ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

&
PULSE CIRCUITS
LABORATORY MANUAL
B.TECH
(II YEAR – II
SEM) (2018-19)

Prepared by:
Mr V Shiva Rajkumar, Assistant
Professor
Mr E Mahendar Reddy, Assistant Professor

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12 (B) of UGC ACT 1956
Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015
Certified Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India
 ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION
To evolve into a center of excellence in Engineering Technology through creative and
innovative practices in teaching-learning, promoting academic achievement &
research excellence to produce internationally accepted competitive and world class
professionals.

MISSION
To provide high quality academic programmes, training activities, research facilities
and opportunities supported by continuous industry institute interaction aimed at
employability, entrepreneurship, leadership and research aptitude among
students.

QUALITY POLICY
 Impart up-to-date knowledge to the students in Electronics & Communication area
to make them quality engineers.
 Make the students experience the applications on quality equipment and tools.
 Provide systems, resources and training opportunities to achieve continuous
improvement.
 Maintain global standards in education, training and services.
 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP

To create and sustain a community of learning in which students acquire knowledge and
learn to apply it professionally with due consideration for ethical, ecological and economic
issues.

PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS

To provide knowledge based services to satisfy the needs of society and the industry by
providing hands on experience in various technologies in core field.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the
help of other multi disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good soft skills and become a
successful entrepreneur.

PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology, education and
research.

PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (PSOs)

PSO1
To develop a student community who acquire knowledge by ethical learning and fulfill
the societal and industry needs in various technologies of core field.

PSO2
To nurture the students in designing, analyzing and interpreting required in research
and development with exposure in multi disciplinary technologies in order to mould
them as successful industry ready engineers/entrepreneurs

PSO3
To empower students with all round capabilities who will be useful in making nation strong
in technology, education and research domains.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multi disciplinary
environments.
12.Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
Laboratory Rules
General Rules of Conduct in Laboratories:

1. You are expected to arrive on time and not depart before the end of a laboratory.

2. You must not enter a lab unless you have permission from a technician or lecturer.

3. You are expected to comply with instructions, written or oral, that the laboratory
Instructor gives you during the laboratory session.

4. You should behave in an orderly fashion always in the lab.

5. You must not stand on the stools or benches in the laboratory.

6. Keep the workbench tidy and do not place coats and bags on the benches.

7. You must ensure that at the end of the laboratory session all equipment used is
stored away where you found it.

8. You must put all rubbish such as paper outside in the corridor bins. Broken
components should be returned to the lab technician for safe disposal.

9. You must not remove test equipment, test leads or power cables from any lab without
permission.

10. Eating, smoking and drinking in the laboratories are forbidden.

11. The use of mobile phones during laboratory sessions is forbidden.

12. The use of email or messaging software for personal communications during
laboratory sessions is forbidden.

13. Playing computer games in laboratories is forbidden.

Specific Safety Rules for Laboratories:

1. You must not damage or tamper with the equipment or leads.

2. You should inspect laboratory equipment for visible damage before using it. If there is
a problem with a piece of equipment, report it to the technician or lecturer. DONOT
return equipment to a storage area

3. You should not work on circuits where the supply voltage exceeds 40 volts without
very specific approval from your lab supervisor. If you need to work on such circuits, you
should contact your supervisor for approval and instruction on how to do this safely
before commencing the work.
4. Always use an appropriate stand for holding your soldering iron.

5. Turn off your soldering iron if it is unlikely to be used for more than 10 minutes.

6. Never leave a hot soldering iron unattended.

7. Never touch a soldering iron element or bit unless the iron has been disconnected
from the mains and has had adequate time to cool down.

8. Never strip insulation from a wire with your teeth or a knife, always use an
appropriate wire stripping tool.

9. Shield wire with your hands when cutting it with a pliers to prevent bits of wire flying
about the bench.
 PART-I: ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
CYCLE-I: SIMULATION USING MULTISIM

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Page No

1 COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER 1
2 COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER 5
3 TWO STAGE RC-COUPLED AMPLIFIER 8
4 CURRENT SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER 11
5 CE-CB CASCODE AMPLIFIER 14
6 RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR USING TRANSISTORS 17
7 CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER 20
8 COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER 23
9 WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR 27

CYCLE-II: HARDWARE EXPERIMENTS

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Page No

1 CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER 30
2 SINGLE TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER 33
3 HARTLEY & COLPITTS OSCILLATOR 36
4 COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER 42

PART-II: PULSE CIRCUITS

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Page No

1 LINEAR WAVE SHAPING 45
A) RC LOW PASS CIRCUIT FOR DIFFERENT TIME CONSTANTS.
B)RC HIGH PASS CIRCUIT FOR DIFFERENT TIME CONSTANTS.
2 NON LINEAR WAVE SHAPING 50
A) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS AND RESPONSE OF CLIPPERS:
I) POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CLIPPERS.
II) CLIPPING AT TWO INDEPENDENT LEVELS.
B)THE STEADY STATE OUTPUT WAVEFORM OF CLAMPERS:
I) POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CLAMPERS.
II) CLAMPING AT REFERENCE VOLTAGE.
3 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR. 61
4 DESIGN A BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR AND DRAW ITS WAVEFORMS. 64
5 DESIGN A ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR AND DRAW ITS WAVEFORMS. 66
6 DESIGN A MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR AND DRAW ITS WAVEFORMS. 69
7 UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR. 73
8 SCHMITT TRIGGER 76
9 LOGIC GATES. 79
R17 Autonomous II B. Tech II EC & PC Lab
Semester Manual
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To determine the gain and bandwidth of a CE Amplifier from its frequency response curve.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
12V
XSC1

Ext Trig
+
R3 3.3kΩ _

A B
__
++
C2
R1 33kΩ

10µF
U1
R5 C1

10µF
1kΩ BC107BP
R6
V1 1kΩ
R2 4.7kΩ
25mVpk 1kHz
0° R4 470Ω C3 100µF

THEORY:
The single stage common emitter amplifier circuit shown above uses what is commonly
called "Voltage Divider Biasing" or “self biasing”. This type of biasing arrangement uses two
resistors as a potential divider network and is commonly used in the design of bipolar
transistor amplifier circuits. This type of biasing arrangement greatly reduces the effects of
varying Beta, (β) by holding the Base bias at a constant steady voltage. This type of
biasing produces the greatest stability.
The Common Emitter Amplifier circuit has a resistor in its Collector circuit. The current
flowing through this resistor produces the voltage output of the amplifier. The value of
this resistor is chosen so that at the amplifiers quiescent operating point, Q-point this
output voltage lies half way along the transistors load line. In Common Emitter Amplifier
circuits, capacitors C1 and C2 are used as Coupling Capacitors to separate the AC signals
from the DC biasing voltage. This ensures that the bias condition set up for the circuit to
operate correctly is not affected by any additional amplifier stages, as the capacitors will
only pass AC signals and block any DC component.
The output AC signal is then superimposed on the biasing of the following stages. Also a
bypass capacitor, CE is included in the Emitter leg circuit. This capacitor is an open
circuit component for DC bias meaning that the biasing currents and voltages are not
affected by the addition of the capacitor maintaining a good Q-point stability. However, this
bypass capacitor short circuits the Emitter resistor at high frequency signals and only RL
plus a very small internal resistance acts as the transistors load increasing the voltage
gain to its maximum.
Generally, the value of the bypass capacitor, CE is chosen to provide a reactance of at
most, 1/10th the value of RE at the lowest operating signal frequency. A single stage
Common Emitter Amplifier is also an "Inverting Amplifier" as an increase in Base voltage
1
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Department of ECE
Technology(MRCET)
R17 Autonomous II B. Tech II EC & PC Lab
Semester Manual
causes a decrease in V

2
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Department of ECE
Technology(MRCET)
out and a decrease in Base voltage produces an increase in Vout. The output signal is
180◦ out of phase with the input signal.

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the CE amplifier circuit
i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources, Ground etc on the
design window.
3. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are formed
at the interconnection points.
4. Connect the two channels of the Oscilloscope to input and output of the circuit and by
using the simulation switch and check the input and output waveforms.
5. Assign net numbers to input and output wires by double clicking on the particular wire
and clicking on the show option.
6. To observe the frequency response, go to simulate-----► analysis ►ac analysis and
select
the start and stop frequencies, select vertical scale as decibels, specify the output variables
and click on simulate.
7. A window opens showing the frequency response on the top and phase response at
the bottom.
8. From the frequency response, calculate the bandwidth of the Amplifier.
9. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer- -►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file. On
opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Frequency(hz) Output voltage(vo) Voltage gain Gain (db)
(vo/vi) Avf=20 log (vo/vi).

