A fuel cell is a 

device that produces electricity through a chemical reaction

between a source fuel and an oxidant. The source fuel could be almost anything
that can be oxidized, including hydrogen, methane, propane, methanol, diesel fuel
or gasoline.
How Fuel Cells Work

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They
produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—
sandwiched around an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode,
and air is fed to the cathode. In a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, a catalyst
separates hydrogen atoms into protons and electrons, which take different paths to
the cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of
electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they
reunite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat

Types of Fuel Cells

Although the basic operations of all fuel cells are the same, special varieties have
been developed to take advantage of different electrolytes and serve different
application needs. The fuel and the charged species migrating through the
electrolyte may be different, but the principle is the same. An oxidation occurs at
the anode, while a reduction occurs at the cathode. The two reactions are connected
by a charged species that migrates through the electrolyte and electrons that flow
through the external circuit.

POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, also called proton exchange
membrane fuel cells, use a proton-conducting polymer membrane as the
electrolyte. Hydrogen is typically used as the fuel. These cells operate at relatively
low temperatures and can quickly vary their output to meet shifting power
demands. PEM fuel cells are the best candidates for powering automobiles. They
can also be used for stationary power production. However, due to their low
operating temperature, they cannot directly use hydrocarbon fuels, such as natural
gas, liquefied natural gas, or ethanol. These fuels must be converted to hydrogen in
a fuel reformer to be able to be used by a PEM fuel cell.

DIRECT-METHANOL FUEL CELLS

The direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is similar to the PEM cell in that it uses a
proton conducting polymer membrane as an electrolyte. However, DMFCs use
methanol directly on the anode, which eliminates the need for a fuel reformer.
DMFCs are of interest for powering portable electronic devices, such as laptop
computers and battery rechargers. Methanol provides a higher energy density than
hydrogen, which makes it an attractive fuel for portable devices.

ALKALINE FUEL CELLS

Alkaline fuel cells use an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide or an

alkaline membrane that conducts hydroxide ions rather than protons. Originally
used by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on space
missions, alkaline fuel cells are now finding new applications, such as in portable
power.
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS
Phosphoric acid fuel cells use a phosphoric acid electrolyte that conducts protons
held inside a porous matrix, and operate at about 200°C. They are typically used
in modules of 400 kW or greater and are being used for stationary power
production in hotels, hospitals, grocery stores, and office buildings, where waste
heat can also be used. Phosphoric acid can also be immobilized in polymer
membranes, and fuel cells using these membranes are of interest for a variety of
stationary power applications.
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS

Molten carbonate fuel cells use a molten carbonate salt immobilized in a porous
matrix that conducts carbonate ions as their electrolyte. They are already being
used in a variety of medium-to-large-scale stationary applications, where their high
efficiency produces net energy savings. Their high-temperature operation
(approximately 600°C) enables them to internally reform fuels such as natural gas
and biogas.

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS

Solid oxide fuel cells use a thin layer of ceramic as a solid electrolyte that conducts
oxide ions. They are being developed for use in a variety of stationary power
applications, as well as in auxiliary power devices for heavy-duty trucks. Operating
at 700°C–1,000°C with zirconia-based electrolytes, and as low as 500°C with
ceria-based electrolytes, these fuel cells can internally reform natural gas and
biogas, and can be combined with a gas turbine to produce electrical efficiencies as
high as 75%.

COMBINED HEAT AND POWER FUEL CELLS

In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce heat. This heat can be used to fulfill
heating needs, including hot water and space heating. Combined heat and power
fuel cells are of interest for powering houses and buildings, where total efficiency
as high as 90% is achievable. This high-efficiency operation saves money, saves
energy, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
REGENERATIVE OR REVERSIBLE FUEL CELLS
This special class of fuel cells produces electricity from hydrogen and oxygen, but
can be reversed and powered with electricity to produce hydrogen and oxygen.
This emerging technology could provide storage of excess energy produced by
intermittent renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power stations,
releasing this energy during times of low power production.
Benefits of a Fixed Fuel-Cell Installation

• It is more efficient than gas or diesel engines.

