JOHN B. LACSON COLLEGES FOUNDATION (BACOLOD), INC.

BASIC EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

DepEd ID No. 403019

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

LEARNING MODULE
EARTH SCIENCE

Name: ______________________________________

Strand, Year & Section: ______________________________________

Contact Number: ______________________________________

Email: ______________________________________

Teacher: ______________________________________

Semester, School Year: ______________________________________

Prepared by:
RYAN GABRIEL A. UBAS, LPT
 Welcome to the class of Earth Science!

This learning area is designed to provide a general background for the understanding of the Earth
on a planetary scale. It presents the history of the Earth through geologic time. It discusses the Earth’s
structure and composition, the processes that occur beneath and on the Earth’s surface, as well as issues,
concerns, and problems pertaining to Earth’s resources. This modules is divided into four major parts.

I. Origin and Structure of the Earth

a. The Universe and Solar System
b. Earth Systems
II. Earth Materials and Resources
a. Minerals and Rocks
b. Mineral Resources
c. Energy Resources
d. Water Resources
e. Soil Resources
f. Human Activity and the Environment
III. Earth Processes
a. Exogenic Processes
b. Endogenic Processes
c. Deformation of the Crust
d. Plate Tectonics
IV. History of the Earth
a. Major Events in the Earth’s Crust

QUARTER 1
Lesson 1: Origin and Structure of the Universe
LC 1. describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the Universe;
LC 2. compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar System;

Lesson 2: Earth’s Characteristics

LC 3. describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life; and
LC 4. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and
energy flow.

Lesson 3: Rocks and Minerals

LC 1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties;
LC 2. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic;
LC 3. identify the minerals important to society;

Lesson 4: Mineral Resources

LC 4. describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use;
LC 5. cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation,
extraction, and use of mineral resources;

Lesson 5: Energy Resources

LC 6. describe how fossil fuels are formed;
LC 7. explain how heat from inside the Earth is tapped as a source of energy (geothermal) for
human use;
LC 8. explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing water;
LC 9. cite ways to address the different environmental concerns related to the use of fossil fuels,
geothermal energy, and hydroelectric energy;
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 Lesson 6: Water Resources
LC 10. recognize how water is distributed on Earth;
LC 11. Identify the various water resources on Earth;
LC 12. explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human use;
LC 13. suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources;

Lesson 7: Soil Resources

LC 14. identify human activities, such as farming, construction of structures, and waste disposal,
that affect the quality and quantity of soil;
LC 15. give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations;

Lesson 8: Human Activity and the Environment

LC 16. describe how people generate different types of waste (solid, liquid, and gaseous) as they
make use of various materials and resources in everyday life;
LC 17. explain how different types of waste affect people’s health and the environment; and
LC 18. cite ways of reducing the production of waste at home, in school, and around the
community.

QUARTER 2
Lesson 9: Exogenic Processes
LC 1. describe how rocks undergo weathering;
LC 2. explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited elsewhere;
LC 3. explain how rocks and soil move down slope due to the direct action of gravity;

Lesson 10: Endogenic Processes

LC 4. explain why the Earth’s interior is hot;
LC 5. describe how magma is formed;
LC 6. describe what happens after magma is formed;

Lesson 11: Metamorphism and Tectonic Stress

LC 7. describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in pressure
and temperature (metamorphism);
LC 8. describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression, pulling apart,
and shearing

Lesson 12: Layers of the Earth

LC 9. identify the layers of the Earth;
LC 10. differentiate the layers of the Earth from each other;

Lesson 13: Continental Drift Theory

LC 11. describe the continental drift theory;
LC 12. discuss evidence that support continental drift;

Lesson 14: Seafloor Spreading

LC 13. explain how the seafloor spreads;
LC 14. describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins; and
LC 15. explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds, faults, trenches,
volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain ranges.

Lesson 15: Geologic Time Scale

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LC 1. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed;
LC 2. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) of determining the age of
stratified rocks;
LC 3. explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic
time;
LC 4. describe how index fossils (also known as guide fossils) are used to define and identify
subdivisions of the geologic time scale; and

Lesson 16: Evolution of Earth

LC 5. describe the history of the Earth through geologic time.

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 Lesson 1
Origin and Structure of the Universe

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe the historical development of theories that explain the origin of the Universe;
2. compare the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the Solar System;

Performance Standards
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. make a concept map and use it to explain how the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere are interconnected

Definition of Terms
 Primordial - existing at or from the beginning of time
 Epoch - refer to a distinct and important period of history, or an event that marks such a period
 Planetesimals were miniature planets. When the nebula coalesced to form lumps of denser mass,
they became large balls of solid material. These were the first tiny planets called planetesimals.
Under the influence of gravity, they grew larger through accretion until they reached the size that
they have today.
 Frost line, the demarcation line between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where it is cool enough for
volatile icy compounds to stay solid
 Protostar - a contracting mass of gas which represents an early stage in the formation of a star
 Nebula - a cloud of gas, dust, and icy particles

What Do You Already Know?

Instructions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Refer to the choices below. Write the letter of your
answer on the space provided before each number. (1 point each)
A. Big Bang Theory B. Steady State Theory C. Oscillating Theory
____1. Which theory holds that the universe is eternal, constant, homogeneous and isotropic?
____2. Which theory posits that the universe arose from the explosion of a primeval matter?
____3. Which theory proposes that the universe undergoes an endless cycle of evolution?
____4. Which theory renders the Big Bang event as just one of a series of such big bangs?
____5. Which theory is debunked by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation?

What Do You Need to Know?

Steady State Theory

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 This theory was developed in 1948 by
Fred Hoyle, Herman Bondi, and Thomas Gold
as an alternative to the Big Bang to explain the
origin and expansion of the Universe. Steady-
state theory was a theory proposed in 20th-
century cosmology to explain evidence that
the universe was expanding but still retain the
core idea that the universe always looks the
same, and is therefore unchanging in practice
and has no beginning and no end (eternal).
This idea has largely been discredited due to
astronomical evidence that suggests the
universe is, in fact, changing over time.

The universe is thus infinite, constant,

homogeneous and isotrophic.

The SST is based on the so-called Perfect Cosmological Principle which holds that the universe is
homogenous and isotrophic.
 Homogenous-has uniform distribution of matter throughout space.
 Isotrophic-has a uniform distribution of matter viewed from any direction.

Big Bang Theory

This idea was first proposed by a Belgian priest Georges Lemaitre who claimed the universe may
have begun from a primordial atom, which he described as the “cosmic egg”. This primordial atom was a
singularity, a tiny speck of substance under tremendous pressure, temperature, and density. Imagine all
matter of the universe contained in a speck of dust, this is the fitting analogy for the primordial cosmic egg.

Two discoveries subsequently boosted this proposition:

1. Uniform Expansion of the Universe. The first was Edwin Hubble’s observation that galaxies are
speeding away from us at an increasing velocity. If galaxies are speeding away, then by playing
back this movement, we are led to conclude they started from a common point of origin.

2. Redshift. The second proof was the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1964. Some 380,000 after the initial quick inflation of the
universe, light burst into space. That light is still with us today, but after nearly 14 billion years of
speeding in space, its wavelength has stretched to the length of microwaves. The continued
expansion of the universe has the effect of elongating light’s wavelength. This phenomenon is
called red shifting.
Clarification about Big Bang Theory
1. There was no explosion in Big Bang Theory.
Because the theory had been named as such, most people imagine that a gigantic explosion
accompanied the birth of the universe. But how can that be? An explosion is a combustion reaction
requiring a combustible material and an oxidizing agent. The key word in oxidizing agent is
oxygen. How can there be an explosion during the birth of our universe when oxygen was still
absent in the universe. Oxygen was made in the stars, and stars came to form only after some one
billion years after big bang.