Bandwidth of the CE amplifier = fh-fl HZ

EXPECTED GRAPH:

INPUT Vs OUTPUT WAVEFORM

FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND PHASE RESPONSE GRAPHS

RESULT:
The maximum gain is dB and bandwidth is Hz of the CE Amplifier.
QUESTIONS:

1.What is the phase difference between input and output waveforms of CE amplifier?
2.What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3.If the given transistor is replaced by P-N-P, can we get the output
or not? 4.What is the effect of emitter bypass capacitor on frequency
response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is the region of transistor so that it operates as an
amplifier? 7.Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier.
8. How does transistor acts as an amplifier.
9. Mention the characteristics of CE amplifier.

Exercise Question:
1. Find the frequency response of CE Amplifier by changing the bypass capacitor value.
2. Find the frequency response of CE Amplifier by removing the bypass capacitor.
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To determine the Band width from the frequency response of the common source FET
Amplifier.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used for weak-signal
amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The device can amplify analog or
digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET, current flows
along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there is an
electrode called the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called
the drain. The physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical
diameter can be varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode called the
gate. Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications. These are known as the
junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide- semiconductor FET (MOSFET). The junction
FET has a channel consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-channel) or P-type
semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of the opposite semiconductor type.
In P-type material, electric charges are carried mainly in the form of electron
deficiencies called holes.
In N-type material, the charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is
the boundary between the channel and the gate. Normally, this P -N junction is reverse-
biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no current flows between the channel and
the gate. However, under some conditions there is a small current through the junction
during part of the input signal cycle.
The FET has some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor.
Field- effect transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for example in wireless,
communications and broadcast receivers. They are also preferred in circuits and
systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for high-power
amplification, such as is required in large wireless communications and broadcast
transmitters.
Field-effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A single
IC can contain many thousands of FETs, along with other components such as resistors,
capacitors, and diodes. A common source amplifier FET amplifier has high input
impedance and a moderate voltage gain. Also, the input and output voltages are 180
degrees out of Phase.

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the CS FET amplifier
circuit i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources, Ground etc
on the design window. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that
nodes are formed at the interconnection points.
3. Connect the two channels of the Oscilloscope to input and output of the circuit and
by using the simulation switch and check the input and output waveforms.
4. Assign net numbers to input and output wires by double clicking on the particular
wire and clicking on the show option.
5. To observe the frequency response, go to simulate-----► analysis ►ac analysis and
select
the start and stop frequencies, select vertical scale as decibels, specify the output variables
and click on simulate.
6.A window opens showing the frequency response on the top and phase response at
the bottom.
7. From the frequency response, calculate the bandwidth of the Amplifier.
8. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer ►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file. On
opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Frequency(hz) Output voltage(vo) Voltage gain (vo/vi) Gain (db)
Avf=20 log (vo/vi).
Bandwidth of the CE-CB Cascode amplifier=fh fl Hz
MODEL GRAPH:
Input vs Output Waveforms

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

RESULT: We have obtained the frequency response of the common Source FET Amplifier
and also found its Bandwidth to be Hz.

QUESTIONS:
1. How does FET acts as an amplifier?
2. What are the parameters of a FET?
3. What is an amplification factor?
4. Draw the h-parameter model of the FET.
5. What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
6. What is the region of FET so that it acts as an amplifier?
7. What are the differences between JFET and MOSFET?
8. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?

Exercise Question:
1. Find the frequency response of CS Amplifier by changing the bypass capacitor value.
2. Find the frequency response of CS Amplifier by removing the bypass capacitor.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3
TWO STAGE RC-COUPLED AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To study the response of a two stage RC-coupled amplifier and calculate gain and band
width.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
12V
XSC1

VCC Ext Trig

+
R3 3.3kΩ _
R9 3.3kΩ B
A
C4 ++
__

1 C2 R7 33kΩ 6
R1 33kΩ
10µF
10µF U2
U1 8
C1 2 4
R5 5
3.3kΩ 10µF
BC107BP
7 BC107BP
3 R6
V1 1kΩ
R2 4.7kΩ 9
1mVpk 1kHz 0°
R4 470Ω R8 R10C5
C3 100µF 4.7kΩ 470Ω 100µF

THEORY:
As the gain provided by a single stage amplifier is usually not sufficient to drive the
load, so to achieve extra gain multi-stage amplifier are used. In multi-stage amplifiers
output of one-stage is coupled to the input of the next stage. The coupling of one stage
to another is done with the help of some coupling devices. If it is coupled by RC then
the amplifier is called RC -coupled amplifier. Frequency response of an amplifier is
defined as the variation of gain with respective frequency. The gain of the amplifier
increases as the frequency increases from zero till it becomes maximum at lower cut-
off frequency and remains constant till higher cut-off frequency and then it falls again as
the frequency increases. At low frequencies the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite
high and hence very small part of signal will pass through from one stage to the next
stage.

APPLICATIONS:
1. Audio amplifiers
2. Radio Transmitters and Receivers.
 PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the two stage RC
Coupled amplifier circuit i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors.
3. Voltage sources, Power sources, Ground etc on the design window.
4. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are
formed at the interconnection points.
5. Connect the two channels of the Oscilloscope to input and output of the circuit
and by using the simulation switch and check the input and output waveforms.
6. Assign net numbers to input and output wires by double clicking on the
particular wire and clicking on the show option.
7. To observe the frequency response, go to simulate-----► analysis- ►ac analysis and
select the start and stop frequencies, select vertical scale as decibels, specify the output
variables and click on simulate.
8. A window opens showing the frequency response on the top and phase response at
the bottom.
9. From the frequency response, calculate the bandwidth of the Amplifier.
10. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer- ►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file.
On opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained
containing the specifications of all the used components used in the design
of the circuit.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Frequency(hz) Output Voltage gain (vo/vi) Gain (db)
voltage(vo) Avf=20 log (vo/vi).

Bandwidth of the CE-CB Cascode amplifier=fh-fl Hz

CALCULATIONS:

1. Determine lower cut-off frequency and upper cut-off frequency from the graph.
2. Calculate Band width.

EXPECTED GRAPH:

Frequency Response:

RESULT:
The maximum gain is dB and bandwidth is Hz of the CE

Amplifier. QUESTIONS:

1.What are the advantages and disadvantages of multi-stage

amplifiers? 2.Why gain falls at HF and LF?
3. Why the gain remains constant at MF?
4. Explain the function of emitter bypass capacitor, CE?
5. How the band width will be affected as more number of stages are
cascaded? 6.Define frequency response?
7. Give the formula for effective lower cut-off frequency, when N-number of stages is
cascaded.

Exercise Question:
Find the frequency response of 2 Stage CE Amplifier by changing the coupling capacitor to
i) Direct coupling
ii) Transformer coupling
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4
CURRENT SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To determine the effect of feedback on the frequency response of a current shunt
feedback amplifier.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

TO DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE WITH FEEDBACK

1. Open the multisim icon in the system.

2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the current shunt
feedback amplifier circuit i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Diodes, Transistors, Voltage sources,
Power sources, Ground etc on the design window.
3. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are formed
at the interconnection points.
3. Connect the channel of the Oscilloscope to the output of the circuit and
by using the simulation switch and check output waveform.
4. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer ►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file. On
opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.
5. Vary the input frequency from 10Hz to 1MHz with input voltage constant (40mvpp)
and note down the output voltage.
6. Calculate the voltage gain in dB using the formula Av=20 log(Vo/Vi).

TO DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE WITH FEEDBACK

1. Now connect E-F terminals in the circuit.
2. Connect the output of the feedback amplifier to the other channel of the CRO.
3. Vary the input frequency from 10Hz to 1MHz with input voltage constant (40mvpp)
and note down the output voltage.
4. Calculate the voltage gain in dB using the formula Av=20 log (Vo/Vi).

OBSERVATIONS TABLE
1. WITHOUT FEEDBACK
Vi= 40mvp-p at 1kHz

S.No Frequency(hz) Output voltage(vo) Voltage gain Gain (db)

(vo/vi) Avf=20 log (vo/vi).

Bandwidth without feedback=------------

2. WITH FEEDBACK
Vi= 40mvp-p at 1kHz

S.NO Frequency(hz) Output voltage Voltage gain (avf=vo/vi) Gain (db)

(vo) Avf=20 log (vo/vi).