• It can be used as the primary or the backup generator of electrical power.
• It continuously generates power.
• It can be grid-tied or independent.
• It is fuel-flexible [hydrogen, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, fuel oil,
diesel, methanol, ethanol, biogas (digester gas), and gasoline].
• It functions as a heater (space or water, for example) and a power generator.
• It generates high-pressure steam.
• It is modular (scalable).
• It is easy to install.
• The system can be monitored remotely.
• It operates quietly.
• Reduced dependence on fossil fuels
• High efficiency
• Reduced pollution, particularly carbon emissions
• Relative safety
• Essentially zero toxicity, It generates zero or near-zero emissions.
• Long useful life
• It requires low maintenance.
General Strengths

Reliability and very quiet operation. Fuel cells have no moving parts, which
makes them potentially much more reliable than combustion engines and wind
turbines (and significantly quieter in operation). Stationary fuel cells, in particular,
need very little maintenance (with servicing required once every one to three
years).

Scalability. Fuel cells are modular in construction, and offer consistent

performance regardless of their size.

Small footprint. A fuel cell takes up considerably less space than a comparably-
scaled wind or solar system, and can be sited both outdoors and indoors.

Ongoing Power / Fast Refueling. Fuel cells can be refueled, which is substantially

faster than recharging. Fuel cell vehicles, for instance, can be refueled in 3-5
minutes (just like refueling a gasoline vehicle). Stationary fuel cells can be plugged
directly into a fuel source, and so provide resilient power without interruption.
Moreover, batteries can only be recharged a limited number of times before they
need to be completely replaced—and they contain hazardous materials, making it
expensive to dispose of them properly.

Higher Energy Density. A fuel cell gives more bang per energy buck than a
similarly-sized battery. A fuel cell-equipped electric car could power a typical U.S.
household for two days, something a battery would struggle to do. A fuel cell-
powered smartphone could be left on standby for one week, rather than 1-2 days
for a lithium battery-powered phone.

Lighter. In general, fuel cell systems are lighter than comparable battery systems,
even taking into account the support systems required to store hydrogen.
Energy Efficiency
Currently most internal combustion engines operate with an efficiency around 25%
and power plants achieving about a 35% efficiency; however, a stationary fuel cell,
when used in a combined heat and power system, can have an efficiency level of
greater than 80%.

Hydrogen Production and Distribution

Although abundant on earth as an element, hydrogen is almost always found as
part of another compound, such as water (H2O) or methane (CH4), and must be
separated into pure hydrogen (H2) for use in fuel cell electric vehicles. Hydrogen
fuel combines with oxygen from the air through a fuel cell, creating electricity and
water through an electrochemical process.

Production
Hydrogen can be produced from diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels,
biomass, and water electrolysis with electricity. The environmental impact and
energy efficiency of hydrogen depends on how it is produced. Several projects are
underway to decrease costs associated with hydrogen production.

There are a number of ways to produce hydrogen:

 Natural Gas Reforming/Gasification: Synthesis gas, a mixture of

hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small amount of carbon dioxide, is
created by reacting natural gas with high-temperature steam. The carbon
monoxide is reacted with water to produce additional hydrogen. This
method is the cheapest, most efficient, and most common. Natural gas
reforming using steam accounts for the majority of hydrogen produced
in the United States annually.

A synthesis gas can also be created by reacting coal or biomass with

high-temperature steam and oxygen in a pressurized gasifier, which is
converted into gaseous components—a process called gasification. The
resulting synthesis gas contains hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which
is reacted with steam to separate the hydrogen.

 Electrolysis: An electric current splits water into hydrogen and oxygen.

