SHRI RAWATPURA SARKAR UNIVERSITY

Raipur (C.G.) – 492015

Faculty of Science

Department of Computer Science

DBMS Lab

LABORATORY MANUAL

Prepared By Approved By

(Subject Teacher) (H. o. D.)

Name of Subject (DBMS Lab – MCA/BCA) Laboratory Manual

List of Lab Exercises

Syllabus Programs

S. No Name of the program

1 Database Schema for a customer-sale scenario

Customer(Cust id : integer, cust_name: string)

Item(item_id: integer, item_name: string, price: integer)
Sale(bill_no: integer, bill_data: date, cust_id: integer, item_id: integer, qty_sold:
integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints

b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

c) List all the bills for the current date with the customer names and item numbers

d) List the total Bill details with the quantity sold, price of the item and the final
amount

e) List the details of the customer who have bought a product which has a
price>200

f) Give a count of how many products have been bought by each customer

g) Give a list of products bought by a customer having cust_id as 5

h) List the item details which are sold as of today

i) Create a view which lists out the bill_no, bill_date, cust_id, item_id, price,
qty_sold, amount
Create a view which lists the daily sales date wise for the last one week

2 Database Schema for a Student Library scenario

Student(Stud_no : integer, Stud_name: string)

Membership(Mem_no: integer, Stud_no: integer)
Book(book_no: integer, book_name:string, author: string)
Iss_rec(iss_no:integer, iss_date: date, Mem_no: integer, book_no: integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the student names with their membership numbers
d) List all the issues for the current date with student and Book names
e) List the details of students who borrowed book whose author is CJDATE
f) Give a count of how many books have been bought by each student
g) Give a list of books taken by student with stud_no as 5
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h) List the book details which are issued as of today

i) Create a view which lists out the iss_no, iss _date, stud_name, book name
j) Create a view which lists the daily issues-date wise for the last one week

3 Database Schema for a Employee-pay scenario

employee(emp_id : integer, emp_name: string)

department(dept_id: integer, dept_name:string)
paydetails(emp_id : integer, dept_id: integer, basic: integer, deductions: integer,
additions: integer, DOJ: date)
payroll(emp_id : integer, pay_date: date)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List the employee details department wise
d) List all the employee names who joined after particular date
e) List the details of employees whose basic salary is between 10,000 and 20,000
f) Give a count of how many employees are working in each department
g) Give a names of the employees whose netsalary>10,000
h) List the details for an employee_id=5
i) Create a view which lists out the emp_name, department, basic, dedeuctions,
netsalary
j) Create a view which lists the emp_name and his netsalary

4 Database Schema for a Video Library scenario

Customer(cust_no: integer,cust_name: string)

Membership(Mem_no: integer, cust_no: integer)
Cassette(cass_no:integer, cass_name:string, Language: String)
Iss_rec(iss_no: integer, iss_date: date, mem_no: integer, cass_no: integer)
For the above schema, perform the following—
a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the customer names with their membership numbers
d) List all the issues for the current date with the customer names and cassette
names
e) List the details of the customer who has borrowed the cassette whose title is “
The Legend”
f) Give a count of how many cassettes have been borrowed by each customer
g) Give a list of book which has been taken by the student with mem_no as 5
h) List the cassettes issues for today
i) Create a view which lists outs the iss_no, iss_date, cust_name, cass_name
j) Create a view which lists issues-date wise for the last one week

5 Database Schema for a student-Lab scenario

Student(stud_no: integer, stud_name: string, class: string)

Class(class: string, descrip: string)
Lab(mach_no: integer, Lab_no: integer, description: String)
Allotment(Stud_no: Integer, mach_no: integer, dayof week: string)
For the above schema, perform the following—
a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
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b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

c) List all the machine allotments with the student names, lab and machine
numbers
d) List the total number of lab allotments day wise
e) Give a count of how many machines have been allocated to the ‘CSIT’ class
f) Give a machine allotment etails of the stud_no 5 with his personal and class
details
g) Count for how many machines have been allocatedin Lab_no 1 for the day of
the week as “Monday”
h) How many students class wise have allocated machines in the labs
i) Create a view which lists out the stud_no, stud_name, mach_no, lab_no,
dayofweek
j) Create a view which lists the machine allotment details for “Thursday”.
6 Write a program to find largest number from the given three numbers.
7 Simple programs using loop, while and for iterative control statement.
8 Write a program to check whether the given number is Armstrong or not
9 Write a program to generate all prime numbers below 100.
10 Write a program to demonstrate the GOTO statement.
11 Write a program to demonstrate %type and %rowtype attributes
12 Write a program to demonstrate predefined exceptions
13 Write a program to demonstrate user defined exceptions
14 Create a cursor, which displays all employee numbers and names from the EMP table.
15 Create a cursor, which update the salaries of all employees as per the given data.
16 Create a cursor, which displays names of employees having salary > 50000.
17 Create a procedure to find reverse of a given number
18 Create a procedure to update the salaries of all employees as per the given data
19 Create a procedure to demonstrate IN, OUT and INOUT parameters
20 Create a function to check whether given string is palindrome or not.
21 Create a function to find sum of salaries of all employees working in depart number 10.
22 Create a trigger before/after update on employee table for each row/statement.
23 Create a trigger before/after delete on employee table for each row/statement.
24 Create a trigger before/after insert on employee table for each row/statement.
25 Create a Form to display employee details using SQL
26 Create a Report to generate all employee annual salaries….

Additional Programs

S. No Name of the Program

1 Create a form using Forms 6i to display Employee table

data.
2 Create a Master/details relationship form which
perform Add New, Search, Delete, Save and Update
on the records
3 Generate a report to calculate employee’s salaries
department wise from employee table.
4 Create a Report to generate the details of employee
table including sum and average salaries department
wise.
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Background Theory

Oracle workgroup or server is the largest selling RDBMS product.it is estimated that the combined sales of
both these oracle database product account for aroud 80% of the RDBMSsystems sold worldwide.
These products are constantly undergoing change and evolving. The natural language of this RDBMS
product is ANSI SQL,PL/SQL a superset of ANSI SQL.oracle 8i and 9i also under stand SQLJ.

Oracle corp has also incorporated a full-fledged java virtual machine into its database engine.since both
executable share the same memory space the JVM can communicate With the database engine with ease
and has direct access to oracle tables and their data.

SQL is structure query language.SQL contains different data types those are
1. char(size)
2. varchar2(size)
3. date
4. number(p,s)
5. long
6. raw/long raw

Different types of commands in SQL:

A).DDL commands: - To create a database objects

B). DML commands: - To manipulate data of a database objects
C). DQL command: - To retrieve the data from a database.
D).DCL/DTL commands: - To control the data of a database…

DDL commands:

1. The Create Table Command: - it defines each column of the table uniquely. Each column has minimum
of three attributes, a name , data type and size.

Syntax:
Create table <table name> (<col1> <datatype>(<size>),<col2> <datatype><size>));

Ex:
create table emp(empno number(4) primary key, ename char(10));

2. Modifying the structure of tables.

a)add new columns

Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> add(<new col><datatype(size),<new col>datatype(size));

Ex:
alter table emp add(sal number(7,2));

3. Dropping a column from a table.

Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> drop column <col>;

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Ex:
alter table emp drop column sal;

4. Modifying existing columns.

Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> modify(<col><newdatatype>(<newsize>));

Ex:
alter table emp modify(ename varchar2(15));

5. Renaming the tables

Syntax:
Rename <oldtable> to <new table>;

Ex:
rename emp to emp1;

6. truncating the tables.

Syntax:
Truncate table <tablename>;

Ex:
trunc table emp1;

7. Destroying tables.

Syntax:
Drop table <tablename>;

Ex:
drop table emp;

DML commands:

8. Inserting Data into Tables: - once a table is created the most natural thing to do is load this table with
data to be manipulated later.

Syntax:
insert into <tablename> (<col1>,<col2>) values(<exp>,<exp>);

9. Delete operations.

a) remove all rows

Syntax:
delete from <tablename>;

b) removal of a specified row/s

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Syntax:
delete from <tablename> where <condition>;

10. Updating the contents of a table.

a) updating all rows

Syntax:
Update <tablename> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>;

b) updating seleted records.

Syntax:
Update <tablename> set <col>=<exp>,<col>=<exp>
where <condition>;

11. Types of data constrains.

a) not null constraint at column level.
Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size)not null

b) unique constraint
Syntax:
Unique constraint at column level.
<col><datatype>(size)unique;

c) unique constraint at table level:

Syntax:
Create table tablename(col=format,col=format,unique(<col1>,<col2>);

d) primary key constraint at column level

Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size)primary key;

e) primary key constraint at table level.

Syntax:
Create table tablename(col=format,col=format
primary key(col1>,<col2>);

f) foreign key constraint at column level.

Syntax:
<col><datatype>(size>) references <tablename>[<col>];

g) foreign key constraint at table level

Syntax:
foreign key(<col>[,<col>])references <tablename>[(<col>,<col>)

h) check constraint
check constraint constraint at column level.
Syntax: <col><datatype>(size) check(<logical expression>)

i) check constraint constraint at table level.