No gigantic explosion accompanied the birth of our universe. The singularity proposed by
the theory expanded in size and volume to a size which is difficult to imagine. It grew to 1070 times
its size in 0.00000000000000000000000000000001 second without fire, without explosion.

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 2. The theory gives no explanation where and how the singularity came to be.
Where did the “cosmic egg” come from? What happened before its appearance? Big Bang
is silent on these issues. The question about what happened before the singularity does not even fit
into the theory, because time itself began with big bang. Within fraction of a second after the initial
inflation, time and space simultaneously came into being. Therefore, there was no “before” in the
first big bang, because time has not yet come into being.

3. There is proof for Big Bang Theory

Some people believe that just because it is only a theory (something like a sophisticated
guess), it means that there is no compelling proof to support the universe did indeed began in the
manner proposed by the theory.
Yes, it was theory, but it was not just a sophisticated guess. It was once a hypothesis but
one which succeeded to obtain firming because of two supporting proofs. These are the red shifting
of light coming from distant galaxies and the discovery of CMBR.

Timeline of events during Big Bang

 Singularity Epoch. Also known as the Planck Epoch (or Planck Era), this was the earliest known
period of the Universe. At this time, all matter was condensed on a single point of infinite density
and extreme heat.
 Inflation Epoch. When the universe was very young — something like a hundredth of a billionth
of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second — it underwent an incredible growth spurt. During this
burst of expansion, which is known as inflation, the universe grew exponentially and doubled in
size at least 90 times.
 Cooling Epoch. After inflation, the universe continued to grow, but at a slower rate. As space
expanded, the universe cooled and matter formed. Decrease in density and temperature continues
 Creation of Light Chemical Elements. Hydrogen and helium were created within the first three
minutes of the universe's formation. As the universe expanded, temperatures cooled and protons
and neutrons collided to make deuterium, which is an isotope of hydrogen. Much of this deuterium
combined to make helium. For the first 380,000 years after the Big Bang, however, the intense
heat from the universe's creation made it essentially too hot for light to shine. Atoms crashed
together with enough force to break up into a dense, opaque plasma of protons, neutrons and
electrons that scattered light like fog.
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  Recombination. About 380,000 years after the Big Bang, matter cooled enough for electrons to
combine with nuclei to form neutral atoms and the absorption of free electrons caused the universe
to become transparent. The light that was unleashed at this time is detectable today in the form of
radiation from the cosmic microwave background. Yet, the era of recombination was followed by
a period of darkness (Dark Ages) before stars and other bright objects were formed.
 Re-ionization. Roughly 400 million years after the Big Bang, the universe began to come out of
its dark ages. During this time, clumps of gas collapsed enough to form the very first stars and
galaxies. The emitted ultraviolet light from these energetic events cleared out and destroyed most
of the surrounding neutral hydrogen gas. The process of re-ionization, plus the clearing of foggy
hydrogen gas, caused the universe to become transparent to ultraviolet light for the first time.
 Structure Epoch. Over the course of the several billion years that followed, the slightly denser
regions of the almost uniformly distributed matter of the Universe began to become gravitationally
attracted to each other. They therefore grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and
the other astronomical structures that we regularly observe today.

Scientists involved in the development of BBT

 Alexander Friedmann (1922) - known for his pioneering theory that the universe was expanding,
governed by a set of equations he developed now known as the Friedmann equations.
 Edwin Hubble – he discovered that the universe was bigger than earlier thought. Previously, it
was thought that the whole universe consisted entirely of Milky Way Galaxy. He also proved that
the universe is expanding.
 Fr. George Lemaitre – considered as the Father of the Big Bang Theory. He proposed that the
universe started from the explosion of a single particle, a “primeval atom”, sometime in the distant
past. He argued that the universe is expanding now.
 Saul Perlmutter, Adam Reiss, and Brian Schmidt (2011) – they discovered that the universe is
not only expanding but the expansion is speeding up or accelerating.

Oscillating Theory

Aka, Cyclic Universe Theory & Pulsating Theory

This theory holds that the universe goes
through “repeating cycle of evolution.” Every cycle
begins with a Big Bang and ends in a Big Crunch.
Oscillating means forward and backwards motion or
expansion (Big Bang) and contraction (Big Crunch) of
the Universe.
The theory describes a universe exploding
into existence not just once, but repeatedly over time.
The theory could potentially explain why a repulsive
form of energy known as the cosmological constant,
which is accelerating the expansion of the universe, is several orders of magnitude smaller than predicted
by the standard Big Bang model.

Proponents:
 Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok (2001) - describes a universe exploding into existence not just once,
but repeatedly over time.
 Roger Penrose (2010) - as developed a rival theory known as “conformal cyclic cosmology” (CCC)
which posits that the universe became uniform before, rather than after, the Big Bang. The idea is
that the universe cycles from one aeon to the next, each time starting out infinitely small and ultra-
smooth before expanding.

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 Theory Definition Proponents
Universe is the same at any time and at
Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi,
any place in space. It has no beginning or
Steady State Theory Thomas Gold, Albert Einstein
end. Matter is continually being created to
(1948)
keep the universe`s density constant
Universe started from a singularity of
Georges Lamaitre (1927),
Big Bang Theory extreme density and temperature which
Alexander Freidmann (1922)
rapidly expanded in volume.
Pulsating Theory (also Universe undergoes a cycle of inflation
Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok
called oscillating or and contraction and would inflate again
(2001), Roger Penrose (2010)
cyclic model) like it did at the start of the Big Bang

THEORY ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Nebular Theory
Watch the video on Nebular Theory found on this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IRZYMimUET8

The nebular theory is an explanation for the formation of

solar systems. The word “nebula” is Latin for “cloud,” and
according to the explanation, stars are born from clouds of
interstellar gas and dust.

The formation of the solar system began with a large

spherical cloud of 70% hydrogen and 28 % helium gases, cosmic
dust and the rest are trace elements of carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen. some 4.6 billion years ago. This cloud is called nebula, a
Latin word which means cloud.

A powerful cosmic event agitated the nebula, and

scientists speculate this event to be a supernova. The shock wave
and tiny debris thrown out by a supernova seeded the nebula with
additional matter, creating dense regions within the nebula itself.
Through the force of gravity, dense regions began to collapse into
themselves. Gases gathered around them, and with increasing
mass, they sucked in more gases and dust. As more clouds were
pulled towards an emerging center of the nebula, the cloud began
to Spin faster to conserve angular momentum.

At the center of the nebula, atoms collided with increasing

frequency, converting their kinetic energy into heat. The center
became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disk. For over
100,000 years the combined effect of gravity, pressure, magnetic field, extreme temperature, and rotation
caused the nebula to flatten into a swirling disk, forming a protostar.

For the next 50 million years, pressure and temperature build up at the core of the protostar, until
finally it reached a critical point when nuclear fusion took place which gave birth of a true star, our Sun.
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 The burst of radiant energy flew outwards from the Sun, sweeping gaseous materials towards the
further regions of an emerging solar system.

Within four astronomical unit (au) from the Sun is the inner solar system. This region was too hot
for volatile molecules, like water and methane, to condense. As a consequence, it came to be occupied by
planetesimals formed from substances with high melting points. These were nickel, iron, aluminum, and
rocky silicates.

Through the process of accretion, lumps of planetesimals coalesced to form the Terrestrial planets
(Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars). Gas planets, on the other hand, (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) formed
further out beyond the frost line. The planets within a critical distance, where temperatures are warmer, are
rocky, while those beyond the critical distance have solid cores and thick, gaseous atmospheres. At the
fringes of the solar system, where gravitational forces are weak, planetesimals never coalesce into planets.
These icy bodies sometimes wander in eccentric orbits, and when they get close to the sun, we know them
as comets.

