Volcano

A volcano is a vent in the Earth’s crust through which molten rock, is erupted
onto the Earth’s surface. Under the Earth’s surface, this molten rock is called
magma, but once it is extruded, erupted, or flows out onto the surface, it is called
lava. Volcanoes also expel various gases, ash, and solid volcanic rock. 

Volcanoes usually come in the shape of cone-shaped mountains or hills,

however, they can take many other forms as well. They can be steep and rise to
great heights, or be low, wide, dome-shaped and be spread out over a large
area. Volcanoes can also exist underwater in the form of ridges beneath the
surface of the sea. They can be found all around our planet, in all continents
including Antarctica. There is an estimate of 1900 active volcanoes that can be
found on Earth. These volcanoes occasionally demonstrate some sort of volcanic
activity and are expected to erupt again in the future. A large number of other
volcanoes do not pose any risk of eruption at present but may still become active
once again in the future. These volcanoes are called dormant volcanoes. Some
volcanoes are no longer active in the present and have no chance of being active
in the future, and are considered extinct. 
Volcanic eruptions can occur in a variety of ways and produce an equally varied
set of landforms. When two plates collide, the intense heat and pressure
accompanying the collision lead to violent eruptions that form steep, cone-
shaped volcanoes. The cones of these stratovolcanoes are formed by the lava
that builds up after it has erupted from the volcano’s opening. On the other hand,
the pulling apart of two plates allows lava to seep through the space in between.
In the ocean, this gentler flow of magma creates the crust on the seafloor. Above
ground, this creates wide and rounded shield volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions may
at times be so explosive and violent that the upper part of the volcano collapses,
leaving behind a large pit called a caldera. 

Volcanoes are powerful natural forces capable of great destruction and creation.
Volcanic eruptions can eradicate whole landscapes, and just as easily create
new landforms and reshape the land. It is estimated that 1 of every 20 people in
the world (around 350 million people) live within the vicinity of an active volcano’s
“danger range”. Thus, to be able to better predict the onset of a volcanic eruption
and to warn nearby populations of the potential volcanic hazards,  volcanoes
around the world are closely monitored and studied by volcanologists. 

The Distribution of Volcanoes and Plate

Tectonics
Volcanoes most often form along the boundaries of tectonic plates. These
tectonic plates are the massive slabs of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle and
fit together like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Tectonic plates do not stay in the
same position, rather they are in constant movement, albeit at the very slow pace
of a few centimetres a year. Tectonic plates can sometimes collide with each
other, or else move apart from each other. 

The distribution of volcanoes over our planet’s surface is not random. Most of the
Earth’s volcanoes are huddled on the edges of the continents, lining island
chains, or form long mountain ranges that sit underneath the ocean. When
observed from the great distance of space, it can be seen that a majority of our
planet’s volcanoes form linear or arcuate belts over the earth’s surface. Upon
discovering this, scientists have since then considered the theory of plate
tectonics as a logical explanation for the location of most volcanoes. 

The Pacific “Ring of Fire”

Map of the Pacific Ring of Fire
The Pacific Ring of Fire, otherwise known as the Circum-Pacific Belt, consists of
multiple volcanic island arcs, mountain ranges, and tectonic plate boundaries that
line the Pacific Ocean. Many of the world’s active volcanoes can be found along
this ring; specifically more than 450 volcanoes that amount to 75% of the earth’s
volcanoes. The Ring of Fire is approximately 40,000 kilometres in length and
runs along several tectonic plate boundaries. This collection of tectonic plates
include the Pacific, Philippine, Indian-Australian, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca,
and North American Plates. 

The movement of tectonic plates along the Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for the
large amounts of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the area. In areas called
subduction zones, many plates collide and overlap at convergent boundaries
along much of the Circum-Pacific Belt. In these areas, the plate that lies beneath
another is pushed down and subducted by the one resting on top of it. This
action melts the rock that is being subducted and turns it into magma. The large
amounts of magma found so close to the Earth’s surface makes these
subduction zones prime spots for volcanic activity. However, the same cannot be
said of all the parts of the Pacific Ring of Fire. One notable exception can be
found in the border between the North American Plate and Pacific Plate. Here,
instead of colliding, the two plates move sideways in relation to each other,
creating a transform boundary. Although this type of plate boundary produces
barely any volcanic activity, it instead generates many earthquakes and seismic
activity. 
Global Map of Subduction Zones
Plate Boundaries

Plate boundaries are hot spots for both volcanic and seismic activity. As a
specific example, the Pacific Plate is surrounded by the earthquake zones of
Japan, New Zealand, New Guinea, the Mariana Islands, the Aleutian Islands,
western North America, the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise. At
the same time, the Pacific Plate is bounded by the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area of
high volcanic activity, and contains a majority of the world’s volcanoes. 

Tectonic plates move horizontally with respect to each other at the slow rate of a
few centimetres per year. In the margins of two plates, they can form one of three
basic types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, or transform boundaries.
Volcanoes can be found along two of these types, specifically convergent and
divergent plate boundaries, and are typically not found along transform plate
boundaries. 