If the electricity is produced by renewable sources, such as solar or
wind, the resulting hydrogen will be considered renewable as well, and
has numerous emissions benefits. Power-to-hydrogen projects are taking
 off, where excess renewable electricity, when available, is used to make
hydrogen through electrolysis.

 Renewable Liquid Reforming: Renewable liquid fuels, such

as ethanol, are reacted with high-temperature steam to produce
hydrogen near the point of end use.

 Fermentation: Biomass is converted into sugar-rich feedstocks that can

be fermented to produce hydrogen.

A number of hydrogen production methods are in development:

 High-Temperature Water Splitting: High temperatures generated by

solar concentrators or nuclear reactors drive chemical reactions that split
water to produce hydrogen.

 Photobiological Water Splitting: Microbes, such as green algae,

consume water in the presence of sunlight, producing hydrogen as a
byproduct.

 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: Photoelectrochemical systems

produce hydrogen from water using special semiconductors and energy
from sunlight.

The major hydrogen-producing states are California, Louisiana, and Texas. Today,
almost all of the hydrogen produced in the United States is used for refining
petroleum, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods.

The primary challenge for hydrogen production is reducing the cost of production
technologies to make the resulting hydrogen cost competitive with conventional
transportation fuels. Government and industry research and development projects
are reducing the cost as well as the environmental impacts of hydrogen production
technologies. Learn more about hydrogen production from the Hydrogen and Fuel
Cell Technologies Office.
Distribution
Most hydrogen used in the United States is produced at or close to where it is used
—typically at large industrial sites. The infrastructure needed for distributing
hydrogen to the nationwide network of fueling stations required for the widespread
use of fuel cell electric vehicles still needs to be developed. The initial rollout for
vehicles and stations focuses on building out these distribution networks, primarily
in southern and northern California.

Currently, hydrogen is distributed through three methods:

 Pipeline: This least-expensive way to deliver large volumes of

hydrogen is limited as only about 1,600 miles of U.S. pipelines for
hydrogen delivery are currently available. These pipelines are located
near large petroleum refineries and chemical plants in Illinois,
California, and the Gulf Coast.

 High-Pressure Tube Trailers: Transporting compressed hydrogen gas

by truck, railcar, ship, or barge in high-pressure tube trailers is
expensive and used primarily for distances of 200 miles or less.

 Liquefied Hydrogen Tankers: Cryogenic liquefaction is a process that

cools hydrogen to a temperature where it becomes a liquid. Although
the liquefaction process is expensive, it enables hydrogen to be
transported more efficiently (when compared with using high-pressure
tube trailers) over longer distances by truck, railcar, ship, or barge. If the
liquefied hydrogen is not used at a sufficiently high rate at the point of
consumption, it boils off (or evaporates) from its containment vessels.
As a result, hydrogen delivery and consumption rates must be carefully
matched.

Applications 
Fuel cells can be used in a variety of applications, which can be categorized into
three groups:
1) Portable power generation. Compact, portable fuel cell systems can be used to
recharge batteries or directly power consumer electronics (such as laptops and
smartphones). Portable fuel cells can also supply off-the-grid backup power (in
remote locations, for instance) or on-the-go power.
 
2) Stationary power generation. Stationary fuel cells can be an important part of
distributed generation, and are often used as primary or backup power for large
energy infrastructures. They are highly efficient: 50 percent for electricity
generation, and more than 90 percent with heat recovery (plus there is no need for
long transmission lines, with their associated power loss). There are three main
uses for stationary fuel cells: combined heat and power (CHP), uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS), and primary power units.