Syntax: check(<logical expression>)

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DQL Commands:

12. Viewing data in the tables: - once data has been inserted into a table, the next most logical operation
would be to view what has been inserted.

a) all rows and all columns

Syntax:
Select <col> to <col n> from tablename;

Select * from tablename;

13. Filtering table data: - while viewing data from a table, it is rare that all the data from table will be
required each time. Hence, sql must give us a method of filtering out data that is not required data.

a) Selected columns and all rows:

Syntax:
select <col1>,<col2> from <tablename>;

b) selected rows and all columns:

Syntax:
select * from <tablename> where <condition>;

c) selected columns and selected rows

Syntax:
select <col1>,<col2> from <tablename> where<condition>;

14. Sorting data in a table.

Syntax:
Select * from <tablename> order by <col1>,<col2> <[sortorder]>;

DCL commands:
Oracle provides extensive feature in order to safeguard information stored in its tables from unauthoraised
viewing and damage.The rights that allow the user of some or all oracle resources on the server are called
privileges.

a) Grant privileges using the GRANT statement

The grant statement provides various types of access to database objects such as tables,views and sequences
and so on.

Syntax:
GRANT <object privileges>
ON <objectname>
TO<username>
[WITH GRANT OPTION];

b) Reoke permissions using the REVOKE statement:

The REVOKE statement is used to deny the Grant given on an object.

Syntax:
REVOKE<object privilege>
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ON
FROM<user name>;

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Solutions for programs (JNTU Syllabus)

1. Database Schema for a customer-sale scenario

Customer(Cust id : integer, cust_name: string)

Item(item_id: integer, item_name: string, price: integer)
Sale(bill_no: integer, bill_data: date, cust_id: integer, item_id: integer, qty_sold: integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the bills for the current date with the customer names and item numbers
d) List the total Bill details with the quantity sold, price of the item and the final amount
e) List the details of the customer who have bought a product which has a price>200
f) Give a count of how many products have been bought by each customer
g) Give a list of products bought by a customer having cust_id as 5
h) List the item details which are sold as of today
i) Create a view which lists out the bill_no, bill_date, cust_id, item_id, price, qty_sold, amount
j) Create a view which lists the daily sales date wise for the last one week

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Aim: Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints and Insert around 10 records in each of the
tables

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : ORACLE

SQL> create table customer1 (cust_id number(5) primary key, cust_name varchar2(15));
Output: Table created.

SQL> desc customer1;

Output:
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------
CUST_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CUST_NAME VARCHAR2(15)

Valid Test Data

b) SQL> insert into customer1 values(&custid,'&custname');

SQL> select * from customer1;
Output:
CUST_ID CUST_NAME
---------- ---------------
100 ramu
101 kamal
102 raju
103 raju sundaram
104 lawrence

SQL> create table item(item_id number(4) primary key,

item_name varchar2(15),price number(6,2));
SQL> dsec item

Output:
Name Null? Type
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Cust_id NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
Item_name VARCHAR2(15)
PRICE NUMBER(6,2)
SQL>insert into item values(&item_id,’&item_name’,&price);

SQL> select * from item;

Output:
ITEM_ID ITEM_NAME PRICE
……………………………………………………………………………………..

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2334 geera 6.25

4532 corn soup 34.65
2124 lays chips 20
4531 setwet 99.99
2319 duracell 45.5

SQL>create table sale(bill_no number(5) primary key,bill_date date, cust_id number(5) references
customer(cust_id), item_id number(4) references item(item_id),qty_sold number(4));

Out put: Table Created.

SQL>dsec sale
Output:
Name Null? Type
………………………………………………………………………………………..
BILL_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
BILL_DATE DATE
CUST_ID NUMBER(5)
ITEM_ID NUMBER(4)
QTY_SOLD NUMBER(4)

SQL>insert into Sale values(&bill_no, ’&bill_date’,

&cust_id, &item_id, &qty_sold);

SQL>select * from sale;

Output:
BILL_NO BILL_DATE CUST_ID ITEM_ID QTY_SOLD
………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
1450 04-JAN-06 100 2124 2
1451 04-JAN-06 101 2319 1
1452 04-JAN-06 103 4531 2
1453 04-JAN-06 102 2334 3
1454 04-JAN-06 104 4532 3

c) List all the bills for the current date with the customer names and item numbers
SQL> select c.custname, i.itemid, s.billno from customer c, item I, sale s
where c.custid=s.custid and
s.billdate=to_char(sysdate);

CUSTNAME ITEMID BILLNO

------------- --------- ---------
John 5001 332

d) List the total Bill details with the quantity sold, price of the item and the final amount
SQL> select i.price, s.qty,(i.price*s.qty) total from item I, sale s where i.itemid=s.itemid;

PRICE QTY TOTAL

------- ----- --------
120 2 240
20 3 60
5 2 10
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10 1 10
350 4 1400

e) List the details of the customer who have bought a product which has a price>200
SQL> select c.custid, c.custname from customer c, sale s, item i where i.price>200 and
c.custid=s.custid and i.itemid=s.itemid;

CUSTID CUSTNAME
--------- --------------
4 duffy

f) Give a count of how many products have been bought by each customer
SQL> select custid, count(itemid) from sale group by custid;

CUSTID COUNT(ITEMID)
---------- ---------------------
1 2
3 1
4 1
5 1

g) Give a list of products bought by a customer having cust_id as 5

SQL> select i.itemname from item i, sale s where s.custid=5 and i.itemid-s.itemid;

ITEMNAME
--------------
Pens

h) List the item details which are sold as of today

SQL> select i.itemid, i.itemname from item I, sale s where i.itemid=s.itemid
and s.billdate=to_char(sysdate);

ITEMID ITEMNAME
--------- -------------
1234 pencil

i) Create a view which lists out the bill_no, bill_date, cust_id, item_id, price, qty_sold, amount
SQL>create view cust as (select s.billno, s.billdate, c.custid, i. iitemid, i.price, s.qty from customer
c,sale s item I where c.custid=s.custid and i.iemid=s.itemid);

view created.

SQL>select * from cust;

BILLNO BILLDATE CUSTID ITEMID PRICE QTY

……………………………………………………………………………………………
3432 12-JAN-06 3 3244 120 2
4424 20-FEB-06 1 3456 20 3
332 13-MAR-06 1 1234 5 2
2343 10-MAR 5 5001 10 1
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1331 11-MAR-06 4 76776 350 4

j) Create a view which lists the daily sales date wise for the last one week

Viva-Voce:

Q1. What is SQL?

Ans: Structured Query Language

2. What is database?
A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning, representing

some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated with data for a specific

purpose.

3. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other words it is
general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining, constructing and
manipulating the database for various applications.

4. What is a Database system?

The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.

5. Advantages of DBMS?
 Redundancy is controlled.
 Unauthorised access is restricted.
 Providing multiple user interfaces.
 Enforcing integrity constraints.
 Providing backup and recovery.

6. Disadvantage in File Processing System?

 Data redundancy & inconsistency.
 Difficult in accessing data.
 Data isolation.
 Data integrity.
 Concurrent access is not possible.
 Security Problems.

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2. Database Schema for a Student Library scenario

Student(Stud_no : integer, Stud_name: string)

Membership(Mem_no: integer, Stud_no: integer)
Book(book_no: integer, book_name:string, author: string)
Iss_rec(iss_no:integer, iss_date: date, Mem_no: integer, book_no: integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the student names with their membership numbers
d) List all the issues for the current date with student and Book names
e) List the details of students who borrowed book whose author is CJDATE
f) Give a count of how many books have been bought by each student
g) Give a list of books taken by student with stud_no as 5
h) List the book details which are issued as of today
i) Create a view which lists out the iss_no, iss _date, stud_name, book name
j) Create a view which lists the daily issues-date wise for the last one week

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AIM: Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints

Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle

SQL>create table student(stud_no number(5) primary key,stud_name varchar2(15));

SQL>desc student;
Name Null? Type
………………………………………………………………………………………..
STUD_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
STUD_NAME VARCAHR2(15)
Valid Test Data:

SQL>insert into student values(&stud_no,’&stud_name’);

SQL>select * from student;

STUD_NO STUD_NAME
....................................................................

