SOUTHERN MINDANAO COLLEGES

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
PAGADIAN CITY

CE 121 PRELIM
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Compiler:

ENGR. GERSON RYAN M. SUMAMPONG

Geodetic Engineer
 I. INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest times, it has always been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land. Today, it is
difficult to undertake any type of engineering construction that does not involve in some type of surveying. Planning and design are based on the results of surveys, and
construction is controlled by surveying.
Surveys cover a wide range in scope and complexity from the staking out of simple structures or the surveying of small parcels of land to the extensive and difficult surveys
required in the construction of subdivisions, bridges, highways, canals, dams, railroads, as well as in the survey and exploration of extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon and
the planets.
In the training of a technical student, the study of surveying is an important part even though he may never actually use it in practice. It is one course which trains
students to visualize and think logically, to plan, to work accurately and to arrange the product of these efforts in a neat and orderly manner for record or presentation.
In addition, the student will learn a great deal about the relative importance of measurements. He is trained to decide on how accurate and precise measurements should
be made, and acquire essential habits of checking numerical calculations, measurements, and observations. All these attributes are expected to add to the stature and technical
competence of a future professional.

A. Definition of Surveying
All surveying operations have the same basic characteristics-that of delineating a portion of the earth’s surface or subsurface or of establishing the position or boundaries
of some object upon it,

1. “Surveying is the art of determining the positions on or near the earth’s surface by means of measurement in the three elements of space; namely, distance, direction, and
elevation.” - Rayner and Schmidt
2. “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.” – Davis, Foote, Anderson and Mikhail
3. “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative position of points on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial
features may be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationship.” – Clarke
4. “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of the
boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on paper.” – Webster
5. “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or
to establish such points.” – Breed, Hosmer and Bone
6. “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” – Brinker and Wolf
From the different definitions given above, it is obvious that the surveying activities during the earlier part of the decade have inly been limited to surveys on or near the surface of
the earth. Times, however, have changed and modern surveying techniques are now applied to space exploration and in mapping of extraterrestrial bodies such as the moon,
mars, and in the near future the other planets, stars, and other heavenly bodies in the universe.

“Surveying is the art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to establish form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and
areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied mathematics and the used of specialized equipment and
techniques.”
 II. TYPES OF SURVEYING

Surveys are divided into two general classifications, plane and geodetic.

1. Plane Surveying – is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat surface, and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact
shape of the earth is disregarded. With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level line is considered as mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line is
assumed to be the same at all points within the limits of the survey, and all angles are considered to be plane angles.
2. Geodetic Surveying – are surveys of wide extend which take into account the spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high
precision, and the related calculations involve the solving equations derived from advance mathematics particularly spherical trigonometry, calculus, and some
applications of the theory of least squares.

A. Types of Surveys
Of the different types of surveys, the following are the more commonly executed:
1. Cadastral Surveys
2. City Surveys
3. Construction Surveys
4. Forestry Surveys
5. Hydrographic Surveys
6. Industrial Surveys
7. Mine Surveys
8. Photogrammetric Surveys
9. Route Surveys
10. Topographic Surveys
 III. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE, ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

A measurement is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to a given standard. In surveying, measurements are
usually concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines, areas and volumes.
In surveying, measurements may be made directly or indirectly.
1. Direct Measurements. A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that
kind.
2. Indirect Measurements. When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to be measured, an indirect measurement is made.

ERROR
An error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true value
and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation.
Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot be avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used of by the way in which it is
employed. It may also be caused by the imperfections of the person undertaking the measurement or by natural causes. The effects of errors cannot be entirely eliminated; they
can, however, be minimized by careful work and by applying corrections.

MISTAKES
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgment, and improper execution. Mistakes are also caused by misunderstanding of a problem, inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor.
A large mistake is referred to as a blunder. Mistakes and blunders are not classified as errors because they are usually so large in magnitude when compared to errors.

A. Types of Errors

1. Systematic Errors. This type of error is one which always have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For changing
field conditions there is a corresponding change in magnitude of error, however, the sign remains constant.
 A systematic error will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will accumulate. For this reason, this type of error is also called
cumulative error.
Example:

In making a measurement with a 30-m tape which is 5cm too short, the same error is made each time the tape is used. If a full tape length is used six times, the error
accumulates and totals six times the error (or 30cm) for the total measurement.

In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural causes, and human limitations of the observer.

2. Accidental Errors. These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence of such errors are matters of chances as they are likely to be positive or negative, and
may tend in part to compensate or average out according to the laws of probability. There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error for an
observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same.as for a second observation.
Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying measurements. They remain after mistakes and systematic
errors have been eliminated.
Example:
Failure of the tape man to exert the correct amount of pull on the ends of the tape during a measurement. Sometimes he may exert a pull beyond what is required, and
sometimes less than what is required.
In surveying, accidental errors are usually of minor importance in surveying operations since they are variable in sign and are of a compensating nature.

