BID 

206: Structures 2020‐2021 2021‐04‐04

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BID 206: STRUCTURES
Department of Civil & Construction Engineering
University of Nairobi
[email protected]

2 Definitions

 As something which forms a protective cover or casing for an object of living thin, or
which carries weight, or supports or resists loads or forces of some kind.
 A.J Francis (1980)
 Thus structure can be defined as a device for channelling loads that results from use and/or
presence of building to the ground.
 A structure is a physical entity having a unitary character that can be conceived of as an
organization of positioned constituent element in space in which the character of the whole
dominates the interrelationship of the parts.

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6 Natural Structures

 Natural structures include a snail shell, a man’s skeleton, the branches and trunk of a tree, a
spider web. All structure performs a particular function.

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7 Human-made structures

8 Properties of a structure

 All structures perform a particular function.

 Four main considerations are given:
1. Suitability for its functions
2. Serviceability and Safety
3. Good appearance or aesthetic function
4. Economy

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9 Aims of Structural Design

 Must be safe during its lifespan

 Utility – Must fulfil its intended purpose
 Cost – Must be to budget

10 Most common type of stuctures

 Buildings

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11 Primary Structural Elements

 Rigid Elements: beams, columns, slabs, plates and shells having different
curvatures.
 Flexible Elements: Cables, membranes,
 Other elements: Geodesic domes

12 Beams

 Structure formed by resting rigid horizontal elements on top of rigid vertical elements are
common where the beam through bending action, transfers the load to the supporting
vertical columns or posts.

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13 Columns

 The columns, loaded axially by the beams, transfer the load to the ground. The beams/post
assembly can be single or multi-span.

14 Frame

 Composed of beams and columns. Frames have a different structural

action because of the rigid joints that are made between vertical and
horizontal members.
 This joint rigidity imparts a measure of stability against lateral forces that is not present in
the post- and- beam system.
 In a framed system, both beams and columns are bent or bowed as a consequence of the
load action on the structure.
 Can be single or multi-span

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16 Trusses

 Are structural members made by assembling short, straight members into triangulated
patterns. The resultant structure is rigid as a result of the exact way the individual line
elements are positioned relative to one another. The individual line element is subjected to
only either compression or tension.

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17 Arches

 An arch is a curved, line forming structural member that spans between two points. Arches
are subjected to only axial compression. No bending occurs in arches. Arches are often
characterised by their support conditions (fixed, two hinged and three hinged).

18 Walls and Plates

 These are rigid surface forming structures. A load bearing wall can typically carry both
vertically acting and laterally acting loads (wind and earthquake) along its length.
 A flat plate is typically used horizontally and carries load by bending to its supports. Plate
structures are normally made of reinforced concrete or steel.

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19 Spherical shells and domes

 There are a variety of doubly curved surface structures which include portion of spheres
and those that form warped surfaces.
 Loads on shell structures induce circumferential forces in the shell.
 Shell and domes are very efficient structures capable of spanning large distances using
minimum material.

20 Cylindrical Shells and Vaults

 These are examples of singly curved-plate structures. A barrel shell spans longitudinally
such that the curve is perpendicular to the direction of span. When fairly long, a barrel shell
behaves much like abeam with a curved cross section. Barrel shells are made of rigid
materials (RC or steel) A vault, by contrast, is a singly curved structure that spans
transversely. A vault can be conceived basically as a continuous arch.

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21 Cables

 These are flexible structural elements.

 The shape they assume under a loading depends on the nature and magnitude of load.
When a cable is simply pulled at either end, it assumes a straight shape.
 The self-weight of the cable itself produces a catenary curve.
 Suspension cables can be used to span extremely large distances and hence they are quite
often used for bridges, where they support a load deck, which in turn carries the traffic
loading.

22 Membranes, tents and nets

 A membrane is a thin, flexible sheet. A tent is made of membrane surfaces. Shape of the
membrane used with the convex side pointed upward is maintained by internal are pressure
inside the structure which imposes various limitations on the shape that can be formed.
Nets are 3D surfaces made up of a series of crossed curved surfaces.

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23 Structural Design

 It is the determination of the best system or form to bring an architect’s concept into being
by an Engineer.
 Construction in different materials and with different arrangements and systems that may
require investigation to determine the most economical answer.

24 Codes of Practice

 During design the designer is guided by Codes of practice which should not replace his
conscience and competence.
 Eurocode 0 – Basis of structural and geotechnical design
 Eurocode 1 – Actions on Structures
 Eurocode 2 – Design of Concrete Structures
 Eurocode 3 – Design of Steel Structures
 Eurocode 4 – Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures
 Eurocode 5 – Design of Timber Structures
 Eurocode 6 – Design of Masonry structures
 Eurocode 9 – Design of aluminium structures

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25 Structural Design

 A structure is an assembly of members each of which is subjected to bending or to direct

force (either tensile or compressive) or to a combination of bending and direct force.
 Some members include slabs, beams, columns, walls, bases and foundations.
 These primary influences may be accompanied by shearing forces and sometimes by
torsion.
 Effects due to changes in temperature, shrinkage or creep.
 The possibility of damage resulting from overloading, local damage, abrasion, vibration,
frost, chemical attack, and similar causes may also have to be considered.

26 Structural Design

 Design includes the calculation of, or other means of assessing and providing resistance
against, the moments, forces, and other effects on the members.
 An efficiently designed structure is one in which the members are arranged in such a way
that the weight, loads and forces are transmitted to the foundations by the cheapest means
consistent with the intended use of the structure and the nature of the site.
 Efficient design means more than providing suitable sizes there should resistance provided
against all likely causes of damage to the structure.
 Experience and good judgment may do as much towards the production of safe and
economical structures as calculation.

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27 Mathematics

 Complex mathematics should not be allowed to confuse the sense of good engineering.
 Where possible, the same degree of accuracy should be maintained throughout the
calculations;
 it is illogical to consider, say, the effective depth of a member to two decimal places if the
load is over-estimated by 25%.
 On the other hand, in estimating loads, costs, and other numerical quantities, the more
items that are included at their exact value the smaller is overall percentage of error due to
the inclusion of some items whose exact magnitude is unknown.

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 Structural design is largely controlled by regulations or codes but,

 even within such bounds, the designer must exercise judgment in his interpretation of the
requirements,
 endeavouring to grasp the spirit of the requirements
 rather than to design to the minimum allowed by the letter of a clause.

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29 Economy

 whether the anticipated life and use of a proposed structure warrant the use of a higher or
lower factor of safety than is usual; whether the extra cost of an expensive type of
construction is warranted by the improvement in facilities; or whether the initial cost of a
construction of high quality with little or no maintenance cost is more economical than less
costly construction combined with the expense of maintenance.
 The wording of a contract and the experience of the contractor, the position of the site and
the nature of the available materials, and even the method of measuring the quantities,
together with numerous other points, all have their effect, consciously or not, on the
designer's attitude towards a contract. So many and varied are the factors to be considered
that only experience and the study of the trend of design can give any reliable guidance.

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32 Draw the SFD and BMD?

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Feedback
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feedback
[email protected]
4 April 2021

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