a. CHP systems range from 0.5 kilowatt (kW) to several megawatts

(MW), and use both the heat and electricity generated by the fuel cell to
maximize fuel efficiency (the heat, which is lost in other systems, can be
used to heat water and/or provide space heating for a building, for
instance). A fuel cell CHP system runs with 80-95 percent efficiency.
More than 120,000 fuel cell CHP units have been installed in
Japanese homes. In the United States, CHP fuel cells have been installed in
grocery stores, hospitals, corporate facilities, and other sites ranging from
200 kW to more than 1 MW.
b. UPS systems are sources of uninterrupted power, and are primarily used
 
as backup power during grid outages. They can replace diesel-powered
emergency generators in critical facilities like hospitals and server farms.
Cellphone towers equipped with fuel cells were able to keep running
during Hurricane Sandy, keeping vital communication links open.
c. Primary power units are large stationary units that can be used to
generate power for facilities or for the grid. Companies such as Apple,
eBay, Macy’s, and Verizon use fuel cells as primary power units. A 14.9-
MW Dominion fuel cell facility—the largest in the United States—was put
into service in December 2013. A 59-MW facility near Seoul in South
Korea is the world's largest.

3) Power for transportation. Fuel cells can be used to power scooters, forklift

trucks, buses, trains, boats, aircraft, and cars. Fuel cell-powered forklifts have been
especially popular, with customers including BMW, Coca-Cola, FedEx, Walmart,
and Whole Foods. Fuel cell cars from Hyundai, Toyota, and Honda have hit or
about to hit the U.S. market (Hyundai was the first to market in June 2014).
Several other automakers are engaged in fuel cell electric vehicle R&D
partnerships. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is evaluating fuel cell
electric bus programs throughout the nation. These buses are nearing the durability
and operating cost targets required for widespread commercialization

