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Basics of Computers Tutorial

A computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per
user instructions and provides output in desired format. Computers have become an integral
part of our lives because they can accomplish easy tasks repeatedly without getting bored
and complex ones repeatedly without committing errors. In this tutorial we will discuss in
detail about the different parts of computer that enable it to carry out tasks efficiently and
correctly. We will also discuss about microprocessors, the brain of computers, which actually
do all the assigned tasks.

Basics of Computers - Introduction

Being a modern-day kid you must have used, seen, or read about computers. This is because
they are an integral part of our everyday existence. Be it school, banks, shops, railway
stations, hospital or your own home, computers are present everywhere, making our work
easier and faster for us. As they are such integral parts of our lives, we must know what they
are and how they function. Let us start with defining the term computer formally.
The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However, modern computers
can do a lot more than calculate. Computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores
or processes the input as per user instructions and provides output in desired format.

Input-Process-Output Model
Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based on user’s
instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which can be processed using
arithmetic and logical operations to obtain information are called data.

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

• Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition, subtraction,
differentials, square root, etc.
• Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater than, less than,
equal to, opposite, etc.

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The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −

The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

• Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and
instructions to the computer are called input unit.
• Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to provide
information to the user in desired format are called output unit.
• Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the
computer. All devices or parts of computer interact through the control unit.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic
operations and logical operations take place.
• Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are stored in
the memory. Memory is of two types – primary memory and secondary memory.
Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas secondary memory is external to it.
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central processing
unit or CPU. Computer devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that we can see and touch
are the hardware components of a computer. The set of instructions or programs that make
the computer function using these hardware parts are called software. We cannot see or
touch software. Both hardware and software are necessary for working of a computer.

Characteristics of Computer
To understand why computers are such an important part of our lives, let us look at some of
its characteristics −
• Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per second.
• Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may occur
are usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips – all human
errors.
• Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without throwing
up errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common among humans.

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• Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry and ticket
booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous astronomical
observations. If you can input the necessary data with correct instructions, computer
will do the processing.
• Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a fraction of
cost of traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal wear and tear
associated with paper.

Advantages of Using Computer

Now that we know the characteristics of computers, we can see the advantages that
computers offer−
• Computers can do the same task repetitively with same accuracy.
• Computers do not get tired or bored.
• Computers can take up routine tasks while releasing human resource for more
intelligent functions.

Disadvantages of Using Computer

Despite so many advantages, computers have some disadvantages of their own −
• Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions blindly without
considering the outcome.
• Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers work, which could prove
difficult everywhere especially in developing nations.

Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting. Booting takes place
in two steps −

• Switching on power supply

• Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
• Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is switched on is
called BIOS or Basic Input Output System. BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of software
permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting. Rebooting may
be required if a software or hardware has been installed or system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
• Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power supply it is
called cold booting. The next step in cold booting is loading of BIOS.

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• Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be restarted or
rebooted, it is called warm booting. Warm booting is faster than cold booting
because BIOS is not reloaded.

Basics of Computers - Classification

Historically computers were classified according to processor types because development in

processor and processing speeds were the developmental benchmarks. Earliest computers
used vacuum tubes for processing, were huge and broke down frequently. However, as
vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors and then chips, their size decreased and
processing speeds increased manifold.
All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose speeds and
storage capacities are skyrocketing day by day. The developmental benchmark for
computers is now their size. Computers are now classified on the basis of their use or size −

• Desktop
• Laptop
• Tablet
• Server
• Mainframe
• Supercomputer
Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.

Desktop
Desktop computers are personal computers (PCs) designed for use by an individual at a
fixed location. IBM was the first computer to introduce and popularize use of desktops. A
desktop unit typically has a CPU (Central Processing Unit), monitor, keyboard and mouse.
Introduction of desktops popularized use of computers among common people as it was
compact and affordable.

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Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and hardware devices were
developed specially for the home or office user. The foremost design consideration here was
user friendliness.