508 HARISH
513 BALAJI
518 RAKESH
524 PAVAN
534 JOYCE

SQL>create table membership(mem_no number(5) primary key,stud_no number(5) references

student(stud)no));
SQL>dsec membership;

Name Null? Type

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
MEM_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
STUD_NO NUMBER(5)

SQL>insert into membership values(&mem_no,&stud_no);

Enter value for mem_no:5440
Enter value for stud_no:510
old 1:insert into membership values(&mem_no,&stud_no)
new 1:insert into membership values(5440,510)
insert into membership values(5440,510)
*
Errors Observed:

ERROR at line 1:
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ORA-02291:integrity constraint(HARISH.SYS_C002724)violated-primary key not found

SQL>select * from membership;

MEM_NO STUD_NO
………………………………………………………………………..
5440 513
5441 508
5442 518
5443 534
5444 524
SQL>create table book(book_no number(5) primary key,book_name varchar2(20),author varchar2(2));

SQL>desc book;

Name Null? Type

………………………………………………………………………………………..
BOOK_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
BOOK_NAME VARCHAR2(20)
AUTHOR VARCHAR2(20)

SQL>insert into book values(&book_no,’&book_name’,’&author’);

SQL>select * from book;

BOOK_NO BOOK_NAME AUTHOR

………………………………………………………………………………………………..
9123 DBMS Rama Krishna
2342 JAVA Robett wilkins
4523 Fearless tales Alfred
8723 my ambition Harish
7821 Harry Potter JK Rowling

SQL>create table lss_rec(iss_no number primary key,iss_date date,mem_no number(5) references

membership(mem_no),book_no number(5) references book(book_no));

SQL>desc iss_rec;
Name Null? Type
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ISS_NO NOT NULL NUMBER
ISS_DATE DATE
MEM_NO NUMBER(5)
BOOK_NO NUMBER(5)

SQL>select * from iss_rec;

ISS_NO ISS_DATE MEM_NO BOOK_NO
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
43 05-JAN-06 5443 4523
81 28-DEC-05 5441 8723
22 08-DEC-05 5440 7821
53 07-JAN-06 5442 9123
35 06-JAN-06 5444 2342
c) List all the student names with their membership numbers

SQL> select s.studname, m.memno from student s, membership m where m.studno=s.studno;

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STUDNAME MEMNO
------------- --------
abhijeet 1001
arun 1002
arvind 1003
ashish 1004
ashwin 1005

d) List all the issues for the current date with student and Book names

SQL> select i.issno, s.studname, b.bookname from iss_rec I, membership m, student s, book b
2 where i.memno=m.memno and m.studno=s.studno and
i.issdate=to_char(sysdate);

ISSNO STUDNAME BOOKNAME

------- ------------ ---------------
13 arvind P&S

e) List the details of students who borrowed book whose author is CJDATE

SQL> select * from student where studno in(select studno from membership where memno in
2 (select memno from iss_rec where bookno in(select bookno from book where author=’CJDATE’)));

STUDNO STUDNAME
---------- -------------
505 ashwin

f) Give a count of how many books have been bought by each student

SQL> select s.studno, count(i.bookno) from student s.membership m, book b, 2 iss_rec I where
s.studno=m.studno and b.bookno=i.bookno group by s.studno;

STUDNO COUNT(I.BOOKNO)
---------- -----------------------
501 5
502 5
503 5
504 5
505 5

g) Give a list of books taken by student with stud_no as 5

SQL> select bookname from book where bookno in (select bookno from iss_rec where
2 memno in(select memno from membership where
3 studno in(select studno from student where studno=5)));

BOOKNAME
-------------
NT

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h) List the book details which are issued as of today

SQL> delete from book where bookno in(select bookno from iss_rec where issdate=to_char(sysdate));
delete from book where bookno in (select bookno from iss_rec where issdate=to_char(sysdate))

Errors Observed:

ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C00840) violated – child record found

i) Create a view which lists out the iss_no, iss _date, stud_name, book name

j) Create a view which lists the daily issues-date wise for the last one week

Viva-Vice:

1. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

The are three levels of abstraction:
 Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
 Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in database and what
relationship among those data.
 View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.
2. Define the "integrity rules"
There are two Integrity rules.
 Entity Integrity: States that “Primary key cannot have NULL value”
 Referential Integrity: States that “Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or
should be Primary Key value of other relation.

3. What is extension and intension?

Extension -
It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time dependent.
Intension -
It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints laid
on it.

4. What is System R? What are its two major subsystems?

System R was designed and developed over a period of 1974-79 at IBM San Jose Research
Center. It is a prototype and its purpose was to demonstrate that it is possible to build a Relational
System that can be used in a real life environment to solve real life problems, with performance at
least comparable to that of existing system.
Its two subsystems are
 Research Storage
 System Relational Data System.

5. How is the data structure of System R different from the relational structure?

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Unlike Relational systems in System R

 Domains are not supported
 Enforcement of candidate key uniqueness is optional
 Enforcement of entity integrity is optional
 Referential integrity is not enforced

6. What is Data Independence?

Data independence means that “the application is independent of the storage structure and
access strategy of data”. In other words, The ability to modify the schema definition in one level
should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
Two types of Data Independence:
 Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical
level.
 Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.
NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve

7. What is a view? How it is related to data independence?

A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist in its
own right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In other words, there is no
stored file that direct represents the view instead a definition of view is stored in data dictionary.
Growth and restructuring of base tables is not reflected in views. Thus the view can insulate
users from the effects of restructuring and growth in the database. Hence accounts for logical data
independence.

3. Database Schema for a Employee-pay scenario

employee(emp_id : integer, emp_name: string)

department(dept_id: integer, dept_name:string)
paydetails(emp_id : integer, dept_id: integer, basic: integer, deductions: integer, additions: integer, DOJ:
date)
payroll(emp_id : integer, pay_date: date)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List the employee details department wise
d) List all the employee names who joined after particular date
e) List the details of employees whose basic salary is between 10,000 and 20,000
f) Give a count of how many employees are working in each department
g) Give a names of the employees whose netsalary>10,000
h) List the details for an employee_id=5
i) Create a view which lists out the emp_name, department, basic, dedeuctions, netsalary
j) Create a view which lists the emp_name and his netsalary

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AIM: Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints

Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle

Create table employee(emp_id number(5) primary key,emp_name varchar2(25));

SQL>desc employee;

Name Null? Type

………………………………………………………………………………………..
EMP_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
EMP_NAME VARCHAR2(25)

Valid Test Data:

SQL>insert into employee values(&emp_id,’&emp_name’);

SQL>select * from employee;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME
………………………………………………………….
10 Robert
21 Coulthard
30 Fernando Alonso
39 Kartikeyan
87 Kimmi

SQL>create table department(dept_id number(5) primary key,dept_name varchar2(20));

SQL>desc department;
Name Null? Type
………………………………………………………………………………………..
DEPT_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
DEPT_NAME VARCHAR2(20)

SQL>insert into department values(&dept_id,’&dept_name’);

SQL>select * from department;

DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME
……………………………………………………………………………..
100 sales
101 accounts
102 administration
103 production
104 supervisor

SQL>create table paydetails(emp_id number(5) references employee(emp_id),dept_id number(5) reerences

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department(dept_id),basic number(7,2),deductions number(5,2),additions number(5,2),doj date);

SQL>desc paydetails;

Name Null? Type

………………………………………………………………………………………..
EMP_ID NUMBER(5)
DEPT_ID NUMBER(5)
BASIC NUMBER(7,2)
DEDUCTIONS NUMBER(5,2)
ADDITIONS NUMBER(5,2)
DOJ DATE

Different Data Sets:

SQL>insert into paydeatils values(&emp_id,&dept_id,
&basic,&deductions,&additions,&doj);

SQL>select * from paydeatils;

EMP_ID DEPT_ID BASIC DEDUCTIONS ADDITIONS DOJ

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
10 101 25023.12 43.09 71.23 08-JAN-93
21 100 10500.29 23.98 40.9 01-JAN-06
30 102 6500.5 30.54 15 06-JUL-97
39 103 9700.45 32.78 65.09 08-AUG-03
87 104 15000 97.66 154.8 24-SEP-04

SQL>create table payroll(emp_id number(5)references employee(emp_id),pay_date date);

SQL>desc payroll;

Name Null? Type

………………………………………………………………………………………..
EMP_ID NUMBER(5)
PAY_DATE DATE

SQL>insert into payroll values(&emp_id,’&date’);

SQL>select * from payroll;

EMP_ID PAY_DATE
………………………………………………………….
10 31-JAN-06
21 03-FEB-06
30 15-JAN-06
39 27-JAN-06
87 04-FEB-06
c) List the employee details department wise

SQL>select empid,deptid from paydet;

EMPID DEPTID
…………………………
401 500
402 200
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403 600
404 400
405 1200

d) List all the employee names who joined after particular date

SQL>select e,empname from employee e,paydet p where e.empid=p.empid and p.doj>=’05-mar-06’;

EMPNAME
…………………
AVINASH
NITIN
PHALGUN

e) List the details of employees whose basic salary is between 10,000 and 20,000

sqL> Select empid,empname from employee where salary between 10000 and 20000;

EMPID EMPNAME
…………………………….
402 AKHILA
403 aaaaaaaa

EMPID EMPNAME
…………………………….
AKHILA

f) Give a count of how many employees are working in each department

SQL>select count(empid),deptid from paydet group by deptid;

COUNT (EMPID) DEPTID

………………………………………………………
1 200
1 400
1 500
1 600
1 1200

g) Give a names of the employees whose netsalary>10,000

SQL> select empname from employee where empid in(select empid from paydet where basic-
deduction>10000);

EMPNAME
………………
AVINASH
AKHILA
HARISH
NITIN
PHALGUN

h) List the details for an employee_id=5

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SQL> select * from employee where empid=5;

EMPID EMPNAME
------------------------------------------
5 Coulthard

i) Create a view which lists out the emp_name, department, basic, dedeuctions, netsalary

j) Create a view which lists the emp_name and his netsalary

Viva-Vice:
13. What is Data Model?
A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and
constraints.

14. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.