The nebular theory explains three observable facts.

1. Planets all rotate in the same direction.
2. Planets orbit within 6 degrees of a common plane.
3. All the terrestrial planets, which are those within the orbit of the Asteroid Belt, are rocky,
while those outside it are gaseous.

Condensation theory
This theory is also called by other names, dust-cloud theory and protoplanets theory. It proposes
that our solar system began from a nebula: a dense cloud of gas, dust, and icy particles. In the span of
millions of years, gases condensed. Dust and icy particles formed lumps of bigger masses which eventually
became planets.
While protoplanets were undergoing transformation, similar transformation happened at the center
of the nebula. As the center of the nebula increased in mass, it attracted more gases and dust. The movement
of matter into the center of an emerging protostar resulted in increased rotation of the emerging solar system.
Overtime, a critical point was reached such that the combined effect of temperature, pressure, magnetic
field, and density resulted in nuclear fusion at the core of the protostar. With nuclear fusion, a star was born.
The main difference between condensation theory and solar nebula theory is the absence of an input
from a Supernova.

Planetesimal theory
This theory (also called collision theory) proposes that the beginning of the solar system was a
cataclysmic event. It does not explain how the sun may have formed but proposes how planets and other
space objects orbiting our sun did.
A nearby star collided with ours, and the resulting cataclysm ejected massive quantities of debris
into Space: gas, dust, trace elements of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and possibly metals, such as, iron and
nickel. This erupted matter stayed within the gravitational field of the sun and began to orbit it.
The erupted stellar matter cooled and condensed and under the influence of gravity formed clumps
of debris called planetesimals. Overtime, planetesimals coalesced to form bigger masses of matter. In the
span of 50 million years, planets were born.

Tidal theory
Tidal theory is similar to planetesimal theory only that instead of two stars directly colliding, two
stars nearly collided to each other. This theory is sometimes put as near-collision hypothesis or encounter
theory. It was initially proposed by Iames leans in 1917.

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 A star, other than our Sun, approached the latter resulting in near collision. The transit of this star
exerted a gravitational force on our Sun, drawing huge amounts of matter from the Sun itself. It affected
the Sun in the same way that our Sun influences the movement of oceans in our planet which results in
tides.
Because of the approaching star, stellar matter from our own Sun was thrown out into space.
Overtime, these substances condensed and with the passing of millions of years came to form planets.
Capture theory
Capture theory is somewhat similar with tidal theory. The difference is it is our Sun which captured
stellar matter from a nearby but smaller star (or possibly not yet a star but only a protostar). This captured
stellar matter began to orbit the Sun, and through condensation and accretion eventually became planets.

How Much Have You Learned?

Instructions: Circle the letter of your correct answer (1 point each)
1. Which cosmologist proposed the Big Bang Theory for the origin of the universe?
A. Albert Einstein B. Georges Lemaitre C. Fred Hoyle D. Isaac Newton
2. The steady state theory holds that the universe: __________________
A. Looks the same from every spot in it and at every time. It is homogeneous and isotropic in
space and time. It has uniform density so matter is continuously created.
B. Is homogeneous and its density is uniformly distributed. At the beginning the tiny dot
expanded and spread out all the universe`s density.
C. Is a black dot that expanded to form all space, matter, time and energy? It is continuously
changing and it probably is going to crush.
D. None of the above.
3. Which of the following observational findings tend to support the Big Bang Theory?
A. Discovery of the cosmic microwave radiation
B. Expansion of the fabric of space-time
C. Red-shift of light from very distant galaxies
D. All of the above.
4. Who is credited with the discovery of the expansion of the universe?
A. Edwin Hubble
B. Jayant Narlikar
C. Saul Perlmutter
D. Paul Steinhardt
5. There is an explosion in Big Bang Theory.
A. True B. False C. Uncertain
6. What do you call the tiny planets formed when the nebula coalesced to form lumps of denser
mass?
A. Planetoids B. Planetesimals C. Planetite
7. The Latin word “nebula” means _____________
A. Star B. Dust C. Cloud
8. What does the Oscillating Theory tell about the universe?
A. the universe goes through “repeating cycle of revolution.”
B. claims that the universe came into being from the sudden explosion of primeval matter
C. the universe moves forward and backwards motion or expansion and contraction
9. Our universe is still expanding at a decreasing rate.
A. True B. False C. Uncertain
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 10. Which of the following is not included on the facts explained by the Nebular Theory?
A. Planets all rotate in the same direction.
B. Planets orbit within 6 degrees of a common plane.
C. All the terrestrial planets, which are those within the orbit of the Asteroid Belt, are gaseous,
while those outside it are rocky.

References/Further Learning Materials (online materials)

Dela Pena, Renato Jr, Gracilla, Daniel,Pangilinan, Christian. (2016), Earth and Life Science, First
Edition.
(2016) Earth Science. Rex Bookstore Inc.
http://education.seattlepi.com/nebular-theory-4444.html
https://www.universetoday.com/38195/oscillating-universe-theory/
https://www.quora.com/What-can-you-say-about-atheist-that-the-universe-is-a-product-of-big-
bang-theory

Video References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IRZYMimUET8

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 Lesson 2
Earth’s Subsystem

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
3. describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life; and
4. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and energy
flow;

Performance Standards
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. make a concept map and use it to explain how the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere are interconnected

Definition of Terms
 Circumstellar Habitable Zone - the orbital region around a star where water in liquid form can
be found
 Cryosphere - is an all-encompassing term for those portions of Earth's surface where water is in
solid form, including sea ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen
ground
 Biome - is an area of the planet that can be classified according to the plants and animals that live
in it. Temperature, soil, and the amount of light and water help determine what life exists in a
biome. Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist
within the biosphere.
 Metabolism - the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life

What Do You Already Know?

Instructions: Choose your answer inside the box. Write the letter of your answer before each number. (1
point each)
______1. Responsible for scattering and reducing the intensity of light waves
which passes through it. A. Magnetic
______2. It includes all forms of water on Earth`s surface, underground and in field
the air. B. Atmosphere
______3. It includes all living things on the planet. C. Geosphere
______4. It includes the planet`s crust, mantle, and inner and outer cores. D. Hydrosphere
______5. Caused by the rotation of Earth`s core and the Earth itself E. Biosphere
F. Climate
What Do You Need to Know? (Discussion Proper)

Watch the video on the “Conditions that Support Life on Earth” found on this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Ihbuy5g84g

Conditions that Support Life on Earth

1. Earth occupies a circumstellar habitable zone
2. Earth has a magnetic field
3. Earth has an atmosphere rich in nitrogen and oxygen
4. Earth`s climate and temperature are relatively stable

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 Habitable Zone
The habitable zone around the sun
is an orbital region which receives the
right range of radiant energy so that water
in a planet stays in liquid form.
Water in liquid form is essential
for the functioning of biological systems.
It is an ideal aqueous solution within
which many chemical reactions take place.
The human body, for example, is 60%
water, 71% of Earth’s surface is covered in
The orbital region around a star where water in liquid form water.
can be found is called the circumstellar habitable zone.

Magnetic field
Earth’s magnetic field is produced by the rotation of the planet’s core and the rotation of Earth
itself. Deep in the center of our planet, some 6,000 km deep, is a molten core two-thirds the size of moon
and largely made from iron and nickel. Right at the center of this core is iron in crystallized form, turned
into solid by extreme pressure. Earth’s molten core is in constant motion due to thermal convection
produced by heat. This motion, combined with Earth’s rotation, produces a magnetic field.
Without the magnetic field, the solar wind is capable of sweeping away Earth’s atmosphere which
is a protective layer for the planet. By way of comparison, Mars, which is believed to have had a magnetic
field in the past, has an atmosphere which is only 1% as dense as Earth’s. No life has yet been found in
Mars.