Laptop
Despite its huge popularity, desktops gave way to a more compact and portable personal
computer called laptop in 2000s. Laptops are also called notebook computers or
simply notebooks. Laptops run using batteries and connect to networks using Wi-Fi
(Wireless Fidelity) chips. They also have chips for energy efficiency so that they can conserve
power whenever possible and have a longer life.

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Modern laptops have enough processing power and storage capacity to be used for all office
work, website designing, software development and even audio/video editing.

Tablet
After laptops computers were further miniaturized to develop machines that have
processing power of a desktop but are small enough to be held in one’s palm. Tablets have
touch sensitive screen of typically 5 to 10 inches where one finger is used to touch icons and
invoke applications.

Keyboard is also displayed virtually whenever required and used with touch strokes.
Applications that run on tablets are called apps. They use operating systems by Microsoft
(Windows 8 and later versions) or Google (Android). Apple computers have developed their
own tablet called iPad which uses a proprietary OS called iOS.

Server
Servers are computers with high processing speeds that provide one or more services to
other systems on the network. They may or may not have screens attached to them. A group
of computers or digital devices connected together to share resources is called a network.

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Servers have high processing powers and can handle multiple requests simultaneously. Most
commonly found servers on networks include −

• File or storage server

• Game server
• Application server
• Database server
• Mail server
• Print server

Mainframe
Mainframes are computers used by organizations like banks, airlines and railways to handle
millions and trillions of online transactions per second. Important features of mainframes
are −

• Big in size
• Hundreds times Faster than servers, typically hundred megabytes per second
• Very expensive

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• Use proprietary OS provided by the manufacturers
• In-built hardware, software and firmware security features

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the fastest computers on Earth. They are used for carrying out complex,
fast and time intensive calculations for scientific and engineering applications.
Supercomputer speed or performance is measured in teraflops, i.e. 1012 floating point
operations per second.

Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s fastest supercomputer with a

rating of 93 petaflops per second, i.e. 93 quadrillion floating point operations per second.
Most common uses of supercomputers include −

• Molecular mapping and research

• Weather forecasting
• Environmental research
• Oil and gas exploration

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Baiscs of Computers - Software Concepts

As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of instructions
that achieve a single outcome are called program or procedure. Many programs functioning
together to do a task make a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create, edit and save
documents. A web browser enables the user to view and share web pages and multimedia
files. There are two categories of software −

• System Software
• Application Software
• Utility Software
Let us discuss them in detail.

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System Software
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other application software
are called system software. System software acts as interface between hardware and user
applications. An interface is needed because hardware devices or machines and humans
speak in different languages.
Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and 1 (presence
of electric signal) while humans speak in English, French, German, Tamil, Hindi and many
other languages. English is the pre-dominant language of interacting with computers.
Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine understandable
instructions. And this is exactly what system software does.
Based on its function, system software is of four types −

• Operating System
• Language Processor
• Device Drivers

Operating System

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System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their
interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is the first
software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is
called booting. OS manages a computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory,
retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.

Language Processor

As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all user

instructions into machine understandable language. When we talk of human machine
interactions, languages are of three types −
• Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s that the
machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
• Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote a
long string of 0s and 1s. For example, the word “READ” can be defined to mean that
computer has to retrieve data from the memory. The complete instruction will also
tell the memory address. Assembly level language is machine dependent.
• High level language − This language uses English like statements and is completely
independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages are easy to
create, read and understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source
code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine
code. System software that converts source code to object code is called language
processor. There are three types of language interpreters−
• Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.
• Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.
• Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go
rather than line by line.

Device Drivers

System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is
called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs
to be attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you
attach a new device, you need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be
managed.

Application Software
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application software.
Application software are very specialized in their function and approach to solving a
problem. So a spreadsheet software can only do operations with numbers and nothing else.