System Modeling

CURRENT FUEL CELL CUSTOMERS

Companies using fuel cells to power their data centers include:
Apple – has installed 10 MW of fuel cells coupled with solar panels to power its
Maiden, North Carolina iCloud data center.
Microsoft –Microsoft is also exploring the use of fuel cells for its power-intensive
data center operations. Microsoft has successfully tested a 250-kilowatt fuel
system that powered a row of data centre servers for 48 consecutive hours this
June. Power Innovations had built the system to help Microsoft explore the
potential of using hydrogen fuel cells.
eBay – operates 6 MW of fuel cells powering its South Jordan, Utah data center.
CenturyLink – powers its Irvine, California data center with a 500kW fuel cell
system. Other customers using fuel cells to power data centers include AT&T,
Google, Verizon, JPMorgan Chase, Williams-Sonoma, Cox, the First National Bank
of Omaha, and more.
Leading Fuel Cell & Microgrid Solutions Provider Bloom energy-stationary power
& back-up power History Bloom Energy is an American company started in 2001
as Ion America. Originally Bloom Energy commenced as a research industry that
formed part of the NASA Mars program. Their key motivation is providing energy
solutions in the form of their Energy Servers. Meanwhile its creation in 2001,
Bloom Energy quickly attained venture capitalist funding which allowed them to
develop their technology. Their technology is built on SOFCs and a lot of the
development work that they have done is propriety. In 2006, Bloom Energy
showed their first trial unit, which was a 5 kW SOFC. This was set up at the
University of Tennessee surveyed by additional trials in California and Alaska. In
2008, their first commercial SOFC product was traded to Google. This was a 100
kW SOFC system. In the meantime then, Bloom has sold their Energy Server to
multiple clients including Wal-Mart, Staples, AT&T, The Coca Cola Company,
eBay, Google, FedEx, Safeway, Nokia, Apple and many more.
Achievements
Bloom Energy's biggest strong point has been the capability to market their Energy
Servers to large corporations who are able to easily captivate the high capital cost.
By doing this they have developed brand equity. Additionally, the paybacks of the
Bloom Energy Server mean that the corporations using them have greater strategic
and economic advantages. One example of this is the added value of reducing
carbon emissions. Classically, smaller businesses do not see a large economic
benefit to reducing their carbon emissions and thus have little interest in using a
FC system. Though, a reduction in carbon emissions is momentously advantageous
to these large corporations. Undeniably, these corporations often have to account
their carbon emissions and so executing technology to reduce this helps. Alongside
the direct economic benefits of emissions reductions, organizations can indirectly
benefit from creating a ‘green’ image. In recent years this has seen companies
progress their environmental performance in order to produce a more positive
image. Corporations hope that this will lead to increases in revenue due to
consumers choosing to use their products or services because they are well
thought-out to be green, or at least greener than competitors. In addition to the
benefits of emissions reductions and green image, the energy servers have further
added value over in cumbent solutions. For large corporations like eBay, Google
and Apple a power outage would be incredibly damaging to their business.
Numerous organizations have massive data centers with high power demands. If
grid power fails, these companies need reliable back-up power to be available
100% of the year. Prevailing solutions be made up of of large diesel generators and
battery packs. These systems have a poor cost/benefit ratio, meaning that they are
mounted at a high cost and are not used for much of the year so little benefit is
gained. In addition to this, they are not always reliable and require constant
maintenance even when not in use. A high-profile example of this poor reliability
was in the wake of Hurricane Sandy in 2012.Throughout this disaster, back-up
generators failed including the New York University Langone Medical Centre
causing the hospital to be emigrant, and at a data centre operated by Peer1 Hosting.
Bloom's system is still capital intensive but can be used all year round meaning a
better cost/benefit ratio for the users. The added value provided by the Energy
Server includes; 100% availability of power, higher reliability, quietness, low
vibrations and low emissions. This means that the Energy Servers are an active
asset unlike diesel generators that are dormant much of the year. Notwithstanding
Bloom Energy's great success at selling many units of their Energy Server, they are
still not a profitable company and have been trusting on venture capitalist funding.
But they are predictable to become profitable in the coming years. One of the
reasons that Bloom has been able to continue so long has been due to this venture
capitalist support. Certainly, in 2008, Bloom Energy made a loss of $85 million
(V74 million). In 2012, it was reported that Bloom Energy had received a total
$974 million (V850 million) in venture capitalist funding, making it one of the five
largest recipients of such funding in history whilst at the same time, the retrained
earnings were reported at negative $873 million (V761million) . However, Bloom
is just round the corner to becoming profitable with a quarter-on-quarter increase
in sales revenue and a fast increase in their client base.
Status
At this time, Bloom Energy sells a range of products, which are cooperatively
called the Bloom Energy Server. This SOFC based FC system operates at 980 C
and can be run on a variety of different fuel types. The smallest Bloom Energy
Server is a 100kW system that was reported to cost between $700e800 K (ca.
V550,000 toV620,000). In addition to the 100kW unit, Bloom produces160 kW
and 200 kW energy servers. Therefore far, the majority of customers have
purchased the Bloom Energy Server due to its ability to provide uninterruptable
power. In 2007 (the last year such information is public ally (available), the US
had 240 min of grid black-outs which cost an estimated $100 bn (V87 billion). The
US gas grid, which the Energy Servers utilize, has close to 100% reliability. This,
along with the added values mentioned allows users to capitalize on the benefits of
FCs. For example, eBay installed 6 MW worth of Energy Servers at their Salt Lake
City (Utah) data center site. In this case the Bloom Energy Servers are used as the
primary power source.
For eBay, the main added values of the FC system are as follows:
1. Helps eBay to encounter their targets of carbon emission reduction.
2. Helps eBay to diminish their energy usage.
3. Helps eBay to reduce the cost of obtaining and continuing costly generators and
UPS components.
4. Helps eBay to promote themselves as a green corporation.
5. Provides reliable back-up power.
 The added values of the Bloom Energy Server are therefore attractive to large
corporations, especially in the USA, where power outages are a more common
event and can last between 90 and 240 min. Corporations cannot manage to pay for
to be out of power as revenue will be misplaced. The importance of maintaining
websites 100%of the time is proved by the case of Amazon.com. In 2013 the
website went down for 15e40 min, during this time Amazon is projected to have
lost $1e2.5 million (V0.87e2.18 million) in sales alone. Additional to this their
share price fell by c. 10%. Accordingly, this situation highlights the benefits and
added value of a FC system that works self-sufficiently of the main power grid and
can maintain power 100% of the time. Bloom Energy's success in this market is
comparatively due to incentive support from national and state incentives. In 2010
alone Bloom Energy and its clients established over $200 million (V175 million)
in subsidies from the California Self-Generation Program (SGIP). There are more
than a few levels of support on suggestion from the SGIP, which also fluctuates by
system. FC based generation systems collect a flat rate of $1.65/W (V1.43/W) in
aids as long as the amount of power produced is below 1 MW. Among 1e2 MW
and 2e3 MW, subsidies are $0.83/W (V0.72/W) and $0.41/W (V0.36/W),
respectively. For example, a 100 kW Bloom Energy Server running on natural gas
would receive a subsidy of $165,000 (V143,000) off its purchase price. For
systems above 30 kW, 50% of this subsidy would be paid upfront which would
meaningfully help with installation costs. This means that it is in fact possible to
get a momentous return on investment in 5 years from installation. If run on biogas
the subsidies can rise to $8.25/W (V7.20/W). A comparison of the 100 Kw Bloom
Energy Server to a diesel ICE and battery system can be seen in Table. A
comparable diesel generator would cost roughly $20,000 (V17,500) and a battery-
based UPS that possibly will provide 50 kW of power would cost approximately
$42,000 (V36,000). Characteristically, in data centers a hybrid system containing
of both a battery system and diesel generator is used. The batteries are used for
instantaneous power supply when a power outage occurs. Once on track the diesel
generators are used for the residue of the power outage. A diesel and battery
system would epitomize a lower capital investment. Contempt these lower costs,
Bloom Energy servers are often favorite due to longer run times, less noise and less
CO2 emissions. Bloom Energy Server equated to a Diesel and Battery back-up
power unit.
Diesel ICE Battery Bloom energy server
Purchase price $20,000 $42,000 $700,000
Max nominal 100 kW 50 kW 100 kW
power
Noise 96 db - 70 db
Run time c. 8 h 6.4 min Continuous
CO2 emissions 675 kg CO2/MWh - 386 kg CO2/MWh