15. What is Object Oriented model?

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance variables
with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object. These bodies of
code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the same methods are grouped
together into classes.

16. What is an Entity?

It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.

17. What is an Entity type?

It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.

18. What is an Entity set?

It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.

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4. Database Schema for a Video Library scenario

Customer(cust_no: integer,cust_name: string)

Membership(Mem_no: integer, cust_no: integer)
Cassette(cass_no:integer, cass_name:string, Language: String)
Iss_rec(iss_no: integer, iss_date: date, mem_no: integer, cass_no: integer)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the customer names with their membership numbers
d) List all the issues for the current date with the customer names and cassette names
e) List the details of the customer who has borrowed the cassette whose title is “ The Legend”
f) Give a count of how many cassettes have been borrowed by each customer
g) Give a list of book which has been taken by the student with mem_no as 5
h) List the cassettes issues for today
i) Create a view which lists outs the iss_no, iss_date, cust_name, cass_name
j) Create a view which lists issues-date wise for the last one week

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AIM: Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints

Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle

SQL>create table customer(cust_no number(5) primary key,cust_name varchar2(20));

SQL>desc customer;

Name Null? Type

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
CUST_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CUST_NAME VARCHAR2(20)

Valid Test Data:

SQL>insert into customer values(&cust_no,’&cust_name’);

SQL>select * from customer;

CUST_NO CUST_NAME
……………………………………………………………….
50 scott
51 pandey
52 varshney
53 naidu
54 bhimbra

SQL>create table membership(mem_no number(5) primary key,cust_no number(5) references

customer(cust_no));

SQL>dsec membership;
Name Null? Type
………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
MEM_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CUST_NO NUMBER(5)

SQL>insert into memship values(&mem_no,&cust_no);

SQL>select * from memship;

MEM_NO CUST_NO
…………………………………………………
920 50
981 51
897 52
820 53
928 54
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SQL>create table cassette(cass_no number(5)

primary key,
Cass_name varchar2(15),language varchar2(15));

SQL>desc cassette;

Name Null? Type

………………………………………………………………………………………..
CASS_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CASS_NAME VARCHAR2(15)
LANGUAGE VARCHAR2(15)

SQL>insert into cassette values(&cass_no,’&cass_name’,’&language’);

SQL>select * from cassette;

CASS_NO CASS_NAME LANGUAGE

………………………………………………………………………………………
1 tagore telugu
2 the lion king English
3 anniyan tamil
4 indra telugu
5 lord of rings English

SQL>create table issu_rec(iss_no number(5) primary key,iss_date date,mem_no number(5)references

memship(mem_no),cass_no number(5) references cassette(cass_no));

SQL>desc issu_rec;
Name Null? Type
………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
ISS_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
ISS_DATE DATE
MEM_NO NUMBER(5)
CASS_NO NUMBER(5)

SQL>select * from issu_rec;

ISS_NO ISS_DATE MEM_NO CASS_NO

……………………………………………………………………………………
22 07-JAN-06 920 1
23 10-JAN-00 981 2
26 10-JAN-06 897 5
3 01-JAN-06 820 4
34 31-DEC-05 928 3

c) List all the customer names with their membership numbers

SQL>select c.custname,m.memno from customer1 c,membership1 m where c.custno=m.custno;

CUSTNAME MEMNO
……………….. ………………..
NIKHIL 51
VIVEK 52
SHRAVAN 58
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VAMSI 57
SHIVA 56

d) List all the issues for the current date with the customer names and cassette names

SQL>select i.issno,c.custname,cc.cassettename from customer1 c,membership1 m,cassette cc,issrec1 I

where i.issdate=to_char(sysdate) and c.custno=m.custno and i.cassno=cc.cassno and
i.memno=m.memno;

OutPut:

no rows selected.

e) List the details of the customer who has borrowed the cassette whose title is “ The Legend”
f) Give a count of how many cassettes have been borrowed by each customer
g) Give a list of book which has been taken by the student with mem_no as 5
h) List the cassettes issues for today
i) Create a view which lists outs the iss_no, iss_date, cust_name, cass_name
j) Create a view which lists issues-date wise for the last one week

Viva-Vice:

19. What is an Extension of entity type?

The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an entity set.

20. What is Weak Entity set?

An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key, and its primary key
compromises of its partial key and primary key of its parent entity, then it is said to be Weak Entity set.

21. What is an attribute?

It is a particular property, which describes the entity.

22. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?

A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An) is made up of the relation name R and the list of
attributes Ai that it contains. A relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let r be the relation which contains set
tuples (t1, t2, t3, ..., tn). Each tuple is an ordered list of n-values t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).

23. What is degree of a Relation?

It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.

24. What is Relationship?

It is an association among two or more entities.

25. What is Relationship set?

The collection (or set) of similar relationships.

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5.Database Schema for a student-Lab scenario

Student(stud_no: integer, stud_name: string, class: string)

Class(class: string, descrip: string)
Lab(mach_no: integer, Lab_no: integer, description: String)
Allotment(Stud_no: Integer, mach_no: integer, dayof week: string)

For the above schema, perform the following—

a) Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints
b) Insert around 10 records in each of the tables
c) List all the machine allotments with the student names, lab and machine numbers
d) List the total number of lab allotments day wise
e) Give a count of how many machines have been allocated to the ‘CSIT’ class
f) Give a machine allotment etails of the stud_no 5 with his personal and class details
g) Count for how many machines have been allocatedin Lab_no 1 for the day of the week as
“Monday”
h) How many students class wise have allocated machines in the labs
i) Create a view which lists out the stud_no, stud_name, mach_no, lab_no, dayofweek
j) Create a view which lists the machine allotment details for “Thursday”

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AIM: Create the tables with the appropriate integrity constraints

Insert around 10 records in each of the tables

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle

SQL>create table stu(stud_no number(5) primary key,stud_nam varchar2(20),class varchar2(20));

SQL> desc stu;

Name null? Type

STUD_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
STUD_NAM VARCHAR2(20)
CLASS VARCHAR2(20)

Valid Data Sets:

SQL> insert into stu values(&stud_no,’&stud_nam’,’&class’);

SQL> select * from stu;

STUD_NO STUD_NAM CLASS

39 LEON CSE
34 VIKAS CSIT
18 MATHEW ECE
8 HANSEN MECH
24 ALEXIS EEE

SQL> Create table class (class varchar2(20), descript varchar2(10));

SQL> Describe class;

Name null type

CLASS VARCHAR2(10)
DESCRIPT VARCHAR2(20)

SQL> create table lab(match_no number(5), lab_no number(5), description varchar2(20));

SQL> desc lab;

Name null type

MACH_NO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)

LAB_NO NUMBER(5)
DESCRIPTION VARCHAR2(20)

SQL> insert into lab values(&mach_no,&lab_no,’&description’);

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SQL> select * from lab;

MATCH_NO LAB_NO DESCRIPTION

--------------- --------- --------------------
23 7 physics
78 2 chemistry
87 1 edc
12 10 cds
8 3 java lab

SQL> create table allotment(stud_no number(5) references stu(stud_no), match_no number(5) references
lab(mach_no),
Doweek varchar2(20));

SQL> desc allotment;

Name Null? Type

-------------- ------- ---------
STUD_NO NUMBER(5)
MACH_NO NUMBER(5)
DOWEEK VARCHAR2(20)

SQL>select * from allotment;

STUD_NO MACH_NO DOWEEK

------------- -- ------------ ------------
39 23 sat
34 87 mon
18 78 tue
8 12 wed
24 12 thu

c) List all the machine allotments with the student names, lab and machine numbers

SQL>select s.studname,l.machno from student1 s,lab l,allotment a where a.machno=l.machno and

a.studno=s.studno;

STUDNAME MACHNO
………………………………………..
ABHIJEET 1
KALYAN 22
ASHWIN 3
ARKA 4
ARVIND 5

d) List the total number of lab allotments day wise

SQL>select l.machno,l.descrip,a.day from lab l,allotment a where a.machno=l.machno;

MACHNO DESCRIP DAY

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……………………………………………………………………
1 UNIX MONDAY
22 UNIX TUESDAY
3 XP WEDNESDAY
4 WINDOWS THRUSDAY
5 ME FRIDAY

e) Give a count of how many machines have been allocated to the ‘CSIT’ class

SQL>select count(machno)from allotment where studno in(select studno from student1 where
class=’CSIT’);

COUNT (MACHNO)
……………………..
1

f) Give a machine allotment etails of the stud_no 5 with his personal and class details

SQL>select a.studno,a.machno,s.studname,s.class from allotment a,student1 s where a.studno=s.studno

and a.studno=503;

STUDNO MACHNO STUDNAME CLASS

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
503 5 ARVIND CSE

g) Count for how many machines have been allocatedin Lab_no 1 for the day of the week as
“Monday”

h) How many students class wise have allocated machines in the labs

SQL>select count(studno) “allocated students in the labs”,class from student1 where studno in(select
studno from allotment) group by class;

allocated students in the lab CLASS

……………………………………………………………………………
2 CSE
1 ECE
1 EEE
1 IT

i) Create a view which lists out the stud_no, stud_name, mach_no, lab_no, dayofweek

j) Create a view which lists the machine allotment details for “Thursday”

Viva-Vice:

26. What is Relationship type?

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Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given set of entity
types.