Earth’s atmosphere
Earth’s atmosphere is unique among the planets, because it is 78% N and 21% O 2, the rest are Ar,
CO2, CH4, and trace elements of inert gases. No other planet in our solar system has an atmosphere close
to ours. Nitrogen and oxygen, together with hydrogen, carbon, and phosphorus, are the constituent elements
of biological molecules: carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and nucleic acid.

After the planet’s magnetic field, the atmosphere acts as the next layer of protection against sun’s
harmful radiation. Gas molecules and precipitates absorb and deflect harmful UV-rays, Gamma rays, and
X-rays. In particular, the ozone layer absorbs most of the sun’s UV-B radiation. The atmosphere also
scatters high frequency light waves, reducing their intensity when they reach the Earth’s biosphere.

Stable climate and temperature

Earth has a climate and temperature which are remarkably stable when compared with those of
other planets. The average temperature of Earth’s surface, for example, is 20°C. The relative stability of
Earth`s climate and temperature are important for the formation of biological molecules. For living things,
it allows them to adapt and evolve gradually.

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EARTH SUBSYSTEMS

Everything in Earth's system can be placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water, living
things, or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically, they are the "geosphere" (land),
"hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere" (living things), and "atmosphere" (air). Each of these four spheres can
be further divided into sub-spheres.

Watch the video on Geosphere and Biosphere found on this link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VMxjzWHbyFM

The Geosphere
This is the part of the planet composed of rock and minerals; it includes the solid crust, the molten
mantle and the liquid and solid parts of the earth's core. The surface of the geosphere is very uneven. There
are high mountain ranges like the Rockies and Andes, huge plains or flat areas like those in Texas, Iowa,
and Brazil and deep valleys along the ocean floor.
The Biosphere
It contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and
animals of Earth. Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based on the physical
surroundings of an area. These communities are referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and tropical
rainforests are three of the many types of biomes that exist within the biosphere.

Watch the video on Hydrosphere and Atmosphere found on this link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UXh_7wbnS3A

The Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere includes water on the planet`s surface, underground, and in the air. It can take the
forms of liquid, water vapor, or ice. A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty).
This water flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along
Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen
(cryosphere). Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep valleys along
Earth's surface. These large collections of salty water are referred to as oceans. Water near the poles is very
cold while water near the equator is very warm. The differences in temperature cause water to change
physical states. Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid

14
such as a polar icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator
cause water to evaporate into a gas.

The Atmosphere
It contains all the air in Earth's system. This is the gaseous layer surrounding the earth and held to
its surface by gravity. The atmosphere receives energy from solar radiation which warms the earth's surface
and is re-emitted and conducted to the atmosphere. The atmosphere also absorbs water from the earth's
surface via the process of evaporation; it then acts to redistribute heat and moisture across the earth's
surface. In addition, the atmosphere contains substances that are essential for life, including carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the
biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits heat. When air temperature in the
lower portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it
moves around the planet.

SPHERE INTERACTIONS
The four spheres interact among themselves in such a way that matter and energy are constantly
exchanged between and among them. Carbon dioxide, for example, is constantly exchanged between the
atmosphere and biosphere when plants take in CO2 to complete photosynthesis. When plants die and
decompose, CO2 returns to the atmosphere.
Open system vs. closed system
An open system is one where matter and energy are exchanged with the surroundings. A closed system
is one where only energy, but not matter, is exchanged with the surroundings

Earth is a closed system, but its subsystems are

open, and it is not difficult to see why this is so. Let us
take as an example the story of a tomato plant. As an
organism it is part of the biosphere, but during its
lifetime it exchanges matter and energy with its
surroundings. In fact, even when it is already dead the
flow of matter and energy continues. Let us enumerate
the events in the life of our humble tomato plant which
illustrate this exchange.

Event Matter-energy exchange Interacting spheres

Tomato seed absorbs water with Absorbed: Water (H2O),
dissolved nitrogen, potassium, and Potassium (K), and Biosphere and geosphere
phosphorus Phosphorus
Tomato plant absorbs carbon dioxide Biosphere and atmosphere
Absorbed: Carbon Dioxide
and water. With the help of sunlight, it
(CO2) and Water (H2O)
commences photosynthesis Biosphere and hydrosphere
Photosynthesis transforms CO2 and
Released: Oxygen gas (O2) Biosphere and atmosphere
H20 into glucose and releases oxygen.
The tomato plant dies. Through water Released: dissolved carbon
Biosphere and geosphere
leaching, carbon compounds are compounds and nutrients
removed from the cell walls of the into soil
Biosphere and atmosphere
plant. Bacteria break it down into

15
 simpler units, the plant turns into Released: Carbon Dioxide
compost. (CO2) into the atmosphere

Cycling of energy and matter

With carbon dioxide and water, plants initiate photosynthesis by converting the radiant energy of
sunlight into glucose, releasing oxygen to the atmosphere as a byproduct. Glucose is the storage form of
energy among plants. Herbivores consume plants and convert it into glycogen, the energy storage form for
animals. Animals use this energy (chemical energy) for metabolism and to support many life sustaining
processes. The byproducts are carbon dioxide, water, and heat. Heat is leached into the atmosphere, and
carbon dioxide mixes with air and gets absorbed again by plants initiating a new cycle of photosynthesis.

Energy Cycle and Earth

subsystems interaction.
Plants and animals
(biosphere), water
(hydrosphere), nutrients
in soil (geosphere),
carbon dioxide and
oxygen (atmosphere)

After animals die, the decomposition process begins. Decomposers breakdown animal tissues into
its constituent molecules: water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, etc. Gases return to the atmosphere,
minerals return to the soil (geosphere), and water stays in the soil or evaporates into the atmosphere.

How Much Have You Learned?

Instructions: Match Column A with the words in Column B. Write the letter of your answer before each
number. (1 point each)
Column A
_____1. It refers to the frozen part of Earth`s hydrosphere Column B
_____2. It describes a system where matter and energy are exchanged with its
surroundings. A. Open System
_____3. It is Earth`s subsystem that pertains to the solid part of the planet. B. Hydrosphere
_____4. Earth`s subsystem where oxygen produced during photosynthesis C. Geosphere
belong D. Cryosphere
_____5. Responsible for breaking down dead animal tissues to constituent E. Crust
molecules bringing them back to the geosphere F. Mantle
G. Atmosphere
_____6. A system where energy is exchanged with surroundings but not matter
H. Biosphere
_____7. Subsystem where plants undergoing photosynthesis belong I. Closed System
_____8. Earth`s subsystem where ground water belongs J. Nitrogen
_____9. Outermost layer of Earth`s geosphere K. Decomposers
_____10. Most abundant element in the Earth`s atmosphere L. Asthenosphere

16
References/Further Learning Materials (online materials)
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/info_activities/pdfs/TBI_earth_spheres.pdf
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/720-earth-system

Video References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Ihbuy5g84g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VMxjzWHbyFM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UXh_7wbnS3A

17
 Lesson 3
Rocks and Minerals

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
5. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties;
6. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic;
7. identify the minerals important to society;

Performance Standards
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
2. make a plan that the community may use to conserve and protect its resources for future
generations
3. prepare a plan that the community may implement to minimize waste when people utilize
materials and resources

Definition of Terms
 Amorphous - from the Greek a, without, morphé, shape, form or non-crystalline solid is a solid
that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.
 Strata - is a layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or igneous rock that was formed at the Earth's
surface, with internally consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers.
 Pyrometamorphism - is a type of metamorphism in which rocks are changed by heat coming
from the fossil fuel fire.

What Do You Already Know?