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A hospital management software will manage hospital activities and nothing else. Here are
some commonly used application software −

• Word processing
• Spreadsheet
• Presentation
• Database management
• Multimedia tools

Utility Software
Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called utility
software. Thus utility software is actually a cross between system software and application
software. Examples of utility software include −

• Antivirus software
• Disk management tools
• File management tools
• Compression tools
• Backup tools

Basics of Computers - System S/W

As you know, system software acts as an interface for the underlying hardware system. Here
we will discuss some important system software in detail.

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Operating System
Operating system (OS) is the lifeline of computer. You connect all the basic devices like CPU,
monitor, keyboard and mouse; plug in the power supply and switch it on thinking you have
everything in place. But the computer will not start or come to life unless it has an operating
system installed in it because OS −

• Keeps all hardware parts in a state of readiness to follow user instructions

• Co-ordinates between different devices
• Schedules multiple tasks as per priority
• Allocates resource to each task
• Enables computer to access network
• Enables users to access and use application software
Besides initial booting, these are some of the functions of an operating system −

• Managing computer resources like hardware, software, shared resource s, etc.

• Allocating resources
• Prevent error during software use
• Control improper use of computer
One of the earliest operating systems was MS-DOS, developed by Microsoft for IBM PC. It
was a Command Line Interface (CLI) OS that revolutionized the PC market. DOS was difficult
to use because of its interface. The users needed to remember instructions to do their tasks.
To make computers more accessible and user-friendly, Microsoft developed Graphical User

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Interface (GUI) based OS called Windows, which transformed the way people used
computers.

Assembler
Assembler is a system software that converts assembly level programs to machine level
code.

These are the advantages provided by assembly level programming −

• Increases efficiency of the programmer as remembering mnemonics is easier

• Productivity increases as number of errors decreases and hence debugging time
• Programmer has access to hardware resources and hence has flexibility in writing programs
customized to the specific computer

Interpreter
The major advantage of assembly level language was its ability to optimize memory usage
and hardware utilization. However, with technological advancements computers had more
memory and better hardware components. So ease of writing programs became more
important than optimizing memory and other hardware resources.
In addition, a need was felt to take programming out of a handful of trained scientists and
computer programmers, so that computers could be used in more areas. This led to
development of high level languages that were easy to understand due to resemblance of
commands to English language.
The system software used to translate high level language source code into machine level
language object code line by line is called an interpreter. An interpreter takes each line of
code and converts it into machine code and stores it into the object file.
The advantage of using an interpreter is that they are very easy to write and they do not
require a large memory space. However, there is a major disadvantage in using interpreters,
i.e., interpreted programs take a long time in executing. To overcome this disadvantage,
especially for large programs, compilers were developed.

Compiler
System software that store the complete program, scan it, translate the complete program
into object code and then creates an executable code is called a compiler. On the face of it
compilers compare unfavorably with interpreters because they −

• are more complex than interpreters

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• need more memory space
• take more time in compiling source code
However, compiled programs execute very fast on computers. The following image shows
the step-by-step process of how a source code is transformed into an executable code −

These are the steps in compiling source code into executable code −
• Pre-processing − In this stage pre-processor instructions, typically used by languages
like C and C++ are interpreted, i.e. converted to assembly level language.
• Lexical analysis − Here all instructions are converted to lexical units like constants,
variables, arithmetic symbols, etc.
• Parsing − Here all instructions are checked to see if they conform to grammar rules of
the language. If there are errors, compiler will ask you to fix them before you can
proceed.
• Compiling − At this stage the source code is converted into object code.
• Linking − If there are any links to external files or libraries, addresses of their
executable will be added to the program. Also, if the code needs to be rearranged for

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actual execution, they will be rearranged. The final output is the executable
code that is ready to be executed.