Bandwidth with feedback = ------------

EXPECTED GRAPH:

RESULT:

The Av of the current shunt feedback amplifier is and the bandwidth is without
feedback and The Av of the current shunt feedback amplifier is and the bandwidth is
with feedback.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is feedback?
2. What are the characteristics of feedback?
3. What is meant by sampling and mixing?
4. What are the configurations of feedback amplifiers?
5. What is the effect of feedback on an amplifier?
6. What is the effect of feedback on input and output resistances?

Exercise Question:
1. Determine the input resistance ,Output resistance of Current Shut Feedback amplifier
with and without feedback?
EXPERIMENT NO: 5
CE-CB CASCODE AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To determine the gain and bandwidth of a CE –CB Cascode Amplifier from its frequency
response curve.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
A Cascode amplifier consists of a common-emitter stage loaded by the emitter of a
common- base stage. While the C-B (common-base) amplifier is known for wider
bandwidth than the C-E (common-emitter) configuration, the low input impedance (10s
of Ω) of C-B is a limitation for many applications. The solution is to precede the C-B stage
by a low gain C-E stage which has moderately high input impedance (kΩs). The stages are
in a cascode configuration, stacked in series, as opposed to cascaded for a standard
amplifier chain. The cascode amplifier configuration has both wide bandwidth and
moderately high input impedance. Before the invention of the RF dual gate MOSFET, the
BJT Cascode amplifier could have been found in UHF (ultra high frequency) TV tuners. A
Cascode amplifier has a high gain, moderately high input impedance, high output
impedance, and a high bandwidth.

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the CE -CB cascode
amplifier circuit i.e Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources,
Ground etc on the design window.
3. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are
formed at the interconnection points.
4. Connect the two channels of the Oscilloscope to input and output of the circuit and
by using the simulation switch and check the input and output waveforms.
5. Assign net numbers to input and output wires by double clicking on the particular
wire and clicking on the show option.
6.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------To observe the frequency
response, go to simulate-----► analysis-------------------------------------►ac analysis and select
the start and stop frequencies, select vertical scale as decibels, specify the output variables
and click on simulate.
7. A window opens showing the frequency response on the top and phase response at
the bottom.
8. From the frequency response, calculate the bandwidth of the Amplifier.
9. To obtain the net list, go to transfer--►export netlist and save the net list in text file. On
opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO FREQUENCY(Hz) GAIN(dB)

Bandwidth of the CE-CB Cascode amplifier=fh-fl Hz

EXPECTED GRAPH:
Input Vs Output waveforms
REQUENCY RESPONSE AND PHASE RESPONSE GRAPHS

RESULT:

The maximum gain is dB and bandwidth is Hz of the CE - CB

Cascode Amplifier.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between cascading and cascading?
2. What are the advantages of cascading?
3. What is the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of an n-stage cascaded amplifier?
4. What is the effective bandwidth of an n-stage Cascaded amplifier?
5. What is the preferred amplifier configuration for input stage in a cascade amplifier?

Exercise Question:
1. Observe the Frequency response and bandwidth of n Stage cascaded amplifier?
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6
RC PHASESHIFT OSCILLATOR
AIM:
To determine the frequency of oscillation of an RC Phase Shift Oscillator.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim
DESIGN PROCEDURE:
a) Let R = 10K
fr 1
 whenK  Rc
2Rc6  4K R
1
C
2 10K  6K 6  4 4K
 10K
 0.962nF  1nF
 R  10K ; C  1nF
29
b) hfe  23 
4K K

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
XSC1
VCC
Ext Trig
12V +
_

A B
++ __

VCC R3 3.3kΩ
1
C2
4
R1 33kΩ
10µF
2 U1
C4 C6 C5 C1
6 7 8

1nF1nF1nF10µF
BC107BP 3
R2 4.7kΩ
R5 10kΩ R6 10kΩ
R7 10kΩ
R4C3
470Ω100µF
0

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the RC Phase
Shift Oscillator circuit i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power
sources, Ground etc on the design window.
3. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are
formed at the interconnection points.
4. Connect a frequency counter and click on the simulate button.
5. The frequency of oscillation will be displayed on the simulation window.
 6. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer--►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file.
On opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.

EXPECTED WAVEFORM:

RESULT: The frequency of oscillation of the RC Phase Shift Oscillator is Hz.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is an Oscillator circuit?
2. What is the main difference between an amplifier and an oscillator?
3. State Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.
4. State the factors on which oscillators can be classified.
5. Give the expression for the frequency of oscillation and the minimum gain
required for sustained oscillations of the RC phase shift oscillator.
6. Why three RC networks are needed for a phase shift oscillator? Can it be two or four?
7. What are the merits and demerits of phase shift oscillator?
8. At low frequency which oscillators are found to be more suitable?
9. What are the two important RC oscillators?
Exercise Question:
1. Find the frequency of oscillations by changing the feedback circuit component values
shown below.
Theoretical Practical
S.No R( kΩ C(µF) frequency(KHz) frequency(KHz)
)
1 10 0.01

2 10 0.022

3 10 0.033
 EXPERIMENT NO: 7
CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To design a series fed class-A power amplifier in order to achieve max output ac power
and efficiency.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Multisim
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The above circuit is called as “series fed” because the load RL is connected in series
with transistor output. It is also called as direct coupled amplifier.
ICQ = Zero signal collector current
VCEQ = Zero signal collector to emitter voltage
Power amplifiers are mainly used to deliver more power to the load. To deliver more
power it requires large input signals, so generally power amplifiers are preceded by a
series of voltage amplifiers. In class-A power amplifiers, Q-point is located in the middle
of DC-load line. So output current flows for complete cycle of input signal. Under zero
signal condition, maximum power dissipation occurs across the transistor. As the input
signal amplitude increases power dissipation reduces The maximum theoretical efficiency
is 25%.
APPLICATIONS:
This is used for low power linear applications in audio and wideband RF range, where
high efficiency is not required.
EXTENSIONS:
In series fed class-A power amplifier we have calculated the efficiency i.e. how
efficiently DC- power is converted into AC-power depending on the magnitude of input
signal. Once we design a power amplifier for a particular efficiency, the circuit will not
give that efficiency to all its
input signals of different amplitudes. Hence, depending on the input signal we have to
choose Vcc to obtain a particular efficiency. By employing Transformer coupling,
efficiency can be improved to 50%.The experiment is conducted using low power
transistors like BC107, SL100 only to get familiarity in biasing and measurement. Actual
power amplifiers operate at 1 watt to 100 watts. This will call for operating transistors
high current and small value resistors of greater than 1/4 to 1 watt which are used in the
laboratory. Actual power amplifiers use heat sinks on the transistors.
PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the
Complementary symmetry Class B Power amplifier circuit i.e. Resistors,
Capacitors, Diodes, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources, Ground etc
on the design window.
3. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are
formed at the interconnection points.
4. Connect the channel of the Oscilloscope to the output of the circuit and by
using the simulation switch and check output waveform.
5. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer ►export netlist and save the netlist in a text
file. On opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained
containing the specifications of all the used components used in the design of
the circuit.

OBSERVATIONS:
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of AC output power to DC input
power DC input power = Vcc x ICQ
AC output power = VP-P2 / 8RL
CALCULATIONS:
Under zero signal
condition: Vcc = IBRB +
VBE

IBQ =( Vcc - VBE ) /

RB ICQ = β x IBQ
VCE = Vcc - ICRC

EXPECTED GRAPH:
Vin=1Vp-p
RESULT:
1. The maximum input signal amplitude which produces undistorted output signal is
2. The practical efficiency of the circuit is
3. The efficiency observed is against theoretical maximum of 25%, Since

QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate between voltage amplifier and power amplifier
2. Why power amplifiers are considered as large signal amplifier?
3. When does maximum power dissipation happen in this circuit?
4. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency?
5. Sketch wave form of output current with respective input signal.
6. What are the different types of class-A power amplifiers available?
7. What is the theoretical efficiency of the transformer coupled class-A power
amplifier?
8. What is difference in AC, DC load line?
9. How do you locate the Q-point?
10. What are the applications of class-A power amplifier?