HOW SOFC FC WORKS

Operating at high temperatures inside the Energy Server (‘Bloom Box’), ambient
air crosses the threshold the cathode side of the fuel cell. Meanwhile, steam mixes
with fuel (natural gas or biogas) incoming from the anode side to produce reformed
fuel. As the reformed fuel crosses the anode, it attracts oxygen ions from the
cathode. The oxygen ions combine with the reformed fuel to produce electricity,
steam, and carbon dioxide. The steam that is fashioned in the reaction is recycled
to reform the fuel. For the reason that of this recycling process, Bloom’s fuel cells
do not require water during normal operation. On the contrary, thermal power
plants want important amounts of water for cooling. In fact, the number one use of
water in the U.S. is for cooling power plants. To generate one megawatt per hour
for a year, thermoelectric power generation for the U.S. grid withdraws roughly
156 million gallons of water more than our platform. The electrochemical process
also generates the heat essential to keep the fuel cell warm and drive the reforming
reaction process. As long as fuel and air are available, the fuel cells continue
converting chemical energy into electrical energy, provided that an electric current
directly at the fuel cell site. SOFCs are the first (and smallest) component factory-
made for the Bloom Energy Server. The SOFCs are then collective to form a fuel
cell stack and multiple stacks create a Server module (or ‘Bloom Box’). Four to six
modules combine to form one 200-300kW Energy Server that products power in a
footprint roughly equivalent to that of half a standard 30-foot shipping container.
Because the Servers come together like building blocks, the modular design allows
any number of systems to be huddled together in various configurations to form
solutions from hundreds of kilowatts to many tens of megawatts.
CO H2
2 O
Natural Gas

Anode

Electrolyte e
Cathode -
Ambient Air