Basics of Computers - Functions of OS

As you know, operating system is responsible for functioning of the computer system. To do
that it carries out these three broad categories of activities −
• Essential functions − Ensures optimum and effective utilization of resources
• Monitoring functions − Monitors and collects information related to system
performance
• Service functions − Provides services to users
Let us look at some of the most important functions associated with these activities.

Processor management
Managing a computer’s CPU to ensure its optimum utilization is called processor
management. Managing processor basically involves allocating processor time to the tasks
that need to be completed. This is called job scheduling. Jobs must be scheduled in such a
way that −

• There is maximum utilization of CPU

• Turnaround time, i.e. time required to complete each job, is minimum
• Waiting time is minimum
• Each job gets the fastest possible response time
• Maximum throughput is achieved, where throughput is the average time taken to complete
each task
There are two methods of job scheduling done by operating systems −

• Preemptive scheduling
• Non-Preemptive scheduling

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Preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling, next job to be done by the processor can be scheduled before the
current job completes. If a job of higher priority comes up, the processor can be forced to
release the current job and take up the next job. There are two scheduling techniques that
use pre-emptive scheduling −
• Round robin scheduling − A small unit of time called time slice is defined and each
program gets only one time slice at a time. If it is not completed during that time, it
must join the job queue at the end and wait till all programs have got one time slice.
The advantage here is that all programs get equal opportunity. The downside is that
if a program completes execution before the time slice is over, CPU is idle for the rest
of the duration.
• Response ratio scheduling − Response ratio is defined as
$$\frac{Elapsed \: Time}{Execution \: time \: received}$$
A job with shorter response time gets higher priority. So a larger program may have
to wait even if it was requested earlier than the shorter program. This improves
throughput of the CPU.

Non-preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling, job scheduling decisions are taken only after the current job
completes. A job is never interrupted to give precedence to higher priority jobs. Scheduling
techniques that use non-preemptive scheduling are −
• First come first serve scheduling − This is the simplest technique where the first
program to throw up a request is completed first.
• Shortest job next scheduling − Here the job that needs least amount of time for
execution is scheduled next.
• Deadline scheduling − The job with the earliest deadline is scheduled for execution
next.

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Memory Management
Process of regulating computer memory and using optimization techniques to enhance
overall system performance is called memory management. Memory space is very
important in modern computing environment, so memory management is an important role
of operating systems.
As you know, computers have two types of memory – primary and secondary. Primary
memory is fast but expensive and secondary memory is cheap but slower. OS has to strike
a balance between the two to ensure that system performance is not hurt due to very less
primary memory or system costs do not shoot up due to too much primary memory.
Input and output data, user instructions and data interim to program execution need to be
stored, accessed and retrieved efficiently for high system performance. Once a program
request is accepted, OS allocates it primary and secondary storage areas as per requirement.
Once execution is completed, the memory space allocated to it is freed. OS uses many
storage management techniques to keep a track of all storage spaces that are allocated or
free.

Contiguous Storage Allocation

This is the simplest storage space allocation technique where contiguous memory locations
are assigned to each program. OS has to estimate the amount of memory required for the
complete process before allocation.

Non-contiguous Storage Allocation

As the name suggests, program and associated data need not be stored in contiguous
locations. The program is divided into smaller components and each component is stored in
a separate location. A table keeps a record of where each component of the program is
stored. When the processor needs to access any component, OS provides access using this
allocation table.
In a real-life scenario primary memory space might not be sufficient to store the whole
program. In that case, OS takes the help of Virtual Storage technique, where program is
physically stored in secondary memory but appears to be stored in primary memory. This
introduces a miniscule time lag in accessing the program components. There are two
approaches to virtual storages −
• Program paging − A program is broken down into fixed size page and stored in the
secondary memory. The pages are given logical address or virtual address from 0 to
n. A page table maps the logical addresses to the physical addresses, which is used
to retrieve the pages when required.
• Program segmentation − A program is broken down into logical units
called segments, assigned logical address from 0 to n and stored in secondary
memory. A segment table is used to load segments from secondary memory to
primary memory.

