse is called
the Ostwalt branch and corresponds to flatter lenses. The
upper portion is called the Wollaston branch and
corresponds to more curved lenses. Both branches describe
meniscus lenses with the concavity towards the eye.
Correction of Ocular Errors 27

Spectacle Lenses

While the Tscherning ellipse provides the shapes of the

surfaces of a spectacle lens that minimizes astigmatism, the
wearer’s anatomy must also be considered when designing a
spectacle lens. The lens should not interfere with the
eyelashes or touch the brow or cheek when properly aligned.
The lens should also be cosmetically appealing, which of
course is highly subjective. Typically, spectacle lenses follow
the Ostwalt’s branch of the Tscherning ellipse since these
lenses tend to have flatter curvatures and are more
“attractive.” To avoid contact with the brow and the cheek,
pantoscopic tilt between 5 and 7 degrees is usually
introduced. Simply tilting
the spectacle lens would
introduce off-axis aber-
rations when viewing
through the lens, so
pantoscopic tilt also re-
quires that the lens be
decentered such that the
optical axis of the lens
passes through the center of rotation of the eye. For each
degree of tilt, the optical center of the lens needs to be shifted
0.5 mm. The center of rotation of the eye is roughly 13 mm
behind the corneal vertex. The vertex distance is the
distance between the corneal vertex and the back surface of
the spectacle lens. A wearer’s prescription is usually obtained
at a vertex distance of 12 to 14 mm. If the frames that hold
the lens are designed for a different vertex distance, then the
power of the spectacle lens needs to be adjusted. This
procedure is known as vertex adjustment. If the required
prescription Φ1 was measured at a vertex distance d1, then
the new power Φ2 at a vertex distance d2 is
Φ1
Φ2 = .
1 + ( d2 − d1 ) Φ1

Typically, the difference in power is small unless the spectacle

lenses are stronger than ±7.00 diopters. Vertex adjustment is
also important in prescribing contact lenses from a spectacle
prescription. In this case, d2 = 0.
28 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Lensmeter

A lensmeter (focimeter) is a
device for measuring the power
of a spectacle lens. A target
(typically a crossed sets of
lines) is imaged through a lens
of focal length f. The spectacle
lens under test is placed at the
rear focal point of this lens.
Light emerging from the
spectacle lens enters an
eyepiece with an internal
reticle. The user axially shifts
the target until it is
simultaneously in focus with
the reticle. This situation
occurs when the light emerging
from the spectacle lens is
collimated. The target position
d is related to the power of the
spectacle lens Φ by
d−f
Φ= .
f2

The target can be rotated to

align with the axes of a
spherocylinder lens. When
cylinder is present, only one set
of target lines can be in focus.
Readjusting the lensmeter will
bring the orthogonal set of lines
into focus. The difference in
power between the two focus
positions is the cylinder power
of the lens. The different zones of a progressive addition lens
can also be measured with a lensmeter by shifting the
position of the lens in front of the aperture of the eyepiece.
Modern versions of the device are automated.
Correction of Ocular Errors 29

Spherical and Cylindrical Refractive Error

The spectacle prescription of a patient is typically given as

Sph / Cyl × Axis, where Sph is the power of a spherical lens
needed to correct the rotationally symmetric portion of a
patient’s refractive error, Cyl is the power of a cylindrical lens
needed to correct the astigmatic portion of a patient’s
refractive error and Axis is the orientation of the cylinder lens
required to the patient’s astigmatism. Sph and Cyl are given
in units of diopters, and Axis is in degrees. The orientation of
Axis is defined by the zero power axis of the cylinder lens. The
orientation of Axis for both left and right eyes is measured
counterclockwise from a horizontal axis passing through the
two pupils. Axis always lies in the range of 1° and 180°, since
axes outside this range are redundant. Two equivalent forms
exist for writing a given prescription. These forms are known
as the plus-cylinder and minus-cylinder forms, with the plus-
and minus- referring to the sign of the cylinder power.
Ophthalmologists tend to use the plus-cylinder form, whereas
optometrists tend to use the minus-cylinder form. Conversion
between the forms is carried out as follows:
1. The new spherical component is the sum of the
spherical and cylindrical powers of the old form.
2. The new cylindrical component is the negative of the
old cylinder component.
3. The new cylinder axis is 90° from the old cylinder axis.
4. If the new axis does not fall within the 1° to 180°
range, then add or subtract 180° from the new axis to
place it in this range.

The spherical equivalent power (SEP) is the average

power of a sphero-cylinder lens, given by SEP = Sph + 0.5Cyl.
The right eye is abbreviated OD (oculus dexter). The left eye
is abbreviated OS (oculus sinister), and both eyes is OU
(oculus uterque). The interpupillary distance (PD) is the
distance between the pupils, ranging from 55 to 75 mm.
30 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Prismatic Error

Prisms and prismatic error

in ophthalmic optics are
specified in terms of prism
diopters (∆). The definition
of a prism diopter is the
prismatic deviation of a
beam of light 1 cm at a
distance of 1 m. The orientation of a prism is defined by its
base (the wide end of the prism). Base Up (BU) and Base
Down (BD) cause vertical deviations, while Base Out (BO)
and Base In (BI) cause horizontal deviations. Base Out
orients the prism towards the temple, while Base In orients
the prism nasally.

Decentering a spectacle lens introduces prismatic effects.

Prentice’s Rule describes the amount of prism P introduced
in this situation. For a lens of power φ diopters and a
decentration d in cm, the prismatic effect is given by

P (∆) = d (cm) × φ (D)

Prism power is used to alleviate binocular alignment errors.

Strabismus is a condition where the line of sight of the two
eyes does not meet at the fixation point. Different types of
deviations occur in strabismus. Prisms with the appropriate
orientation are used to correct the misalignment. In cases of
large misalignment, the prism may be split between the two
eyes. In this case, equal-power prisms are placed over each
eye with their bases in opposite directions. If refractive error
and strabismus are present, then spectacle lens decentration
introduces a prismatic
correction. Strabismus
is a serious condition if
left untreated in young
children. Amblyopia,
or permanent loss of
acuity can result from
the misalignment,
unless corrected in the
first few years of life.
Correction of Ocular Errors 31
Astigmatic Decomposition

Astigmatic decomposition, sometimes referred to as power

vector analysis can be used to combine multiple sphero-
cylinder components into a single element. This technique is
useful for finding the net effect of sphero-cylinder lenses in
combination and for analyzing refractive error statistics over
a population. The need for this technique arises from
differences in the orientation of the cylinder axis. When the
cylinder axes are not aligned, simple thin lens addition cannot
be used. Instead, the lens must be decomposed into a
combination of a spherical equivalent lens M and two crossed-
cylinder lenses, one oriented horizontally, J0, and one
oriented at 45°, J45. For a lens with prescription Sph / Cyl ×
Axis, the astigmatic decomposition of the lens is given by
M = Sph + 0.5 Cyl
J0 = –0.5Cyl cos (2 Axis) J45 = –0.5Cyl sin (2 Axis)
To combine multiple sphero-cylinder lenses, each lens is
decomposed into M, J0, and J45. The individual components
for each lens are then summed, and the result converted back
to the sphere SR, cylinder CR and axis θR notation, via
SR = ∑ M − ( ∑ J0 ) + ( ∑ J45)
2 2

( ∑ J0 ) + ( ∑ J45 )
2 2
CR = 2
⎛ CR ⎞
⎜ 2 + ∑J0⎟
−1
θ R = − tan ⎜ ⎟ add 180° if θ R ≤ 0°
⎜⎜ ∑ J 45 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠

Example: Combine –2.75 / +1.00×10° and +4.25 / –1.50×20°

Sph Cyl Axis J0 J45 M
×2.75 +1.00 10 ⇒ –0.470 –0.171 –2.25
+4.25 –1.50 20 ⇒ 0.575 0.482 3.50
⇓ Add ⇓
SR CR θR ⇐ 0.105 0.311 1.25
SR = +0.922 diopters
CR = +0.656 diopters
θR = 125.7°
32 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Special Ophthalmic Lenses

The Jackson crossed cylinder (JCC)

is a specialty lens used in ophthalmic
optics. It has a power Φ in one meridian
and a power –Φ in the orthogonal
meridian. The spherical equivalent
power (SEP) of a JCC is zero.
Consequently, these lenses introduce
pure astigmatism and no spherical error.
If a patient with spherocylinder
refractive error is fit with their SEP lens,
then the medial focus will lie on the
retina. The tangential and sagittal foci straddle the retina in
this case. A JCC can be used to collapse the astigmatic foci to
the retina, without shifting the medial focus. This technique
is employed in the phoropters when performing a subjective
refraction. If conventional cylinder lenses (i.e., power Φ along
one meridian and zero power along the other meridian) were
used in subjective refraction, then the spherical power would
need to keep being readjusted each time a new cylinder power
was evaluated. The JCC is used to refine the cylindrical
power when aligned with the axis of refractive error and to
refine the axis when it straddles the refractive error axis.

The Maddox rod is another common specialty lens found in

trial lens sets. It is an array of cylinder lenses usually tinted
red, placed over one eye to evaluate the binocular alignment
of the eyes. When a white point source is viewed, one eye will
see a red line due to the cylinder lenses, while the uncovered
eye will simply see a white point. If the eyes are binocularly
aligned, then the line and spot will overlap. Any
misalignment between the eyes causes the spot and the line
to separate.
Correction of Ocular Errors 33

Variable Prisms and Lenses

Variable elements, based on rotation or translation, provide

continuous variation of prism, sphere, and cylinder power.

Risley prism: Counter-

rotating wedge prisms,
which when the bases of the
prisms are in opposite
directions, acts as a plane-
parallel plate. Aligning the bases gives the maximum
prismatic deviation. Intermediate levels of prismatic
deviation arise from other orientations

Stokes lens: A pair of counter-rotating cylinder lenses of

equal and opposite power. When one lens is rotated by an
angle θ and the other lens is rotated by –θ, then the resultant
cylindrical power, C, is C = 2Φ sin 2θ , where Φ is the power of
the positive cylinder lens. The axis of the resulting cylinder
power is always at 45°.

Alvarez lens: A pair of phase plates whose thickness t is

 x3 
t = A  xy2 +  + Bx2 + Cxy + Dx + E + F( y) .
 3 

The two plates must have equal and opposite values of the
coefficient A. The coefficients B, C, D, E, and the function F
can take on any practical values, including zero. Translating
one plate by ∆x and the other plate by –∆x produces a
continuous variation in spherical power.

Humphrey lens: Dual-phase plates of thickness t such that

 x3 
t = A − xy2  + Bx2 + Cxy + Dy2 + Ex + Fy + G .
 3 
The two plates must have equal and opposite values of the
coefficient A. The coefficients B, C, D, E, F, and G can have
any practical value, including zero. Translation of one plate
(∆x,∆y), compensated by equal and opposite translations of
the other plate, produces a continuously variable cylindrical
power. Any orientation of the cylinder axis can be achieved.
34 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Contact Lenses

Contact lenses are artificial lenses temporarily placed on the

cornea. Since the cornea absorbs oxygen from the air, oxygen
permeability is crucial for contact lenses. Early “hard” contact
lenses had poor oxygen permeability since they were made of
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). Alternative materials are
used in newer lenses to markedly increase the transmission of
oxygen and promote corneal health. Rigid gas permeable
materials have replaced hard lenses. Hydrogel materials are
used for “soft” lenses.

Rigid gas permeables (RGPs) Advantages: RGPs do not

flex or conform to the shape of the cornea. When properly fit,
the space between the lens and the cornea fills with tears,
effectively index matching with the cornea. This property
masks corneal toricity that introduces astigmatism and
irregularities such as keratoconus. RGPs tend to scatter less
light and have a more predictable surface shape, providing
high-quality optics. Disadvantages: RGPs can be difficult and
time consuming to fit. Lens motion on the cornea is needed to
promote tear circulation and corneal health. This motion can
cause intermittent correction of vision. RGPs also cannot
mask astigmatism in the crystalline lens. Sophisticated toric
designs are required to reduce residual astigmatism. Finally,
rigid materials can cause a foreign body sensation, and an
adjustment period is usually necessary.

Hydrogels (soft lenses) Advantages: A soft lens is flexible

and conforms to the shape of the cornea, promoting ocular
comfort. These lenses are also easy to fit since matching the
back surface of the lens to corneal shape is not as crucial. Soft
lenses are stable on the eye, allowing a constant level of
visual correction. Disadvantages: These lenses cannot mask
corneal toricity or irregularities since they conform to the
corneal surface, causing a transferral of the underlying shape.
Toric lenses for astigmatism have had only minor success.
Hydrogel materials tend to have a decreased clarity compared
to RGPs. Soft lenses are typically made in a dehydrated state.
Small surface irregularities are magnified upon hydration.
Correction of Ocular Errors 35

Radiuscope

The radiuscope is a device for verifying the base radius of

curvature of a rigid contact lens. Collimated light is focused
by an objective lens to a point. The contact lens is placed in
the radiuscope and axially shifted until the back surface of
the contact lens is at the focal
point of the objective lens. The
light is reflected by the
contact lens and re-collimated
by the objective lens. The
collimated light enters an
eyepiece. The reflected light is
in best focus on the reticle
when the contact lens is
conjugate to the reticle. The
contact lens is then shifted to
the cat’s eye position, where
retro-reflection occurs. The
cat’s eye position is where the
focal point of the objective lens
is at the center of curvature of
the back surface of the contact
lens. Under these conditions,
the light reflected from the
contact lens is again
collimated by the objective
lens and produces a focus spot
on the reticle in the eyepiece.
The distance the contact lens
shifts between the two
positions is equal to the radius
of curvature R of the back
surface of the contact lens.
Verifying the base radius is
important since the base
radius of curvature is crucial
in a comfortable and stable fit
of the rigid lens. Furthermore,
manufacturing errors are
fairly common.
36 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Spectacle and Contact Lens Materials

Material or Refractive Abbe Specific

Manufacturer Index (d) Number Gravity
Ophthalmic Crown 1.523* 58.9 2.54
CR-39 1.498 58.0 1.32
Polycarbonate 1.586 30.0 1.20
Seiko 1.740 33.0 1.47
Seiko Super 1.6 1.600 42.0 1.22
Seiko 1.670 32.0 1.36
Seiko 1.560 40.0 1.17
Zeiss Claret 1.600 36.0 1.34
Sola Spectralite 1.537 47.0 1.21
Essilor 17 1.701* 42.0 3.21
Essilor 16 1.600* 42.0 2.63
Essilor 18 1.802* 35.0 3.65
Essilor Ormex 1.557 37.0 1.23
Essilor Orma 1.500 59.0 1.32
Sola Finalite 1.600 42.0 1.23
Sola 1.66 1.660 32.0 1.35
Sola Glass White 1.523* 59.0 2.62
*Glass

Spectacle lenses are made from glass and plastic materials. A

table of some common materials is shown above. High index
material is desirable to keep the lenses thinner (lighter) and
high Abbe numbers are desirable to minimize chromatic
aberration. Glass materials tend to be much heavier than
plastic. ANSI standards require that lenses withstand the
impact of a 1-inch steel ball dropped from a height of 50
inches without fracturing. Safety glasses must withstand the
impact of a 0.25-inch steel ball traveling at 150 ft/s.