27. What is degree of Relationship type?

It is the number of entity type participating.

25. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A data base schema is specifies by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called DDL.

26. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?

It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.

27. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?

This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may specify the mapping between
two schemas.

28. What is Data Storage - Definition Language?

The storage structures and access methods used by database system are specified by a set of
definition in a special type of DDL called data storage-definition language.

29. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?

This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organised by appropriate data model.
 Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed and how to get
those data.
 Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed without
specifying how to get those data.

31. What is DML Compiler?

It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the query evaluation
engine can understand.

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6). Write a program to find largest number from the given three numbers.

Aim: To find largest number from the given three numbers.

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Algorithm:

Step 1: Declare the variable A, B, and C.

Step 2: Store the valid data.
Step 3: Compare variable A with B and A with C
Step 4: If the value stored in variable A is big, it displays “A is Big”. (IF conditional
statement should be used)
Step 5: Compare variable B with C
Step 6: If the value stored in variable B is big, it displays “B is Big”.
Step 7: other wise it displays “C is Big”

Declare

A number;

B number;

C number;

Begin

A:=&a;

B:=&b;

C:=&c;

If a > b && a> c then

Dbms_output.put_line(‘ A is big ‘);

Else

If( b>c && b> a ) then

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Dbms_output.put_line(‘ B is big ‘);

Else

Dbms_output.put_line(‘ C is big ‘);

End if;

End if;

End;

Valid Data Sets:

Enter the value of a:

1
Enter the value of b:
2
Enter the value of c:
3

OUTPUT:

C is big

Invalid Data sets :

Enter the value of a:

y
Enter the value of b:
x
Enter the value of c:
a

Output:

Invalid data types.

Viva-Vice:

31. What is Pl-SQL ?

Procedural Language Structured Query Language

32. What is Query evaluation engine?

It executes low-level instruction generated by compiler.

33. What is DDL Interpreter?

It interprets DDL statements and record them in tables containing metadata.

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34. What is Record-at-a-time?

The Low level or Procedural DML can specify and retrieve each record from a set of records. This
retrieve of a record is said to be Record-at-a-time.

35. What is Set-at-a-time or Set-oriented?

The High level or Non-procedural DML can specify and retrieve many records in a single DML
statement. This retrieve of a record is said to be Set-at-a-time or Set-oriented.

36. What is Relational Algebra?

It is procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as
input and produce a new relation.

37. What is Relational Calculus?

It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases proposed by
E.F. Codd. E.g. of languages based on it are DSL ALPHA, QUEL.

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7). Simple programs using loop, while and for iterative control statement.

a) To generate first 10 natural numbers using loop, while and for.

AIM: To generate first 10 natural numbers using loop, while and for.

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Algorithm:

Step 1: Declare the variable I.

Step 2: Store the valid data 1 in I.
Step 3: Use LOOP statement
Step 4: Display the first value.
Step 5: Increment the value of I by 1 value.
Step 6: check the value up to 10 no. and repeat the loop
Step 7: If condition exceeds the given value 10, the loop will be
terminated.

/* using loop statement */

Declare

I number;

Begin

I:=1;

Loop

Dbms_output.put_line(I);

I:=I+1;

Exit when I>10;

End loop;

End;

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Algorithm: for WHILE loop

Step 1: Declare the variable I.

Step 2: Store the valid data 1 in I.
Step 3: Use WHILE statement
Step 4: Check the value of I with value 10.
Step 5: if the value of I reached to 10 the loop will be terminated
Step 6: otherwise display value of I
Step 7: increment the next value of I using I=I+1.

/* using while */

Declare

I number;

Begin

I:=1;

While (I<=10)

loop

Dbms_output.put_line(I);

I:=I+1;

End loop;

End;

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Algorithm:
Step 1: Declare the variable I.
Step 2: Store the value 1 in var. I.
Step 3: Use For… LOOP statement
Step 4: Display the first value of I.
Step 5: Increment the value of I by 1 value.
Step 6: check the value up to 10 no. and repeat the loop
Step 7: if the loop exceeds the value 10 then the loop will be terminated.

/* using for loop*/

Begin

For I in 1..10

loop

Dbms_output.put_line(I);

End loop;

End;

Valid Test Data:

OUTPUT

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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Viva-Vice:

38. How does Tuple-oriented relational calculus differ from domain-oriented relational calculus

The tuple-oriented calculus uses a tuple variables i.e., variable whose only permitted values
are tuples of that relation. E.g. QUEL
The domain-oriented calculus has domain variables i.e., variables that range over the underlying
domains instead of over relation. E.g. ILL, DEDUCE.

39. What is normalization?

It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional Dependencies
(FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
 Minimizing redundancy
 Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.

40. What is Functional Dependency?

A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y that are
subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a relation state r of R. The constraint is
for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This means the value of X
component of a tuple uniquely determines the value of component Y.

41. When is a functional dependency F said to be minimal?

 Every dependency in F has a single attribute for its right hand side.
 We cannot replace any dependency X A in F with a dependency Y A where Y is a proper subset of X
and still have a set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
 We cannot remove any dependency from F and still have set of dependency that is equivalent to F.

42. What is Multivalued dependency?

Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and Y are
both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r
such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the following properties
 t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
 t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
 t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]
where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]

43. What is Lossless join property?

It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation schemas after
decomposition.

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8. Program to check whether given number is Armstrong or not.

AIM: to check whether given number is Armstrong or not.

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, Pl-SQL

Algorithm:

Step 1: Declare the variable N, S, D and DUP.

Step 2: Store the value in var. N and var. DUP..
Step 3: check for the value of N, which is not equal to 0.
Step 4: divide value stored in N by 10 and store it var. D. (D=n%10).
Step 5: the reminder will be multiply 3 times and store it in Var. S.
Step 6: The coefficient will be calculated using FLOOR function. And store it in var. N.
Step 7: repeat the Steps 3, 4, 5, and 6 till loop will be terminated.
Step 8: Check whether the stored value and calculated values are same
Step 9: if both the values are same, then display “The given number is
Armstrong”
Step 10: Otherwise display “it is not Armstrong” and terminate the
loop.

Declare

N number;
S number;
D number;

Begin

N:=&n;

S:=0;

While(n!=0)

Loop

D=n%10;
S:=s+(D*D*D);
N:=floor(n/10);

End loop;

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If (DUP=S) then

DBMS_output.put_line(‘number is armstrong’);

Else

DBMS_output.put_line(‘number is not armstrong’);

End if;

End;

Test Valid Data Set:

Enter value of n

153

OUTPUT:

number is Armstrong.

Viva-Vice:

44. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?

The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

45. What is Fully Functional dependency?

It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is full
functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the dependency does not hold any
more.

46. What is 2NF?

A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully
functionally dependent on primary key.

47. What is 3NF?

A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the following is true
 X is a Super-key of R.
 A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary key.

48. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?

A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies an additional constraint that for every
FD X A, X must be a candidate key.

49. What is 4NF?

A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y that
holds over R, one of following is true
 X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R.
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 X is a super key.

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9. Write a program to generate all prime numbers below 100.

AIM: to generate all prime numbers below 100.

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Declare

I number;

J number;

C number;

Begin

While(i<=100)

Loop

C:=0;
J:=1;

While(j<=i)

Loop

If(floor(i%j)=0) then

C:= C+1;

End if;

J:=j+1;

End loop;

If(c=2) then

Dbms_output.put_line(i);

End if;

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Endloop;
End;

Valid Test Data

OUTPUT:

11

99

Viva-Vice:

50. What is 5NF?

A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ..., Rn} that holds R,
one the following is true
 Ri = R for some i.
 The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side is key of R.
51. What is Domain-Key Normal Form?
A relation is said to be in DKNF if all constraints and dependencies that should hold on the the
constraint can be enforced by simply enforcing the domain constraint and key constraint on the
relation.

52. What are partial, alternate,, artificial, compound and natural key?
Partial Key:
It is a set of attributes that can uniquely identify weak entities and that are related to
same owner entity. It is sometime called as Discriminator.
Alternate Key:
All Candidate Keys excluding the Primary Key are known as Alternate Keys.
Artificial Key:
If no obvious key, either stand alone or compound is available, then the last resort
is to simply create a key, by assigning a unique number to each record or occurrence. Then this is
known as developing an artificial key.
Compound Key:
If no single data element uniquely identifies occurrences within a construct, then
combining multiple elements to create a unique identifier for the construct is known as creating a
compound key.
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Natural Key:
When one of the data elements stored within a construct is utilized as the primary
key, then it is called the natural key.

53. What is indexing and what are the different kinds of indexing?
Indexing is a technique for determining how quickly specific data can be found.
Types:
 Binary search style indexing
 B-Tree indexing
 Inverted list indexing
 Memory resident table
 Table indexing

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10. Write a program to demonstrate the GOTO statement.