Instructions: Match Column A with the words in Column B. Write the letter of your answer before each
number. (1 point each)
Column A Column B
______1. Property of minerals that shows its true color A. Sedimentary rocks
______2. Mineral`s ability to let the light pass through it B. Streak
______3. Formed from solidified magma C. Igneous rocks
______4. Formed due to intense pressure and temperature D. Color
E. Diaphaneity
______5. Lithified fragments of rocks
F. Metamorphic rocks
G. Tenacity

What Do You Need to Know? (Discussion Proper)

MINERALS

Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which is usually
solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”. The rock-forming
minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.
Watch the video on identifying minerals found on this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPKkRRdQLFo

18
Properties of minerals
1. Color
Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for
identification. In opaque minerals, the color tends to be more consistent,
so learning the colors associated with these minerals can be very helpful
in identification (e.g. malachite – green, azurite – blue). There are also
lots of minerals that share similar or the same color/s. In addition, some
minerals can exhibit a range of colors. The mineral quartz for example,
can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white
(colorless quartz) etc. Translucent to transparent minerals have a much Malachite.
more varied degree of color due to the presence of trace minerals. Malachite is a
Therefore, color alone is not reliable as a single identifying mineral with a
characteristic. distinct green color.

2. Streak
Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak
shows the true color of the mineral. Note that the color of a mineral
could be different from the streak. For example, pyrite (FeS2)
exhibits golden color has a black or dark gray streak.
In large solid form, trace minerals can change the color
appearance of a mineral by reflecting the light in a certain way.
Trace minerals have little influence on the reflection of the small
powdery particles of the streak.
The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark
because the small particles of the streak absorb the light hitting
them. Non-metallic particles tend to reflect most of the light so they Streak plates with pyrite
appear lighter in color or almost white. (left) and rhodochrosite
Because streak is a more accurate illustration of the (right)
mineral’s color, streak is a more reliable property of minerals than
color for identification.

3. Hardness
Hardness is one of the better properties of
minerals to use for identifying a mineral. Hardness
is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to
scratching. The Mohs scale is a set of 10 minerals
whose hardness is known. The softest mineral,
talc, has a Mohs scale rating of one. Diamond is
the hardest mineral and has a rating of ten. Softer
minerals can be scratched by harder minerals
because the forces that hold the crystals together
are weaker and can be broken by the harder
mineral.

The Mohs' hardness scale was developed in 1822

by Frederich Mohs. This scale is a chart of relative
hardness of the various minerals (1 - softest to 10 -
hardest).
4. Cleavage & Fracture

Minerals tend to break along lines or smooth surfaces when hit sharply. Different minerals
break in different ways showing different types of cleavage.

19
 Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria. The first set of criteria describes how easily
the cleavage is obtained. Cleavage is considered perfect if it is easily obtained and the cleavage
planes are easily distinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage is produced with some
difficulty but has obvious cleavage planes. Finally, it is considered imperfect if cleavage is obtained
with difficulty and some of the planes are difficult to distinguish.
The second set of criteria is the direction of the cleavage surfaces. The names correspond
to the shape formed by the cleavage surfaces: Cubic, rhombohedral, octahedral, dodecahedral, basal
or prismatic.

Types of cleavage common in minerals with examples of minerals.

Watch the video on Cleavage and Fracture found on this link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1SGC3VBQZY0

5. Crystalline Structure
Mineral crystals occur in various shapes and sizes. The particular shape is determined by
the arrangement of the atoms, molecules or ions that make up the crystal and how they are joined.
This is called the crystal lattice. There are degrees of crystalline structure, in which the fibers of
the crystal become increasingly difficult or impossible to see with the naked eye or the use of a
hand lens. Microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline structures can only be viewed using high
magnification. If there is no crystalline structure, it is called amorphous. However, there are very
few amorphous crystals and these are only observed under extremely high magnification.

20
6. Transparency or Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity is a mineral’s degree of transparency or ability to allow light to pass through
it. The degree of transparency may also depend on the thickness of the mineral.

7. Tenacity
Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold together or
resist separation. The chart below gives the list of terms used to describe tenacity and a description
of each term.

8. Magnetism
Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic
materials. It can be difficult to determine the differences between the various types of magnetism,
but it is worth knowing that there are distinctions made.

9. Luster
Luster is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of a mineral reflects
light. The luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the light used to observe the mineral
surface. Luster of a mineral is described in the following terms:
a. Metallic The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would. Submetallic The
mineral is opaque and dull. The mineral is dark colored. Nonmetallic The mineral does not
reflect light like a metal.
b. Nonmetallic minerals are described using modifiers that refer to commonly known
qualities.
i. Waxy The mineral looks like paraffin or wax.
ii. Vitreous The mineral looks like broken glass.
iii. Pearly The mineral appears iridescent, like a pearl.
iv. Silky The mineral looks fibrous, like silk.
v. Greasy The mineral looks like oil on water.
vi. Resinous The mineral looks like hardened tree sap (resin).
vii. Adamantine The mineral looks brilliant, like a diamond.

10. Odor
Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of the following ways:
moistened, heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.

11. Taste
Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that minerals not be placed in
the mouth or on the tongue. You should not test for this property in the classroom.

12. Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to the
weight of an equal amount of water. Example: A bucket of silver would weigh 10 times more than
a bucket of water. The weight of the equal amount of water is found by finding the difference
between the weight of the mineral in air and the weight of the mineral in water.

21
Table 1 of Properties of Common Minerals

22
Table 2 of Properties of Common Minerals

23
Some of the common metals and minerals used in modern society

Minerals/Metals Description
About 13 million tons of copper are currently used annually (1998). Copper is used
COPPER
for electrical conductors, motors, appliances, piping and in metal alloys.

Limestone, along with dolomite, is one of the basic building blocks of the
construction industry. Limestone is used as aggregate, building stone, cement, and
LIMESTONE
lime and in fluxes, glass, refractories, fillers, abrasives, soil conditioners, and a host
of chemical processes.

Gold has many high-tech applications including computers and many scientific
instruments, is used in electrical conductors, is used in the face shields of fire
GOLD
fighters to reflect the heat of a fire. is used in building windows for reflecting the
heat from the sun, medical and dental equipment, and jewelry.

ZnO is used to prevent Sunburn, zinc is used for protective coatings for steel,
ZINC
casting alloys and extensively in medicines.
NICKEL Nickel is primarily used to manufacture stainless steel.
Silver is used in electrical conductors, photography, chemical manufacturing, dental
SILVER
and medical uses.
Aluminum is used in electrical conductors, ships, airplanes, doors, windows,
ALUMINUM
roofing, insulation, packaging, food processing, domestic utensils.

Iron is used in steel manufacturing, magnets, medicines, biomedical research, paints,

IRON printing inks, plastics, cosmetics, dyes. Iron is used in volume, about 20 times more
than any other metal in our society.

Borax is used to make fiberglass, high temperature glass, cleaning agents, ceramics,
BORAX
wood preservitives, corrosion inhibitors and fertilizers.
Titanium is used in paint manufacture as pigments, and in plastic manufacture, as
TITANIUM
well as many high strength, low weight metal alloys.
Talc is used in paper manufacture, in paint manufacture and in plastics and the
TALC
cosmetic industry.
Used to make cement and concrete, which is used to build roads, buildings, housing
CLAY
foundations and even driveways.

Used in steel making and to provide the lowest cost electricity in the world (except
for hydro generated). Coal costs 1/2 of oil-fired power plants. Slag (the residue left
COAL
when coal is burned) from coal power plants is used for paving additives, for
abrasives in sandblasting and to manufacture roofing materials.

Phosphate is used to produce phosphoric acid for fertilizers, feed additives for
PHOSPHATE
livestock, chemicals, and used in consumer home products
24
 Planthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, Europium, etc., are used in
RARE EARTH
petroleum refining, computers, televisions, magnetic industry, metallurgical
ELEMENTS
applications, ceramics and lighting.