Contact lens materials come in two varieties: hydrogel (soft)

and rigid gas permeable (RGP). The term “hard” lenses has
been abandoned to distinguish modern rigid high-oxygen
transmitting materials from earlier low-transmission
materials. Hydrogel materials have generic names that end in
filcon (for hydrophilic) and have 10% or more water content.
RGP materials are given generic names ending in focon (for
hydrophobic), and have less than 10% water content.
Correction of Ocular Errors 37

Surgical Correction of Refractive Error

A variety of surgical techniques have been used to correct

refractive error in the eye, reducing or eliminating the need
for spectacles or contact lenses. Except for phakic intraocular
lenses, these surgical techniques modify the shape of the
cornea, thus changing the eye’s total optical power. Targeting
the cornea is effective due to the large refraction that occurs
at the anterior surface. Various techniques are listed below.

Astigmatic keratotomy (AK): non-penetrating arcuate cuts

are made in the peripheral cornea to reduce astigmatism.
Conductive keratoplasty (CK): radio frequency energy
applied to the cornea heats and shrinks intrastromal collagen.
Laser epithelial keratomileusis (LASEK): an epithelial
flap is created and the underlying cornea is reshaped with an
excimer laser. Following tissue removal, the flap is replaced.
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK): a flap of epithelial
and stromal material is mechanically cut in the cornea. An
excimer laser reshapes the underlying tissue. Following
treatment, the flap is replaced
Laser thermal keratoplasty (LTK): laser energy applied to
the cornea heats and shrinks intrastromal collagen.
Phakic intraocular lenses (PIOLs): An artificial lens is
implanted between the cornea and the crystalline lens.
Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK): following removal of
the epithelium, the underlying tissue is reshaped with an
excimer laser. The epithelium regrows soon after treatment.
Radial keratotomy (RK): a series of spoke-like non-
penetrating incisions are made in the cornea. The incisions
weaken the corneal structure causing it to flatten.

LASIK is currently the dominant paradigm for correcting

refractive error. LASEK and PRK are closely related to the
LASIK procedure and are still routinely performed. AK is
routinely performed following cataract surgery with IOL
implantation to correct corneal astigmatism. CK and LTK
tend to have problems with regression and have not become
widespread. RK is largely defunct. An argon-fluoride (ArF)
excimer laser operating at a wavelength of 193 nm is the
pervasive choice for LASIK, LASEK, and PRK.
38 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Cataract Surgery

As the crystalline lens ages, opacities or cataracts develop

that cause decreased visual acuity and reduced retinal
illumination. Removing the crystalline lens leaves a patient
aphakic and roughly 20 diopters hyperopic. In the mid-20th
century, artificial intraocular lenses (IOLs) were developed
to implant following cataract surgery. Patients receiving IOLs
are pseudophakic. Today, cataract surgery with IOL
implantation is the most widely performed surgery in the
United States. One difficulty associated with IOL
implantation is the determination of the appropriate lens
power prior to surgery. The SRK formula is a regression-
based technique for determining IOL power, φIOL. The formula
is φIOL = A – 0.9K – 2.5L, where A is a constant provided by
the IOL manufacturer related to the position of the IOL
within the eye, K (diopters) is the average corneal power
obtained from keratometry, and L (mm) is the axial length of
the eye measured with ultrasound. The SRK formula can
produce poor results for long and short eyes, so a variety of
theoretical formulas have been developed to improve results.
The theoretical formulas are all based on the expression
below:
n  n 
φ IOL = n  − L  ( L − ACD )  − ACD  ,
 K   K 

where n is the index of refraction for the aqueous humor. The

anterior chamber depth (ACD) is the distance between the
cornea and the IOL. Some theoretical formulas use a surgeon
factor (SF) instead of ACD. The SF is the distance from the
iris plane to the IOL. The ACD, SF, and the A-constant are all
Material Speed of Sound related. Conversion be-
Cornea 1640 m/s tween the values is
Aqueous 1532 m/s
Lens – Normal 1640 m/s SF = 0.5663A – 65.6
Lens – Cataractous 1629 m/s (mm)
Vitreous 1532 m/s
PMMA IOL 2760 m/s SF + 3.595
ACD = (mm)
Silicone IOL 1000 m/s 0.9704
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 39

Purkinje Images

Purkinje images are the back reflections from the various

ocular surfaces. The four Purkinje images, usually referred to
as PI, PII, PIII, and PIV, correspond to the reflections from
the anterior and posterior cornea, and the anterior and the
posterior crystalline lens surfaces, respectively. Based on the
Gullstrand-LeGrand schematic eye, the locations,
magnifications, and luminosity of each image can be
determined. For an object located 500 mm in front of the eye,
PI is an erect image, located 3.87 mm behind the corneal
vertex. Its magnification is 0.00774×. PII is an erect image
formed 3.59 mm from the
corneal vertex. It has an image
height of about 82% of that of
PI. PIII is an erect image
formed 10.61 mm from the
corneal vertex. It has an image
height roughly twice that of
PI. Finally, PIV is inverted
and lies 4.32 mm from the corneal vertex and has an inverted
height of 76% that of PI. The Fresnel reflection coefficients
determine the amount of light reflected in each Purkinje
image. The anterior cornea reflects about 2% of the incident
light. Ignoring secondary reflections and transmission losses,
PII reflects about 0.02%, and PIII and PIV reflect 0.016% of
the incident light. Large differences in luminosity and similar
locations of PI and PII cause PI to obscure PII. A camera
imaging the pupil can usually image PI and PIV
simultaneously, but the camera needs to be refocused to
obtain PIII. The Purkinje images have been used for
phakometry, or the measurement of the radii of curvature of
the crystalline lens surfaces. One drawback to this technique
is that the gradient index distribution of the crystalline lens
is unknown, causing errors in the prediction of the posterior
lens radius. Purkinje images have also been used for tracking
the eye. The position of PI relative to the pupil boundary gives
an estimate of where a person is looking. Dual Purkinje eye
trackers have also been explored, basing their tracking on the
relative positions of PI and PIV.
40 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Fluorescein Imaging

Sodium fluorescein is a fluorescent dye that is routinely

used in the eye. It can be used topically on the cornea to look
for epithelial defects and corneal
abrasions, as well as under
contact lenses to determine their
fit. The dye is also injected
intravenously and circulated
throughout the body. A fundus
camera is used for excitation
and observation of the fluorescing retinal vasculature. The
peak absorption is at 490 nm and the peak emission is at 513
nm. A Wratten 47A cobalt-blue filter is used as an excitation
filter. Wratten 12 or 15 filters are suitable barrier filters.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 41

Indocyanine Green Imaging

Indocyanine green (ICG) is another fluorescent dye that is

used intravenously to help view vasculature in the eye. Its
peak absorption occurs at 805 nm, while its peak emission
occurs at 835 nm. Since both excitation and emission occur in
the infrared, less absorption and scatter of this light occurs in
the layers of the retina. This effect allows deeper structures
within the eye to be seen. Thus, ICG is typically used for
viewing blood vessels in the choroid underlying the retina.

ICG angiography is typically performed with a digital CCD

camera sensitive to infrared wavelengths. Digital imaging is
used in place of film since ISO 25 film is typically used for
fundus photography. Since ICG has only about 4% fluorescent
efficiency, too much light is needed for suitable exposures.
Digital imaging also provides visualization for the
photographer who cannot see the infrared emissions.

Indocyanine Green
42 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Keratometry

Keratometry is the measurement of the corneal radius of

curvature. The anterior corneal surface is treated as a
specular reflector. A ring of known size is placed in front of
the eye. The cornea (in reflection) forms a virtual image of the
ring below its surface. The virtual image is the first Purkinje
image of the ring. The size of this image is related to the
radius of curvature,
R, of the cornea by
R = 2dy / h, where h
is the radius of the
ring object, y is the
radius of the ring
image, and d is the
distance between the
object and image. In
converting the
corneal radius to
corneal power it is
customary to use the keratometric index of refraction nk
= 1.3375, instead of the actual index of refraction of the
cornea. The keratometric index is an effective index that
accounts for the negative power introduced by the posterior
corneal surface. Consequently, keratometry attempts to
predict the total corneal power based only on a measurement
of the anterior corneal surface. The corneal power in diopters
is given by Φ = 337.5 / R, for R in mm.
When corneal astigmatism is present, the ring image becomes
elliptical. The major and minor axes of this ellipse define the
orientati of the corneal astigmatism. In this case, keratometry
is normally measured along these two orthogonal meridians,
giving the maximum and minimum corneal power. These
extrema are known as K-values or corneal Ks. The
difference between the K-values is a measure of corneal
astigmatism. With-the-rule astigmatism is when the
vertical meridian is steepest (smallest radius). Against-the-
rule astigmatism is the converse case. Irregularities in
corneal shape cause further distortion of the ring image,
providing a subjectively assessment of corneal shape.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 43

Corneal Topography

Two general categories of corneal topographers are placido

systems and triangulation systems. In placido systems, a
target with a small central aperture is placed in front of the
cornea. The first Purkinje image of this target is observed
through the aperture. Based on the known target pattern and
the distortion of the pattern in the Purkinje image, the shape
of the cornea can be
reconstructed. Placido
disks, an extension of
keratometry, typically use a
series of black-and-white
concentric rings as a target.
The small central aperture
ensures that rays from
different rings reflect from
different portions of the
cornea. Due to corneal
geometry and the anatomy
of the brow and nose,
placido-based systems are usually limited to measuring only
the central 9 mm or so of the 12 mm corneal diameter.
Triangulation systems use structured light. A target is
projected onto the cornea. A camera at a different vantage
point captures a diffuse image of the target on the cornea. The
geometry of the target and camera allows triangulation
techniques to locate points in three-dimensional space in the
diffuse image. Since the cornea produces a specular reflection,
techniques are needed to produce the diffuse image on the
cornea. Three methods that have been used are (Method 1)
using ultraviolet illumination for the target, which in turn
causes the corneal surface to fluoresce in the blue; (Method 2)
instilling sodium fluorescein into the eye and illuminating the
target with blue light; fluorescence produces a green diffuse
image on the cornea; and (Method 3) illuminating with a
narrow beam of white light and examining corneal scatter.
Grids, gratings, and single slits have been used as targets
with this technique. Triangulation can measure the entire
cornea (and possibly the sclera).
44 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Corneal Topography: Axial Power

Traditionally, corneal topography has been displayed as a

color-coded map of axial power. Differential geometry
demonstrates that at a given point on a surface, there is a
maximum curvature and a minimum curvature. For
rotationally symmetric surfaces, these curvatures are found
in the radial (or tangential) direction and the azimuthal (or
sagittal) direction. Axial power (sometimes called sagittal
power) is proportional to the curvature of the surface in the
sagittal direction. If the corneal surface can be described in
cylindrical coordinates by z = f(r,θ), then the axial power Φa is
given by
( n − 1) ( nk − 1) df / dr
Φa = k = ,
Ra r 1 + ( df / dr )
2

where nk =1.3375 is the keratometric index of refraction and

Ra is shown in the diagram below.
r

α Cornea

Ra

α z

For a conic section with radius R and conic constant K, the

axial power is given by
nk − 1
Φa = .
R2 − Kr 2

For a spherical surface (K = 0), the axial power is a constant

for all points on the surface. The definition of axial power
technically only holds for rotationally symmetric surfaces.
However, the errors or artifacts that arise from applying this
definition to the non-rotationally symmetric cornea are small.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 45

Corneal Topography: Instantaneous Power

An alternative to the axial power map for display of corneal

topography data is the instantaneous power (or tangential
power) map. Whereas axial power is proportional to the
curvature of the surface in the sagittal direction,
instantaneous power is proportional to the curvature of a
rotationally symmetric surface in the radial or tangential
direction. If the corneal surface can be described in cylindrical
coordinates by z = f(r,θ), then the instantaneous power Φi is
given by
n − 1 ( nk − 1) d z / dr
2 2

Φi = k = 3/2
,
RI 1 + ( dz / dr )2 
 

where nk =1.3375 is the keratometric index of refraction and

RI is shown in the diagram below:

Cornea

RI

For a conic section with radius R and conic constant K, the

instantaneous power is given by

(nk − 1)R2
Φi = .
(R − Kr 2 )
2 3/2

For a spherical surface (K = 0), the instantaneous power is a

constant for all points on the surface. The axial power Φa and
instantaneous power Φi are related by

d ( rΦ a ) 1
r
Φa (r) = Φ i ( r ′ )dr ′
r ∫0
= Φi
dr
46 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Anterior Segment Imaging

The anterior segment comprises the cornea, the anterior

chamber, and the crystalline lens. There are several devices
and techniques used for imaging the anterior segment.

Slit lamp imaging uses a stereomicroscope designed to view

the eye. Koehler illumination is used in the slit lamp to vary
the illumination level. A variable-width slit is projected onto
the eye. Slit lamps can be used to visually identify corneal
defects, estimate corneal thickness (pachymetry) and anterior
chamber depth, and view crystalline lens opacities.

Gonioscopy examines
the angle or the internal
junction of the cornea and
the iris. This region
houses the trabecular
meshwork and Schlemm’s canal, both of which are vital to
the outflow of aqueous humor and maintaining normal levels
of intraocular pressure (IOP). The angle cannot be viewed
without the aid of gonioscopy lenses, since light from the
angle suffers total internal reflection (TIR). Gonioscopy lenses
are specialized lenses that are index-matched to the cornea to
eliminate the TIR. Laser pulses delivered through the gonio-
lens provide selective laser trabeculoplasty, increasing
aqueous humor outflow in glaucoma patients.

Scheimpflug imaging gives a

profile through the anterior
segment. A narrow slit is
projected into the eye. Light
scattering from the cornea and
the crystalline lens is imaged
through a Scheimpflug lens
onto film or digital camera.
This technique assesses the
density of crystalline lens opacities. Scheimpflug images of
the anterior segment are distorted since the scattered light
refracts at the intermediate optical surfaces. Correction of
this distortion is necessary to determine the true geometry.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 47

Wavefront Sensing: Shack-Hartmann Sensing

Wavefront sensing measures the aberration of the eye.

While early interest in ocular aberrations was primarily of
academic interest, recent advances in correction techniques
has led to a rapidly expanding interest in the assessment of
monochromatic aberrations in individual eyes. Perhaps the
most common technique for accomplishing this task is the
Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor.