Exercise Question:
1. Try to increase the efficiency of Class A power amplifier using Transformer?
 EXPERIMENT NO: 8
CLASS B COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To find the efficiency of a Complementary symmetry Class B Power Amplifier.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
a) Complementary symmetry Class B Power Amplifier Circuit With crossover distortion

EXPECTED GRAPH:
Output waveform of Complementary symmetry Class B Power Amplifier Circuit with crossover
distortion
b) Class B Power Amplifier circuit Where crossover distortion is eliminated

EXPECTED GRAPH:
Output waveform of Complementary symmetry Class B Power Amplifier circuit
where crossover distortion is eliminated

THEORY:
The Class B amplifier circuit above uses complimentary transistors for each half of
the waveform and while Class B amplifiers have a much high efficiency than the Class A
types, one of the main disadvantages of class B type push-pull amplifiers is that they
suffer from an effect known commonly as Crossover Distortion.
It takes approximately 0.7 volts (measured from base to emitter) to get a bipolar
transistor to start conducting. In a class B amplifier, the output transistors are not
"pre -biased" to an "ON" state of operation. This means that the part of the output
waveform which falls below
this 0.7 volt window will not be reproduced accurately as the transition between the
two transistors (when they are switching over from one to the other), the transistors
do not stop or start conducting exactly at the zero crossover point even if they are
specially matched pairs.
The output transistors for each half of the waveform (positive and negative) will each
have a 0.7 volt area in which they will not be conducting resulting in both transistors
being "OFF" at the same time.
A simple way to eliminate crossover distortion in a Class B amplifier is to add two
small voltage sources to the circuit to bias both the transistors at a point slightly
above their cut- off point.. However, it is impractical to add additional voltage
sources to the amplifier circuit so pn-junctions are used to provide the additional bias
in the form of silicon diodes.
We know that we need the base-emitter voltage to be greater than 0.7v for a silicon
bipolar transistor to start conducting, so if we were to replace the two voltage divider
biasing resistors connected to the base terminals of the transistors with two silicon
Diodes, the biasing voltage applied to the transistors would now be equal to the
forward voltage drop of the diode. These two diodes are generally called Biasing Diodes
or Compensating Diodes and are chosen to match the characteristics of the matching
transistors.

OBSERVATIONS:
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
ICQ= Vcc
2R
L

Vcc 2
Pin(D.C)= 2R
L

Vma  Vmin  (I max  I min )

Pout(A.C)= x
8
(Imax  I Vcc
mi )=R
n
L

Vmax Vmin  =VCC

VCC VCC VCC 2
Pout(A.C)= 
8RL 8R L
2
VCC
Pout ( A.C)
8RL 100

%efficiency=  100  78.5%
100  V
Pi (D.C) 2
CC
4
n 2RL
PRACTICAL
CALCULATIONS:
Pout ( A.C)
%efficiency = 100
Pin (D.C)
Vac  I ac
=
VCC  100
I
DC
 RESULT:
The efficiency of Complementary Symmetry Class B Power Amplifier is %.
QUESTIONS:
1. Explain complementary and symmetry concept?
2. What is the conduction angle in class B operation?
3. What is the efficiency of class B power amplifier?
4. What is the formula for output power in class B power amplifier

Exercise Question:
1. Eliminate the crossover distortion in Class B Power amplifier using Diode?
 EXPERIMENT NO: 9
WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

AIM:
To determine the frequency of oscillations of a Wien Bridge Oscillator using PSPICE or
MULTISIM
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
12V
XSC1
VCC
Ext Trig
R4 +
R3 1.2kΩ
7 1kΩ R9 2.2kΩ _

A B
++ __
C2 R7
5 R1 10kΩ 1 15kΩ 6 C4

10µF
R11 C6 8 10µF
10kΩ 0.01µF U1
U2
3
BC107BP
BC107BP

R2 2.7kΩ R6 2.2kΩ 9
R5
C3
0.01µF R8R10C5 2.7kΩ 1kΩ 100µF
2 1kΩ

EXPECTED GRAPH:
THEORY:
A Wien bridge oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves. It
can generate a large range of frequencies. The oscillator is based on a bridge circuit
originally developed by Max Wien in 1891 for the measurement of impedances. The
bridge comprises four resistors and two capacitors. The oscillator can also be viewed as
a positive gain amplifier combined with a band pass filter that provides positive
feedback. Automatic gain control, intentional non-linearity and incidental non-linearity
limit the output amplitude in various implementations of the oscillator.
PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the WEIN
BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
3. Circuit i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources,
Ground etc on the design window.
4. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are
formed at the interconnection points.
5. Connect a frequency counter and click on the simulate button.
6. The frequency of oscillation will be displayed on the simulation window.
7. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer--►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file.
On opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.

RESULT: The frequency of oscillation of the RC Phase Shift Oscillator is Hz.

QUESTIONS:
1. Which components basically determine the frequency of oscillation in Wien
Bridge Oscillator?
2. What is the expression for frequency of oscillation in Wien bridge oscillator?
3. What are the advantages of Wien bridge oscillator over turned L-C oscillators?
4. What are the typical applications of Wien bridge oscillator?

Exercise Question:
Find the frequency of oscillations by changing the bridge circuit component values shown
below.
Theoretical Practical
S.No R1 R2 C1(µF) C2(µF) frequency(KHz) frequency(KHz)
kΩ kΩ
1 10 8.2 0.01 0.01

2 10 8.2 0.022 0.022

3 10 8.2 0.033 0.033

 PART-II
HARDWARE EXPERIMENTS
 EXPERIMENT NO: 1
CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To design a series fed class-A power amplifier in order to achieve max output ac power
and efficiency.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Class-A power amplifier kit, C.R.O, Function Generator,
Connecting probes.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The above circuit is called as “series fed” because the load RL is connected in series
with transistor output. It is also called as direct coupled amplifier.
ICQ = Zero signal collector current
VCEQ = Zero signal collector to emitter voltage
Power amplifiers are mainly used to deliver more power to the load. To deliver
more power it requires large input signals, so generally power amplifiers are preceded
by a series of voltage amplifiers. In class-A power amplifiers, Q-point is located in the
middle of DC-load line. So output current flows for complete cycle of input signal. Under
zero signal condition, maximum power dissipation occurs across the transistor. As the
input signal amplitude increases power dissipation reduces The maximum theoretical
efficiency is 25%.
APPLICATIONS:
This is used for low power linear applications in audio and wideband RF range,
where high efficiency is not required.

EXTENSIONS:
In series fed class-A power amplifier we have calculated the efficiency i.e. how
efficiently DC- power is converted into AC-power depending on the magnitude of input
signal. Once we design a power amplifier for a particular efficiency, the circuit will not
give that efficiency to all its input signals of different amplitudes. Hence, depending on
the input signal we have to choose Vcc to obtain a particular efficiency. By employing
Transformer coupling, efficiency can be improved to 50%.The experiment is conducted
using low power transistors like BC107, SL100 only to get familiarity in biasing and
measurement. Actual power amplifiers operate at 1 watt to 100 watts. This will call for
operating transistors high current and small value resistors of greater than 1/4 to 1 watt
which are used in the laboratory. Actual power amplifiers use heat sinks on the
transistors.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply an input voltage of 1vp-p at 1 KHz at input terminals of the circuit from the
function generator.
3. Keep the input signal at constant frequency under mid frequency region and
adjust the amplitude such that output voltage is undistorted and output current
flows for 3600
4. Calculate the power efficiency and compare it with theoretical efficiency.
OBSERVATIONS:
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of AC output power to DC input
power DC input power = Vcc x ICQ
AC output power = VP-P2 / 8RL
CALCULATIONS:
Under zero signal
condition: Vcc = IBRB +
VBE

IBQ =( Vcc - VBE ) /

RB ICQ = β x IBQ
VCE = Vcc - ICRC
EXPECTED GRAPH:
Vin=1Vp-p
RESULT:
1. The maximum input signal amplitude which produces undistorted output signal is
2. The practical efficiency of the circuit is
3. The efficiency observed is against theoretical maximum of 25%, since

QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate between voltage amplifier and power amplifier
2. Why power amplifiers are considered as large signal amplifier?
3. When does maximum power dissipation happen in this circuit?
4. What is the maximum theoretical efficiency?
5. Sketch wave form of output current with respective input signal.
6. What are the different types of class-A power amplifiers available?
7. What is the theoretical efficiency of the transformer coupled class-A power
amplifier?
8. What is difference in AC, DC load line?
9. How do you locate the Q-point?
10. What are the applications of class-A power amplifier?