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Operating systems typically use a combination of page and program segmentation to
optimize memory usage. A large program segment may be broken into pages or more than
one small segments may be stored as a single page.

File Management
Data and information is stored on computers in form of files. Managing file system to enable
users to keep their data safely and correctly is an important function of operating systems.
Managing file systems by OS is called file management. File management is required to
provide tools for these file related activities −

• Creating new files for storing data

• Updating
• Sharing
• Securing data through passwords and encryption
• Recovery in case of system failure

Device Management
The process of implementation, operation and maintenance of a device by operating system
is called device management. Operating system uses a utility software called device
driver as interface to the device.
When many processes access the devices or request access to the devices, the OS manages
the devices in a way that efficiently shares the devices among all processes. Processes access
devices through system call interface, a programming interface provided by the OS.

Basics of Computers - Types of OS

As computers and computing technologies have evolved over the years, so have their usage
across many fields. To meet growing requirements more and more customized software
have flooded the market. As every software needs operating system to function, operating
systems have also evolved over the years to meet growing demand on their techniques and
capabilities. Here we discuss some common types of OS based on their working techniques
and some popularly used OS as well.

GUI OS
GUI is the acronym for Graphical User Interface. An operating system that presents an
interface comprising graphics and icons is called a GUI OS. GUI OS is very easy to navigate
and use as users need not remember commands to be given to accomplish each task.
Examples of GUI OS includes Windows, macOS, Ubuntu, etc.

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Time Sharing OS
Operating systems that schedule tasks for efficient processor use are called time sharing OS.
Time sharing, or multitasking, is used by operating systems when multiple users located at
different terminals need processor time to complete their tasks. Many scheduling
techniques like round robin scheduling and shortest job next scheduling are used by time
sharing OS.

Real Time OS
An operating system that guarantees to process live events or data and deliver the results
within a stipulated span of time is called a real time OS. It may be single tasking or
multitasking.

Distributed OS
An operating system that manages many computers but presents an interface of single
computer to the user is called distributed OS. Such type of OS is required when
computational requirements cannot be met by a single computer and more systems have to
be used. User interaction is restricted to a single system; it’s the OS that distributed work to
multiple systems and then presents the consolidated output as if one computer has worked
on the problem at hand.

Popular Operating Systems

Initially computers had no operating systems. Every program needed full hardware
specifications to run correctly as processor, memory and device management had to be done
by the programs themselves. However, as sophisticated hardware and more complex
application programs developed, operating systems became essential. As personal
computers became popular among individuals and small businesses, demand for standard
operating system grew. Let us look at some of the currently popular operating systems −
• Windows − Windows is a GUI operating system first developed by Microsoft in 1985.
The latest version of Windows is Windows 10. Windows is used by almost 88% of PCs
and laptops globally.
• Linux − Linux is an open source operating system mostly used by mainframes an
supercomputers. Being open source means that its code is available for free and
anyone can develop a new OS based on it.
• BOSS − Bharat Operating System Solutions is an Indian distribution of Linux based on
Debian, an OS. It is localized to enable use of local Indian languages. BOSS consists of
−
o Linux kernel
o Office application suite BharteeyaOO
o Web browser
o Email service Thunderbird
o Chat application Pidgim
o File sharing applications

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o Multimedia applications

Mobile OS
An operating system for smartphones, tablets and other mobile devices is called mobile OS.
Some of the most popular OS for mobile devices includes−
• Android − This Linux-based OS by Google is the most popular mobile OS currently.
Almost 85% of mobile devices use it.
• Windows Phone 7 − It is the latest mobile OS developed by Microsoft.
• Apple iOS − This mobile OS is an OS developed by Apple exclusively for its own mobile
devices like iPhone, iPad, etc.
• Blackberry OS − This is the OS used by all blackberry mobile devices like smartphones
and playbooks.