The Shack-Hartmann technique captures the wavefront

emanating from the eye with a two-dimensional array of
lenses. For an aberration-free eye, plane waves pass through
each lenslet and are focused to a point. With aberrations, the
portion of the wavefront that enters the aperture of each
lenslet is approximately planar, but can have a localized tilt.
This tilt causes a lateral shift in the location of the focused
spot. The magnitude and direction of this shift is related to
the slope of the wavefront at the lenslet such that
∂W ( x, y) ∆x ∂W ( x, y) ∆y
= and = ,
∂x f ∂y f

where W(x,y) is the wavefront error, ∆x and ∆y are the lateral

shifts in the x and y directions, respectively, and f is the focal
length of a lenslet. The wavefront error is reconstructed from
these sampled slopes. Longer-focal-length lenslets increase
the sensitivity of the sensor, while shorter focal lengths
increase the dynamic range. Typical lenslet diameters for
ocular wavefront sensors are 100–600 µm. The Shack-
Hartmann technique is presently the prevalent method for
measuring ocular aberrations. Commercial devices are
available that are linked to excimer refractive surgery lasers.
Customized refractive surgery allows the aberrations of an
individual eye to be measured, and in turn, surgically
corrected.
48 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Wavefront Sensing: Tscherning Aberrometry

Tscherning aberrometry dates back to the late 1800s,

when Tscherning placed a grid of equi-spaced lines over a
+5.00 diopter lens. Subjects viewing a distant point source
through the lens and would perceive a distorted shadow of the
grid on their retinas. By drawing the distorted grid, a
subjective analysis of individual wavefront aberrations could
be performed. In the modern day system, a collimated beam of
laser light is
passed through a
mask with a
regular array of
holes. The effect
of the mask is to
create a series of
discrete colli-
mated pencils of light. Normally, collimated light entering the
emmetropic eye would all focus to a point on the retina.
However, a positive power lens is added in the Tscherning
aberrometer to effectively make the eye myopic. This added
power causes the collimated beams to go through focus and
then spread out again prior to striking the retina. As a result,
a projection or shadow of the mask is formed on the retina.
Aberrations from the ocular surfaces cause a distortion in the
spacing between the “holes” in the shadow. The Tscherning
aberrometer is essentially the Hartmann screen test applied
to the eye, although Hartmann’s testing of large mirrors post-
dated Tscherning’s method for the eye. The array of spots
falling on the retina is analogous to a spot diagram. To create
an objective measurement of the wavefront error, a fundus
camera (not shown above) is used to capture an image of the
spot pattern formed on the retina. Modern image processing
techniques are then used to locate the spots and determine
the amount of spot shift relative to an ideal eye. The distorted
hole pattern is related to the transverse ray error, which is
used to reconstruct the shape of the aberrated wavefront
within the eye. Typically, a 1 mm spacing between holes is
used. Smaller spacings can form overlapping spots, causing
difficulty in locating spots and wavefront reconstruction.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 49

Wavefront Sensing: Retinal Raytracing

Retinal raytracing is a technique for measuring wavefront

error in the human eye. Retinal raytracing works on the same
principal as the Tscherning aberrometer. However, instead of
using a mask to create a plurality of beams entering the eye,
retinal raytracing only probes one pupil entry position at a
time. A narrow laser beam is directed into the eye, so that it
is parallel to the line of sight. Normally, this collimated beam
would focus to a point on the fovea. Aberrations in the eye will
cause the beam to
deflect and strike the
retina away from the
fovea. This deviation
is the transverse ray
error and is related to
the slope of the
wavefront at the pupil
entry location. An
imaging system is
then used to project
the retinal spot onto a
position sensor. This
sensor records the
position of the spot
relative to the fovea,
giving the transverse ray error. The input beam is scanned
across the pupil to determine the transverse ray error for an
array of pupil locations and this information is used to
reconstruct the wavefront error of the eye. Retinal raytracing
has an advantage in that it can probe subregions of the pupil
with an extremely high sampling density. Since only one
beam enters the eye per measurement, there is no risk of
confusing spots as with the Tscherning and Shack-Hartmann
techniques. Rapid scanning and position sensing technologies
are required with this technology to ensure that eye motion
effects are negligible. Sixty-four to 128 pupil entry locations
in a polar grid are normally
interrogated.
50 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Wavefront Sensing: Spatially Resolved Refractometry

The spatially resolved refractometry (SRR) is based on

the Scheiner principle (see Autorefraction, p. 61). The
technique is unique for measuring the aberrations of the eye
in that it is based on the subjective response of a patient. As
with retinal raytracing, a narrow beam is directed into the
eye at a given pupil entry location. In the presence of
aberrations, this beam does not intercept the fovea. The
subject typically views a crosshair pattern and is asked to
adjust the spot
position to coincide
with the center of the
crosshair. The subject
adjusts the tilt of the
incident beam until
the target and beam
appear to overlap. The
angle of tilt of the
incident beam is
related to the slope of
the wavefront at the
pupil entry location.
Multiple pupil entry
locations are assessed
to build up a
description of the wavefront error across the pupil. Since the
SRR is based on a psychophysical test, it incorporates the
subject’s perceptions that include retinal and neural
processing. Other wavefront sensing techniques do not take
these effects into account. As with retinal raytracing, SRR can
also probe multiple pupil entry locations with a high sampling
density. The primary drawback to the SRR system is that
since the test requires the interaction of the subject, it takes
several minutes to perform a
sufficient sampling of pupil entry
positions. Typically, a rectangular
array of 37 pupil entry locations
are sampled in a 6 mm pupil with
this technique.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 51

Wavefront Sensing: Reconstruction

Wavefront sensing typically measures the slope of the

wavefront at N discrete points within the pupil. For a
wavefront error given by W(x,y), wavefront sensors give a set
of slope measurements {dW(xi,yi)/dx} and {dW(xi,yi)/dy}, with
i = 1...N. Wavefront reconstruction is usually based on fitting
this slope information polynomials {Vj}. The index j ranges
from unity to the total number of polynomials in the fitting
set, J. Zernike polynomials or Taylor polynomials are
typically used for reconstruction. These sets are traditionally
used since they have features familiar to ophthalmic optics.
However, other polynomial sets can be used. The least
squares technique minimizes the absolute error between the
sampled points and the reconstructed wavefront. To perform
the fit, the matrix equation, Va = W , with

 dV1 ( x1 , y1 ) / dx dV2 ( x1 , y1 ) / dx dVJ ( x1 , y1 ) / dx 

 dV ( x , y ) / dx dV ( x , y ) / dx dVJ ( x2 , y2 ) / dx 
 1 2 2 2 2 2

 
 
dV ( x , y ) / dx dV2 ( xN , y N ) / dx dVJ ( x N , y N ) / dx 
V = 1 N N ,
 dV1 ( x1 , y1 ) / dy dV2 ( x1 , y1 ) / dy dVJ ( x1 , y1 ) / dy 
 
 dV1 ( x2 , y2 ) / dy dV2 ( x2 , y2 ) / dy dVJ ( x2 , y2 ) / dy 
 
 
 dV1 ( xN , yN ) / dy dV2 ( xN , yN ) / dy dVJ ( xN , yN ) / dy 

 dW ( x1 , y1 ) / dx 
 dW ( x , y ) / dx 
 2 2 
a
 1  
a   
dW ( xN , yN ) / dx 
a =  2  , and W = 
   dW ( x1 , y1 ) / dy 
   
 aJ   dW ( x2 , y2 ) / dy 
 
 
 dW ( xN , yN ) / dy 
52 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Wavefront Sensing: Reconstruction (continued)

needs to be solved for the coefficient vector a . The V matrix

contains slope information for the fitting polynomials. The top
half of the matrix is the x derivative of the fitting polynomials
and the lower half is the y derivative of the fitting functions.
Each row in the V matrix is for a given sample point (xi,yi).
Each column in this matrix is for a different fitting
polynomial Vj. The a vector describes the weighting
coefficients for each fitting polynomial. The W matrix
contains the data measured from the wavefront sensor. The
upper half of this matrix contains the x derivative
information, while the lower half of the matrix describes the y
derivative data. Each row in the W matrix is for a different
sample point (xi,yi). Wavefront reconstruction determines the
values of the coefficients in the a vector. There are usually
many more sample points N than there are fitting
polynomials J, so an exact solution of the matrix equation
cannot be obtained. Instead, a least squares solution is
calculated by
−1
a = V T V  V T W ,
where V T is the transpose of V , and [ ]–1 is the inverse
matrix operation. The reconstructed wavefront W ( x, y) is
given by a linear superposition of the fitting polynomials,
weighted by the coefficients such that
J
W ( x, y) = ∑ a j V j ( x, y) .
j =1

The Cartesian derivatives of the reconstructed wavefront can

be compared to the derivatives originally obtained with the
wavefront sensor to determine a “goodness-of-fit” metric,

1/ 2
 N  ∂W ∂W  2  ∂W ∂W  2  
 
rms error = ∑  i
− i
 + 
i
− i
   ,
i =1  ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   
  

where the subscript i denotes evaluation at the point (xi,yi).

Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 53

Zernike Polynomials: Wavefront Sensing Standard

The Zernike polynomials are an orthogonal set of functions

that have found application in visual optics in representing
wavefront error, as well as corneal shape. There exist several
different normalization and numbering schemes for these
polynomials, so care must be taken when comparing data and
results from different sources. A standard for an ophthalmic
optics representation of Zernike polynomials is currently
under development, and the definitions given below are
consistent with this representation.

The Zernike polynomials are usually defined in polar

coordinates (ρ,θ), where ρ is the normalized radial coordinate
and θ is the angular component. Each of the polynomials
consists of a normalization factor, a radial dependent
component, and an angularly dependent component. A double
indexing scheme is useful for unambiguously describing the
functions, with the index n describing the highest power of
the radial polynomial and the index m describing the angular
frequency of the angular component. In general, the Zernike
polynomials are defined as
 m
N nm Rn ( ρ) cos mθ ; for m ≥ 0
Znm ( ρ, θ) =  m
m
 − N n Rn ( ρ)sin mθ ; for m < 0

where N nm is the normalization factor described in more detail

below, and Rnm (ρ) is given by

( n− m ) / 2
( −1)s ( n − s)!
m
Rn (ρ) = ∑
s =0 s ! 0.5(n + m ) − s  ! 0.5(n − m ) − s  !
ρn − 2 s

The normalization is given by

N nm = 2(n + 1) 1 + δm0 ,

where δm0 is the Kronecker delta function (i.e. δm0 = 1 for

m = 0, and δm0 = 0 for m ≠ 0).
A final restriction on the definition of the Zernike polynomials
is that the value of n is a positive integer or zero, and for a
given n, m can only take on values –n, –n + 2, –n + 4, ...n.
54 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics
Zernike Polynomials: Cartesian Coordinates

Zernike polynomials in Cartesian coordinates are sometimes

useful. For example, when extracting aberration data from a
wavefront sensor, the information is usually given in terms of
the wavefront slopes or transverse ray error in the x and y
directions. If the normalized Cartesian coordinates are given
by (X,Y) such that ρ2 = X2 + Y2, then the Zernike polynomials
can be defined as follows:

For m>0,

Z nm ( X , Y ) = 2 ( n + 1 ) ×
⎡ n − m n − m −s m ⎛n −m ⎞ ⎤
⎢ 2 2 ( −1)( s + k ) ( n − s)! ⎜ 2 − s ⎟ ⎛ m ⎞⎥
2

⎢∑ ∑ ∑ ⎛n+ m ⎞ ⎛n − m ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎝⎜ 2 k ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢ s =0 j =0 k =0 s !⎜ − s ⎟ !⎜ − s ⎟!⎝ j ⎠ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ n − 2( s + j + k ) 2( j + k ) ⎥
⎢⎣× X Y ⎥⎦

For m<0,

Z nm ( X , Y ) = 2 ( n + 1) ×
⎡ n − m n − m − s m −1 ⎛n− m ⎞ ⎤
⎢ 2 2 2
( −1)( s + k ) (n − s )! ⎜ − s ⎟ ⎛ m ⎞⎥
⎢∑ ∑ ∑ ⎛n+ m ⎞ ⎜
2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ s = 0 j = 0 k = 0 s !⎜ − s ⎟ !⎜
⎞ ⎛n− m
− s ⎟ ! ⎝⎜ j ⎟ ⎝ 2k + 1 ⎠ ⎥
⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎢ n − 2( s + j + k ) −1 2( j + k ) +1 ⎥
⎣⎢× X Y ⎦⎥

For m=0,

Z n0 ( X , Y ) =
n n
−s ⎛n ⎞
( −1)s ( n − s )! ⎜ 2 − s ⎟ X n − 2( s + j )Y 2 j
2 2
( n + 1) ∑ ∑
⎛n ⎞ ⎛n ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
s =0 j =0
s !⎜ − s ⎟ !⎜ − s ⎟ ! ⎜⎝ j ⎟⎠
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 55

Zernike Polynomials: Useful Formulas

A surface f(r,θ) decomposed into Zernike polynomials is

described by
f (r , θ) = ∑ an,± m Zn± m (r / rmax , θ) ,
n, m

where the a’s are the expansion coefficients and rmax is the
maximum radial extent of the surface. The coordinates in the
Zernike polynomial terms are normalized to ρ = r / rmax. In the
Cartesian coordinate system a similar normalization occurs
such that X = x / rmax and Y = y / rmax.

When comparing data between the left and right eyes, it is

useful to examine if mirror symmetry exist between the eyes.
To flip the Zernike expansion about the y axis, if n is even,
negate the expansion coefficients where m < 0. If n is odd,
negate the expansion coefficients where m > 0.

Rotation of the Zernike expansion through an angle θ0 is

achieved by modifying the expansion coefficients such that
bn, m = an, m cos m θo − an,− m sin m θo
bn,− m = an, m sin m θo + an,− m cos m θo

where the b’s are the coefficients of the rotated pattern.

The first derivatives of the Zernike polynomials in either

polar or Cartesian form are easy to calculate from the
preceding definitions. The ρ, X, and Y derivatives are simple
derivatives of the polynomial expressions, while the θ
derivative is a simple derivative of a sine or cosine.

Converting these derivatives from normalized coordinate

system (ρ,θ) to the unnormalized coordinate system (r,θ) is
achieved by application of the chain rule such that

∂  Znm (r, θ) 1 ∂  Zn (ρ, θ)

m

= .
∂r rmax ∂ρ

Similar expressions hold for the x and X derivatives and the y

and Y derivatives. The θ derivative does not need to be scaled.
56 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Zernike Polynomials: Useful Formulas (Continued)

Refraction from Zernikes: To obtain a refraction Sph / Cyl

× Axis from the second-order Zernike coefficients requires
several quantities to be defined:
1 a 
θ1 = tan −1  2 − 2 
2  a22 
2 6 4 3 
φ1 = −  2 ( a2 − 2 sin 2θ1 + a22 cos 2θ1 ) + 2 a20 
 rmax rmax 
2 6 4 3 
φ2 =  2 ( a2 − 2 sin 2θ1 + a22 cos 2θ1 ) − 2 a20 
r
 max rmax 
The refraction can be written in two forms:

Sph = φ1 Sph = φ2
Cyl = φ2 – φ1 Cyl = φ1 – φ2
Axis = θ1 Axis = θ1 + 90°

If φ2 – φ1 > 0, then the form on the left is in plus cylinder form

and the form on the right is in minus cylinder form. If φ1 – φ2
> 0, then the converse is true. If Axis ≤ 0°, then 180° must be
added to Axis. If Axis > 180°, then 180° must be subtracted
from Axis. For the expansion coefficients in microns and rmax
in millimeters, Sph and Cyl will be in diopters. This refraction
may be different from the subjective refraction due to optical
and neural effects in the visual system.

Zernikes from refraction: To generate a Zernike expansion

based on a refraction Sph / Cyl × Axis, the following second-
order coefficient definition must be made:

2 2
rmax Cyl sin(2Axis) rmax Cyl cos(2Axis)
a2 −2 = a22 =
4 6 4 6

2
−rmax (2Sph + Cyl)
a20 =
8 3
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 57

Ophthalmoscopy

Viewing the retina and optic disc is useful for diagnosing

diabetic retinopathy and observing the deleterious effects of
glaucoma. Common methods for viewing the retina are direct
and indirect ophthalmoscopy. A direct ophthalmoscope is
a small handheld device in which light is directed into the eye
of a patient. Light emerging from the eye passes through a
lens and into the observer’s eye. The lens power is adjusted to
image the patient’s far point to the observer’s far point.
Typically, the observer is limited to a 10° patch on the
patient’s retina. This technique is useful for viewing cupping
of the optic disc from elevated intraocular pressure. Swelling
(edema) and hemorrhages can also be seen.