Exercise Question:
1. Try to increase the efficiency of Class A power amplifier using Transformer?
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2
SINGLE TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To determine the resonant frequency and bandwidth of a tuned amplifier.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Tuned voltage amplifier kit, Function generator, CRO, connecting probes.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
A tuned amplifier is one which uses one or more parallel tuned circuit as the load
impedance. A tuned amplifier is capable of amplifying a signal over a narrow band of
frequencies. The gain of a tuned amplifier is maximum at the resonant frequency and it
falls sharply below and above the resonant frequency. At the resonant frequency, the
inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
1
fo 
2LC
PROCEDURE:
1. Apply an input voltage of 1vp -p at 1 kHz from the function generator at the
input terminals of the Tuned voltage amplifier and observe the signal on the
CRO.
2. Connect the output of the circuit to the channel of the CRO.
3. Note down the output voltage.
4. Calculate the voltage gain in dB using the formula Av=20 log (Vo/Vi).
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO FREQUENCY(Hz) OUTPUT VOLTAGE GAIN (dB)

VOLTAGE GAIN Avf=20 log
(Vo) (Avf=Vo/Vi) (Vo/Vi).

Bandwidth of the CE amplifier = fh-fl HZ

EXPECTED GRAPH:
RESULT:
The maximum gain is dB, the resonant frequency is Hz and bandwidth is
Hz of the Tuned Amplifier.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is a tuned amplifier?
2. What is the formula for resonant frequency of a tuned amplifier?
3. What is the difference between single, double and stagger tuned amplifiers?

Exercise Question:
1. By changing the tuned circuit components set the center frequency to 10 Khz
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3 (A)
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
AIM:
To determine the frequency of oscillations of the Hartley oscillator
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Hartley Oscillator kit, CRO, Connecting
probes. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
12V

VCC XFC1
R3 3.3kΩ 123
C2

R1 33kΩ 1
4

10µF
2 U1
C1

10µF
BC107BP 3

R2 4.7kΩ
C3 100µF
R4 470Ω

L1 L2
100mH 100mH
5

C4

10µF

THEORY:
The Hartley oscillator is distinguished by a tank circuit consisting of two series-connected
coils in parallel with a capacitor, with the feedback signal needed for oscillation taken
from the center connection between the coils; the coils act as a voltage divider. The
Hartley oscillator is the dual of the Colpitts oscillator which uses a voltage divider made
of two capacitors rather than two inductors. Although there is no requirement for there to
be mutual coupling between the two coil segments, the circuit is usually implemented
using a tapped coil, with the feedback taken from the tap, as shown here. The optimal
tapping point (or ratio of coil inductances) depends on the amplifying device used, which
may be a bipolar junction transistor, FET, triode, or amplifier of almost any type (non-
inverting in this case, although variations of the circuit with an earthed centre-point and
feedback from an inverting amplifier or the collector/drain of a transistor are also
common), but a Junction FET (shown) or triode is often employed as a good degree of
amplitude stability (and thus distortion reduction) can be achieved with a simple grid
leak resistor-capacitor combination in series with the gate or grid (see the Scott circuit
below) thanks to diode conduction on signal peaks building up enough negative bias to
limit amplification. The frequency of oscillation is approximately the resonant frequency of
the tank
circuit. If the capacitance of the tank capacitor is C and the total inductance of the
tapped coil is L then

If two uncoupled coils of inductance L1 and L2 are used then

However if the two coils are magnetically coupled the total inductance will be greater
because of mutual inductance

The actual oscillation frequency will be slightly lower than given above, because of
parasitic capacitance in the coil and loading by the transistor.
Advantages of the Hartley oscillator include:
1. The frequency may be adjusted using a single variable capacitor, one side of
which can be earthed
2. The output amplitude remains constant over the frequency range
3. Either a tapped coil or two fixed inductors are needed, and very few other
components
4. Easy to create an accurate fixed-frequency Crystal oscillator variation by
replacing the capacitor with a (parallel-resonant) quartz crystal or replacing
the top half of the tank circuit with a crystal and grid-leak resistor (as in the
Tri-set oscillator).

Disadvantages include:
Harmonic-rich output if taken from the amplifier and not directly from the LC circuit
(unless amplitude -stabilization circuitry is employed).

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the output of the Hartley Oscillator kit to the CRO.
3. Observe the sinusoidal signal as an output and note down the time period of the
oscillation.
4. Compare the practical frequency with the theoretical frequency.

EXPECTED GRAPH:
OBSERVATIONS:
i. Theoretical frequency of
oscillation: L1=L2=C=

ii. Practical frequency of

oscillation: T=
fo=1/ T= Hz
RESULT:
The theoretical and practical frequency of oscillation of the Hartley Oscillator is calculated as
and .

Exercise Question:
Find the frequency of oscillations by changing the feedback circuit component values
shown below.
Theoretical Practical
S.No L1 mH L2 mH C1(µF) frequency(KHz) frequency(KHz)

1 5 5 0.01

2 5 5 0.022

3 5 5 0.033
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3 (B)
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
AIM:
To determine the frequency of oscillation of a Colpitts Oscillator
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Colpitts Oscillator kit, CRO, Connecting
probes CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VCC
12
V XSC1

Ext Trig
VCC +
R3 _

3.3kΩ A
__
B
++

R1 1 C2
33kΩ 4

10µF XFC1
U1 123
C1 2

10µF
BC107BP
3

R2
4.7kΩ C3
R4 100µF
470Ω

C5
C6

10µF
5
10µF

L1
100mH

THEORY:
The Colpitts circuit, like other LC oscillators, consists of a gain device (such as a bipolar
junction transistor, field effect transistor, operational amplifier, or vacuum tube) with its
output connected to its input in a feedback loop containing a parallel LC circuit (tuned
circuit) which functions as a bandpass filter to set the frequency of oscillation. Colpitts
oscillator is the electrical dual of a Hartley oscillator, where the feedback signal is taken
from an "inductive" voltage divider consisting of two coils in series (or a tapped coil). Fig. 1
shows the common-base Colpitts circuit. L and the series combination of C1 and C2 form
the parallel resonant tank circuit which determines the frequency of the oscillator. The
voltage across C2 is applied to the base-emitter junction of the transistor, as feedback
to create oscillations. Here the voltage across C1 provides feedback. The frequency of
oscillation is approximately the resonant frequency of the LC circuit, which is the series
combination of the two capacitors in parallel with the inductor.
The actual frequency of oscillation will be slightly lower due to junction capacitances
and resistive loading of the transistor.
As with any oscillator, the amplification of the active component should be marginally
larger than the attenuation of the capacitive voltage divider, to obtain stable operation.
Thus, a Colpitts oscillator used as a variable frequency oscillator (VFO) performs best when
a variable inductance is used for tuning, as opposed to tuning one of the two capacitors.
If tuning by variable capacitor is needed, it should be done via a third capacitor
connected in parallel to the inductor (or in series as in the Clapp oscillator).
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the output of the Colpitts Oscillator kit to the CRO.
3. Observe the sinusoidal signal as an output and note down the time period of the
oscillation.
4. Compare the practical frequency with the theoretical frequency.
EXPECTED GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:
I. THEORETICAL FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:
C1=C2=L=
II. PRACTICAL FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATION:
T=
fo =1/ T= Hz
RESULT:
The theoretical and practical frequency of oscillation of the Colpitts Oscillator is calculated as
and .

QUESTIONS:
1. What is an Oscillator?
2. What is the main difference between an amplifier and an
oscillator? 3.State Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.
4. State the factors on which oscillators can be classified.
5. What are the factors which contribute to change in frequency in oscillators?
Exercise Question:
Find the frequency of oscillations by changing the feedback circuit component values
shown below.
Theoretical Practical
S.No L C1(µF) C2(µF) frequency(KHz) frequency(KHz)
(mH)
1 5 0.01 0.01

2 5 0.01 0.022

3 5 0.01 0.033

EXPERIMENT NO: 4
COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To determine the Band width from the frequency response of the common source FET
Amplifier.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Common source hardware kit, function generator, CRO, Connecting probes

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used for weak-signal

amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The device can amplify analog or
digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET, current flows
along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there is an
electrode called the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called
the drain. The physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical
diameter can be varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode called the
gate. Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications. These are known as the
junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide- semiconductor FET (MOSFET). The junction
FET has a channel consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-channel) or P-type
semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of the opposite semiconductor type.
In P-type material, electric charges are carried mainly in the form of electron
deficiencies called holes.
In N-type material, the charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is
the boundary between the channel and the gate. Normally, this P -N junction is reverse-
biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no current flows between the channel and
the gate. However, under some conditions there is a small current through the junction
during part of the input signal cycle.
The FET has some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor.
Field- effect transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for example in wireless,
communications and broadcast receivers. They are also preferred in circuits and
systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for high-power
amplification, such as is required in large wireless communications and broadcast
transmitters.
Field-effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A single
IC can contain many thousands of FETs, along with other components such as resistors,
capacitors, and diodes. A common source amplifier FET amplifier has high input
impedance and a moderate voltage gain. Also, the input and output voltages are 180
degrees out of Phase.

