EE 360

Electric Energy Engineering

Magnetic Circuits

Dr. Mohammad Al-Muhaini

 Where these course notes come from

• On-Line EE360 Notes

• Electrical Machinery Fundamentals,

Stephen J. Chapman, 2012, 5th edition

• Electromechanical Energy Devices and

Power Systems, by Zia A. Yamayee, Juan L.
Bala. Jr., 1994.

• Prof. M. A. El-Sharkawi’s notes, university of

Washington,USA.
 Magnetic Circuits

200kV-1MV Transmission
transformer

High voltage
transmission line

Transmission
Power plant transformer

Service 15kV-25kV
transformer
Distribution
transformer
Distribution line
120/240V
 Magnetic Circuits
Rotational Motion
• Angular Velocity
(the rate of change in angular position with respect to time)

d m
m =
dt
m Radians/second
Fm Revolution/second
Nm Revolution/minute

• Angular Acceleration ( )
(The rate of change in angular velocity with respect to time)
d
=
dt
revolution/second2
 Magnetic Circuits
• Torque

The torque on an object is the product of force applied and the smallest distance
between the line of action of the force and the object’s axis of rotation.

(a) A force applied to a cylinder so that it passes through the axis of rotation.
(b) A force applied to a cylinder so that the line of action misses the axis of rotation.
 Magnetic Circuits
Ampere’s Right-Hand Rules
• Magnetic field strength can be increased by
making the wire into a coil.
• Magnetic field strength is directly
proportional to
• The number of turns, N
• The current, I
 Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux lines form closed paths that are close together where the field is strong
and farther apart where the field is weak.
 Magnetic Circuits

Flux lines leave the north-seeking end of a magnet

and enter the south-seeking end.

When placed in a magnetic field, a compass

indicates north in the direction of the flux lines.

Magnetic flux
Symbol: φ
Unit: Weber (Wb)
 Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic flux density

The number of magnetic lines per unit area.

-Symbol: B
-Unit: Wb/m2, or simply Tesla (T)

𝜑 = න 𝐵 𝑑𝐴

or simply

𝜑 = 𝐵𝐴
Conditions:
-B is constant
-Flux lines are perpendicular to plane of A.
 Magnetic Circuits
Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
• The ability of a coil to produce flux is called MMF

𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼

This MMF drives through the magnetic core, a flux Φ Weber’s. The flux Φ can be
related as:

𝐹 𝑁𝐼
𝜑= =
𝑅 𝑅

Analogy:
- MMF in magnetic circuits is analogous to EMF (voltage) in
electric circuits.
- As EMF causes current to flow, MMF causes flux to flow.
 Magnetic Circuits

Figure 1-5
Determining the polarity of a mmf in a magnetic circuit
 Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic Field Intensity
• Magnetic field intensity is the MMF per unit length along the
path of the flux
– Symbol: H
– Unit: At/m

• According to Ampere’s Law,

𝐹 𝑁𝐼
𝐻= =
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑐

where 𝑙𝑐 is the mean length of the flux path.

• H is also called the magnetizing force

 Magnetic Circuits
Reluctance
– Symbol: 
– Unit: At/Wb

• The term  refers to reluctance of the magnetic core. The MMF has to drive the
flux Φ against this reluctance. The reluctance of the magnetic core may be given
by the following expression:

lc
=
A
• lc – Mean path of magnetic core
• µ – Permeability of the magnetic core material
• A – Cross sectional area of the core
 Magnetic Circuits
Permeability
• Nonmagnetic materials show a linear relationship between the
flux density B and the magnetizing current I. They are said to have
“a constant permeability”.
• For magnetic materials, B is much larger for the same amount of
current I. That is, they have much higher permeability.
• However, the permeability of magnetic materials is not linear
anymore.
• Thus, the permeability is the property of a medium that
determines its magnetic characteristics.
• Permeability of air (and free space) is o = 4 10−7 H / m
• Permeability of magnetic material is expressed as
 = o  r
where r is the relative permeability of the magnetic material
 Magnetic Circuits
• Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability different
materials.

• For Example, the steels used in modern machines have relative permeability in the
range 2000 to 6000. This means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000
times more flux is established in a piece of steel than in a corresponding area of air.

• Since the permeability of iron is much higher than that of Air, a major portion of the
flux in configuration remains inside the core instead of traveling through the
surrounding Air, which has lower permeability. The small portion of flux that does not
travel through the iron core, but travels through Air path is called leakage flux.