AIM: to demonstrate the GOTO statement

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Declare

I number;

Begin

I:=1;

If(i>=0) then

GOTO here;

Else

Dbms_output.put_line( ‘ I is negative’);

End if;

<<here>>

Dbms_output.put_line( ‘ I is positive’);

End;

Valid Test Data

OUTPUT:

I is positive

Viva-Vice:

54. What is system catalog or catalog relation? How is better known as?

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A RDBMS maintains a description of all the data that it contains, information about every
relation and index that it contains. This information is stored in a collection of relations maintained
by the system called metadata. It is also called data dictionary.

55. What is meant by query optimization?

The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that has the least
estimated cost is referred to as query optimization.

56. What is join dependency and inclusion dependency?

Join Dependency:
A Join dependency is generalization of Multivalued dependency.A JD {R1, R2, ...,
Rn} is said to hold over a relation R if R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn is a lossless-join decomposition of R . There is no
set of sound and complete inference rules for JD.
Inclusion Dependency:
An Inclusion Dependency is a statement of the form that some columns of a relation
are contained in other columns. A foreign key constraint is an example of inclusion dependency.

57. What is durability in DBMS?

Once the DBMS informs the user that a transaction has successfully completed, its effects
should persist even if the system crashes before all its changes are reflected on disk. This property
is called durability.

58. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?

Atomicity:
Either all actions are carried out or none are. Users should not have to worry about
the effect of incomplete transactions. DBMS ensures this by undoing the actions of incomplete
transactions.
Aggregation:
A concept which is used to model a relationship between a collection of entities and
relationships. It is used when we need to express a relationship among relationships.

59. What is a Phantom Deadlock?

In distributed deadlock detection, the delay in propagating local information might cause
the deadlock detection algorithms to identify deadlocks that do not really exist. Such situations are
called phantom deadlocks and they lead to unnecessary aborts.

60. What is a checkpoint and When does it occur?

A Checkpoint is like a snapshot of the DBMS state. By taking checkpoints, the DBMS can
reduce the amount of work to be done during restart in the event of subsequent crashes.

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11. Write a program to demonstrate %type and %rowtype attributes

AIM: to demonstrate %type and %rowtype attributes

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Declare

My_Empno emp.empno%type;
My_Ename emp.ename%type;
My_Emprow emp%rowtype;
No number;

Begin

No:=&no;

Select empno,ename into my_empno,my_ename from emp where empno=no;

If(SQl%rowcount=1) then

Dbms_output.put_line(‘empno is’ || my_empno || ‘ename is ‘ || my_ename);

Else

Dbms_output.put_line( ‘error’);

End if;

Select * into my_emprow from emp where empno=no;

If(SQl%rowcount=1) then

Dbms_output.put_line(‘empno is’ || my_emprow.empno || ‘ename is ‘ || my_emprow.ename);

Else

Dbms_output.put_line( ‘error’);

End if;

End;
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Valid Test Data

Enter the value for no:

7788

OUTPUT

empno is 7788 ename is vinay s.

empno is 7788 ename is vinay s.

Viva-Vice

61. What are the different phases of transaction?

Different phases are
 Analysis phase
 Redo Phase
 Undo phase

62. What do you mean by flat file database?

It is a database in which there are no programs or user access languages. It has no cross-file
capabilities but is user-friendly and provides user-interface management.

63. What is "transparent DBMS"?

It is one, which keeps its Physical Structure hidden from user.

64. Brief theory of Network, Hierarchical schemas and their properties

Network schema uses a graph data structure to organize records example for such a
database management system is CTCG while a hierarchical schema uses a tree data structure
example for such a system is IMS.

65. What is a query?

A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to interact with a
data base. The query language can be classified into data definition language and data manipulation
language.

66. What do you mean by Correlated subquery?

Subqueries, or nested queries, are used to bring back a set of rows to be used by the parent query.
Depending on how the subquery is written, it can be executed once for the parent query or it can be executed
once for each row returned by the parent query. If the subquery is executed for each row of the parent, this is
called a correlated subquery.
A correlated subquery can be easily identified if it contains any references to the parent subquery
columns in its WHERE clause. Columns from the subquery cannot be referenced anywhere else in the
parent query. The following example demonstrates a non-correlated subquery.
E.g. Select * From CUST Where '10/03/1990' IN (Select ODATE From ORDER Where
CUST.CNUM = ORDER.CNUM)

67. What are the primitive operations common to all record management systems?
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Addition, deletion and modification.

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12. Write a program to demonstrate predefined exceptions

AIM: to demonstrate predefined exceptions

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Declare

A number

B number;

C number;

Begin

A:=&a;

B:=&b;

C:=a/b;

Dbms_output.put_line(‘division is ‘ || C);

Exception

If (ZERO_DIVIDE) then

Dbms_output.put_line(‘b could not be zero’);

End if;

End;

Valid Test Data:

Enter the value for a:

10

Enter the value for b:

0
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OUTPUT:

b could not be zero

Viva-Vice:

68. Name the buffer in which all the commands that are typed in are stored
‘Edit’ Buffer

69. What are the unary operations in Relational Algebra?

PROJECTION and SELECTION.

70. Are the resulting relations of PRODUCT and JOIN operation the same?
No.
PRODUCT: Concatenation of every row in one relation with every row in another.
JOIN: Concatenation of rows from one relation and related rows from another.

71. What is RDBMS KERNEL?

Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software, and the
data dictionary, which consists of the system-level data structures used by the kernel to manage the
database
You might think of an RDBMS as an operating system (or set of subsystems), designed
specifically for controlling data access; its primary functions are storing, retrieving, and securing
data. An RDBMS maintains its own list of authorized users and their associated privileges;
manages memory caches and paging; controls locking for concurrent resource usage; dispatches
and schedules user requests; and manages space usage within its table-space structures
.
72. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS
I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management, Logging and
Recovery, Distribution Control, Transaction Control, Memory Management, Lock Management

73. Which part of the RDBMS takes care of the data dictionary? How
Data dictionary is a set of tables and database objects that is stored in a special area of the
database and maintained exclusively by the kernel.

74. What is the job of the information stored in data-dictionary?

The information in the data dictionary validates the existence of the objects, provides access
to them, and maps the actual physical storage location.

14. Write a program to demonstrate user defined exceptions

AIM: to demonstrate user defined exceptions

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB

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Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Declare

A number

B number;

C number;

Mydivide_zero EXCEPTION;

Begin

A:=&a;

B:=&b;

If(B=0) then

Raise Mydivide_zero;

else

C:=a/b;

Dbms_output.put_line(‘division is ‘ || C);

End if;

Exception

If (mydivide_zero) then

Dbms_output.put_line(‘b could not be zero’);

End if;

End;

Valid Test Data:

Enter the value for a:

10

Enter the value for b:

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OUTPUT:

b could not be zero

Viva-Vice:

75. Not only RDBMS takes care of locating data it also

determines an optimal access path to store or retrieve the data

76. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?

You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL)

77. Define SQL and state the differences between SQL and other conventional programming
Languages
SQL is a nonprocedural language that is designed specifically for data access operations on
normalized relational database structures. The primary difference between SQL and other
conventional programming languages is that SQL statements specify what data operations should
be performed rather than how to perform them.

78. Name the three major set of files on disk that compose a database in Oracle
There are three major sets of files on disk that compose a database. All the files are binary.
These are
 Database files
 Control files
 Redo logs
The most important of these are the database files where the actual data resides. The control
files and the redo logs support the functioning of the architecture itself.
All three sets of files must be present, open, and available to Oracle for any data on the
database to be useable. Without these files, you cannot access the database, and the database
administrator might have to recover some or all of the database using a backup, if there is one.

79. What is an Oracle Instance?

The Oracle system processes, also known as Oracle background processes, provide functions for the
user processes—functions that would otherwise be done by the user processes themselves
Oracle database-wide system memory is known as the SGA, the system global area or shared
global area. The data and control structures in the SGA are shareable, and all the Oracle background
processes and user processes can use them.
The combination of the SGA and the Oracle background processes is known as an Oracle instance

80. What are the four Oracle system processes that must always be up and running for the
database to be useable
The four Oracle system processes that must always be up and running for the database to be useable
include DBWR (Database Writer), LGWR (Log Writer), SMON (System Monitor), and PMON (Process
Monitor).

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15. Create a Cursor which update the salaries of an Employee as follows.

1. if sal<1000then update the salary to 1500.

2. if sal>=1000 and <2000 then update the salary to 2500.

3. if sal>=2000 and <=3000 then update the salary to 4000.

And also count the no.of records have been updated.*/

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Declare

Cursor my_cur is select empno,sal from emp;

Xno emp.empno%type;
Xsal emp.sal%type;
C number;

Begin

Open my_cur;

C:=0;

Loop

Fetch my_cur into xno,xsal;

If(xsal<1000) then

Update emp set sal=3000 where empno=xno;

C:=c+1;

Else if(xsal>=2000) and xsa<3000) then

Update emp set sal=4000 where empno=xno;

C:=c+1;
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End if;

End if;

Exit when my_cur%NOTFOUND ;

End loop;

Close my_cur;

Dbma_output.put_line(c||’records have been successfully updated’);

End;

Sql>@a.sql;

records have been successfully updated

pl/sql procedure successfully completed.