Basics of Computers - Utility Software

Application software that assist OS in carrying out certain specialized tasks are called utility
software. Let us look some of the most popular utility software.

Antivirus
A virus can be defined as a malicious program that attaches itself to a host program and
makes multiple copies of itself, slowing down, corrupting or destroying the system. A
software that assists the OS in providing virus free environment to the users is
called antivirus. An anti-virus scans the system for any virus and if detected, gets rid of it by
deleting or isolating it. It can detect many types of virus like boot virus, Trojan, worm,
spyware, etc.
When any external storage device like USB drive is attached to the system, anti-virus
software scans it and gives an alert if a virus is detected. You can set up your system for
periodic scans or scan whenever you feel the need. A combination of both the techniques is
advisable to keep your system virus free.

File management tools

As you know, file management is an important function of operating systems as all data and
instructions are stored in the computer in form of files. Utility software providing regular file
management tasks like browse, search, update, preview, etc. are called file management
tools. Windows Explorer in Windows OS, Google desktop, Directory Opus, Double
Commander, etc. are examples of such tools.

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Compression tools
Storage space is always at a premium in computer systems. So operating systems are always
looking at ways to minimize amount of storage space taken by files. Compression tools are
utilities that assist operating systems in shortening files so that they take less space. After
compression files are stored in a different format and cannot be read or edited directly. It
needs to be uncompressed before it can be accessed for further use. Some of the popular
compression tools are WinRAR, PeaZip, The Unarchiver, etc.

Disk Cleanup
Disk cleanup tools assist users in freeing up disk space. The software scans hard disks to find
files that are no longer used and frees up space by deleting them.

Disk Defragmenter
Disk defragmenter is a disk management utility that increases file access speeds by
rearranging fragmented files on contiguous locations. Large files are broken down into
fragments and may be stores in non-contiguous locations if contiguous ones are not
available. When such files are accessed by the user, access speed is slow due to
fragmentation. Disk defragmenter utility scans the hard disk and tries to assemble file
fragments so that they may be stored in contiguous locations.

Backup
Backup utility enables backing up of files, folders, databases or complete disks. Backups are
taken so that data may be restored in case of data loss. Backup is a service provided by all
operating systems. In stand-alone systems backup may be taken in the same or different
drive. In case of networked systems backup may be done on backup servers.

Basics of Computers - Open Source Software

A software whose source code is freely distributed with a license to study, change and
further distributed to anyone for any purpose is called open source software. Open source
software is generally a team effort where dedicated programmers improve upon the source
code and share the changes within the community. Open source software provides these
advantages to the users due to its thriving communities −

• Security
• Affordability
• Transparent

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• Interoperable on multiple platforms
• Flexible due to customizations
• Localization is possible

Freeware
A software that is available free of cost for use and distribution but cannot be modified as its
source code is not available is called freeware. Examples of freeware are Google Chrome,
Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, Skype, etc.

Shareware
A software that is initially free and can be distributed to others as well, but needs to be paid
for after a stipulated period of time is called shareware. Its source code is also not available
and hence cannot be modified.

Proprietary Software
Software that can be used only by obtaining license from its developer after paying for it is
called proprietary software. An individual or a company can own such proprietary software.
Its source code is often closely guarded secret and it can have major restrictions like −

• No further distribution
• Number of users that can use it
• Type of computer it can be installed on, example multitasking or single user, etc.
For example, Microsoft Windows is a proprietary operating software that comes in many
editions for different types of clients like single-user, multi-user, professional, etc.

Basics of Computers - Office Tools

Application software that assist users in regular office jobs like creating, updating and
maintaining documents, handling large amounts of data, creating presentations, scheduling,
etc. are called office tools. Using office tools saves time and effort and lots of repetitive tasks
can be done easily. Some of the software that do this are −

• Word processors
• Spreadsheets
• Database systems
• Presentation software
• E-mail tools

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Let us look at some of these in detail.