Indirect ophthalmoscopy uses a head-mounted illumination

system and a large aspheric lens. The lens is held at arm’s
length in front of the patient’s eye. Illumination on the
observer’s head passes through the lens and enters the eye.
Light exiting the eye passes through the lens and forms an
intermediate image between the lens and the observer. The
headgear may also optically increase the stereo angle between
the eyes of the observer to exaggerate the three-dimensional
structure of the retina. Indirect lenses are usually single
aspheric elements. Back reflections from the surfaces are
problematic, so single elements reduce the number of surfaces
to reflect light. Anti-reflection coatings are valuable at
reducing this difficulty. The asphericity of these lenses is
designed to minimize distortion. Much larger fields of view
can be obtained with this method.

Indirect Ophthalmoscopy
58 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Retinal Imaging

Retinal imaging is useful for examining a variety of retinal

problems, including diabetic retinopathy, cystoid macular
edema, drusen, neovascularization, and retinal detachment.

Fundus photography: The indirect ophthalmoscopy concept

is extended to capture images of the retina. An objective lens,
close to the eye, forms an intermediate image. A camera is
then used to capture the intermediate image. Fundus
cameras are typically designed with distinct illumination and
imaging paths through the pupil, thus reducing light
scattered from the crystalline from being superimposed on the
retinal image. Green filters can be used in the illumination to
produce “red-free” images, enhancing retinal vessel contrast.
Fundus cameras are also used for fluorescein and ICG
angiography. Adaptive optics has been used to correct ocular
aberrations and provide previously unobtainable in vivo
images of photoreceptors.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT): OCT is based on

low-coherence interferometry. An infrared superluminescent
diode is used as a nearly monochromatic, low-coherence
source. OCT is based on Michelson interferometry. Light in
the test arm is directed into the eye, and scatters from the
retina. The reference arm is a mirror that is scanned axially.
Interference fringes form only when the optical paths in the
test and reference arms are identical. The fringe contrast is
related to the amount of light scattered from the eye. Lateral
scanning of the test beam provides a cross-sectional view.

Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO): SLO raster scans

a narrow laser beam into the eye. The spot formed on the
retina is scattered and returns through the system to a
confocal pinhole and detector. An image is built up from
raster pattern on the retina. Multiple wavelengths can be
used sequentially to obtain multispectral images. This
technique has been used to determine oxygenation of the
retinal vessels. Adaptive optics has also been used with this
technology, providing in vivo images of the nerve fiber layer,
photoreceptors, and capillaries.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 59

Field of View and Perimetry

The field of view (FOV) of a single eye is 60° nasally to 100°

temporally. Superiorly, the FOV is 60° and inferiorly, the
FOV is 70°. Binocularly, the FOVs of the two eyes overlap in a
roughly 120° wedge. The region of stereovision, however, is
much smaller due to poor acuity away from the macula. Word
recognition is restricted
to roughly ±1° from the
line of sight (LOS).
Symbol recognition is
restricted to roughly ±30°
from the LOS. Reliable
color discrimination is possible ±30° to ±60° from the LOS.

Perimetry or visual field testing is the assessment of

peripheral vision. The test measures the threshold for
detecting a stimulus at different points in the field of vision.
Visual fields are assessed when different types of ocular
disease are present that can affect the functioning of the
retina. Glaucoma, for example, is a progressive loss of
ganglion cells and their nerve fibers. This disease damages
the photoreceptors in the retinal periphery, slowly reducing
the ocular field of view. Age-related macular
degeneration (ARMD) is a disease that damages
photoreceptor function in the central portion of the visual
field (macula). Visual field testing detects scotomas, or
region of reduced or missing sensitivity. This testing can
track changes in retinal function to determine disease
progression or treatment effectivity. There are three
techniques for measuring visual fields:
Tangent screen method is where objects of different sizes
are moved into view from the periphery until a subject detects
the target. Normally, larger objects are seen sooner.
Goldmann projection, another technique for perimetry, is
similar to the tangent screen method, but the size of the
object is held constant and the object brightness is instead
varied. Brighter objects are normally detected sooner.
Static perimetry shines a dim light onto a point on the
retina. The spot is slowly brightened until detection.
60 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Retinoscopy

Subjective refraction systematically presents trial lenses to

a patient and, based on their feedback, determines their
spectacle prescription. The lenses are housed in a refractor,
which facilitates the assessment of the error. This technique
is time consuming and requires patient cooperation. Objective
techniques have been developed, but their results usually
need a subjective refinement. Objective techniques provide a
good starting point, speeding the subjective process.

Retinoscopy is an objective technique in which a slit beam is

projected into the eye. The retinoscopist examines the red
reflex that illuminates the pupil on return to determine the
patient’s refractive status. The red reflex is equivalent to “red
eye” in flash photography. The retinoscope is a handheld
device and the procedure is performed at arm’s length from
the patient. The retinoscope projects a slit into the pupil. By
slightly rotating the retinoscope, the slit is scanned across the
pupil. If the patient’s far point lies behind the observer’s eye,
the retinoscopist will see with motion, or the red reflex in
the pupil moves in the same direction as the scanning slit. If
the patient’s far point lies between the observer and the
patient, against motion, where the red reflex moves in the
opposite direction as the scanning, will be seen. When the
patient’s retina is conjugate to the retinoscope, a motionless
uniform illumination of the pupil will be seen, called
neutrality. Various lenses are introduced in front of the eye
until the motion is
neutralized. Once
neutralized with
the appropriate
lens, the subject’s
retina is conjugate
to a point roughly 2/3 meter in front on themselves (i.e., at the
retinoscope). Reducing the trial lens power by 1.5 diopters
will then make the patient’s retina conjugate to infinity. The
slit can be rotated and the scanning process performed in
other meridians to assess astigmatism. In this case, the red
reflex appears tilted and has different thickness in different
meridians. The reflex is nonlinear in presence of aberrations.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 61

Autorefraction

The Scheiner disk gives a simple method for determining

refractive error. A disk with two holes is placed in front of the
pupil. When viewing a distant point source, the perceived
image will be dependent upon the refractive state of the eye.
Emmetropes see
a single point,
while ametropes
will see two
distinct sources.
In myopes, if the
source is moved towards the viewer, then the perceived
double image will fuse into a single point when the source is
at the viewer’s far point. The Hartmann screen test and the
Tscherning aberrometer are based on the Scheiner principle.

Autorefraction is an objective measurement of refractive

error. Autorefractors facilitate subjective refraction. The
devices are highly repeatable, but typically their predicted
values need minor subjective refinement. Autorefractors
based upon automating the Scheiner disk method have been
developed. Autorefractors have also been based on Badal
lenses, by assessing the image quality of a source falling on
the retina. The target for the Badal lens is a line source. The
target is moved axially with respect to the lens to vary the
apparent position of the target. Light that enters and scatters
back out of the eye is relayed to a slit aperture confocal with
the retina. The signal on a detector lying behind the aperture
has a maximum signal when the target is conjugate to the
retina. The position of the target is then proportional to the
refractive error. Multiple orientations of the line source can
be used to measure astigmatic errors. Accommodation during
autorefraction causes a myopic shift in measured refractive
error. To avoid this situation, fogging is employed. Fogging
places the target inside the subject’s far point. The target
drives the target in the hyperopic direction, forcing the
subject to relax their accommodation. Measurements are
taken throughout the fogging process and the final refraction
is the point where the refractive error stabilizes.
62 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Badal Optometer and Maxwellian View

The optometer principle is used to present targets to a

subject. If a target is placed at the front focal point of a lens,
then it appears at infinity to the viewer. Axially moving the
target causes a change in the vergence of the light entering
the eye, and consequently the apparent position of the target.
In general, the vergence and the magnification of the target
are non-linearly related to the axial shift and the focal length
of the lens. However, when the rear focal point of the lens is
placed at the entrance pupil of the eye, several beneficial
effects occur. The lens in this special situation is called a
Badal lens. For a Badal lens of power Φ, the vergence
entering the eye is
Vergence = −Φ 2 ∆z ,

where ∆z is the amount of translation of the target from the

front focal point of the Badal lens. The iris of the eye also acts
as a telecentric stop
for the system. As a
result, the apparent
size of the target does
not change with axial
shift ∆z.

A Maxwellian view system is useful for presenting a

uniformly illuminated fields or targets of maximum angular
size. In the
former system, a
source is imaged
by an optical
system into the
pupil of the eye.
The size of the
field is defined by
the angular subtense of the exit pupil relative to the front
nodal point of the eye. In the latter system, the Fourier
spectra of a target are imaged into the pupil, resulting in the
target appearing on the retina.
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 63

Common Ophthalmic Lasers

Lasers find a wide variety of applications in ophthalmology.

Lasers treat or remove ocular tissue in a controlled fashion.
There are three types of laser/tissue interactions:

Photocoagulation: Tissue absorbs the laser energy and

converts it to heat, causing localized burning of the tissue.
Photodisruption: A focused pulse of laser energy creates a
plasma within the tissue. The plasma rapidly expands,
causing a mechanical breakdown of the surrounding tissue.
Photoablation: Highly energetic photons are absorbed by
tissue and the chemical bonds of the molecules are broken.

Argon fluoride (ArF) lasers are photoablative lasers used in

refractive surgery. Argon ion lasers are used for retinal
photocoagulation. Selective laser trabeculoplasty (SLT) is
performed with a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser. Through
photodisruption, this laser opens the trabecluar meshwork to
promote aqueous outflow. Krypton lasers have deep
penetration and are used for photocoagulating choroidal
structures. Posterior capsule opacification (PCO) occurs
when the tissue surrounding an intraocular lens becomes
cloudy. Nd:YAG lasers restore clear vision in PCO patients
through photodisruption of this tissue. Holmium lasers shrink
corneal collagen in laser thermal keratoplasty. Erbium and
CO2 lasers remove wrinkles and resurface skin near the eyes.
Erbium lasers can be used to remove the crystalline lens.

Type λ (nm) Description

Excimer 193 Refractive Surgery
Argon 514 Photocoagulation
Nd:YAG 532 / 1064 SLT / PCO Treatment
Krypton 647 Photocoagulation
Holmium 2100 Laser thermal keratoplasty
Erbium 2940 Ocular plastics/ Cataract
CO2 10600 Ocular plastics
Photodynamic therapy: Low-energy laser light is used to
activate an intravenous dye that closes off proliferating blood
vessels. This technique has been used in the treatment of
age-related macular degeneration (ARMD).
64 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Eye Safety: Laser Sources

The maximum permissible exposure (MPE) is the level of

laser energy that can safely be directed into the eye. The MPE
level can be determined for different exposure durations
throughout the visible and near infrared region. Three
constants CA, CB, and CC are used to define the MPE level:
 1 0.4 ≤ λ < 0.7 µm
 2(λ -0.7)
C A = 10 0.7 ≤ λ < 1.05 µm
 5 1.05 ≤ λ < 1.4 µm

CB = 1015(λ − 0.55) for 0.55 ≤ λ ≤ 0.77
1 λ < 1.15 µm

CC = 10 1.15 ≤ λ < 1.20 µm
8 1.20 ≤ λ < 1.40 µm

3x104
CB µW/cm2 2
4 320 CA µW/cm
10
10 0.75
103 2 1.8t
mJ/cm m 2
Time (sec)

mJ/cm 0.75
0.75
10 1.8CA t 9CC t
2 2
mJ/cm mJ/cm
0.75 2
1.8t mJ/cm
5×10--5
1.8×10-5 5CAx10
–6
–7 2 5CAx10–7 J/cm2 J/cm
2
5x10 J/cm
10-9
400 550 700 1050 1400
Wavelength (nm)
Lasers fall into five classes depending upon their ability to
cause ocular and skin damage.

Class Maximum Comment

Power
I <0.38 µW No ocular hazard
II <1 mW No retinal burns <0.25 sec,
aversion
IIIa <5 mW 1 sec burn threshold
IIIb <500 mW No skin burns <1.0 sec
IV >500 nW Ocular, skin, and fire hazard
Ophthalmic Instrumentation and Metrology 65

Eye Safety: Non-laser Sources

Thermal hazards and photochemical hazards are the

primary mechanisms for ocular damage for non-laser sources.
Thermal hazards produce a 10°C to 20°C increase in the
tissue temperature. Photochemical hazards typically have
high levels of ultraviolet and blue that react with oxygen to
create toxic free radicals. Photochemical hazards also exhibit
reciprocity, where short exposures to bright hazards have the
same effect as extended exposure to dimmer hazards.
1400
50,000 W ,
Thermal Hazards: ∑ L R ( λ ) ∆λ <
380
λ
αt 0.25 m 2sr
where Lλ is the spectral radiance of the source, R(λ) is the
thermal retinal hazard function shown above, α is the source
angular subtense in radians, and t is the exposure time. The
preceding expression is valid for 10 µs ≤ t ≤ 10 s. For longer or
shorter durations, the ends of the range are used for t. The
angular subtense ranges from 1.7 mrad to 0.1 rad, and angles
outside of this range use the end values for α.
700
Photochemical Hazards: L t = t ∑ L B ( λ ) ∆λ ≤ 106 J ,
B λ
300 m 2sr

where B(λ) is the blue light hazard function shown above. In

this case t < 10,000 s. For longer exposures, use LB ≤ 100
Wm−2sr−1. In cases of aphakia (missing crystalline lens) and
infants under the age of two, the aphakic hazard function A(λ)
is used. The Appendix gives tables of A(λ), B(λ), and R(λ).
66 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Photometry

Photometry is the measurement of visible radiation.

Consequently, photometry must take into account the
response of the human visual system to different wavelengths
in the electromagnetic spectrum. There are four fundamental
quantities in photometry:

Luminous flux, Φν, in units of lumens (lm), is given by

Φ ν = 683 ∫ Φ(λ)V (λ)dλ

for photopic vision, where V(λ) is the photopic response curve
and Φ(λ) is the radiometric power in watts (W). There are
683 lm/W at a wavelength of 555 nm. A similar definition
holds for scotopic vision:

Φ ν = 1700 ∫ Φ(λ)V ′(λ)dλ ,

where V′(λ) is the scotopic response curve.

Illuminance, Eν, is measured in lm/m2 (aka, lux). Irradiance

is the photopically weighted power per unit area incident
from all directions onto a surface. Most light meters measure
this quantity.

Luminous intensity, Iν, is measured in lm/sr (aka, candela,

cd). Intensity is spectrally weighted power per unit solid angle
(steradian, sr). Typically, luminous intensity is only valid only
for small sources.

Luminance, Lν, is measured in lm/m2-sr (aka, cd/m2).

Luminance is the spectrally weighted power per unit
projected area per unit solid angle. It best describes the
“brightness” of a source.

The troland (Td) is a common unit for measuring retinal

illuminance, instead of lux.

Troland = (Luminance in cd/m2) × (Pupil area in mm2)

Retinal Illuminance (Td) = 278 Eντ (lux),

where τ is the transmission of the eye.