Rock, in geology, is a naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. Rocks are made
up mostly of crystals of different kinds of minerals, or broken pieces of crystals, or broken pieces of rocks.
Some rocks are made of the shells of once-living animals, or of compressed pieces of plants.

Rocks are commonly divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in
their formation. These classes are:
(1) igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten material called magma;
(2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments derived from preexisting rocks or of materials
precipitated from solutions; and
(3) metamorphic rocks, which have been derived from either igneous or sedimentary rocks under
conditions that caused changes in mineralogical composition, texture, and internal structure.

Igneous Rock
Igneous rock is the resulting rock that is produced when molten materials cool down and solidify.
Igneous is derived from the Latin word ignis which means fire. If magma erupts at the Earth’s surface and
solidifies upon contact with the atmosphere or ocean, the rock it forms is extrusive igneous rock. The term
implies that igneous rock that is formed comes out from volcanic vents as lava before freezing into rock
form. In contrast, if magma solidifies underground, the rock it forms is called intrusive igneous rock. It is
intrusive because it was injected or pushed into existing rocks found in the Earth’s crust.

Igneous rocks can be classified into:

Extrusive igneous rocks or Volcanic rocks

 These are rocks formed by the eruption of lava onto
the Earth’s surface. When lava is exposed to the Pumice is an
atmosphere or to bodies of water, they rapidly cool example of a
down and turn to rocks. volcanic rock.
 Because of the rapid decrease in temperature, the Your
mineral components of lava are unable to form large grandparents
crystals. They are so tiny they can be seen only under probably use
the microscope. They contain only small crystals, pumice
and often display a glassy appearance. themselves. It is
 Because they are formed from lava that cools and what Filipinos
solidifies quickly, the volatiles contained in them call panghilod.
rapidly transforms into gas, leaving behind gas
bubbles in the rock.

25
 Intrusive igneous rocks or Plutonic
rocks Granite is composed
 Named after Pluto, the ancient mainly of quartz and
Roman god of the underworld. feldspar with minor
His counterpart in Greek amounts of mica,
mythology is Hades. amphiboles, and other
 Horizontal or slanted layers of minerals. This mineral
distinct rock types sandwiched composition usually
between rocks of a different gives granite a red,
physical structure are clues pink, gray, or white
suggesting you could be looking color with dark
at intrusive igneous rocks. mineral grains visible
throughout the rock.

Examples of Plutonic and Volcanic Rocks

Plutonic Rocks (intrusive) Volcanic Rocks (extrusive)

Granite, Gabbro, Dunite, Diorite, Grandiorite, Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite, Obsidian, Pumice,
Syenite, Peridotite, etc. Scoria, Tuff, etc.

Sedimentary rocks
 As the name suggests, are formed by
Limestone is a
sediments. Other types of rocks, such as
sedimentary rock
igneous and metamorphic rocks, shed
composed primarily
off sediments as a result of physical and
of calcium carbonate
chemical weathering. These are carried
in the form of the
away by wind, water, ice, mass
mineral calcite. It is
movement or glaciers and deposited
usually an organic
into sedimentary basins, usually a
sedimentary rock that
body of water, such as ponds, lakes and
forms from the
seas. There at the bottom they
accumulation of shell,
accumulate and form a layer of
coral, algal, and fecal
sediments. The skeletal remains of
debris.
organisms from millions of years ago
also add to the sediments that form
sedimentary rocks.
 Pressure from a massive body of water on top compresses this layer. In the course of millions of
years, deposition and cementation turn them into hard solid sedimentary rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks are generally stratified—i.e., they have layering. Layers may be distinguished
by differences in color, particle size, type of cement, or internal arrangement.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate Made up of rounded pebbles which are cemented together

Breccia Made up of angular pebbles which are cemented together

Sandstone Sand cemented together forming solid stone

26
 Siltstone Silt cemented together to form a solid stone

Shale Similar to siltstone but is composed of even finer grains of silt

Primarily of calcium carbonate or calcite. The most common source of this

Limestone
calcite is the shells of marine organisms

Metamorphic rocks
 Combination of two Greek Words: meta
means after and morphe means shape. Marble is a
Metamorphosis is the after shape, to metamorphic rock
metamorphose is to change shape. For that forms when
metamorphic rocks, this describes a type limestone is
of rock that arose from either igneous subjected to the heat
rocks or sedimentary rocks. The change and pressure of
took place because of extreme pressure metamorphism. It is
and temperature. composed primarily
 Rocks do get exposed to variations in of the mineral
pressure and temperature because they calcite (CaCO3) and
do not stay where they are. It is difficult usually contains
to imagine that a huge rock the size of a other minerals, such
hill was once underwater or underneath as clay minerals,
Earth’s surface. There at the bottom of micas, quartz,
the oceans or under Earth’s surface some pyrite, iron oxides,
hundreds of kilometers deep, rocks are and graphite.
exposed to extreme pressure and
temperature but not to a degree that they melt or break apart.
 Metamorphism often produces apparent layering, or banding, because of the segregation of
minerals into separate bands.
 Metamorphic processes can also occur at the Earth’s surface due to meteorite impact events and
pyrometamorphism taking place near burning fossil fuels.

Examples of Metamorphic Rocks

Gneiss (pronounced as Formed by a high-grade metamorphosis. Its foliations display alternating

nice. as in a nice place) dark and light-colored bands, called gneiss banding.

Fine-grained foliated metamorphic rocks derived from shale sedimentary

Slate
rocks.

Marble Non-foliated metamorphic rocks formed from limestone

Medium-grade metamorphic rocks with medium to large, flat, sheet-like

Schist
grains

Hard non-foliated metamorphic rock formed from quartz sandstone (a

Quartzite
sedimentary rock)

27
The Processes of the Rock Cycle
Several processes can turn one type of rock into another type of rock. The key processes of the rock
cycle are crystallization, erosion and sedimentation, and metamorphism.

 Crystallization
Magma cools either underground or on the surface and hardens into an igneous rock. As
the magma cools, different crystals form at different temperatures, undergoing crystallization. For
example, the mineral olivine crystallizes out of magma at much higher temperatures than quartz.
The rate of cooling determines how much time the crystals will have to form. Slow cooling
produces larger crystals.

 Erosion and Sedimentation

Weathering wears rocks at the Earth’s surface down into smaller pieces. The small
fragments are called sediments. Running water, ice, and gravity all transport these sediments from
one place to another by erosion. During sedimentation, the sediments are laid down or deposited.
In order to form a sedimentary rock, the accumulated sediment must become compacted and
cemented (lithification) together.

 Metamorphism
When a rock is exposed to extreme heat and pressure within the Earth but does not melt,
the rock becomes metamorphosed. Metamorphism may change the mineral composition and the
texture of the rock. For that reason, a metamorphic rock may have a new mineral composition
and/or texture.

28
  Melting
Eventually, these metamorphic rocks may be heated to the point where they again melt into magma.

Note: The rock cycle doesn't always have to work in this order; sometimes igneous rocks can be buried
and metamorphosed, skipping the sedimentary rock phase, and sometimes sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks can be uplifted and eroded to form new sedimentary rocks. It is also possible for
rocks to remain unchanged in stable regions for long periods of time.

How Much Have You Learned?