Word Processor
A software for creating, storing and manipulating text documents is called word processor.
Some common word processors are MS-Word, WordPad, WordPerfect, Google docs, etc.

A word processor allows you to −

• Create, save and edit documents

• Format text properties like font, alignment, font color, background color, etc.
• Check spelling and grammar
• Add images
• Add header and footer, set page margins and insert watermarks

Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet is a software that assists users in processing and analyzing tabular data. It is a
computerized accounting tool. Data is always entered in a cell (intersection of a row and
a column) and formulas and functions to process a group of cells is easily available. Some of
the popular spreadsheet software include MS-Excel, Gnumeric, Google Sheets, etc. Here is a
list of activities that can be done within a spreadsheet software −

• Simple calculations like addition, average, counting, etc.

• Preparing charts and graphs on a group of related data
• Data entry
• Data formatting
• Cell formatting
• Calculations based on logical comparisons

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Presentation Tool
Presentation tool enables user to demonstrate information broken down into small chunks
and arranged on pages called slides. A series of slides that present a coherent idea to an
audience is called a presentation. The slides can have text, images, tables, audio, video or
other multimedia information arranged on them. MS-PowerPoint, OpenOffice Impress,
Lotus Freelance, etc. are some popular presentation tools.

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Database Management System
Software that manages storage, updating and retrieval of data by creating databases is
called database management system. Some popular database management tools are MS-
Access, MySQL, Oracle, FoxPro, etc.

Basics of Computers - Domain Specific Tools

Depending on its usage, software may be generic or specific. Generic software is a software
that can perform multiple tasks in different scenarios without being modified. For example,
a word processor software can be used by anyone to create different types of documents
like report, whitepaper, training material, etc. Specific software is a software for a particular
application, like railway reservation system, weather forecasting, etc. Let us look at some
examples of domain specific tools.

School Management System

School management system handles the diverse activities of a school like examination,
attendance, admission, students’ fees, time table, teachers’ training, etc.

Inventory Management
Managing multiple activities like purchase, sales, order, delivery, stock maintenance, etc.
associated with raw or processed goods in any business is called inventory management. The

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inventory management software ensures that stocks are never below specified limits and
purchase/deliveries are done in time.

Payroll Software
Payroll software handles complete salary calculations of employees, taking care of leave,
bonus, loans, etc. Payroll software is usually a component of HR (human resource)
management software in mid-sized to big organizations.

Financial Accounting
Financial management software keeps an electronic record of all financial transactions of the
organization. It has many functional heads like account receivables, accounts payable, loans,
payroll, etc.

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Restaurant Management
Restaurant management software helps restaurant managers in keeping track of inventory
levels, daily orders, customer management, employee scheduling, table bookings, etc.

Railway Reservation System

Railway reservation system is a software that handles multiple modules like train routes,
train management, seat booking, food booking, train maintenance, train status, travel
packages, etc.

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Weather Forecasting System

Weather forecasting system is a real-time software that predicts weather of a place by
collecting copious amount of live data about atmospheric temperature, humidity, wind level,
etc. It is used to predict major disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc.

Basics of Computers - Number System

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The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system. Decimal
number system is the most common number system. Other popular number systems
include binary number system, octal number system, hexadecimal number system, etc.

Decimal Number System

Decimal number system is a base 10 number system having 10 digits from 0 to 9. This means
that any numerical quantity can be represented using these 10 digits. Decimal number
system is also a positional value system. This means that the value of digits will depend on
its position. Let us take an example to understand this.
Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value of 7 in all three numbers is
different−

• In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 102

• In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 101
• In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 100
The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

In digital systems, instructions are given through electric signals; variation is done by varying
the voltage of the signal. Having 10 different voltages to implement decimal number system
in digital equipment is difficult. So, many number systems that are easier to implement
digitally have been developed. Let’s look at them in detail.