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Convergent plate boundaries are created by the collision of two plates that move
towards one another. This collision usually results in the denser plate edge being
forced downwards and subducted. As the denser plate edge descends, the
surrounding pressure and temperature increase and the mantle above the plate
melts. The melted rock, or magma, then ascends through the plate, at times
reaching the plate’s surface as part of a volcano. Over the course of millennia,
the magma that rises from convergent plate boundaries can create a series of
volcanoes called a volcanic arc.  
Most of the Earth’s volcanic arcs are located along the Pacific Ring of Fire. This
series of approximately 425 active volcanoes form a horseshoe shape that
straddles the borders of the Pacific Ocean. Under the waters of the ocean, a
series of deep canyons, called trenches, run parallel to mountain ranges and
volcanic islands that rise above the water’s surface. For example, in the Bering
Sea, the Aleutian Trench is situated parallel to the Aleutian Islands that stretch
from Alaska to Russia. These landforms were created as the result of the Pacific
Plate subducting under the North American plate. 27 of the United States’ 65
historically active volcanoes can be found in the Aleutian Islands. 

In South America, the Andes Mountain Range runs parallel to the Peru-Chile
trench. As the Nazca plate subducts under the South American plate, these great
mountains are being built up continuously. The world’s tallest active volcano,
Nevados Ojos del Salado, can be found among the Andes Mountains. Nevados
Ojos del Salado rises to almost 7 kilometres in height (6,879 metres) along the
border between Chile and Argentina. 

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Divergent plate boundaries are found where one tectonic plate moves away from
another. In this type of plate boundary, magma is constantly rising up from the
mantle and out onto the boundary. This process builds new plate material and
both sides of the boundary and is attributed to seafloor spreading. An example of
a divergent plate boundary is the East Pacific Rise. This boundary separates the
large Pacific Plate from the North American, Nazca, and Cocos plates. 

Another divergent plate boundary, called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, is found in the
Atlantic Ocean. This divergent plate boundary consists of the North American
and Eurasian tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. As the plates
move apart, hot magma rises up onto the surface and connects itself to the North
American and Eurasian tectonic plates. As time goes on, the combination of the
upward movement and cooling of the magma constructs tall ridges on the ocean
floor. Together, these ridges connect to form the Earth’s longest uninterrupted
volcanic mountain range at almost 60,000 kilometres long. 

In mid-ocean ridges, vents and fissures permit molten rock and gases to be
released into the ocean. It is also in these ridges where a majority of submarine
volcanoes are located. Per annum, 75% of the average volume of magma that
reaches Earth’s surface is attributed to this submarine volcanic activity. These
ocean ridges can also rise past the surface of the ocean and make landforms. 

Divergent plate boundaries can also be observed on land. An example of this is

the East African plate, which is a single tectonic plate that is being split into two.
To the west, is what is sometimes called the Nubian Plate, which includes much
of the African plate at present. To the east is the Somali plate, which includes the
Horn of Africa and the Western Indian Ocean. The volcanoes Mount Kilimanjaro
in Kenya, and Mount Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of Congo are found
along this divergent plate boundary. 

Hot Spots
Although uncommon, a number of volcanoes also exist thousands of kilometres
away from tectonic plate boundaries. Many scientists through the years have
attempted to explain this phenomenon, however, the prevailing theory is the one
created by the Canadian geophysicist Tuzo Wilson in 1963. In his theory, Wilson
posits that the existence of these volcanoes can be attributed to the presence of
hot spots situated deep below the Earth’s mantle. On their own, these areas of
remarkably high temperatures can melt the tectonic plate above them and create
magma that erupts onto the plate’s surface. 

The tectonic activity caused by hot spots found below the ocean can create
masses called volcanic mounds. Across the millennia, these mounds can grow in
size and eventually rise above sea level to create a volcanic island. Over time,
the volcanic island will move along with its tectonic plate. However, the hot spot
remains in its original place. Once the volcano moves too far away from the hot
spot, it becomes extinct and is eventually eroded back into the sea. Over the hot
spot, a new volcano will once again emerge and develop. This process continues
over time, resulting in a perpetual cycle of volcanism. Over time, a chain of
volcanic islands will trace the tectonic plate’s movement throughout millions of
years. 

On land, the presence of hot spots can also result in the creation of terrestrial
volcanoes. One example of this is the Yellowstone Supervolcano, situated over a
hot spot in the centre of the North American tectonic plate. The hot springs,
geysers, and other geologic activity that can be found in Yellowstone National
Park are largely thanks to the presence of this hot spot. In the past, the
Yellowstone hot spot has also created a string of ancient volcanoes, which now
exist as calderas, that spread across southern Idaho. 

At present, there exists some data in support of the hot spot theory. However,
more recent scientific studies suggest that hot spots may be found in the Earth’s
mantle at much shallower depths than what was initially theorised. Additionally,
these studies also suggest that hot spots do not remain fixed at one point and
may move over periods of geologic time.