Color 67

Colorimetry: RGB and CIE XYZ Systems

Colorimetry is based upon the response of the human visual

system to different monochromatic stimuli. To determine the
response, a combination of three monochromatic primaries
(red(R) at 700 nm, green(G) at 546.1 nm, and blue(B) at 435.8
nm) are used. Observers adjust the relative weighting
between the primaries to match a monochromatic color of
arbitrary wavelength. This process is repeated for
wavelengths throughout the visible spectrum, resulting in a
set of color matching functions (CMFs). For convenience,
these CMFs are typically converted from RGB space to the
XYZ color space. CMFs for small fields of view (2°) and large
field of view (10°) have been standardized by the CIE in XYZ
space. The original RGB CMFs can be recovered using

 r (λ)   0.41846 −0.15860 −0.08283   x(λ)

 g(λ) =  −0.09117 0.25243 0.01571   y(λ)
  
 b (λ)   0.00092 −0.00255 0.17860   z (λ)

Coordinates or tristimulus values in XYZ space are

determined by projected the spectral distribution P(λ)
entering the eye onto the CMFs. The continuous and discrete
versions of the tristimulus values are given below:

∞
X = ∫ P(λ) x(λ)dλ or ∑ P(λ)x(λ)∆λ
0
∞
Y = ∫ P(λ) y(λ)dλ or ∑ P(λ)y(λ)∆λ
0
∞
Z = ∫ P(λ) z (λ)dλ or ∑ P(λ)z(λ)∆λ
0

The tristimulus values are further normalized, giving the

chromaticity coordinates (x, y, z).

X Y
x= , y= , z =1− x− y.
X +Y + Z X +Y + Z
68 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Colorimetry: Chromaticity Diagram

All perceptible colors are bounded by the horseshoe-shaped

spectral locus in the chromaticity diagram. The equal-
energy white point lies at (0.333,0.333), but alternative
“white” points can be defined. The dominant wavelength
(hue) and excitation purity (saturation) of a spectral
distribution are found with this diagram. For example, a red
phosphor results in a set of chromaticity coordinates labeled
R709. For a white point at the point labeled D65, a line from
D65 through R709 would intersect the spectral locus at the
dominant wavelength (610 nm). The excitation purity is the
ratio of the distance from D65 to R709 to the distance from D65
to the spectral locus. The complementary color is found by
extending a line from R709 through D65 and determining the
intersection point with the spectral locus (492 nm). Purples
and magentas lie in the lower portion of the diagram. These
colors do not have a dominant wavelength. Excitation purity
in this case is the ratio of the distance from the white point to
the chromaticity coordinate and the distance from the white
point to the complementary color.
Color 69

Colorimetry: Primaries and Gamut

The points R709, G709, B709 and D65 are the standard red,
green, blue primaries and white point for HDTV. The
chromaticity coordinates for these values are

Red Green Blue White, D65

x 0.64 0.30 0.15 0.3127
y 0.33 0.60 0.06 0.3290

Primaries form a triangular region on the chromaticity

diagram. The triangular region defines the gamut of the
primaries, or in other words, colors within the region are
obtained by the appropriate mixture of the three primaries.
Colors outside of the gamut cannot be obtained.

Standard image formats such as BMP and JPEG provide color

information in RGB format, typically ranging in values from 0
for unsaturated to 255 for fully saturated for 8-bit images. If
the image has been calibrated to the R709, G709, B709 primaries,
then a simple matrix conversion can be used to obtain XYZ
tristimulus values. First, each RGB value must be normalized
by 255, so they range from 0 to 1; then the following matrix
conversion can be used:

 X  0.412453 0.357580 0.180423   R

 Y  =  0.212671 0.715160 0.072169  G 
    
 Z  0.019334 0.119193 0.950227   B 

The operation can be reversed as well to calculate RGB values

from tristimulus values. However, some XYZ coordinates lie
outside of the gamut of the primaries. The RGB values
obtained with the matrix below must be multiplied by 255 for
display on a calibrated monitor. RGB values less than zero or
greater than 255 represent colors outside of the gamut of the
primaries and cannot be properly displayed:

 R  3.240479 −1.537150 −0.498535   X 

G  =  −0.969256 1.875992 0.041556   Y 
  
 B   0.055648 −0.204043 1.057311   Z 
70 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Colorimetry: CIELUV Color Space

The 1976 CIELUV color space is one attempt at providing a

perceptually uniform color space. In this color space, the
distance between two points approximately tells how different
the colors are in luminance, chroma, and hue. The CIELUV
coordinates (L*,u*,v*) can be calculated from the tristimulus
values XYZ or the chromaticity coordinates (x,y) with the
following formulas. The subscript n denotes the values for the
white point.

1/ 3
Y  Y
L* = 116   − 16 for > 0.008856
 Yn  Yn
Y  Y
L* = 903.292   for ≤ 0.008856
Y
 n Yn

u* = 13 L * [ u′ − un ]
v* = 13 L * [ v′ − vn ]
4X 4x
u′ = =
X + 15Y + 3 Z −2 x + 12 y + 3
9Y 9y
v′ = =
X + 15Y + 3 Z −2 x + 12 y + 3

The color difference ∆E between two colors in the CIELUV

space is
(L − L*1 ) + ( u2* − u1* ) + ( v2* − v1* )
* 2 2 2
∆E = 2

A value of ∆E of unity represents a just noticeable difference

(JND). These coordinates can also be expressed in cylindrical
coordinates with chroma being defined as

*
Cuv = u*2 + v*2

and hue being defined as

 v* 
huv = tan −1  *  .
u 
Color 71

Colorimetry: CIELAB Color Space

The 1976 CIELAB color space is a second attempt at

providing a perceptually uniform color space. In this color
space, the distance between two points also approximately
tells how different the colors are in luminance, chroma, and
hue. The 1976 CIELAB coordinates (L*, a*, b*) in this color
space can be calculated from the tristimulus values XYZ with
the following formulas. The subscript n denotes the values for
the white point.

Y 
L* = 116 f   − 16
 Yn 
  X   Y 
a* = 500  f   − f  
  Xn   Yn  
 Y   Z 
b* = 200  f   − f  
Y
  n  Zn  
where f (s) = s1 3 for s > 0.008856
and f (s) = 7.787s + 16/116 for s ≤ 0.008856

The color difference ∆E between two colors in the CIELAB

space is
(L − L*1 ) + ( a2* − a1* ) + ( b2* − b1* ) .
* 2 2 2
∆E = 2

A value of ∆E of unity represents a just noticeable difference

(JND). These coordinates can also be expressed in cylindrical
coordinates with chroma being defined as

*
Cab = a*2 + b*2

and hue being defined as

 b* 
hab = tan −1  *  .
a 
72 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics
Chromatic Adaptation

The eye has the ability to “white balance” under different

lighting conditions. This effect is due to the relative response
of the different cone types adjusting depending upon viewing
conditions. Bradford chromatic adaptation is a technique
for predicting the new tristimulus values for a given color for
different reference illumination. Given a color with
tristimulus values (X, Y, Z) for a reference white of
(Xw, Yw, Zw), the goal of Bradford chromatic adaptation is to
find the new tristimulus values (Xn, Yn, Zn) for the color, for a
new reference white source (Xwn, Ywn, Zwn). The Bradford cone
response matrix M is given by

⎡ 0.8951 0.2664 −0.1614 ⎤

[ M ] = ⎢ −0.7502 1.7135 0.0367 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 0.0389 −0.0685 1.0296 ⎥⎦

and its inverse by

⎡ 0.9870 −0.1471 0.1600 ⎤

[ ] ⎢⎢ 0.4323 0.5184 0.0493 ⎥⎥ .
−1
M =
⎢⎣−0.0085 0.0400 0.9685 ⎥⎦

The old and new reference whites are converted into their
respective cone responses via

⎡ lw ⎤ ⎡X w ⎤ ⎡ lw n ⎤ ⎡ X wn ⎤
⎢ m ⎥ = M ⎢ Y ⎥ and ⎢ m ⎥ = M ⎢ Y ⎥
⎢ w ⎥ [ ]⎢ w ⎥ ⎢ wn ⎥ [ ] ⎢ w n ⎥
⎢⎣ sw ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z w ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sw n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z w n ⎥⎦

The new tristimulus values for the color under the new
reference white are

⎡Xn ⎤ ⎡lwn lw 0 0 ⎤ ⎡X ⎤
⎢ Y ⎥ = M −1 ⎢ 0 0 ⎥ [ M ] ⎢⎢ Y ⎥⎥
⎥
⎢ n⎥ [ ] ⎢ mwn mw
⎢⎣ Z n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 swn sw ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦
Color 73

L, M, and S Cone Fundamentals

Color vision is based upon detection of visible light by three

different cone types. A natural color space for analyzing color
vision is based on the individual cone spectral sensitivities.
This color space is the LMS color space (for long-, middle-
and short-wavelength). The three recently determined
spectral sensitivities or cone fundamentals were unavailable
to the CIE when developing the XYZ Color Space. Stockman
& Sharpe convert the Stiles & Burch 1959 10° Color Matching
Functions to obtain the spectral sensitivities

 kl l (λ)   0.41846 −0.15860 −0.08283   r (λ) 

  
 km m(λ) =  −0.09117 0.25243 0.01571   g(λ) .
    
 ks s (λ)   0.00092 −0.00255 0.17860   b (λ)
The k-constants in the expression remain unknown and are
typically chosen to normalize the spectral sensitivities to
unity. The sensitivities can also be adjusted to a small field
(2°) by accounting for variations in lens and macular pigment
densities. The cone fundamentals L(λ), M(λ), and S(λ) for the
2° field are given in the Appendix. The photopic response or
luminosity function of the eye is given by V*(λ) = 0.624L(λ)
+ 0.416M(λ), suggesting that the S-cones do not contribute to
the response of the eye. The curve V*(λ) closely follows the
CIE photopic sensitivity curve, V(λ), except for wavelengths
below 460 nm where V*(λ) gives a more realistic description of
photopic response.

Color blindness is abnormal color vision associated with one

or more cone types. Protanopia and deutranopia are
sometimes called red/green color blindness since these colors
are difficult to distinguish in these individuals. Tritanopia is
sometimes called blue/yellow color blindness, since
individuals with this deficit confuse these colors.

Type Missing Prevalence (Male/Female)

Protanopia L Cones 1% M / Rare F
Deutranopia M Cones 1% M / 0.01% F
Tritanopia S Cones Rare MF
74 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Aspheric and Astigmatic Surfaces

Aspheric surface: The conic surface is the most common

aspheric surface for representing rotationally symmetric
ophthalmic surfaces. Conics are defined by two parameters:
the radius of curvature R and the conic constant K. In the
special case where K = 0, the conic degenerates to a sphere.
Conic surfaces have the same power as a spherical surface of
the same radius, but the conic constant controls aberrations
in the lens periphery. The sag, z, of a conic surface is
r2 / R
z= .
r2
1 + 1 − ( K + 1) 2
R
If K ≠ −1, then an alternative description of the sag is
1 
z= R − R2 − ( K + 1) r 2  .
K +1 

A prolate ellipsoid has –1 < K < 0 and flattens peripherally.

Oblate ellipsoids have K > 0 and steepen in the periphery.

Astigmatic surfaces: Astigmatic surfaces have two distinct

powers along orthogonal meridians. The two most common
astigmatic surfaces are the toric surface and the biconic
surface. The sag of a toric surface is

(R − R + )
2
z = Rx − x y R2y − y2 − x2 ,

with Rx being the radius along the x-axis and Ry the radius
along the y-axis. Astigmatic surfaces can also be oriented
along a specific meridian. For example, the sag of a
generalized biconic surface is

r 2 cos 2 (θ − θ o ) / Rx + r 2 sin 2 (θ − θo ) / Ry
z= .
r 2 cos 2 (θ − θo ) r 2 sin 2 (θ − θo )
1 + 1 − (1 + K x ) 2
− (1 + K y )
Rx Ry2

The surface has radius Rx and conic constant Kx along the θo

meridian, and a radius Ry and conic constant Ky in the
orthogonal meridian.
Appendices 75

Differential Geometry

The principles of differential geometry appear repeatedly in

visual optics in areas such as progressive spectacle lens
design, corneal topography and wavefront sensing.
Differential geometry can be used to determine the local
curvature on a surface. By knowing the local Cartesian
derivatives of an optical surface or wavefront, the can be
determined. Every point on a continuous surface z = f(x,y) has
two principal curvatures κ1 and κ2. These curvatures
represent the maximum and minimum curvature through
this point and they are always along orthogonal axes. The
principal curvatures are calculated from a series of
expressions (called fundamental forms) that arise
repeatedly in differential geometry.

First Fundamental Form

2 2
 ∂f   ∂f   ∂f   ∂f 
E =1+  F =    G =1+ 
 ∂x   ∂x   ∂y   ∂y 

Second Fundamental Form

∂ 2 f / ∂x2 ∂ 2 f / ∂x∂y ∂ 2 f / ∂y2

L= M= N=
( EG − F )2 1/ 2
( EG − F )
2 1/ 2
( EG − F )2 1/ 2

From the fundamental forms, the mean curvature is given

by
EN + GL + 2 FM 1
H= = ( κ1 + κ2 ) ,
2 ( EG − F 2 ) 2

and the Gaussian curvature is given by

LN − M 2
K= = κ1κ2 .
EG − F 2

The principal curvatures from these quantities are

κ1 = H + H 2 − K
.
κ2 = H − H 2 − K
76 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Trigonometric Identities

Basic
sin 2 α + cos2 α = 1
1 + tan 2 α = sec 2 α
1 + cot 2 α = csc 2 α
Negative and Complementary Angles

sin(−α) = − sin α sin(π − α) = sin α

cos(−α) = cos α cos(π − α) = − cos α
tan(−α) = − tan α tan(π − α) = − tan α

sin(π / 2 − α) = cos α sin(π / 2 + α) = cos α

cos(π / 2 − α) = sin α cos(π / 2 + α) = − sin α
tan(π / 2 − α) = cot α tan(π / 2 + α) = − cot α

Sums and Differences of Angles

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β
cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α tan β
α ±β α ∓β
sin α ± sin β = 2sin   cos  
 2   2 
α +β α −β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 
α +β α −β
cos α − cos β = −2sin   sin  
 2   2 
Double Angles
sin 2α = 2sin α cos α
cos 2α = cos2 α − sin 2 α = 2 cos2 α − 1 = 1 − 2sin 2 α
2 tan α
tan 2α =
1 − tan 2 α
Appendices 77

CIE Photopic V(λ) and Scotopic V′(λ) Response

λ (nm) V(λ) V′(λ) λ (nm) V(λ) V′(λ)

380 0.0000 0.0006 580 0.8700 0.1212
385 0.0001 0.0011 585 0.8163 0.0899
390 0.0001 0.0022 590 0.7570 0.0655
395 0.0002 0.0045 595 0.6949 0.0469
400 0.0004 0.0093 600 0.6310 0.0332
405 0.0006 0.0185 605 0.5668 0.0231
410 0.0012 0.0348 610 0.5030 0.0159
415 0.0022 0.0604 615 0.4412 0.0109
420 0.0040 0.0966 620 0.3810 0.0074
425 0.0073 0.1436 625 0.3210 0.0050
430 0.0116 0.1998 630 0.2650 0.0033
435 0.0168 0.2625 635 0.2170 0.0022
440 0.0230 0.3281 640 0.1750 0.0015
445 0.0298 0.3931 645 0.1382 0.0010
450 0.0380 0.4550 650 0.1070 0.0007
455 0.0480 0.5130 655 0.0816 0.0005
460 0.0600 0.5670 660 0.0610 0.0003
465 0.0739 0.6200 665 0.0446 0.0002
470 0.0910 0.6760 670 0.0320 0.0001
475 0.1126 0.7340 675 0.0232 0.0001
480 0.1390 0.7930 680 0.0170 0.0001
485 0.1693 0.8510 685 0.0119 0.0001
490 0.2080 0.9040 690 0.0082 0.0000
495 0.2586 0.9490 695 0.0057 0.0000
500 0.3230 0.9820 700 0.0041 0.0000
505 0.4073 0.9980 705 0.0029 0.0000
510 0.5030 0.9970 710 0.0021 0.0000
515 0.6082 0.9750 715 0.0015 0.0000
520 0.7100 0.9350 720 0.0010 0.0000
525 0.7932 0.8800 725 0.0007 0.0000
530 0.8620 0.8110 730 0.0005 0.0000
535 0.9149 0.7330 735 0.0004 0.0000
540 0.9540 0.6500 740 0.0002 0.0000
545 0.9803 0.5640 745 0.0002 0.0000
550 0.9950 0.4810 750 0.0001 0.0000
555 1.0000 0.4020 755 0.0001 0.0000
560 0.9950 0.3288 760 0.0001 0.0000
565 0.9786 0.2639 765 0.0000 0.0000
570 0.9520 0.2076 770 0.0000 0.0000
575 0.9154 0.1602 775 0.0000 0.0000
580 0.8700 0.1212 780 0.0000 0.0000
78 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