Instructions: Match Column A with words in Column B. Write the letter of your answer before each
number. (1 point each)
Column A
Column B
______1. Metamorphic rock formed from limestone A. Sedimentary rocks
______2. Rocks that are formed when molten materials cool down and B. Crystallization
solidify C. Talc
______3. Conglomerate is an example of this rock D. Titanium
______4. Used in electrical conductors, ships, airplanes, packaging, E. Plutonic rocks
food processing, and domestic utensils F. Igneous rocks
______5. Process of cooling down and solidifying magma G. Luster
______6. Also called intrusive igneous rocks H. Aluminum
______7. Refers to the ability of minerals to reflect light I. Sedimentary basin
______8. Area where rocks accumulate over time J. Volcanic rocks
______9. Type of igneous rock where obsidian belongs K. Solidification
______10. Used in paper, paint, and plastic manufacturing and the L. Marble
cosmetic industry.

29
References/Further Learning Materials (online materials)
Reyes, J. A. & Reyes, M. A. (2017). Rocks. Earth Science. Intramuros, Manila. Unlimited Books
Library Services and Publishing Inc.
https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html
http://scienceviews.com/geology/minerals.html
https://www.ck12.org/earth-science/rock-cycle-processes/lesson/Rocks-and-Processes-of-the-
Rock-Cycle-HS-
ES/#:~:text=The%20three%20processes%20that%20change,This%20creates%20the%20rock%2
0cycle.

Video References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNGUdObDoLk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAmqsMQG3RM

30
 Lesson 4
Mineral Resources

Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
4. describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and processed for human use;
5. cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the exploitation,
extraction, and use of mineral resources;

Performance Standards
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. make a plan that the community may use to conserve and protect its resources for future
generations
2. prepare a plan that the community may implement to minimize waste when people utilize
materials and resources

Definition of Terms
 Mineral – a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with definite chemical composition
and characteristic physical properties.
 Gangue - is the commercially valueless material that surrounds, or is closely mixed with, a wanted
mineral in an ore deposit
 Smelting - process by which a metal is obtained, either as the element or as a simple compound,
from its ore by heating beyond the melting point, ordinarily in the presence of an oxidizing agent.
 Roasting - is a process of heating of sulphide ore to a high temperature in presence of air.
 Leaching – the removal of soluble constituents of a rock, soil or ore by the action of percolating
waters or acids.
 Soil acidification - is the buildup of hydrogen cations, which reduces the soil pH. Chemically, this
happens when a proton donor gets added to the soil. The donor can be an acid, such as nitric acid,
sulfuric acid, or carbonic acid.
 Sludge - thick, soft, wet mud or a similar viscous mixture of liquid and solid components, especially
the product of an industrial or refining process

What Do You Already Know?

Instructions: Match Column A with words in Column B. Write the letter of your answer before each
number. (1 point each)
Column A Column B
_____1. Mining stage wherein miners locate possible places where A. Ore
minerals can be found B. Exploration
_____2. A sediment which contains one or more minerals C. Ore processing
_____3. Negative effect of mining that can harm plants near the mining D. Surface mining
site E. Soil pollution
_____4. Mining stage wherein minerals are extracted from ore F. Air pollution
_____5. Process of removing minerals from the surface of the Earth G. Subsurface mining

31
What Do You Need to Know? (Discussion Proper)
An ore is a natural rock or sediment that contains one or
more valuable minerals, typically metals that can be mined, treated
and sold at a profit. Example of which is aluminum from bauxite ore
(Figure below) which is extracted from the ground and refined to be
used in aluminum foil and many other products.

Aluminum is made from the

aluminum-bearing minerals in
bauxite

Among more than 2,800 mineral species have been identified, only about 100 are considered ore
minerals. Among these are hematite, magnetite, limonite, and siderite, which are the principal sources of
iron; chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcocite, the principal sources of copper; and sphalerite and galena, the
principal sources of zinc and lead respectively.

Hematite - ore of Iron Chalcopyrite – ore of Copper Sphalerite – ore of Zinc

No ore deposit contains entirely of a single ore mineral. The ore is always mixed with unwanted or
valueless rocks and minerals that are collectively known as gangue. Generally, the ore and the gangue are
mined together—i.e., taken out of the host rock in a mass by either mechanical or manual means.

Process of mining minerals

Exploration Locating prospective places where minerals can be found

Mapping the location where minerals can be found, mapping the

distribution of minerals, obtaining sample from the field to establish the
Modeling the ore body
grade of minerals, planning the methods and technology of mining to be
used

Identifying and addressing Weighing potential benefits, such as, company profit and employment
impacts opportunities against impacts to the environment and the community
Designing and constructing Deciding and construction the mining facility. The two general mining
a mine methods are open pit mining and underground mining.

Concerned with the management of the mining operations while observing

Operating a mine the regulations that aim to mitigate the impacts of mining on the
environment
Ore processing Implementing the industrial processes to extract minerals from ore

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 Closing and reclaiming a Reclaiming all disturbed ground so that the land will continue to benefit
mine the community and the environment

 Methods of extracting minerals

 Surface Mining
Surface mining is removing minerals from the
surface of the Earth where mineral deposits are located.
Surface mining also includes extracting mineral deposits
below Earth`s surface when that surface is thin. In mining,
the surface material covering mineral deposits are called
overburden. When ore deposits are large, open-pit mining is
used. Open-pit mines are often gradually enlarged until all
mineral resources are obtained. Bulldozers, backhoes and
 Subsurface Mining ore-hauling trucks at work at
Subsurface mining (deep-underground mining) the open-pit gold-silver
requires constructing tunnels to reach mineral deposits mine atop Canatuan
deep below Earth`s surface. Tunnel walls are reinforced mountain in the southern
with wood, and ventilation shafts are erected to give air Philippines
to miners.
One other method used in subsurface mining is through the use of a solution. Hot
water is injected into pipes which are dug into mineral deposits. Once the ore is dissolved,
air is injected into the pipe, and the solution containing dissolved ore bubbles up to the
surface.
Then the ore is separated from the gangue by various operations known collectively as mineral
processing, or ore dressing. The desired metallic element is then extracted from the ore by various smelting,
roasting, or leaching processes.
Advances in hydrometallurgy have meant that
some metals—such as copper, uranium, and gold—can
be removed from the host rock without drilling and
blasting. Special bacteria are sometimes used as part of
this process.
After recovery, the metals may be still further
refined (purified) or alloyed with other metals, as in a
copper refinery or steel mill. Mining, processing, and
refining are thus successive steps in the utilization of an
ore deposit to yield a metal.
A bioleaching laboratory in Chile extracting
copper from ore with the aid of bacteria

Watch the YouTube video on this link (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62-yS0uXBb0) to see

how Nickel and Copper is being mined and processed.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE MINING INDUSTRY

Air Pollution

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 Air quality is adversely affected by mining operations. Unrefined materials are released when
mineral deposits are exposed on the surface through mining. Wind erosion and nearby vehicular traffic
cause such materials to become airborne. Lead, arsenic, cadmium, and other toxic elements are often present
in such particles. These pollutants can damage the health of people living near the mining site. Diseases of
the respiratory system and allergies can be triggered by the inhalation of such airborne particles.

Water Pollution
Mining also causes water pollution which includes
metal contamination, increased sediment levels in streams,
and acid mine drainage. Pollutants released from
processing plants, tailing ponds, underground mines,
waste-disposal areas, active or abandoned surface or
haulage roads, etc., act as the top sources of water
pollution. Sediments released through soil erosion cause
siltation or the smothering of stream beds. It adversely
impacts irrigation, swimming, fishing, domestic water Water system in Santa Cruz, Zambales
supply, and other activities dependent on such water near a nickel mining site
bodies. High concentrations of toxic chemicals in water
bodies pose a survival threat to aquatic flora and fauna and terrestrial species dependent on them for food.
The acidic water released from metal mines or coal mines also drains into surface water or seeps below
ground to acidify groundwater. The loss of normal pH of water can have disastrous effects on life sustained
by such water.