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the multisim icon in the system.
2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the CS FET amplifier
circuit i.e. Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources, Ground etc
on the design window. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that
nodes are formed at the interconnection points.
3Connect the two channels of the Oscilloscope to input and output of the circuit and by
using the simulation switch and check the input and output waveforms.
4. Assign net numbers to input and output wires by double clicking on the particular
wire and clicking on the show option.
5. To observe the frequency response, go to simulate-----► analysis ►ac analysis and
select
the start and stop frequencies, select vertical scale as decibels, specify the output variables
and click on simulate.
6.A window opens showing the frequency response on the top and phase response at
the bottom.
7. From the frequency response, calculate the bandwidth of the Amplifier.
8. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer ►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file. On
opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Frequency(hz) Output voltage(vo) Voltage gain (vo/vi) Gain (db)
Avf=20 log (vo/vi).
Bandwidth of the CE-CB Cascode amplifier=fh-fl Hz
MODEL GRAPH:
Input vs Output Waveforms

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

RESULT: We have obtained the frequency response of the common Source FET Amplifier
and also found its Bandwidth to be Hz.

QUESTIONS:
1. How does FET acts as an amplifier?
2. What are the parameters of a FET?
3. What is an amplification factor?
4. Draw the h-parameter model of the FET.
5. What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
6. What is the region of FET so that it acts as an amplifier?
7. What are the differences between JFET and MOSFET?
8. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?

Exercise Question:
1. Find the frequency response of CS Amplifier by changing the bypass capacitor value.
2. Find the frequency response of CS Amplifier by removing the bypass capacitor.
 EXPERIMENT NO-1
LINEAR WAVE
SHAPING

AIM:
i) To observe the response of the designed low pass RC circuit for the given square
waveform for T<<RC, T=RC and T>>RC.

ii) To observe the response of the designed high pass RC circuit for the given square
waveform For T<<RC, T=RC and T>>RC.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 1KΩ,10 KΩ,100
Resistors KΩ 1
2 Capacitors 0.01µF 1
3 CRO 20MHz 1
4 Function generator 1MHz 1
5 Connecting Wires As
Required

THEORY:

The process whereby the form of a non sinusoidal signal is altered by

transmission through a linear network is called “linear wave shaping”. An ideal low pass
circuit is one that allows all the input frequencies below a frequency called cutoff
frequency fc and attenuates all those above this frequency. For practical low pass circuit
(Fig.1) cutoff is set to occur at a frequency where the gain of the circuit falls by 3 dB
from its maximum at very high frequencies the capacitive reactance is very small, so the
output is almost equal to the input and hence the gain is equal to 1. Since circuit
attenuates low frequency signals and allows high frequency signals with little or no
attenuation, it is called a high pass circuit.
In high pass RC circuit, if the time constant is very small in comparison with the
time required for the input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit is called a
“Differentiator”. Under these circumstances the voltage drop across R will be very
small in comparison with the drop across C. Hence we may consider that
the total input Vi appears across C. So that the current is determined entirely by the
capacitor. In low pass circuit, if the time constant is very large in comparison with the
time required for the input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit is called an
“integrator”. Under these circumstances the voltage drop across C will be very small in
comparison to the drop across R and almost the total input Vi appears across R.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
LOW PASS RC CIRCUIT:

HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (fig.1.1 and fig 1.2).

2. Apply the Square wave input to this circuit (Vi = 2 VP-P, f = 1KHz)
3. Observe the output waveform for (a) RC = T, (b) RC<<T, (c) RC>>T
4. Verify the values with theoretical calculations

Calculation:

(a)RC = T

(b) RC<<T

(c) RC>>T
LOW PASS RC CIRCUIT:
R17 Autonomous II B. Tech II EC & PC Lab
Semester Manual

HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT:

48
Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Department of ECE
Technology(MRCET)
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections should be made carefully.

2. Verify the circuit connections before giving supply.
3. Take readings without any parallax error.

Result:

RC low pass and high pass circuits are designed, frequency response and response at
different time constants is observed.
Viva Questions:
1. Define linear wave shaping?
2. When does the low pass circuit act as integrator?
3. When does the high pass circuit acts as a differentiator?

Exercise Questions:

1. Design an ideal 1 micro second pulse is fed to an amplifier and draw output wave
form under the following conditions: the upper 3db frequency is a) 10MHZ b) 1MHZ c)
0.1MHZ
 EXPERIMENT NO-2
NON LINEAR WAVE SHAPPING-CLIPPERS

AIM: To obtain the output and transfer characteristics of various diode clipper circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors 4.7KΩ 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires As
Required
5 Diode 1N4007 2
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1

THEORY:
The basic action of a clipper circuit is to remove certain portions of the waveform,
above or below certain levels as per the requirements. Thus the circuits which are used
to clip off unwanted portion of the waveform, without distorting the remaining part of the
waveform are called clipper circuits or Clippers. The half wave rectifier is the best and
simplest type of clipper circuit which clips off the positive/negative portion of the input
signal. The clipper circuits are also called limiters or slicers.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

POSITIVE PEAK CLIPPER WITH REFERENCE VOLTAGE, V=2V

POSITIVE BAISE CLIPPER WITH REFERENCE VOLTAGE, V=2V

NEGATIVE BAISE CLIPPER WITH REFERENCE VOLTAGE, V=-2V

NEGATIVE PEAK CLIPPER WITH REFERENCE VOLTAGE, V=-2V

 CLIPPING AT TWO INDEPENDENT LEVELS :( SLICCER)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram shown in Fig.1

2. Obtain a sine wave of constant amplitude 8 V p-p from function generator and apply as
input to the circuit.
3. Observe the output waveform and note down the amplitude at which clipping occurs.
4. Draw the observed output waveforms.
5. To obtain the transfer characteristics apply dc voltage at input terminals and vary the
voltage insteps of 1V up to the voltage level more than the reference voltage and note
down the corresponding voltages at the output.
6. Plot the transfer characteristics between output and input voltages.
7. Repeat the steps 1 to 5 for all other circuits.

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:

Positive peak clipper:

Vr=2v, Vγ=0.6v
When the diode is forward biased Vo =Vr+ Vγ =
2.6v When the diode is reverse biased the
Vo=Vi

Positive base clipper:

Vr=2v, Vγ=0.6v
When the diode is forward biased Vo=Vr –Vγ =
1.4v When the diode is reverse biased Vo=Vi .

Negative base clipper:

Vr=2v, Vγ=0.6v
When the diode is forward biased Vo = -Vr+ Vγ =
-1.4v When the diode is reverse biased Vo=Vi .
Negative peak clipper:
Vr=2v, Vγ=0.6v
When the diode is forward biased Vo= -(Vr+ Vγ) =-
2.6v When the diode is reverse biased Vo=Vi .

Slicer:

When the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased Vo= Vr+ V γ
=2.6v When the diode D2 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased Vo=-(Vr+
Vγ) =-2.6v When the diodes D1 &D2 are reverse biased Vo=Vi .

MODEL WAVE FORMS AND TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

POSITIVE PEAK CLIPPER: REFERENCE VOLTAGE V=2V

POSITIVE BASE CLIPPER: REFERENCE VOLTAGE V=2

NEGATIVE BASE CLIPPER: REFERENCE VOLTAGE V=2V

NEGATIVE PEAK CLIPPER: REFERENCE VOLTAGE V=2V

SLICER CIRCUIT:
 PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections should be made carefully.