B. Sources of Errors

1. Instrumental Errors. These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between the
different parts prior to their use.
Example:
Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
Using a levelling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
 Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an instrument whose line of site is not in adjustment.
Sighting a rod which is warped.
Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.

2. Natural Errors. These errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Natural errors are beyond the control of man. However, in order to keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary
precautions can be taken.
Example:
The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in the magnetic declination.
Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.
Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a strong wind.
Error in the measurement od a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors. These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are unlikely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and may vary due to certain circumstances existing during a measurement. Some personal errors
are constant, some are compensating, while others may be erratic.
Example:
Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plum during sighting.
Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel tape during measurement.
C. Accuracy VS Precision

Accuracy and precision are two terms which are constantly used in surveying, however; their correct meanings are often misunderstood. While accuracy may be synonymous
with precision, the two should not be used interchangeably.
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and
their expectations. The difference between the measured value and the actual value represents the total error in measurement.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a quantity.
 D. Theory of Probability
Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the range of possible occurrences.
Accidental errors exist in all surveying measurement and their magnitude and frequency are governed by the same general principles of probability.
The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the occurrence of the errors:
a. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.
b. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally distributed errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental errors.
c. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is, they are equally probable.
d. The mean of an indefinite number of observations is the most probable value.

MOST PROBABLE VALUE.

RESIDUAL
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value

PROBABLE ERROR
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50% chance that the true value
of the measured quantity lies inside or outside the limits thus set.

∑ 𝑉2
PES = ± 0.6745 √
𝑛−1

∑ 𝑉2
PEm = ± 0.6745 √𝑛(𝑛−1)

Where: PES= probable error of any single measurement of a series

PEm= probable error of the mean
∑ 𝑉 2 = summation of the squares of the residuals
n= number of observations

Example:
If 235.50 m represents the mean or mpv of several measurements and 0.10m represents the probable error of the mean value, then;
235.50 ± 0.10m
RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION
The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude of the measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of the measurement. In
surveying, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to define the degree of refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured
quantity in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same units, and the numerator is reduced to unit or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with
other measurements.
Example:
If for a particular measurement, the probable error of the mean is 0.10 m and the mpv is 235.50 m the relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or
1/2355, also written as 1:2355/

WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability under similar conditions. Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and
conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability.
MEASUREMENTS OF DISTANCE
 IV. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

TAPE CORRECTIONS

Errors in Measurement of Distances Mistakes in Measurement of Distances

1. Tape not of standard length 1. Adding or dropping a full tape length.
2. Imperfect alignment of tape 2. Adding a cm., usually in measuring the fractional
3. Tape not horizontal part of tape length at the end of the line.
4. Tape not stretched straight 3. Recording numbers incorrectly, example 78 is
5. Imperfection of observation read as 87.
6. Variations in temperature 4. Reading wrong meter mark.
7. Variations in tension

Rules for Applying Tape Corrections

Measured Distance:
1. Add correction – tape too long
2. Subtraction correction – tape too short
Laying out Distance:
1. Subtract correction – tape too long
2. Add correction – tape too short
TAPING CORRECTIONS

A. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

(to be added or subtracted)

Solution:
Corrected distance = measured distance ± correction
318.103m = 318m + (0.0000116/ ̊C) (x-20 ̊C) (318m)
TAPING CORRECTIONS

B. CORRECTION DUE TO PULL

(to be added or subtracted)

Solution:
Corrected distance = measured distance ± correction
TAPING CORRECTIONS

C. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

(to be subtracted only)

Solution:

(0.91𝑘𝑔) 2 (30𝑚)
Csag = 24 (8𝑘𝑔) 2

OR
0.91𝑘𝑔 2
( ) (30𝑚) 3
Csag = 30𝑚
24 (8𝑘𝑔) 2
COMBINED CORRECTIONS

Problem: A line was determined to be 2395.25 m. when measured with a 30m steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg at a mean temperature of 35 C ̊ .
Tape used is of standard length at 20 ̊C under a pull of 5kg. Cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 sq. cm. The coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.0000116/ C
̊ .
Modulus of elasticity of the tape is 2x106 kg/cm2.
1. Determine the error of the tape due to change in temperature.
2. Determine the error due to tension.
3. Determine the corrected length of the line.
Solution:

1. TEMPERATURE CORRECTION

Ct = (0.0000116m/ ̊C) (35 ̊C-20 ̊C) (30m)

Ct = 0.00522 m
2. TENSION CORRECTION
(4 𝑘𝑔−5 𝑘𝑔)(30𝑚)
Cp = 0.03𝑐𝑚2 (2𝑥106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 )

Cp = -0.0005 m
3. CORRECTED LENGTH
2395.25𝑚
L = 2395.25 + 30𝑚
[(0.00522𝑚) + (−0.005𝑚)]

L = 2395.63 m
TAPING CORRECTIONS

D. CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

(to be subtracted only)
TAPING CORRECTIONS

E. NORMAL PULL OR TENSION