1931 CIE 2º Color Matching Functions

λ(nm) x( λ ) y(λ) z (λ )
380 0.00137 0.00004 0.00645
385 0.00224 0.00006 0.01055
390 0.00424 0.00012 0.02005
395 0.00765 0.00022 0.03621
400 0.01431 0.00040 0.06785
405 0.02319 0.00064 0.11020
410 0.04351 0.00121 0.20740
415 0.07763 0.00218 0.37130
420 0.13438 0.00400 0.64560
425 0.21477 0.00730 1.03905
430 0.28390 0.01160 1.38560
435 0.32850 0.01684 1.62296
440 0.34828 0.02300 1.74706
445 0.34806 0.02980 1.78260
450 0.33620 0.03800 1.77211
455 0.31870 0.04800 1.74410
460 0.29080 0.06000 1.66920
465 0.25110 0.07390 1.52810
470 0.19536 0.09098 1.28764
475 0.14210 0.11260 1.04190
480 0.09564 0.13902 0.81295
485 0.05795 0.16930 0.61620
490 0.03201 0.20802 0.46518
495 0.01470 0.25860 0.35330
500 0.00490 0.32300 0.27200
505 0.00240 0.40730 0.21230
510 0.00930 0.50300 0.15820
515 0.02910 0.60820 0.11170
520 0.06327 0.71000 0.07825
525 0.10960 0.79320 0.05725
530 0.16550 0.86200 0.04216
535 0.22575 0.91485 0.02984
540 0.29040 0.95400 0.02030
545 0.35970 0.98030 0.01340
550 0.43345 0.99495 0.00875
555 0.51205 1.00000 0.00575
560 0.59450 0.99500 0.00390
565 0.67840 0.97860 0.00275
570 0.76210 0.95200 0.00210
575 0.84250 0.91540 0.00180
580 0.91630 0.87000 0.00165
Appendices 79

1931 CIE 2º Color Matching Functions (Cont.)

λ(nm) x( λ ) y(λ) z (λ )
585 0.97860 0.81630 0.00140
590 1.02630 0.75700 0.00110
595 1.05670 0.69490 0.00100
600 1.06220 0.63100 0.00080
605 1.04560 0.56680 0.00060
610 1.00260 0.50300 0.00034
615 0.93840 0.44120 0.00024
620 0.85445 0.38100 0.00019
625 0.75140 0.32100 0.00010
630 0.64240 0.26500 0.00005
635 0.54190 0.21700 0.00003
640 0.44790 0.17500 0.00002
645 0.36080 0.13820 0.00001
650 0.28350 0.10700 0.00000
655 0.21870 0.08160 0.00000
660 0.16490 0.06100 0.00000
665 0.12120 0.04458 0.00000
670 0.08740 0.03200 0.00000
675 0.06360 0.02320 0.00000
680 0.04677 0.01700 0.00000
685 0.03290 0.01192 0.00000
690 0.02270 0.00821 0.00000
695 0.01584 0.00572 0.00000
700 0.01136 0.00410 0.00000
705 0.00811 0.00293 0.00000
710 0.00579 0.00209 0.00000
715 0.00411 0.00148 0.00000
720 0.00290 0.00105 0.00000
725 0.00205 0.00074 0.00000
730 0.00144 0.00052 0.00000
735 0.00100 0.00036 0.00000
740 0.00069 0.00025 0.00000
745 0.00048 0.00017 0.00000
750 0.00033 0.00012 0.00000
755 0.00023 0.00008 0.00000
760 0.00017 0.00006 0.00000
765 0.00012 0.00004 0.00000
770 0.00008 0.00003 0.00000
775 0.00006 0.00002 0.00000
780 0.00004 0.00001 0.00000
80 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

1964 CIE 10º Color Matching Functions

λ(nm) x10 (λ) y10 (λ) z10 (λ)

380 0.00016 0.00002 0.00070
385 0.00066 0.00007 0.00293
390 0.00236 0.00025 0.01048
395 0.00724 0.00077 0.03234
400 0.01911 0.00200 0.08601
405 0.04340 0.00451 0.19712
410 0.08474 0.00876 0.38937
415 0.14064 0.01446 0.65676
420 0.20449 0.02139 0.97254
425 0.26474 0.02950 1.28250
430 0.31468 0.03868 1.55348
435 0.35772 0.04960 1.79850
440 0.38373 0.06208 1.96728
445 0.38673 0.07470 2.02730
450 0.37070 0.08946 1.99480
455 0.34296 0.10626 1.90070
460 0.30227 0.12820 1.74537
465 0.25409 0.15276 1.55490
470 0.19562 0.18519 1.31756
475 0.13235 0.21994 1.03020
480 0.08051 0.25359 0.77213
485 0.04107 0.29767 0.57060
490 0.01617 0.33913 0.41525
495 0.00513 0.39538 0.30236
500 0.00382 0.46078 0.21850
505 0.01544 0.53136 0.15925
510 0.03747 0.60674 0.11204
515 0.07136 0.68566 0.08225
520 0.11775 0.76176 0.06071
525 0.17295 0.82333 0.04305
530 0.23649 0.87521 0.03045
535 0.30421 0.92381 0.02058
540 0.37677 0.96199 0.01368
545 0.45158 0.98220 0.00792
550 0.52983 0.99176 0.00399
555 0.61605 0.99911 0.00109
560 0.70522 0.99734 0.00000
565 0.79383 0.98238 0.00000
570 0.87866 0.95555 0.00000
575 0.95116 0.91518 0.00000
580 1.01416 0.86893 0.00000
Appendices 81

1964 CIE 10º Color Matching Functions (Cont.)

λ(nm) x10 (λ) y10 (λ) z10 (λ)

585 1.07430 0.82562 0.00000
590 1.11852 0.77741 0.00000
595 1.13430 0.72035 0.00000
600 1.12399 0.65834 0.00000
605 1.08910 0.59388 0.00000
610 1.03048 0.52796 0.00000
615 0.95074 0.46183 0.00000
620 0.85630 0.39806 0.00000
625 0.75493 0.33955 0.00000
630 0.64747 0.28349 0.00000
635 0.53511 0.22825 0.00000
640 0.43157 0.17983 0.00000
645 0.34369 0.14021 0.00000
650 0.26833 0.10763 0.00000
655 0.20430 0.08119 0.00000
660 0.15257 0.06028 0.00000
665 0.11221 0.04410 0.00000
670 0.08126 0.03180 0.00000
675 0.05793 0.02260 0.00000
680 0.04085 0.01591 0.00000
685 0.02862 0.01113 0.00000
690 0.01994 0.00775 0.00000
695 0.01384 0.00538 0.00000
700 0.00958 0.00372 0.00000
705 0.00661 0.00256 0.00000
710 0.00455 0.00177 0.00000
715 0.00314 0.00122 0.00000
720 0.00217 0.00085 0.00000
725 0.00151 0.00059 0.00000
730 0.00104 0.00041 0.00000
735 0.00073 0.00028 0.00000
740 0.00051 0.00020 0.00000
745 0.00036 0.00014 0.00000
750 0.00025 0.00010 0.00000
755 0.00018 0.00007 0.00000
760 0.00013 0.00005 0.00000
765 0.00009 0.00004 0.00000
770 0.00006 0.00003 0.00000
775 0.00005 0.00002 0.00000
780 0.00003 0.00001 0.00000
82 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Stockman & Sharpe 2° Cone Fundamentals

λ(nm) L(λ) M (λ ) S(λ) V * (λ )

390 0.00042 0.00037 0.00955 0.00041
395 0.00105 0.00096 0.02383 0.00106
400 0.00241 0.00227 0.05665 0.00245
405 0.00483 0.00470 0.12245 0.00497
410 0.00872 0.00879 0.23301 0.00909
415 0.01338 0.01453 0.38136 0.01437
420 0.01845 0.02166 0.54362 0.02047
425 0.02293 0.02957 0.67447 0.02651
430 0.02819 0.03946 0.80256 0.03385
435 0.03411 0.05182 0.90357 0.04260
440 0.04026 0.06478 0.99102 0.05174
445 0.04494 0.07588 0.99152 0.05920
450 0.04986 0.08705 0.95539 0.06685
455 0.05534 0.09819 0.86024 0.07483
460 0.06472 0.11627 0.78670 0.08809
465 0.08069 0.14454 0.73827 0.10965
470 0.09948 0.17589 0.64636 0.13425
475 0.11880 0.20540 0.51641 0.15845
480 0.14015 0.23575 0.39033 0.18427
485 0.16395 0.26806 0.29032 0.21245
490 0.19156 0.30363 0.21187 0.24435
495 0.23293 0.35706 0.16053 0.29222
500 0.28896 0.42776 0.12284 0.35638
505 0.35972 0.51559 0.08890 0.43680
510 0.44368 0.61552 0.06082 0.53051
515 0.53649 0.71915 0.04281 0.63134
520 0.62856 0.81661 0.02920 0.72919
525 0.70472 0.88555 0.01939 0.80542
530 0.77063 0.93569 0.01260 0.86754
535 0.82571 0.96886 0.00809 0.91593
Appendices 83

Stockman & Sharpe 2° Cone Fundamentals (Cont.)

λ(nm) L(λ) M (λ ) S(λ) V * (λ )

540 0.88101 0.99522 0.00509 0.96171
545 0.91907 0.99719 0.00317 0.98668
550 0.94020 0.97719 0.00196 0.99202
555 0.96573 0.95658 0.00120 0.99991
560 0.98145 0.91775 0.00074 0.99420
565 0.99449 0.87321 0.00046 0.98448
570 0.99999 0.81351 0.00028 0.96386
575 0.99231 0.74029 0.00018 0.92939
580 0.96943 0.65327 0.00011 0.87970
585 0.95560 0.57260 0.00007 0.83832
590 0.92767 0.49260 0.00004 0.78826
595 0.88597 0.41125 0.00003 0.72890
600 0.83398 0.33443 0.00002 0.66484
605 0.77510 0.26487 0.00001 0.59934
610 0.70571 0.20527 0.00001 0.53118
615 0.63077 0.15624 0.00001 0.46377
620 0.55422 0.11664 0.00000 0.39915
625 0.47994 0.08559 0.00000 0.33942
630 0.40071 0.06211 0.00000 0.27961
635 0.32786 0.04449 0.00000 0.22622
640 0.26578 0.03143 0.00000 0.18151
645 0.21328 0.02180 0.00000 0.14428
650 0.16514 0.01545 0.00000 0.11113
655 0.12475 0.01071 0.00000 0.08356
660 0.09301 0.00730 0.00000 0.06203
665 0.06851 0.00497 0.00000 0.04552
670 0.04987 0.00344 0.00000 0.03306
675 0.03582 0.00238 0.00000 0.02371
680 0.02538 0.00164 0.00000 0.01678
685 0.01772 0.00112 0.00000 0.01171
84 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Stockman & Sharpe 2° Cone Fundamentals (Cont.)

λ(nm) L(λ) M (λ ) S(λ) V * (λ )

690 0.01217 0.00076 0.00000 0.00804
695 0.00847 0.00053 0.00000 0.00559
700 0.00590 0.00037 0.00000 0.00389
705 0.00409 0.00025 0.00000 0.00270
710 0.00280 0.00017 0.00000 0.00185
715 0.00192 0.00012 0.00000 0.00127
720 0.00133 0.00008 0.00000 0.00088
725 0.00092 0.00006 0.00000 0.00061
730 0.00064 0.00004 0.00000 0.00042
735 0.00045 0.00003 0.00000 0.00030
740 0.00031 0.00002 0.00000 0.00021
745 0.00022 0.00002 0.00000 0.00015
750 0.00015 0.00001 0.00000 0.00010
755 0.00011 0.00001 0.00000 0.00007
760 0.00008 0.00001 0.00000 0.00005
765 0.00006 0.00000 0.00000 0.00004
770 0.00004 0.00000 0.00000 0.00003
775 0.00003 0.00000 0.00000 0.00002
780 0.00002 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001
785 0.00002 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001
790 0.00001 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001
795 0.00001 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001
800 0.00001 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
805 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
810 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
815 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
820 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
825 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
830 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
Appendices 85

Incoherent Retinal Hazard Functions

λ(nm) A(λ) B(λ) R(λ)

300 6.000 0.010 -
305 6.000 0.010 -
310 6.000 0.010 -
315 6.000 0.010 -
320 6.000 0.010 -
325 6.000 0.010 -
330 6.000 0.010 -
335 6.000 0.010 -
340 5.880 0.010 -
345 5.710 0.010 -
350 5.460 0.010 -
355 5.220 0.010 -
360 4.620 0.010 -
365 4.290 0.010 -
370 3.750 0.010 -
375 3.560 0.010 -
380 3.190 0.010 0.100
385 2.310 0.013 0.130
390 1.880 0.025 0.250
395 1.580 0.050 0.500
400 1.430 0.100 1.000
405 1.300 0.200 2.000
410 1.250 0.400 4.000
415 1.200 0.800 8.000
420 1.150 0.900 9.000
425 1.110 0.950 9.500
430 1.070 0.980 9.800
435 1.030 1.000 10.000
440 1.000 1.000 10.000
445 0.970 0.970 9.700
450 0.940 0.940 9.400
455 0.900 0.900 9.000
460 0.800 0.800 8.000
86 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Incoherent Retinal Hazard Functions (Continued)

λ(nm) A(λ) B(λ) R(λ)

465 0.700 0.700 7.000
470 0.620 0.620 6.200
475 0.550 0.550 5.500
480 0.450 0.450 4.500
485 0.400 0.400 4.000
490 0.220 0.220 2.200
495 0.160 0.160 1.600
500 0.100 0.100 1.000
505 0.079 0.079 1.000
510 0.063 0.063 1.000
515 0.050 0.050 1.000
520 0.040 0.040 1.000
525 0.032 0.032 1.000
530 0.025 0.025 1.000
535 0.020 0.020 1.000
540 0.016 0.016 1.000
545 0.013 0.013 1.000
550 0.010 0.010 1.000
555 0.008 0.008 1.000
560 0.006 0.006 1.000
565 0.005 0.005 1.000
570 0.004 0.004 1.000
575 0.003 0.003 1.000
580 0.002 0.002 1.000
590 0.001 0.001 1.000
595 0.001 0.001 1.000
600-700 0.001 0.001 1.000