Remember that each ferromagnetic material

has its own relative permeability (μr) and can
be found from manufacturer
 Magnetic Circuits
Summary
Term Symbol Unit Formula
𝜑 = 𝐵𝐴
Magnetic flux Weber (Wb)
𝜑
𝐹 𝑁𝐼
𝜑= =
𝑅 𝑅
Magnetic Field 𝐹 𝑁𝐼
Intensity 𝐻 At/m 𝐻= =
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑐
𝜑
Magnetic flux Wb/m2, or 𝐵=
𝐴
density 𝐵 simply Tesla (T)
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼
Magnetomotive
Force (MMF) 𝐹 A.t 𝐹 = 𝑅𝜑

𝐹 = 𝑙𝑐 𝐻
𝑙𝑐
Reluctance R At/Wb 𝑅=
𝜇𝐴
Permeability µ H/m 𝜇 = 𝜇 0 𝜇𝑟
 Magnetic Circuits
Analogy: F = 
- The above formula for magnetic circuits is analogous to Ohm’s Law in
electric circuits.
- In electric ckts, for a given voltage level, the current through a passive
component is a function of its impedance.
- In magnetic ckts, for a given MMF level (i.e. a given current level through
the coil), the flux through the core is a function of its reluctance.

Magnetic Ckts Electric Ckts

MMF F Voltage V
Flux φ Current I
Reluctance R Resistance R

- Like resistances, reluctances can be combined in parallel and in series (if

core is assumed to behave linearly)
Magnetic Circuits
 Magnetic Circuits
Similar to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we may write, for any closed path in a magnetic
circuit,

Around a closed path in a magnetic circuit the algebraic sum of ampere-turns is equal
to the algebraic sum of the products of the reluctances and fluxes.

Kirchhoff’s current law

Which states that the algebraic sum of all the magnetic fluxes flowing out of a junction
in a magnetic circuit is zero.
 Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap
 Magnetic Circuits

Fringing Effect

• Fringing effect is the spreading

out of the flux in the air gap.
• It is bad since it increases the
effective cross sectional area of
the air gap, thus reduces B.
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 1
• A ferromagnetic core is shown.

• All the sides of this core are of

uniform width.

• The cross sectional area is 16 cm2,

and lc= 40 cm.

• There is a 350 turn coil wrapped

around the left side of the core.

• Assuming relative permeability μr of

50,000

For a magnetic flux density of 1.5 T in the

core, determine

a) The Flux
b) The required current through the coil
 Magnetic Circuits

• A ferromagnetic core is shown.

• All the sides of this core are of

uniform width.

• The cross sectional area is 150

cm2, and lc= 180 cm.

• There is a 200 turn coil wrapped

around the left side of the core.

• Assuming relative permeability

μr of 2500

• how much flux will be produced

by a 1A input current?
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 2
• A ferromagnetic core is shown.

• Three sides of this core are of

uniform width, while the fourth
side is somewhat thinner.

• The depth of the core (into the

page) is 10cm, and the other
dimensions are shown in the
figure.

• There is a 200 turn coil wrapped

around the left side of the core.

• Assuming relative permeability

μr of 2500

• how much flux will be produced

by a 1A input current?
 Magnetic Circuits

Example 3

A magnetic core with a

relative permeability of
4000 is shown in Figure 1-8.

Assuming a fringing
coefficient of 1.05 for the
air gap.

Find the flux density in the

air gap if I=0.60A.
Figure 1-8
The ferromagnetic material in example 1-2 and its
magnetic circuit
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Magnetic Circuits

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Magnetic Circuits
The magnetic circuit is shown in figure 1-8(b).

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Magnetic Circuits
Example 4
Using the magnetic circuit concepts, analyze the toroid coil shown in
Fig. 1. The magnetic circuit is analogous to the electrical circuit shown
in Fig. 2, with a resistance connected across a voltage source.

H Core centreline

R +
 R
N turn coil

i
Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 1. Coil on a toroid iron core

Fig. 2. The magnetic circuit for the toroid coil

Find the expressions for the reluctance and magnetic flux.

University of windsor, Canada

Solution
The mean length of the magnetic path is: l=2R
The cross-section of the core is circular with a radius, r.
Thus, the area of the cross section is: A=r2.

The expression for the reluctance (from Eq. 1-2):

l 2R 2 R
= = =
A r 2 r 2 H Core centreline

The mmf is: =Ni R

N turn coil
 Nr I
2

And the magnetic flux: = =

 2R i

University of windsor, Canada

Example 5
Consider the magnetic core with an air gap as shown in Fig. 3.
The core material has a relative permeability of 6000 and a
rectangular cross-section of 2cm by 3cm. The coil has 500 turns.
Determine the current required to establish a flux density of
Bgap=0.25T in the air gap.
8 cm
Core thickness=3 cm
2 cm 
i +
N=500  Rgap

Rcore
8 cm 0.5 cm

Fig. 3. Iron core with an air gap Fig. 4. Magnetic circuit

University of windsor, Canada

Solution to Example
The mean length of the iron core and the cross-sectional area:

lc=4*6-0.5=23.5cm, Ac=(2*10-2)*(3*10-2)=6*10-4 m2

The permeability of the core is: core=r0=6000*4*10-7=7.54*10-3

lcore
The reluctance of the core:  c =
 core Acore
Air gap cross-sectional area:

Agap=2*3 cm2=6*10-4 m2

University of windsor, Canada

Solution to Example (cont’d)
The permeability of air is approximately equal to that of free space:
gap=0=4*10-7
The reluctance of the air gap = lgap/(gap*Agap)= 6.63*106
The total reluctance = 5.195*104 + 6.63*106 = 6.68*106
Even though the gap is much shorter than the iron core, the reluctance of
the gap is higher than that of core because of the much higher permeability
of the iron. Most of the mmf is dropped across the air gap.