Damage to Land
The creation of landscape blots like open pits and piles of
waste rocks due to mining operations can lead to the physical
destruction of the land at the mining site. Such disruptions can
contribute to the deterioration of the area's flora and fauna. There
is also a huge possibility that many of the surface features that
were present before mining activities cannot be replaced after the
process has ended. The removal of soil layers and deep
underground digging can destabilize the ground which threatens
the future of roads and buildings in the area. For example, lead ore
mining in Galena, Kansas between 1980 and 1985 triggered about
A building collapsed in Galena, 500 subsidence collapse features that led to the abandonment of
Kansas following a collapse of a the mines in the area. The entire mining site was later restored
nearby mine between 1994 and1995.

Soil Pollution
Soil texture and water content can be greatly modified in disturbed sites, leading to plants
community changes in the area. Most of the plants have a low concentration tolerance for metals in the soil,
but sensitivity differs among species. Plants can be affected through direct poisoning, for example arsenic
soil content reduces bryophyte diversity. Soil acidification through pH diminution by chemical
contamination can also lead to a diminished species number. Contaminants can modify or disturb
microorganisms, thus modifying nutrient availability, causing a loss of vegetation in the area. Some tree
roots divert away from deeper soil layers in order to avoid the contaminated zone, therefore lacking
anchorage within the deep soil layers, resulting in the potential uprooting by the wind when their height
and shoot weight increase.

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Loss of Biodiversity
Often, the worst effects of mining activities are observed after the mining process has ceased. The
destruction or drastic modification of the pre-mined landscape can have a catastrophic impact on the
biodiversity of that area. Mining leads to a massive habitat loss for a diversity of flora and fauna ranging
from soil microorganisms to large mammals. Endemic species are most severely affected since even the
slightest disruptions in their habitat can result in extinction or put them at high risk of being wiped out.
Toxins released through mining can wipe out entire populations of sensitive species.

WAYS ON HOW TO LESSEN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING

Reduce inputs
The mining industry uses a large amount of water and land in their operations. One solution to
becoming more environmentally sustainable is to reduce the input of the mine. By diverting surface water
and pumping groundwater, mines can reduce both the quantity and quality of water available downstream
for aquatic ecosystems and other use.

With regard to energy, a mining company can look into alternative energy sources such as solar or
wind power. By reducing the energy usage, a mine can reduce greenhouse gases and extend the life of fossil
fuel reserves. You will also be able to reduce the cost to produce the product and thus reduce the cost of the
commodity itself.

Reduce outputs
Mining produces materials such as solid waste, mine water and air particles, all of which vary in
their makeup and potential for environmental contamination. Waste management plans are required in order
to prevent soil, air and water pollution. These plans are also in place to appropriately store the large volumes
of waste produced at mine sites.

To reduce waste output, mines can look at using sustainable equipment. Much of the modern
equipment used today is geared toward being environmentally friendly. Using cleaner production
techniques, environmental control technologies, using waste as raw material and process re-engineering are
other ways to reduce the waste output of mines.

Proper waste disposal

Correct waste disposal is vital to curbing the environmental impact of mines, as some mining
companies do not dispose of their waste according to guidelines. Companies can invest in equipment that
helps in turning waste into reusable material, as well as adopting policies that allow for a eco-friendlier
waste disposal routine.

Water can be reused on mining sites as grey water for washing equipment or flushing staff toilets.
Mining companies should aim to reuse and recycle water as much as possible, and be sure that all unusable
water is disposed of safely and responsibly. Scrap materials can be recycled or sold to companies who can
reuse them in order to reduce the amount of waste produced on site.

Reclamation
Reclamation entails the re-establishing of viable soils and vegetation at a mine site. Although
regulatory agencies may require complex reclamation designs, simple approaches can be very effective.
One simple approach depends on adding lime or other materials that will neutralize acidity plus a cover of
top soil or suitable growth medium to promote vegetation growth. Modifying slopes and other surfaces and

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planting vegetation as part of the process stabilizes the soil material and prevents erosion and surface water
infiltration.

Promising reclamation options in the future may include using sludge, “biosolids,” from municipal
waste water treatment processes as an organic soil amendment, and growing plant species that are more
tolerant of acidic conditions.

1994 (left) and 2001 (right) photos of Gold Cross mining site in New Zealand after undergoing
reclamation and rehabilitation
(http://miningfocus.org/reclaimed-mine-site-gallery/d5lq8car65rz5qa2z0sq7lr9sf6qek)

Soil Treatment
High levels of metals in soils, not just acidity, can be harmful to plants, animals, and, in some cases,
people. A common approach used in dealing with contaminated soil is to move it to specially designed
repositories. This approach can be very expensive and controversial, but it is sometimes required. With this
approach, the volume and toxicity of the soil is not reduced, the soil is just relocated. Effective soil treatment
approaches in the future depend upon better understanding of the risks associated with metals in mine
wastes. These “natural” metals in minerals may not be as readily available in the biosphere, and therefore,
they may not be as toxic as the metals in processed forms, such as lead in gasoline.

Water Treatment
The most common treatment for acidic and metal-bearing waters is the addition of a neutralizing
material, such as lime, to reduce the acidity. This “active” treatment process, which causes the dissolved
metals to precipitate from the water, usually requires the construction of a treatment facility. The ongoing
maintenance that such a plant requires makes this treatment technique very expensive.

Aside from the expense, some active treatment plants generate large amounts of sludge. Disposal
of the sludge is a major problem. Because of the cost and the physical challenges of dealing with sludge,
alternatives to active treatment facilities are needed.

Controlling Smelter Emissions

Smelter emissions, especially sulfur dioxide and
particulate materials, have historically presented
significant environmental problems. Modern smelting
technology has met this challenge by drastically reducing
the amount of emissions. An example is the modernized
smelter built by Kennecott Utah Copper that processes ore
concentrates from the Bingham Canyon Mine near Salt
Lake City. Using technology developed by the Finnish Smelter built by Kennecott Utah Copper
company Outokumpu, this smelter has reduced sulfur that processes ore concentrates from the
dioxide emissions to 95 percent of previous permitted Bingham Canyon Mine near Salt Lake
City

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levels. This smelter, which came online in 1995, is the cleanest in the world. It captures 99.9 percent of the
emitted sulfur.

How Much Have You Learned?

A. Instructions: Arrange the different processes of mining minerals in proper order. Write numbers
1-7 before each item. (1 point each)
____1. Deciding between open pit mining and underground mining.
____2. Mapping the location where minerals can be found
____3. Reclaiming all disturbed ground so that the land will continue to benefit the community
and the environment
____4. Management of the mining operations while observing the regulations that aim to
mitigate the impacts of mining on the environment
____5. Extracting minerals from ore
____6. Weighing potential benefits of the mining
____7. Locating prospective places where minerals can be found

B. Instructions: Circle the letter of the correct answer. (1 point each)

1. Environmental impact of mining which refers to the loss of habitat for flora and fauna
a. Soil Pollution
b. Loss of Biodiversity
c. Damage to land
2. Refers to the valueless rocks and minerals where ore is always mixed with
a. Gangue
b. Ore deposits
c. Sludge
3. Refers to materials covering the mineral deposits
a. Tailings
b. Gangue
c. Overburden

References/Further Learning Materials (online materials)

Reyes, J. A. & Reyes, M. A. (2017). Minerals. Earth Science. Intramuros, Manila. Unlimited
Books Library Services and Publishing Inc.
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-the-environmental-impact-of-the-mining-
industry.html
https://www.ck12.org/earth-science/finding-and-mining-ores/lesson/Finding-and-Mining-Ores-
HS-ES/
https://www.sa-green-info.co.za/portal/article/1633/how-can-mining-become-more-
environmentally-sustainable
https://www.americangeosciences.org/critical-issues/faq/can-we-mitigate-environmental-impacts-
mining

Video References

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62-yS0uXBb0

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