2. Verify the circuit before giving supply.
3. Take readings without any parallax error.

RESULT:

Performance of different clipping circuits is observed and their transfer characteristics

are obtained.
VIVA:
1. In the fig.1 if reference voltage is 0v then what will be the output?
2. What are the other names for the clippers?
Exercise Questions:

1) Determine VO for the network shown in Figure.1 for the given 16V P-P sine wave
input. Also sketch the transfer characteristics. (Assume ideal diodes)

Figure.1
2) For the circuit shown in Figure.1, a sine wave input of 100V peak is applied. Sketch
the output voltage V to the same time scale & transfer characteristic. Assume ideal
diodes.
O

.
 EXPERIMENT NO-3
NON LINEAR WAVE SHAPPING-CLAMPERS
AIM: To verify the output of different diode clamping circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors 100KΩ,1kΩ 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
5 Diode 1N4007 1
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
7 Capacitor 0.1pF 1

THEORY:
“A clamping circuit is one that takes an input waveform and provides an output
that is a faithful replica of its shape but has one edge tightly clamped to the zero voltage
reference point”. The circuits which are used to add a d.c level as per the requirement to
the
a.csignals are called clamper circuits. Capacitor, diode, resistor are the three basic elements
of a clamper circuit. The clamper circuits are also called d.c restorer or d.c inserter
circuits. The clampers are classified as (a) Negative clampers (b) Positive clampers

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
POSITIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO 0V:
POSITIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO VR=2V

NEGATIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO VR=0V

NEGATIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO VR= -2V

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

2. Obtain a constant amplitude sine wave from function generator of 6 Vp-p,
frequency of 1 KHz and give the signal as input to the circuit.
3. Observe and draw the output waveform and note down the amplitude at
which clamping occurs.
4. Repeat the steps 1 to 3 for all circuits.

MODEL WAVEFORMS:

POSITIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO 0V:

POSITIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO VR=2

NEGATIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO 0V

NEGATIVE PEAK CLAMPING TO VR= -2V

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections should be made carefully.

2. Verify the circuit before giving
supply. Take readings without any
parallax error.

RESULT: Different clamping circuits are constructed and their performance is observed.
QUESTIONS

1. What is a clamper?
2. Give some practical applications of clamper.
3. What is the purpose of shunt resistance in clamper?

Exercise Questions:

1) a) A square wave input of period T = 1000 μ sec, Vpeak = 10V and Duty cycle = 0.2
is applied to the circuit shown in figure.2. Given, R = 100Ω, C = 1μF, R = 10K & Diode
forward resistance,
S
R = 100Ω.
f

2) Sketch the steady state output voltage for the clamper circuit and locate the output
d.c level and the zero level. The diode used has R = 1KΩ, R = 600 KΩ, V = 0. C =
f r γ
0.1μF and R = 20 KΩ. The input is a ± 20 Volts square wave with 50% duty cycle.
 EXPERIMENT NO-4
TRANSISTOR AS A
SWITCH

AIM: To obtain characteristics of a transistor as a switch.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors 1KΩ 2
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
7 Capacitor 1uF 1
8 Transistor BC 107 1

THEORY:

Transistors are widely used in digital logic circuits and switching applications. In
these applications the voltage levels periodically alternate between a “LOW” and a
“HIGH” voltage, such as 0V and +5V. In switching circuits, a transistor is operated at cutoff
for the OFF condition, and in saturation for the ON condition. The active linear region is
passed through abruptly switching from cutoff to saturation or vice versa. In cutoff
region, both the transistor junctions between Emitter and Base and the junction between
Base and Collector are reverse biased and only the reverse current which is very small
and practically neglected, flows in the transistor. In saturation region both junctions are
in forward bias and the values of Vce (sat) and Vbe (sat) are small.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

2. Obtain a constant amplitude square wave from function generator of 5V p-p and give
the signal as input to the circuit.
3. Observe the output waveform and note down its voltage amplitude levels.
4. Draw the input and output waveforms
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Model graph
THEORETICAL CALICULATIONS:
When Vi= +2.5v, the transistor goes into saturation region.
So VO=Vce sat=0.3V.
When Vi=-2.5v, the transistor is in cutoff region so Vo=Vcc=5v

PRECAUTIONS:

1.Connections should be made carefully.

2.Verify the circuit before giving supply voltage.
3.Take readings without any parallax error.

RESULT:

Switching characteristics of a transistor are observed.

QUESTION & ANSWERS:

1. What are the limitations of transistor switch?

2. What is the turn on time of a transistor?

Exercise Questions:

1) For a C.E transistor circuits with VCC=15V RC=1.5KΩ.Caculate the transistor power dissipation
a) at cutoff and b) at saturation
 EXPERIMENT NO-5
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Aim: To observe the stable states voltages of Bi-stable Multivibrator.

Apparatus required

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors 2.2KΩ, 12KΩ 2
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
8 Transistor BC 107 2

THEORY:

The circuit diagram of a fixed bias Bi-stable multivibrator using transistors. The output
of each amplifier is direct coupled to the input of the other amplifier. In one of the stable
states transistor Q1 and Q2 is off and in the other stable state. Q1 is off and Q2 is on even
though the circuit is symmetrical; it is not possible for the circuit to remain in a stable
state with both the transistors conducting simultaneously and caring equal currents. The
reason is that if we assume that both the transistors are biased equally and are carrying
equal currents i1 and i2 suppose there is a minute fluctuation in the current i1-let us say it
increases by a small amount.

Then the voltage at the collector of q1 decreases. This will result in a decrease in
voltage at the base of q2. So q2 conducts less and i2 decreases and hence the potential
at the collector of q2 increases. This result in an increase in the base potential of q1.So
q1 conducts still more and i1 is further increased and the potential at the collector of q1 is
further decreased, and so on. So the current i1 keeps on increasing and the current i2
keeps on decreasing till q1 goes in to saturation and q2 goes in to cut-off. This action
takes place because of the regenerative feed – back incorporated into the circuit and
will occur only if the loop gain is greater than one.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Verify the stable state by measuring the voltages at two collectors by using multimeter.
3. Note down the corresponding base voltages of the same state (say state-1).
4. To change the state, apply negative voltage (say-2v) to the base of on transistor or
positive voltage to the base of transistor (through proper current limiting resistance).
5. Verify the state by measuring voltages at collector and also note down voltages at
each base.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. Note down the parameters carefully.
3. The supply voltage levels should not exceed the maximum rating of the transistor.

RESULT: The stable state voltages of a Bi-stable multivibrator are observed.

QUESTION & ANSWERS:

1. What do you mean by a bistable circuit?

2. What are the other names of a bistable multivibrator?
3. What do you mean by triggering signal?

Exercise Questions:

1) A self-biased binary uses n-p-n transistors have maximum values of V (sat) =0.4V and
CE
V (sat) = 0.8V and V cutoff = 0V. The circuit parameters are V = 15V, R = 1KΩ, R =
BE BE CC C 1
6KΩ, R2 = 15KΩ and R = 500Ω.
E
a) Find the stable-state currents and voltages.
 EXPERIMENT NO-6
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM: To Observe the ON & OFF states of Transistor in an Astable Multivibrator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors 3.9KΩ, 100KΩ 2
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
8 Transistor BC 107 2
Capacitor 0.01 µF 2

THEORY:

An Astable Multivibrator has two quasi stable states andit keeps on switching
between these two statesby itself . No external triggering signal is needed. The astable
multivibrator cannot remain indefinitely in any one of the two states .The Two amplifier
stages of an astable multivibrator are regenerative across coupled by Capacitors. The
astable multivibrator may be to generate a square wave of period, 1.38RC

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:

1. Calculate the theoretical frequency of oscillations of the circuit.

2. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
3 Observe the voltage wave forms at both collectors of two transistors simultaneously.
4. Observe the voltage wave forms at each base simultaneously with corresponding collector
voltage.
5. Note down the values of wave forms carefully.
6. Compare the theoretical and practical values.

CALCULATIONS:
THEORITICAL VALUES:

RC= R1C1+ R2C2

Time Period, T = 1.368RC

Frequency, f = 1/T =

MODEL WAVEFORMS
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
RESULT:
The wave forms of astable multivibrator have been verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS :
1. Define stable state?
2. Define quasi stable state?

Exercise Questions:

1) Design a collector coupled astable multivibrator for the following specifications

with Silicon transistor. IC (sat) = 10m A; hfe (min) = 20; VCC =10V; pulse
width=10μsec; duty Cycle=40%
 EXPERIMENT NO-7
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

AIM: To observe the stable state and quasi stable state voltages in monostable Multivibrator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 1KΩ 1
68KΩ 1
2.2KΩ 1
Resistors 1.5KΩ 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
8 Transistor BC 107 2
Capacitor 1 µF 2
Diode IN4007 1

THEORY:
A monostable multivibrator on the other hand compared to astable, bistable has only
one stable state, the other state being quasi stable state. Normally the multivibrator is in
stable state and when an externally triggering pulse is applied, it switches from the
stable to the quasi stable state. It remains in the quasi stable state for a short duration,
but automatically reverse switches back to its origional stable state without any
triggering pulse. The monostable multivibrator is also referred as ‘one shot’ or ‘uni
vibrator’ since only one triggering signal is required to reverse the original stable state.
The duration of quasi stable state is termed as delay time (or) pulse width (or) gate time.
It is denoted as‘t’.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Verify the stable states of Q1 and Q2
3. Apply the square wave of 2v p-p , 1KHz signal to the trigger circuit.
4. Observe the wave forms at base of each transistor simultaneously.
5. Observe the wave forms at collectors of each transistor simultaneously.
6. Note down the parameters carefully.
7. Note down the time period and compare it with theoretical values.
8. Plot wave forms of Vb1, Vb2, Vc1 & Vc2 with respect to time .