700-1050 - - 10^ (700 − λ ) / 500 

1050-1150 - - 0.200
1150-1200 - - 0.2 × 10^ 0.2 (1150 − λ )
1200-1400 - - 0.020
Appendices 87

Zernike Polynomials: Table in Polar Coordinates

j n m Znm (ρ, θ)
0 0 0 1
1 1 –1 2 ρ sin θ
2 1 1 2 ρ cos θ
3 2 –2 6 ρ2 sin 2θ
4 2 0 3 (2ρ2–1)
5 2 2 6 ρ2 cos 2θ
6 3 –3 8 ρ3 sin 3θ
7 3 –1 8 (3ρ3–2ρ) sin θ
8 3 1 8 (3ρ3–2ρ) cos θ
9 3 3 8 ρ3 cos 3θ
10 4 –4 10 ρ4 sin 4θ
11 4 –2 10 (4ρ4–3ρ2) sin 2θ
12 4 0 5 (6ρ4–6ρ2+1)
13 4 2 10 (4ρ4–3ρ2) cos 2θ
14 4 4 10 ρ4 cos 4θ
15 5 –5 12 ρ5 sin 5θ
16 5 –3 12 (5ρ5–4ρ3) sin 3θ
17 5 –1 12 (10ρ5–12ρ3+3ρ) sin θ
18 5 1 12 (10ρ5–12ρ3+3ρ) cos θ
19 5 3 12 (5ρ5–4ρ3) cos 3θ
20 5 5 12 ρ5 cos 5θ
21 6 –6 14 ρ6 sin 6θ
22 6 –4 14 (6ρ6–5ρ4) sin 4θ
23 6 –2 14 (15ρ6–20ρ4+6ρ2) sin 2θ
24 6 0 7 (20ρ6–30ρ4+12ρ2–1)
25 6 2 14 (15ρ6–20ρ4+6ρ2) cos 2θ
26 6 4 14 (6ρ6–5ρ4) cos 4θ
27 6 6 14 ρ6 cos 6θ
88 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Zernike Polynomials: Table in Cartesian Coordinates

j n m Znm (X,Y) where X2 + Y2 = ρ2 ≤ 1

0 0 0 1
1 1 –1 2Y
2 1 1 2X
3 2 –2 6 2XY
4 2 0 3 (2X2+2Y2–1)
5 2 2 6 (X2–Y2)
6 3 –3 8 (3X2Y–Y3)
7 3 –1 8 (3X2Y+3Y3–2Y)
8 3 1 8 (3X3+3XY2–2X)
9 3 3 8 (X3–3XY2)
10 4 –4 10 (4X3Y–4XY3)
11 4 –2 10 (8X3Y+8XY3–6XY)
12 4 0 5 (6X4+12X2Y2+6Y4–6X2–6Y2+1)
13 4 2 10 (4X4–4Y4–3X2+3Y2)
14 4 4 10 (X4–6X2Y2+Y4)
15 5 –5 12 (5X4Y–10X2Y3+Y5)
16 5 –3 12 (15X4Y+10X2Y3–5Y5–12X2Y+4Y3)
17 5 –1 12 (10X4Y+20X2Y3+10Y5–12X2Y–12Y3+3Y)
18 5 1 12 (10X5+20X3Y2+10XY4-12X3–12XY2+3X)
19 5 3 12 (5X5–10X3Y2–15XY4–4X3+12XY2)
20 5 5 12 (X5–10X3Y2+5XY4)
21 6 –6 14 (6X5Y–20X3Y3+6XY5)
22 6 –4 14 (24X5Y–24XY5–20X3Y+20XY3)
23 6 –2 14 (30X5Y+60X3Y3+30XY5–40X3Y–40XY3+12XY)
24 6 0 7 (20(X6+Y6)+60(X4Y2+X2Y4– X2Y2)–30(X4+Y4)
+12(X2+Y2)–1)
25 6 2 14 (15X6+15X4Y2–15X2Y415Y6–
20X4+20Y4+6X26Y2)
6 4 2 2 4 6 4 2 2 4
26 6 4 14 (6X –30X Y –30X Y +6Y –5X +30X Y –5Y )
6 4 2 2 4 6
27 6 6 14 (X –15X Y +15X Y –Y )
Appendices 89

Equation Summary

Pupil size:
D = 4.9 – 3tanh[0.4(log L + 1)]

Stiles-Crawford effect:

−0 116 ( x ± 0 47)2 + ( y ± 0 20)2 

t( x , y ) = e  

AC/A ratio:

AC / A = PD + d ( ∆ n − ∆ d )
Vergence:
±n
Vergence =
d
Lensmakers’ formula:

U +Φ =V
Magnification = U / V.

Chromatic aberration:
n′ n′
dφ = −
P ′Fλ′ref P ′Fλ′
633.46
Φ λ = 1.68524 −
λ − 214.102

Spherical aberration:
n′ n′
dφ = −
P ′M ′ P ′F ′

Oblique astigmatism:

A(θ) = 0.00266 θ2 − 2.09 × 10−7 θ4

Snellen acuity:

Greatest distance subject can just read a given line on the chart
S=
Greatest distance a "normal" observer can just read the same line
90 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Equation Summary

LogMAR acuity:
1
LA = log10  
S 
Gabor patches:

I ( x , y ) = cos(2πfo x ) exp  − 
(
  fo2 x 2 + y2 )  

  σ2  

Tscherning’s ellipse:

2
2   n −1
φ12 ( n + 2) − φ1  ( n2 − 1) + Φ( n + 2)  + n  Φ + =0
 q′   q ′ 

Vertex adjustment:
Φ1
Φ2 =
1 + ( d2 − d1 ) Φ1

Spectacle prescription—plus cylinder form:

Sph / |Cyl| × Axis

Spectacle prescription—minus cylinder form:

(Sph + |Cyl|) / −|Cyl| × (Axis + 90°)

Spherical equivalent power:

SEP = Sph + 0.5Cyl

Prentice’s rule:

P(∆) = d (cm) × φ (D)

Astigmatic decomposition:

M = Sph + 0.5 Cyl

J0 = −0.5Cyl cos (2 Axis)
J45 = −0.5Cyl sin (2 Axis)
Appendices 91

Equation Summary

Astigmatic decomposition cont’d:

( ∑ J0 ) + ( ∑ J45)
2 2
CR = 2

1 −1
 ∑ J45 
θR = tan  + 90° subtract 180° if θ R > 180°
2  ∑ J0 
 
= ∑ M − ( ∑ J0 ) + ( ∑ J45 )
2 2
SR

Stokes lens:
C = 2Φ sin 2θ

Alvarez lens:

 x3 
t = A  xy2 + 2
 + Bx + Cxy + Dx + E + F ( y )
 3 
Humphrey lens:

 x3 
t = A − xy2  + Bx 2 + Cxy + Dy2 + Ex + Fy + G
 3 
SRK formula:

φ IOL = A − 0.9 K − 2.5L

Theoretical IOL formula:

n  n
φ IOL = n  − L  ( L − ACD )  
− ACD 
 K   K 
Surgeon factor:

SF = 0.5663A – 65.6

Anterior chamber depth:

SF + 3.595
ACD =
0.9704
92 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Equation Summary

Keratometry:

R = 2dy / h
Φ = 337.5 / R

Axial power:

( nk − 1) ( nk − 1) df / dr
Φa = =
Ra r 1 + ( df / dr )
2

Instantaneous power:

nk − 1 ( nk − 1) d2 z / dr 2
Φi = = 3/2
RI 1 + ( dz / dr )2 
 

Shack-Hartmann spot displacements:

∂W ( x , y ) ∂W ( x , y )
∆x = f ∆y = f
∂x ∂y

Zernike polynomials:

 m
N nm Rn (ρ) cos mθ ; for m ≥ 0
Z nm (ρ, θ) =  m
m
 − N n Rn (ρ)sin mθ ; for m < 0

(n− m ) / 2
( −1)s (n − s)!
m
Rn (ρ) = ∑
s =0 s ! 0.5(n + m ) − s  ! 0.5(n − m ) − s !
ρn −2s

2(n + 1)
N nm =
1 + δm 0
Appendices 93

Equation Summary

Refraction from Zernikes:

1 a 
θ1 = tan −1  2 −2 
2  a22 
2 6 4 3 
φ1 = −  2 ( a2− 2 sin 2θ1 + a22 cos 2θ1 ) + 2 a20 
 rmax rmax 
2 6 4 3 
φ2 =  2 ( a2 −2 sin 2θ1 + a22 cos2θ1 ) − 2 a20 
 rmax rmax 

Sph = φ1 Sph = φ2
Cyl = φ2 − φ1 Cyl = φ1 −φ2
Axis = θ1 Axis = θ1 + 90°

Zernikes from refraction:

2 2
rmax Cyl sin(2Axis) rmax Cyl cos(2Axis)
a2 −2 = a22 =
4 6 4 6

2
−rmax (2Sph + Cyl)
a20 =
8 3
Badal lens:

Vergence = −Φ 2 ∆z

Thermal hazards:

1,400
50,000 W
∑ L R ( λ ) ∆λ <
380
λ
αt 0 25 m2sr

Photochemical hazards:

700
J
LB t = t ∑ Lλ B ( λ ) ∆λ ≤ 106
300 m2 sr
94 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Equation Summary

Luminous flux:
Φ ν = 683∫ Φ( λ )V ( λ )dλ (Photopic)

Φ ν = 1700 ∫ Φ( λ )V ′( λ )dλ (Scotopic)

XYZ tristimulus values:

∞
X = ∫ P ( λ )x ( λ )dλ or ∑ P(λ )x(λ )∆λ
0
∞
Y = ∫ P ( λ ) y( λ )dλ or ∑ P(λ)y(λ)∆λ
0
∞
Z = ∫ P ( λ )z ( λ )dλ or ∑ P(λ)z(λ )∆λ
0

XYZ chromaticity coordinates:

X Y
x= y= z =1−x −y
X +Y + Z X +Y + Z

CIELUV:
1/ 3
Y  Y
L* = 116   − 16 for > 0.008856
 Yn  Yn
Y  Y
L* = 903.292   for ≤ 0.008856
 Yn  Yn
u* = 13L* ( u′ − un )
v* = 13L* (v′ − vn )
4X 4x
u′ = =
X + 15Y + 3Z −2x + 12 y + 3
9Y 9y
v′ = =
X + 15Y + 3Z −2x + 12 y + 3

(L ) + (u ) + (v )
2 2 2
*
∆E = 2 − L1* *
2 − u1* *
2 − v1*
Appendices 95
Equation Summary

CIELAB:
⎛Y ⎞
L* = 116 f ⎜ ⎟ − 16
⎝ Yn ⎠
⎡ ⎛ X ⎞ ⎛ Y ⎞⎤
a* = 500 ⎢ f ⎜ ⎟ − f ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ X n ⎠ ⎝ Yn ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛Y ⎞ ⎛ Z ⎞⎤
b* = 200 ⎢ f ⎜ ⎟ − f ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ Yn ⎠ ⎝ Zn ⎠ ⎥⎦
where f (s) = s1 / 3 for s > 0.008856
f (s) = 7.787s + 16/116 for s ≤ 0.008856

(L ) + (a ) + (b )
2 2 2
*
ΔE = 2 − L1* *
2 − a1* *
2 − b1*

Conic surface:
r2 / R
z=
r2
1 + 1 − ( K + 1)
R2

1 ⎡
z= R − R 2 − ( K + 1) r 2 ⎤ (K ≠ −1)
K +1 ⎣ ⎦

r2
z= (K = −1)
2R

Toric surface:

(R )
2
z = Rx − x − Ry + Ry2 − y2 − x2

Biconic surface:
r 2 cos2 ( θ − θo ) / Rx + r 2 sin 2 ( θ − θo ) / Ry
z=
r 2 cos2 ( θ − θo ) r 2 sin2 ( θ − θo )
1 + 1 − (1 + K x )
Rx2
− (1 + K y ) Ry2
96 Visual and Ophthalmic Optics

Equation Summary

Differential geometry—first fundamental form:

2 2
 ∂f   ∂f   ∂f   ∂f 
E =1+  F =    G =1+ 
 ∂x   ∂x   ∂y   ∂y 

Differential geometry—second fundamental form:

∂ 2 f / ∂x 2 ∂ 2 f / ∂x ∂y ∂ 2 f / ∂y2
L= M = N =
( EG − F ) ( EG − F ) ( EG − F )
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/2
2 2 2

Mean curvature:

EN + GL + 2 FM 1
H= = ( κ1 + κ2 )
(
2 EG − F 2
) 2

Gaussian curvature:
LN − M 2
K = = κ1κ2
EG − F 2

Principal curvatures:

κ1 = H + H 2 − K
κ2 = H − H 2 − K
Notes
Notes
 99
Bibliography

Alpern, M., G. L. Mason, R. E. Jardinico, “Pupil size changes

associated with changes in accommodative vergence,” Am J
Ophthalmol 52: 762-767 (1961).

Alvarez, L. W., “Two-element variable-power spherical

element,” US Patent 3,305,294.

Ames, A., C. A. Proctor, “Dioptrics of the eye,” J Opt Soc Am

5: 22-84 (1921).

Applegate, R. A., V. Lakshminarayanan, “Parametric

representation of Stiles-Crawford functions: normal
variations of peak location and directionality,” J Opt Soc Am
A 10: 1611-1623 (1993).

Arend, O., R. Remky, D. Evans, R. Stuber, A. Harris,

“Contrast sensitivity loss is coupled with capillary dropout in
patients with diabetes,” Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 38: 1819-
1824 (1997).

Atchison, D. A., G. Smith, Optics of the Human Eye.

(Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2000).

Barten, P. G. J., Contrast Sensitivity of the Human Eye and

Its Effects on Image Quality (SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA,
1999).

Boettner, E. A., J. R. Wolter, “Transmission of the ocular

media,” Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1:776-783 (1962).

Chernyak, D. A., “Cyclotorsional eye motion occurring

between wavefront measurement and refractive surgery,” J
Cataract Ref Surg 30: 633-638 (2004).

Duane, A., “Normal values of the accommodation at all ages,”

Trans Sec Ophthalmol AMA 53: 383-391 (1912).

Fannin, T. E., T. Grosvenor, Clinical Optics (Butterworth-

Heinemann, Oxford, 1997).
100

Bibliography (Continued)

Hecht, S., C. Haig, A. M. Chase, “The influence of light

adaptation on subsequent dark adaptation of the eye,” J Gen
Physiol 20: 831-850 (1937).

Holladay, J. T., “International Lens & Implant Registry

2004,” J Cataract Refract Surg 30: 207-229 (2004).

Howland, H. C., B. Howland, “A subjective method for

measurements of monochromatic aberrations of the eye,” J
Opt Soc Am 67: 1508-1518 (1977).

Humphrey, W. E., “Variable anamorphic lens and method for

constructing lens,” US Patent 3,751,138.

International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation

Protection, “Guidelines of limits of exposure to broad-band
incoherent optical radiation (0.38 to 3 µm),” Health Phys 73:
539-554 (1997).

Ivanoff, A., “About the spherical aberration of the eye,” J Opt

Soc Am 46: 901-903 (1956).

Judd, D. B., Report of U.S. Secretariat Committee on

Colorimetry and Artificial Daylight. In: Proceedings of the
Twelfth Session of the CIE, Stockholm. Paris: Bureau Central
de la CIE (1951).

Klein, S. A., R. B. Mandell, “Axial and instantaneous power

conversion in corneal topography,” Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci
36: 2155-2159 (1995).