Binary Number System

The easiest way to vary instructions through electric signals is two-state system – on and off.
On is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is not actually no signal but signal at a lower
voltage. The number system having just these two digits – 0 and 1 – is called binary number
system.
Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary number system is also positional value system,
where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as displayed here.

In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit (LSB) and leftmost
digit is called most significant bit (MSB).

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And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its positional
value.
110102 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610
Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here is a chart for
memory capacity conversion.

• 1 byte (B) = 8 bits

• 1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes
• 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
• 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
• 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
• 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
• 1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB
• 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB

Octal Number System

Octal number system has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Octal number system is also
a positional value system with where each digit has its value expressed in powers of 8, as
shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of each digit with its positional
value.
7268 = 7×82 + 2×81 + 6×80
= 448 + 16 + 6
= 47010

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Hexadecimal Number System
Octal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F where A is equal to 10, B is equal to
11 and so on till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a positional value system with where
each digit has its value expressed in powers of 16, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each digit with its
positional value.
27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160
= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10
= 1023410

Number System Relationship

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal
number systems.

HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL OCTAL BINARY

0 0 0 0000

1 1 1 0001

2 2 2 0010

3 3 3 0011

4 4 4 0100

5 5 5 0101

6 6 6 0110

7 7 7 0111

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8 8 10 1000

9 9 11 1001

A 10 12 1010

B 11 13 1011

C 12 14 1100

D 13 15 1101

E 14 16 1110

F 15 17 1111

ASCII
Besides numerical data, computer must be able to handle alphabets, punctuation marks,
mathematical operators, special symbols, etc. that form the complete character set of
English language. The complete set of characters or symbols are called alphanumeric codes.
The complete alphanumeric code typically includes −

• 26 upper case letters

• 26 lower case letters
• 10 digits
• 7 punctuation marks
• 20 to 40 special characters
Now a computer understands only numeric values, whatever the number system used. So
all characters must have a numeric equivalent called the alphanumeric code. The most
widely used alphanumeric code is American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII). ASCII is a 7-bit code that has 128 (27) possible codes.

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ISCII
ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange. IISCII was developed to
support Indian languages on computer. Language supported by IISCI include Devanagari,
Tamil, Bangla, Gujarati, Gurmukhi, Tamil, Telugu, etc. IISCI is mostly used by government
departments and before it could catch on, a new universal encoding standard
called Unicode was introduced.

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Unicode
Unicode is an international coding system designed to be used with different language
scripts. Each character or symbol is assigned a unique numeric value, largely within the
framework of ASCII. Earlier, each script had its own encoding system, which could conflict
with each other.
In contrast, this is what Unicode officially aims to do − Unicode provides a unique number for
every character, no matter what the platform, no matter what the program, no matter what
the language.

Number System Conversion

As you know decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems are positional value
number systems. To convert binary, octal and hexadecimal to decimal number, we just need
to add the product of each digit with its positional value. Here we are going to learn other
conversion among these number systems.

Decimal to Binary
Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the number by 2 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

The remainders are to be read from bottom to top to obtain the binary equivalent.
4310 = 1010112

Decimal to Octal
Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 8 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

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Reading the remainders from bottom to top,

47310 = 7318

Decimal to Hexadecimal
Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 16 while
recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.

Reading the remainders from bottom to top we get,

42310 = 1A716

Binary to Octal and Vice Versa

To convert a binary number to octal number, these steps are followed −
• Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of three bits.
• If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after the most
significant bit
• Convert each group into its equivalent octal number
Let’s take an example to understand this.

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101100101012 = 26258
To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit binary
equivalent according to this table.

Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary Equivalent 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

546738 = 1011001101110112

Binary to Hexadecimal
To convert a binary number to hexadecimal number, these steps are followed −
• Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of four bits.
• If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after the most
significant bit.
• Convert each group into its equivalent octal number.
Let’s take an example to understand this.

101101101012 = DB516
To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit binary
equivalent.

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