CALCULATIONS:

Theoretical Values:
Time Period, T = 0.693RC

Frequency, f = 1/T =
MODEL WAVEFORMS:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. Note down the parameters without parallax error.
3. The supply voltage levels should not exceed the maximum rating of the transistor.

RESULT:
Stable state and quasi stable state voltages in monostable multivibrator are observed
QUESTION & ANSWERS:
1. What are the other names of Mono Stable multivibrator?
2. Which type of triggering is used in mono stable multi vibrator?
3. Define transition time?
Exercise Questions:

1) Design and draw a collector-coupled ONE-SHOT using silicon npn transistors with h FE
(min)
=20. In stable State, the transistor in cut-off has V BE = -1V and the transistor in
saturation has base current, I B which is 50% excess of the I B (min) value. Assume V
CC = 8V, I C (sat) =2mA, delay time = 2.5ms &; R 1 = R 2. Find R C , R, R 1 , C and V BB .
 EXPERIMENT NO-8
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

AIM: To obtain the characteristics of UJT Relaxation Oscillator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 220Ω 1
68KΩ 1
Resistors 120Ω 1
2 CRO 20MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated Power Supply 0-30V,1A 1
Capacitor 0.01 µF 1
UJT 2N 2646

THEORY:
Many devices such as transistor,UJT, FET can be used as a switch. Here UJT is
used as a switch to obtain the sweep voltage. Capacitor C charges through the resistor
towards supply Voltage,Vbb. As long as the capacitor voltage is less than peak Voltage,Vp,
the emitter appears as an open circuit.Vp =ηVbb + Vγ

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 DESIGN EQUATIONS:

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS

Vp = Vγ+(R1/ R1 R2 )Vbb
=0.7+(120/120+220)10
=8.57V

1. When C=0.1µF
Tc =RC ln(Vbb- Vv/ Vbb- Vp) =(68K) (0.1µF) (12/12-8.57)
= 3.6ms
Td =R1C=(120)( 0.1µ)=12 µsec.

2. When C=0.01µF
Tc =RC ln(Vbb- Vv/ Vbb- Vp)
=(68K) (0.01µF) (12/12-8.5)
= 365µs
Td =R1C=(120)( 0.01µ)=1.2 µsec.

3. When C=0.001µF
Tc =RC ln (Vbb- Vv/ Vbb- Vp)
=(68K) (0.001µF) (12/12-8.5)
= 36.5µs
Td =R1C=(120)( 0.01µ)=0.12 µsec

PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figA.

2) Observe the voltage waveform across the capacitor, C.
3) Change the time constant by changing the capacitor values to 0.1µF and 0.001 µF and
observe the wave forms.
4) Note down the parameters, amplitude, charging and discharging periods of the wave forms
5) Compare the theoretical and practical time periods.
6) Plot the graph between voltages across capacitor with respect to time
MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections should be given carefully.

2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.

RESULT: Performance and construction of UJT Relaxation Oscillator is observed.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by a) voltage time base generator, b) a current time base generator?
 EXPERIMENT NO-9
SCHMITT TRIGGER
AIM: To generate a square wave from a given sine wave using Schmitt Trigger

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 100Ω 1
6.8KΩ 1
3.90Ω 1
3.3KΩ 1
Resistors 2.2KΩ 2
2 CRO 20MHz 1
3 Function generator 1MHz 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
8 Transistor BC 107 2
Capacitor 0.01 µF 1

THEORY:
Schmitt trigger is a bistable circuit and the existence of only two stable states
results form the fact that positive feedback is incorporated into the circuit and from the
further fact that the loop gain of the circuit is greater than unity. There are several ways
to adjust the loop gain. One way of adjusting the loop gain is by varying Rc1. Under
quiescent conditions Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON because it gets the required base drive
from Vcc through Rc1 and R1. So the output voltage is Vo=Vcc-Ic2Rc2 is at its lower
level. Untill then the output remains at its lower level.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

2. Apply a sine wave of peak to peak amplitude 10V, 1 KHz frequency wave as input to
the circuit.
3. Observe input and output waveforms simultaneously in channel 1 and channel 2 of CRO.
4. Note down the input voltage levels at which output changes the voltage level.
5. Draw the graph between voltage versus time of input and output signals.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
 PRECAUTIONS:

1.Connections should be made carefully.

2.Readings should be noted carefully without any parallax error.

RESULT: Schmitt trigger is constructed and observed its performance.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the other name of the Schmitt trigger?
2. What are the applications of the Schmitt trigger?
3. Define the terms UTP & LTP?

Exercise Questions:

1. For the given circuit shown in Figure find UTP & LTP. Data given hfe (min) = 40,
VCE (sat) = 0.1 V, VBE (sat)=0.7 V, Vγ = 0.5V, VBE (active) = 0.6V.

2. Design a Schmitt trigger circuit using n-p- n silicon transistors to meet the following
specifications:
V cc =12V, UTP=4V, LTP=2V, h fe =60, I C2 =3mA. Use relevant assumptions and the empirical
relationships.
 EXPERIMENT NO-10
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM: To construct the basic and universal gates using discrete components and Verify
truth table.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the

Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
1 100Ω 1
Resistors 4.7KΩ 1
3 Bread Board 1
4 Connecting Wires - As
Required
6 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
8 Transistor BC 107 1
Diode IN4007 2
LED - 1

THEORY:

1. OR-GATE:

OR gate has two or more inputs and a single output and it operates in accordance with
the following definitions. The output of an OR gate is high if one or more inputs are high.
When all the inputs are low then the output is low. If two or more inputs are in high state
then the diodes connected to these inputs conduct and all other diodes remain reverse
biased so the output will be high and OR function is satisfied.

2. AND-GATE:

AND gate has two or more inputs and a single output and it operates in accordance with
the following definitions. The output of an AND gate is high if all inputs are high. If Vr is
chosen i.e. more positive than Vcd then all diodes will be conducting upon a
coincidence and the output will be clamped at ‘1’. If Vr is equal to Vcd then all diodes
are cut-off and output will raise to the voltage Vr if not all inputs have same high value
then the output of AND gate is equal to Vi (min0).

3. NOT-GATE:

The NOT gate circuit has a single output and a single input and perform the operation
of negation in accordance with definition, the output of a NOT gate is high if the input
is low and the output is low or zero if the input is high or 1.
4. NOR-GATE:

A negation following on OR is called as NOT-OR gate NOR gate. As shown in figure if

Vo is applied as input signal to the diodes then both diodes are forward biased. Hence
no voltage is applied to emitter base junction and total current is passed through the
LED and it glows which indicate high or one state.

5. NAND-GATE:

The NAND gate can be implemented by placing a transistor NOT gate after the AND gate
circuit with diodes. These gates are called diode-transistor logic gates.
If Vo is applied to input of the diode then the diode D1 and D2 will be forward biased.
Hence no voltage applied across base-emitter junction and this junction goes into cut-off
region. Hence total current from source Vce will flow through LED and it flows which
indicate the one state or high state.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

1. OR GATE

2. AND GATE
 3. NOT GATE:

4. NOR GATE:

5.NAND GATE
TRUTH TABLES:

1.AND GATE: 2.OR GATE:

3. NOT GATE: 4.NOR GATE

5. NAND GATE:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per diagram.

2. Apply 5v from RPS for logic 1and 0v for logic 0.
3. Measure the output voltage using digital multimeter and verify the truth table.
4. Repeat the same for all circuits.

RESULT: Basic and universal gates are constructed using discrete components and their
truth tables are verified.
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the universal gates? Why they are called universal gates?
2. What is the other name of the EX-NOR gate?

Exercise Questions:

1) For the four-diode sampling gate shown in figure.1, Vs = 25V, R = 50Ω, R = Rc

f L
=100KΩand R2
= 2KΩ. Find (Vc) , A, V and (Vn) for V = V ?
min min min min
R15 Autonomous II B. Tech II Semester EC & PC Lab Manual

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Department of ECE