The flux is given by: =Bgap Agap=0.25*8.75*10-4 =1.5*10-4 Wb

The flux in the core is the same as that in the air gap. However, the flux
density is higher in the core, because the area is smaller.

The mmf is given by: = =1.5*10-4*6.68*106 = 1,002

And the required current: i = /N = 1002/500 = 2.004 A

University of windsor, Canada

Example 6
The following figure shows a electromagnet with two parallel air
gaps. Neglecting leakage, iron reluctance, and fringing at the air
gaps, calculate the flux and flux density in each leg of the magnetic
circuit. All dimensions are in cm.

I=0.251 A

4
0.02 0.04
N=1,000
1 1 1
2

University of windsor, Canada

 Magnetic Circuits
Magnetization Curve or B-H Curve

• B vs H relationship is frequently expressed by a non-linear curve called B-H curve.

𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯

• At low magnetic field intensity magnetic flux density increases almost linearly

• At higher values of magnetic field intensity the change of magnetic flux density is nonlinear –
saturation

Note: Do not always assume that µ is fixed. It is fixed only if B vs. H is in the linear region
Magnetic Circuits
 Magnetic Circuits

µ=B/H
µo*µr = µ → µr = µ/µo → µr = B/(µo*H)
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 7

Find the relative permeability of the typical ferromagnatic material whose

magnetization curve is shown at

(a) H=50 At/m

(b) H=1000 At/m
 Magnetic Circuits
Example 8
A square magnetic core has a mean path length of 55cm and a csa of 150cm2. A 200 turn coil of
wire is wrapped around one leg of the core. The core is made of a material having the
magnetization curve shown below.

Find:
a) How much current is required to produce 0.012 Wb of flux in the core?
b) What is the core’s relative permeability at that current level?
c) What is its reluctance?
 Team Problem

A magnetic core has a B-H curve as shown below. Assume a fringing

factor of 1.25 for the air-gap. How much current is needed to establish
an air gap flux density of 0.64T? Assume N=100 turns.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Magnetic Circuits

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Magnetic Circuits

Magnetic Core Losses

Core losses
=
Hysteresis losses
+
Eddy current losses
Magnetic Circuits
Hysteresis

Initial curve
(i: 0 to max)

Magnetization curve
(i: min to max)

The area falling between the two

curves represent power losses
dissipated as heat in the core.
 Magnetic Circuits

Soft vs. Hard Magnetic Material

Higher hysteresis Lower hysteresis

losses losses
Good for Good for machines
permanent
magnets
 Magnetic Circuits
Hysteresis Losses

The area falling between the two

curves represent power losses
dissipated as heat in the core.

The power dissipated in hysteresis losses (Ph) can be expressed as:

Ph = (kh V )  f  Bmax
n
= K h  f  Bmax
n
(W )

A material-specific
Hysteresis Volume of Frequency of Maximum
constant, ranges b/w
constant material supply flux density
1.5 and 2.5
 Magnetic Circuits
Eddy Current Losses
• Core is made of iron
• Iron is a conductor
• According to Faraday’s law, the time-varying flux induces EMFs
and currents within the conductor (i.e. iron core)
• These circulating currents are called “Eddy currents”
• They are large, since iron resistance is low.
• Therefore, they produce power losses, hence heat up the core.

The power dissipated in Eddy current losses (Pe) can be expressed as:

Pe = (ke V )  f 2  Bmax
2
= Ke  f 2  Bmax
2
(W )

Eddy current Volume of Frequency of Maximum

constant material supply flux density
 Magnetic Circuits

• To reduce eddy current losses, the core is “laminated”.

• That is, it is sliced into thin, insulated slices in order to limit eddy
current flow by creating high-resistance path to the circulating
currents.
Laminated
iron core

Insulated
copper wire
 Magnetic Circuits

Leakage Flux

• In magnetic circuits, especially those with air gaps, there is tendency

for flux to “leak out” of the core.

• It is bad since it requires higher MMF (i.e. higher electric current

through the coil) to set up a certain magnetic flux density in the core.

• Fringing and leakage effects are sometimes (but not always!) ignored