Valid Test Data

Before executing the cursor, the records in emp table as follows

Sql>select * from emp;

OUTPUT:

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMMD EPTNO

-----------------------------------------------------------------

7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 2000 20

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30

7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

-------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------------------------------------

7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20

7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30

7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30

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….

14 rows selected.

Viva-Vice:

81. What are database files, control files and log files. How many of these files should a database
have at least? Why?
Database Files
The database files hold the actual data and are typically the largest in size. Depending on
their sizes, the tables (and other objects) for all the user accounts can go in one database file—but that's not
an ideal situation because it does not make the database structure very flexible for controlling access to
storage for different users, putting the database on different disk drives, or backing up and restoring just part
of the database.
You must have at least one database file but usually, more than one files
are used. In terms of accessing and using the data in the tables and other objects, the
number (or location) of the files is immaterial.
The database files are fixed in size and never grow bigger than the size at which they were
created
Control Files
The control files and redo logs support the rest of the architecture. Any database

must have at least one control file, although you typically have more than one to guard against

loss. The control file records the name of the database, the date and time it was created, the

location of the database and redo logs, and the synchronization information to ensure that all

three sets of files are always in step. Every time you add a new database or redo log file to the

database, the information is recorded in the control files.

Redo Logs
Any database must have at least two redo logs. These are the journals for the database; the
redo logs record all changes to the user objects or system objects. If any type of failure occurs, the changes
recorded in the redo logs can be used to bring the database to a consistent state without losing any
committed transactions. In the case of non-data loss failure, Oracle can apply the information in the redo
logs automatically without intervention from the DBA.
The redo log files are fixed in size and never grow dynamically from the size at which they
were created.

82. What is ROWID?

The ROWID is a unique database-wide physical address for every row on every table. Once
assigned (when the row is first inserted into the database), it never changes until the row is deleted or the
table is dropped.
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The ROWID consists of the following three components, the combination of which uniquely
identifies the physical storage location of the row.
 Oracle database file number, which contains the block with the rows
 Oracle block address, which contains the row
 The row within the block (because each block can hold many rows)
The ROWID is used internally in indexes as a quick means of retrieving rows with a particular key
value. Application developers also use it in SQL statements as a quick way to access a row once they know
the ROWID

83. What is Oracle Block? Can two Oracle Blocks have the same address?
Oracle "formats" the database files into a number of Oracle blocks when they are first created—
making it easier for the RDBMS software to manage the files and easier to read data into the memory areas.
The block size should be a multiple of the operating system block size. Regardless of the
block size, the entire block is not available for holding data; Oracle takes up some space to manage
the contents of the block. This block header has a minimum size, but it can grow.
These Oracle blocks are the smallest unit of storage. Increasing the Oracle block size can improve
performance, but it should be done only when the database is first created.
Each Oracle block is numbered sequentially for each database file starting at 1. Two blocks can
have the same block address if they are in different database files.

84. What is database Trigger?

A database trigger is a PL/SQL block that can defined to automatically execute for insert, update,
and delete statements against a table. The trigger can e defined to execute once for the entire statement or
once for every row that is inserted, updated, or deleted. For any one table, there are twelve events for which
you can define database triggers. A database trigger can call database procedures that are also written in
PL/SQL.

85. Name two utilities that Oracle provides, which are use for backup and recovery.
Along with the RDBMS software, Oracle provides two utilities that you can use to back up and
restore the database. These utilities are Export and Import.
The Export utility dumps the definitions and data for the specified part of the database to an
operating system binary file. The Import utility reads the file produced by an export, recreates the definitions
of objects, and inserts the data
If Export and Import are used as a means of backing up and recovering the database, all the changes
made to the database cannot be recovered since the export was performed. The best you can do is recover
the database to the time when the export was last performed.

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19. create a procedure which generate all the prime numbers below the given number
and count the no.of prime numbers.

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Create or replace procedure prime_proc(n IN number,tot OUT number) as

i number;

c number;

j number;

Begin

i:=1;

tot:=0;

while(i<=n)

loop

j:=1;

c:=0;

while(j<=i)

loop

if(mod(I,j)=0) then

c:=c+1;

end if;

j:=j+1;

end loop;
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if(c=2) then

dbms_output.put_line(i);

tot:=tot+1;

end if;

i:=i+1;

end loop;

end;

Sql>procedure created.

declare

t number;

begin

prime_proc(10,t);

dbms_output.put_line(‘the total prime no .are’||t);

end;

Valid Test Data:

sql>set serveroutput on

OUTPUT

sql>/

The total prime no.are 4

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Pl/sql procedure successfully completed.

Viva-Vice

86. Name two utilities that Oracle provides, which are use for backup and recovery.
Along with the RDBMS software, Oracle provides two utilities that you can use to back up and
restore the database. These utilities are Export and Import.
The Export utility dumps the definitions and data for the specified part of the database to an
operating system binary file. The Import utility reads the file produced by an export, recreates the definitions
of objects, and inserts the data
If Export and Import are used as a means of backing up and recovering the database, all the changes
made to the database cannot be recovered since the export was performed. The best you can do is recover
the database to the time when the export was last performed.

87. What are stored-procedures? And what are the advantages of using them.
Stored procedures are database objects that perform a user defined operation. A stored
procedure can have a set of compound SQL statements. A stored procedure executes the SQL
commands and returns the result to the client. Stored procedures are used to reduce network traffic.

88. Tables derived from the ERD

a) Are totally unnormalised
b) Are always in 1NF
c) Can be further denormalised
d) May have multi-valued attributes

(b) Are always in 1NF

89. Spurious tuples may occur due to

i. Bad normalization
ii. Theta joins
iii. Updating tables from join
a) i & ii b) ii & iii
c) i & iii d) ii & iii

(a) i & iii because theta joins are joins made on keys that are not primary keys.
90. A B C is a set of attributes. The functional dependency is as follows
AB -> B
AC -> C
C -> B
a) is in 1NF
b) is in 2NF
c) is in 3NF
d) is in BCNF

(a) is in 1NF since (AC)+ = { A, B, C} hence AC is the primary key. Since C B is

a FD given, where neither C is a Key nor B is a prime attribute, this it is not in 3NF. Further B is
not functionally dependent on key AC thus it is not in 2NF. Thus the given FDs is in 1NF.

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18. create a procedure which updates the salaries of an employees as follows.

1.if sal<1000 then update the salry to 1500.

2.if sal>=1000 and <=2400 then update the salary to 2500.*/

HW/SW requirements:
Processor : AMD Athelon ™ 1.67 GHz
RAM : 256 MB
Hard Disk : 40 GB
Software : Oracle, PlSQL

Create or replace procedure myproc as

Cursor my_cur is select empno,sal from emp;

Xno emp.empno%type;

Xsal emp.sal%type;

C number;

Begin

Open my_cur;

C:=0;

Loop

Fetch my_cur into xno,xsal;

If(xsal<1000) then

Update emp set sal=1500 where empno=xno;

C:=c+1;

Else

Is(xsal>=1000 and xsal<=2400) then

Update emp set sal=2500 where empno=xno;

C:=c+1;

End if;
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End if;

Exit when my_cur%NOTFOUND;

End loop;

Close my_cur;

Dbms_output.put_line(c||’records have been successfully updated’);

End;

Valid Test Data:

Procedure created.

Sql>exec myproc;

OUTPUT:

Records have been successfully completed.

/* create function which add two given numbers. (Simple programs) */

Create or replace function add_fun(a number,b number) return

Number as

C number;

Begin

C:=a+b;

Return c;

End;

Function created.

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/*add_fun specification*/

Declare

Result number;

Begin

Result:=add_fun(10,20);

Dbms_output.put_line(‘the sum of 10 and 20 is’||result);

End;

Sql>/

The sum of 10 and 20 is 30

Pl/sql procedure successfully completed.

/*create a function which count total no.of employees having salary less than 6000.*/

/*function body*/

Create or replace function count_emp(esal number)return number as

Cursor vin_cur as Select empno,sal from emp;

Xno emp.empno%type;

Xsal emp.sal%type;

C number;

Begin

Open vin_cur;

C:=0;

loop

fetch vin_cur into xno,xsal;

if(xsal<esal) then

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c:=c+1;

end if;

exit when vin_cur%notfound;

end loop;

close vin_cur;

return c;

end;

Function created.

/*function specification*/

Declare

Ne number;

Xsal number;

Begin

Ne:=count_emp(xsal);

Dbms_output.put_line(xsal);

Dbma_output.put_line(‘there are ‘||ne||;employees’);

End;

OUTPUT

There are 8 employees.

Viva-Vice:

91. In mapping of ERD to DFD

a) entities in ERD should correspond to an existing entity/store in DFD
b) entity in DFD is converted to attributes of an entity in ERD
c) relations in ERD has 1 to 1 correspondence to processes in DFD
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d) relationships in ERD has 1 to 1 correspondence to flows in DFD

(a) entities in ERD should correspond to an existing entity/store in DFD

92. A dominant entity is the entity

a) on the N side in a 1 : N relationship
b) on the 1 side in a 1 : N relationship
c) on either side in a 1 : 1 relationship
d) nothing to do with 1 : 1 or 1 : N relationship

(b) on the 1 side in a 1 : N relationship

93. Select 'NORTH', CUSTOMER From CUST_DTLS Where REGION = 'N' Order By
CUSTOMER Union Select 'EAST', CUSTOMER From CUST_DTLS Where REGION = 'E'
Order By CUSTOMER
The above is
a) Not an error
b) Error - the string in single quotes 'NORTH' and 'SOUTH'
c) Error - the string should be in double quotes
d) Error - ORDER BY clause

(d) Error - the ORDER BY clause. Since ORDER BY clause cannot be used in UNIONS

94. What is Storage Manager?

It is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored in database,
application programs and queries submitted to the system.