Kooijman, A. C., “Light distribution on the retina of a wide-

angle theoretical eye,” J Opt Soc Am 73: 1544-1550 (1983).

Koretz, J. F., C. A. Cook, P. L. Kaufman, “Accommodation and

presbyopia in the human eye: changes in the anterior
segment and crystalline lens with focus,” Invest Ophthalmol
Vis Sci 38: 569-578 (1997).
 101
Bibliography (Continued)

Koretz, J. F., C. A. Cook, P. L. Kaufman, “Aging of the human

lens: changes in shape upon accommodation and with
accommodative loss,” J Opt Soc Am A 19: 144-151 (2002).

Koretz, J. F., S. A. Strenk, L. M. Strenk, J. L. Semmlow,

“Scheimpflug and high-resolution magnetic resonance
imaging of the anterior segment: a comparative study, J Opt
Soc Am A 21: 346-354 (2004).

Le Grand, Y., S. G. El Hage, Physiological Optics (Springer-

Verlag: Berlin, 1980).

Liang, J., B. Grimm, S. Goelz, J. F. Bille, “Objective

measurement of the wave aberrations of the human eye with
the use of a Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor,” J Opt Soc
Am A 11: 1949-1957 (1994).

Lotmar, W., T. Lotmar, “Peripheral astigmatism in the

human eye: experimental data and theoretical model
prediction,” J Opt Soc Am 64: 510-513 (1974).

Malacara, D, Color Vision and Colorimetry: Theory and

Applications (SPIE Press: Bellingham, 2002).

Mandell, R. B., “Location of the corneal sighting center in

videokeratography,” J Refract Corneal Surg 11: 253-258
(1995).

McLeod, S., S. M. Pitts, “Reflection of light by small areas of

the ocular fundus,” Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 16: 981-985
(1977).

Miller, D., Optics and Refraction: A User-Friendly Guide

(Gower: New York, 1991).

Molebny, V. V., I. G. Pallikaris, L. P. Naoumidis, I. H. Chyzh,

S. V. Molebny, V. M. Sokurenko, “Retinal ray-tracing
technique for eye refraction mapping,” Proc SPIE 2971: 175-
183 (1997).
102

Bibliography (Continued)

Moon, P., D. E. Spencer, “On the Stiles-Crawford effect,” J

Opt Soc Am 34: 319-329 (1944).

Porter, J., A. Guirao, I. G. Cox, D. R. Williams,

“Monochromatic aberrations of the human eye in a large
population,” J Opt Soc Am A 18: 1793-1803 (2001).

Poynton, C., Digital Video and HDTV. Algorithms and

Interfaces (Morgan Kaufmann: Amsterdam, 2003).

Rabbetts, R. B., A. G. Bennett, Clinical Visual Optics

(Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, 1990).

Rempt, F., J. Hoogerheide, W. P. H. Hoogenboom, “Peripheral

retinoscopy and the skiagram,” Ophthalmologica 162: 1-10
(1971).

Roufs, J. A., “Dynamic properties of vision. I. experimental

relationships between flicker and flash thresholds,” Vis Res
12: 261-278 (1972).

Sivak, J. G., T. Mandelman, “Chromatic dispersion of the

ocular media,” Vis Res 22: 997-1003 (1982).

Smirnov, M. S., “Measurement of the wave aberration of the

human eye,” Biofizika 6: 687-703 (1961).

Stiles, W. S., J. M. Burch, “NPL colour-matching

investigation: Final report,” Optica Acta 6: 1-26 (1959).

Stockman, A., L. T. Sharpe, “Cone spectral sensitivities and

color matching,” In: Color Vision: From Genes to Perception.
Eds: K. R. Gegenfurtner, L. T. Sharpe (Cambridge University
Press: Cambridge, 2001).

Stockman, A., L. T. Sharpe, “Spectral sensitivities of the

middle- and long-wavelength sensitive cones derived from
measurements in observers of known genotype,” Vision
Research 40: 1711-1737 (2000).
 103
Bibliography (Continued)

Thibos, L. N., R. A. Applegate, J. Schwiegerling, R. Webb,

“Standards for reporting the optical aberrations of eyes,” J
Refract Surg 18: S652-S660 (2002).

Thibos, L. N., W. Wheeler, D. Horner, “Power vectors: an

application of Fourier analysis to the description and
statistical analysis of refractive error,” Optom Vis Sci 74: 367-
375 (1997).

Thibos, L. N., M. Ye, X. Zhang, A. Bradley, “The chromatic

eye: a new reduced-eye model of ocular chromatic aberration
in humans,” Appl Opt 31: 3594-3600 (1992).

Tscherning, M., “Die monochromatischen Aberrationen des

menschlichen Auges,” Z Psychol Physiol Sinne 6: 456-471
(1894).

van Nes, F. L., M. A. Bouman, “Spatial modulation transfer in

the human eye,” J Opt Soc Am 57: 401-406 (1967).

Von Noorden, G. K., Binocular Vision and Ocular Motility:

Theory and Management of Strabismus, 4th ed. (Mosby: St.
Louis, 1990).

Vos, J. J., “Colorimetric and photometric properties of a 2-deg

fundamental observer,” Color Research and Application 3:
125-128 (1978).

Walsh, G., W. N. Charman, H. C. Howland, “Objective

technique for the determination of monochromatic
aberrations of the human eye,” J Opt Soc Am A 1: 987-992
(1984).

Webb, R. H., C. M. Penney, K. P. Thompson, “Measurement of

ocular wavefront distortion with a spatially resolved
refractometer,” Appl Opt 31:3678-3686 (1992).
104

Bibliography (Continued)

Winn, B., D. Whitaker, D. B. Elliot, N. J. Phillips, “Factors

affecting light-adapted pupil size in normal human subjects,”
Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 35: 1132-1137 (1994).

Wyszecki, G., W. S. Stiles, Color Science (Wiley: New York:

1982).

Z136.1 ANSI Standard, “For the Safe Use of Lasers.”

Websites

http://cvrl.ioo.ucl.ac.uk/basicindex.htm
The homepage for Colour & Vision Research Laboratories,
Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London.

http://www.optics.arizona.edu/Palmer/rpfaq/rpfaq.htm
The homepage for Radiometry and Photometry FAQ.

http://www.brucelinbloom.com
The homepage for Color Science calculations
 105
Index

AC/A ratio, 13 astigmatic surfaces, 74

accommodating intraocular astigmatism, 23, 26
lenses, 25 autorefraction, 61
accommodation, 7 axial length, 6
ACD, See anterior chamber axial power, 44, 45
depth
against motion, 60 Badal lens, 61, 62
against-the-rule astigmatism, Bailey-Lovie chart, 19
42 biconic, 74
age-related macular degen- bifocal spectacles, 25
eration (ARMD), 59, 63 bipolar cells, 3
AK, See astigmatic blue light hazard, 65
keratotomy Bowman’s Membrane, 2
Alvarez Lens, 33 Bradford chromatic
amacrine, 3 adaptation, 72
amblyopia, 30
ametropia, 23 capsule, 7, 63
Amsler grid, 5 cat’s eye position, 35
angle, 46 cataracts, 38
anterior chamber depth center of rotation, 13, 26, 27
(ACD), 6, 7, 38 choroid, 1
anterior corneal radius, 6 chroma, 70, 71
anterior lens radius, 6 chromaticity coordinates, 67,
anterior ROC, 7 68, 69, 70
anterior segment, 46, 90, 91 CIELAB, 71
aphakic, 38 CIELUV, 70
aphakic hazard function, ciliary muscle, 7
65 CK, See conductive
aqueous humor, 1, 6 keratoplasty
argon fluoride (ArF) laser, 37, CMFs, See color matching
63 functions
Arizona Eye Model, 16 color blindness, 73
ARMD, See age-related color difference, 70, 71
macular degeneration color matching functions
aspheric surface, 74 (CMFs), 67
astigmatic decomposition, 31 colorimetry, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
astigmatic keratotomy (AK), 90, 91
37 complementary color, 68
106

Index

conductive keratoplasty (CK), foveola, 5

37 fundamental forms, 75
cones, 4, 8, 12, 73, 92 fundus photography, 58
consensual light reflex, 8
contrast sensitivity, 21 Gabor patches, 21
contrast sensitivity Gaussian curvature, 75
function glaucoma, 59
(CSF), 21, 22 Goldmann projection, 59
cornea, 1, 2, 6, 38 gonioscopy, 46
corneal Ks, 42 gonioscopy lenses, 46
crystalline lens, 1, 6, 7, 9, 15,
16, 24, 25, 34, 37, 38, 39, Helmholtz Theory of
46, 63, 65, 90 Accommodation, 7
crystalline lens power, 6 horizontal cells, 3
crystalline lens thickness, 6 hue, 68, 70, 71
Humphrey lens, 33
dark adaptation, 8 hydrogels (soft lenses), 34
defocus, 17 hyperopia, 23
Descemet’s Membrane, 2
diffractive contact and illuminance, 66
intraocular lenses, 25 indocyanine green, 41
diplopia, 13 infant hazard function, 65
distance visual acuity, 19 inner segment, 4
dominant wavelength, 68 instantaneous power, 45, 90
Donders’ Law, 13 interpupillary distance, 13,
29
emmetropia, 23 intraocular lens (IOL), 9, 25,
endothelium, 2 37, 38
epithelium, 2 intraocular pressure (IOP),
ETDRS chart, 19, 20 46, 57
excitation purity, 68 iris, 1

far point, 17, 24, 57, 60, 61 Jackson crossed cylinder, 32

far-sightedness, 23 Jaeger scores, 20
field of view (FOV), 59, 67
fogging, 61 keratometric index of
FOV, See field of view refraction, 42, 44, 45
fovea, 1 keratometry, 42
fovea centralis, 5 K-values, 42
 107
Index

Landolt C’s, 20 monovision, 25

laser epithelial keratomi- MPE, See maximum
leusis (LASEK), 37 permissible exposure
laser in situ keratomileusis multi-zone refractive contact,
(LASIK), 37 25
laser thermal keratoplasty myopia, 23
(LTK), 37
LCA, 17 near point, 24, 25
Lea Symbols, 20 near reflex, 8
LeGrand full theoretical eye, mear visual acuity, 20
15 near-sightedness, 23
lens paradox, 6 neutrality, 60
lensmaker’s formula, 14
lensmeter, 28 oblique astigmatism, 17
line of sight (LOS), 10, 30, 49, OCT, See optical coherence
59 tomography, 58
Listing’s Law, 13 ocular power, 6
Listing’s Plane, 13 ocular transmission, 9
LMS color space, 73 oculus dexter (OD), 29
LogMAR, 19 oculus sinister (OS), 29
longitudinal chromatic oculus uterque (OU), 29
aberration of the eye, 16 ophthalmoscopy, 57, 58
longitudinal spherical optic disk, 1
aberration (LSA), 16, 17 optic nerve, 1
LOS, See line of sight optic nerve head, 5
LTK, See laser thermal optical axis, 10, 26, 27
keratoplasty optical coherence tomography
luminance, 8, 12, 66 (OCT), 58
luminous flux, 66 optometer principle, 62
luminous intensity, 66 Ostwalt branch, 26
outer nuclear layer, 4
Maddox rod, 32 outer segment, 4
maximum permissible
exposure (MPE), 64 PALs, See progressive
Maxwellian view, 62 addition lenses
mean curvature, 75 pantoscopic tilt, 27
modulation threshold PCO, See posterior capsule
function, 22 opacification
modulation transfer perimetry, 59
108

Index

phakic intraocular lenses retinal ganglion cells, 3

(PIOLs), 37 retinal raytracing, 49
phakometry, 39 retinal reflectance, 9
photoablation, 63 retinoscopy, 60
photochemical hazards, 65 rigid gas permeables (RGPs),
photocoagulation, 63 34
photodisruption, 63 Risley prism, 33
photodynamic therapy, 63 RK, See radial keratotomy
photoreceptors, 3, 4, 11, 12, rods, 4, 8, 12
58, 59 Rosenbaum card, 20
photorefractive keratectomy
(PRK), 37 scanning laser
PIOLs, See phakic intraocular ophthalmoscopy (SLO), 58
lenses Scheimpflug imaging, 46
placido, 43 Scheiner disk, 61
placido disks, 43 Schlemm’s canal, 46
posterior capsule opaci- sclera, 1
fication (PCO), 63 scotomas, 59
posterior corneal radius, 6 selective laser
posterior lens radius, 6 trabeculoplasty, 46, 63
posterior ROC, 7 SEP, See spherical equiva-
Prentice’s Rule, 30 lent power
presbyopia, 25 Shack-Hartmann, 47, 49
prism diopter, 30 slit lamp imaging, 46
PRK, See photorefractive SLO, See scanning laser
keratectomy ophthalmoscopy
progressive addition lenses Snellen acuity, 19
(PALs), 25 Snellen fraction, 19, 21
pseudophakic, 38 sodium fluorescein, 40
pupillary axis, 10 spatially resolved
Purkinje images, 39 refractometry (SRR), 50
Purkinje shift, 12 spectral locus, 68
spherical equivalent power
radial keratotomy (RK), 37 (SEP), 29, 32
radiuscope, 35 SRK formula, 38
refraction from Zernikes, 56 SRR, See spatially resolved
refractor, 60 refractometry
retinal CSF, 22 static perimetry, 59
retina, 1, 3
 109
Index

Stiles-Crawford effect, 11, 92

Stokes lens, 33
strabismus, 30
stroma, 2
subjective refraction, 60

tangent screen, 59
temporal CSF, 22
thermal hazards, 65
thickness, 7
toric, 34, 74
trabecular meshwork, 46
triangulation, 43
tristimulus values, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72
troland, 66
Tscherning aberrometry, 48
Tscherning’s ellipse, 26
Tumbling E’s, 20

vergence, 14
vertex adjustment, 27
vertex distance, 27
visual axis, 10, 13
visual field testing, 59
vitreous humor, 1, 6

wavefront sensing, 47, 51

white point, 32, 68, 69, 70, 71
with motion, 60
with-the-rule astigmatism, 42
Wollaston branch, 26

Zernike polynomials, 51, 53, 54, 55

Zernikes from refraction, 56
zonules of Zinn, 7
 Jim Schwiegerling is an Associate Professor
of Ophthalmology and Optical Sciences at
the University of Arizona. For the past five
years, he has taught a course in visual
optics, introducing engineers to the
functioning of the human eye and
ophthalmic instrumentation. After training
at the University of Rochester and the
University of Arizona, he joined the faculty
of the Ophthalmology Department to bridge
the gap between clinical and applied optics.

Dr. Schwiegerling’s research interests include wavefront

sensing and adaptive optics in the human eye, customized
ophthalmic lenses and procedures, corneal topography,
contact and spectacle lens design, ophthalmic
instrumentation, and improvement of refractive surgery
outcomes.
SPIE Field Guides
John E. Greivenkamp
Series Editor

The aim of each SPIE Field Guide is to distill

a major field of optical science or technology
into a handy desk or briefcase reference that
provides basic, essential information about
optical principles, techniques, or phenomena.

Written for you—the practicing engineer or

scientist—each field guide includes the key
definitions, equations, illustrations, application
examples, design considerations, methods, and
tips that you need in the lab and in the field.

www.spie.org/press/fieldguides

SBN 978 0 8194 5629 8

9 0 0 0 0

9 780819 456298

P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, WA 98227-0010

ISBN-10: 0819456292
ISBN-13: 9780819456298
SPIE Vol. No.: FG04