95. What is Buffer Manager?

It is a program module, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory
and deciding what data to be cache in memory.

96. What is Transaction Manager?

It is a program module, which ensures that database, remains in a consistent state despite system
failures and concurrent transaction execution proceeds without conflicting.

97. What is File Manager?

It is a program module, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and data structure
used to represent information stored on a disk.

98. What is Authorization and Integrity manager?

It is the program module, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraint and checks the
authority of user to access data.

99. What are stand-alone procedures?

Procedures that are not part of a package are known as stand-alone because they independently
defined. A good example of a stand-alone procedure is one written in a SQL*Forms application. These types
of procedures are not available for reference from other Oracle tools. Another limitation of stand-alone
procedures is that they are compiled at run time, which slows execution.

100. What are cursors give different types of cursors.

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PL/SQL uses cursors for all database information accesses statements. The language supports
the use two types of cursors
 Implicit
 Explicit

101. What is cold backup and hot backup (in case of Oracle)?
 Cold Backup:
It is copying the three sets of files (database files, redo logs, and control file) when the
instance is shut down. This is a straight file copy, usually from the disk directly to tape. You must shut down
the instance to guarantee a consistent copy.
If a cold backup is performed, the only option available in the event of data file loss is
restoring all the files from the latest backup. All work performed on the database since the last backup is
lost.
 Hot Backup:
Some sites (such as worldwide airline reservations systems) cannot shut down the
database while making a backup copy of the files. The cold backup is not an available option.
So different means of backing up database must be used — the hot backup. Issue a SQL
command to indicate to Oracle, on a tablespace-by-tablespace basis, that the files of the tablespace are to
backed up. The users can continue to make full use of the files, including making changes to the data. Once
the user has indicated that he/she wants to back up the tablespace files, he/she can use the operating system
to copy those files to the desired backup destination.
The database must be running in ARCHIVELOG mode for the hot backup option.
If a data loss failure does occur, the lost database files can be restored using the hot
backup and the online and offline redo logs created since the backup was done. The database is restored to
the most consistent state without any loss of committed transactions.

102. What are Armstrong rules? How do we say that they are complete and/or sound
The well-known inference rules for FDs
 Reflexive rule :
If Y is subset or equal to X then X Y.
 Augmentation rule:
If X Y then XZ YZ.
 Transitive rule:
If {X Y, Y Z} then X Z.
 Decomposition rule :
If X YZ then X Y.
 Union or Additive rule:
If {X Y, X Z} then X YZ.
 Pseudo Transitive rule :
If {X Y, WY Z} then WX Z.
Of these the first three are known as Amstrong Rules. They are sound because it is enough if a set of
FDs satisfy these three. They are called complete because using these three rules we can generate the rest all
inference rules.

103. How can you find the minimal key of relational schema?
Minimal key is one which can identify each tuple of the given relation schema uniquely.
For finding the minimal key it is required to find the closure that is the set of all attributes that are
dependent on any given set of attributes under the given set of functional dependency.
Algo. I Determining X+, closure for X, given set of FDs F
1. Set X+ = X
2. Set Old X+ = X+
3. For each FD Y Z in F and if Y belongs to X+ then add Z to X+
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4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until Old X+ = X+

Algo.II Determining minimal K for relation schema R, given set of FDs F

1. Set K to R that is make K a set of all attributes in R
2. For each attribute A in K
a. Compute (K – A)+ with respect to F
b. If (K – A)+ = R then set K = (K – A)+

104. What do you understand by dependency preservation?

Given a relation R and a set of FDs F, dependency preservation states that the
closure of the union of the projection of F on each decomposed relation Ri is equal to the closure
of F. i.e.,
((R1(F)) U … U (Rn(F)))+ = F+
if decomposition is not dependency preserving, then some dependency is lost in the
decomposition.

105. What is meant by Proactive, Retroactive and Simultaneous Update.

Proactive Update:
The updates that are applied to database before it becomes effective in real
world .
Retroactive Update:
The updates that are applied to database after it becomes effective in real
world .
Simulatneous Update:
The updates that are applied to database at the same time when it becomes
effective in real world .

106. What are the different types of JOIN operations?

Equi Join: This is the most common type of join which involves only equality
comparisions. The disadvantage in this type of join is that there

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SQL Questions:

1. Which is the subset of SQL commands used to manipulate Oracle Database structures, including tables?
Data Definition Language (DDL)

2. What operator performs pattern matching?

LIKE operator

3. What operator tests column for the absence of data?

IS NULL operator

4. Which command executes the contents of a specified file?

START <filename> or @<filename>

5. What is the parameter substitution symbol used with INSERT INTO command?
&

6. Which command displays the SQL command in the SQL buffer, and then executes it?
RUN

7. What are the wildcards used for pattern matching?

_ for single character substitution and % for multi-character substitution

8. State true or false. EXISTS, SOME, ANY are operators in SQL.

True

9. State true or false. !=, <>, ^= all denote the same operation.
True

10. What are the privileges that can be granted on a table by a user to others?
Insert, update, delete, select, references, index, execute, alter, all

11. What command is used to get back the privileges offered by the GRANT command?
REVOKE

12. Which system tables contain information on privileges granted and privileges obtained?
USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE, USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD

13. Which system table contains information on constraints on all the tables created?
USER_CONSTRAINTS

14. TRUNCATE TABLE EMP;

DELETE FROM EMP;
Will the outputs of the above two commands differ?
Both will result in deleting all the rows in the table EMP.

15. What is the difference between TRUNCATE and DELETE commands?

TRUNCATE is a DDL command whereas DELETE is a DML command. Hence DELETE
operation can be rolled back, but TRUNCATE operation cannot be rolled back. WHERE clause can be used
with DELETE and not with TRUNCATE.

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16. What command is used to create a table by copying the structure of another table?
Answer :
CREATE TABLE .. AS SELECT command
Explanation :
To copy only the structure, the WHERE clause of the SELECT command should contain a FALSE
statement as in the following.
CREATE TABLE NEWTABLE AS SELECT * FROM EXISTINGTABLE WHERE 1=2;
If the WHERE condition is true, then all the rows or rows satisfying the condition will be copied to
the new table.

17. What will be the output of the following query?

SELECT REPLACE(TRANSLATE(LTRIM(RTRIM('!! ATHEN !!','!'), '!'), 'AN',
'**'),'*','TROUBLE') FROM DUAL;
TROUBLETHETROUBLE

18. What will be the output of the following query?

SELECT DECODE(TRANSLATE('A','1234567890','1111111111'), '1','YES', 'NO' );
Answer :
NO
Explanation :
The query checks whether a given string is a numerical digit.

19. What does the following query do?

SELECT SAL + NVL(COMM,0) FROM EMP;
This displays the total salary of all employees. The null values in the commission column will be
replaced by 0 and added to salary.

20. Which date function is used to find the difference between two dates?
MONTHS_BETWEEN

21. Why does the following command give a compilation error?

DROP TABLE &TABLE_NAME;
Variable names should start with an alphabet. Here the table name starts with an '&' symbol.

22. What is the advantage of specifying WITH GRANT OPTION in the GRANT command?
The privilege receiver can further grant the privileges he/she has obtained from the owner to any
other user.

23. What is the use of the DROP option in the ALTER TABLE command?
It is used to drop constraints specified on the table.

24. What is the value of ‘comm’ and ‘sal’ after executing the following query if the initial value of ‘sal’ is
10000?
UPDATE EMP SET SAL = SAL + 1000, COMM = SAL*0.1;
sal = 11000, comm = 1000

25. What is the use of DESC in SQL?

Answer :
DESC has two purposes. It is used to describe a schema as well as to retrieve rows from table in
descending order.
Explanation :
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The query SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY ENAME DESC will display the output sorted on
ENAME in descending order.

26. What is the use of CASCADE CONSTRAINTS?

When this clause is used with the DROP command, a parent table can be dropped even when a
child table exists.

27. Which function is used to find the largest integer less than or equal to a specific value?
FLOOR

28. What is the output of the following query?

SELECT TRUNC(1234.5678,-2) FROM DUAL;
1200

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REFERENCES:

 SCOTT Urman, oracle 8i-PL/SQL programming,TMH-2000

 Loney, oracle 8i-the complete reference,TMH-2000
 Loney, oracle 9i-the complete reference,TMH-2000
 Bayross, oracle Teach Your Self SQL/PLSQL using oracle 8i and 9i with SQLJ,
BPB, 2002.
 Abbey, oracle 8i-A beginners guide,TMH-2000.

<Include the syllabus copy of respective subject after the title page.>

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Index
Sr. Page
Name of Experiment/Assignment
No. No.

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