DEILLA COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION PROFESSIONAL SCIENCE STREAM;

PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT
General method of teaching (TECS-122)

UNIT ONE

1. Introduction to Teaching
1.1 The Concept of Teaching
1.1.1 What is teaching?
The term/concept of teaching can be understood from two level/senses.
1. In the broader sense:teaching refers to all sorts of activities that a teacher performs during his/her stay in
the classroom or school as a whole. These activities include :
 Opening the door to let in fresh air or more light to the classroom.
 Dividing the whole class in to small groups for certain instructional tasks.
 Changing students’ sitting arrangement for some instructional purpose
 Organizing and managing a classroom
 Participating in department or committee meetings
 Holding consultation with students or parents, conducting classes etc...
2. In the narrower sense: teaching can be defined as the process or activity of imparting knowledge, skills
and attitudes to students as well as guiding students in self learning activities and supporting them during
their learning difficulties. It involves three essential and interrelated activities to be performed by the
teacher. i.e imparting, guiding and supporting.
In the broader or narrower sense of the term, the activity of teaching as a whole are intended to promote
students’ learning, that is to help students show behavioral changes through the acquisition of knowledge, skills
and attitudes from the teacher as well as from other various sources.
1.1.2 Is teaching an art or science?

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In a long standing argument educators still disagree about whether teaching is a science or an art.Some
educators say “teaching is an art and therefore cannot be taught or evaluated. They say teaching is intuitive.

Others contend that teaching is a science; therefore, researchers can determine teaching strategies that are
successful, which can be taught and whose effectiveness can be evaluated.
Teaching as a science:
 Has a systematized body of knowledge
 Has its own theories and principles that have developed over a period of time. The principles have evolved
over a period of time based on repeated experimentation and observation in different contexts.
 The classroom methodologies and theories can be systematically studied
 We can apply a set of principles and follow certain rules
 Theory and research build the foundation for what we as teachers do
Teaching as an art:
 It depends on the skills, aptitude and creativity of the teacher
 The teacher needs to include one’s own creativity and emotions
 Involves applying theories and methods by relating to different personalities, keeping students engaged,
building relationships etc
 Requires improvising when principles and rules don’t work
It is both an art and a science.
Artistic Vs. scientist teachers
Scientist teacher:
 Organizes instruction orderly
 Sets acceptable levels of performance and behavior
 Carefully organizes his lessons and manages a classroom
 Follows school rules and uses the discipline plan chosen by the school
 Carefully monitors and evaluates students’ progress
Artistic teacher:
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  Focuses on motivation ,pacing and improvisation
 Bases activities on students’ behavior
 Demonstrates creativity and initiative
 Motivation and improvises bases activities on student behavior, and is intuitive and difficult to evaluate.
 Their aspects of teaching depend on the combine of innate talent and a systematic knowledge base.
The best teacher:
 Has clear objectives but improvises tactics for reaching those objectives
 Knows when it is essential to deal directly with facts and when it is important to enrich lessons to
stimulate interest
 Frequently modifies approaches when students appear to be experiencing difficulty
 Bases the standards he/she sets or the objectives to reach but they encourage all students to exceed those
objectives
 Organizes instruction orderly, sets acceptable levels of performance and behavior, and manages a
classroom
“The best teachers are artists who know the science of teaching”

1.1.3 AIMS OF TEACHING

The aim of all teaching is to:-
 Bring about student learning.
 Help, facilitate and stimulate students learning inside as well as outside the classroom.
 Generally, the aim of good teaching is:-
 Help students know more and think bigger than they did before
 Help them be able to do or perform better than they did before and
 Awaken in their heart feelings like appreciation and firm support for good practices and showing real
concern for and opposition to bad practices.
 Good teaching aims at stimulating the mind, the hand and the heart of the learner

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  To sum up, it helps students bring about an all rounded development in their personalities (physical,
intellectual, emotional, social) developments.
- Physical : Physically strong
- Intellectual :mentally alert
- Emotional: emotionally stable
- Social :socially efficient
1.1.4 SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF TEACHING
Students’ are teachers’ clients. So, whatever teachers do inside or outside the classroom should be the benefit of
their clients/students. Teachers have a professional obligation to help students show behavioral change in
desired conditions. i.e to render the following specific intellectual and specialized services to their students.

1. IMPARTING
 It means presenting knowledge, skills and attitudes to students directly and personally by the teacher. To
give this kind of service effectively, the teacher gathers relevant information from various sources.
 The services of imparting require the teacher to organize and carryout teacher-led instructional approach.
 It entails planning, controlling and directing the whole process of activities of instruction by the teacher
himself.
 The teacher uses instructional methods like lecture, showing/display and demonstration.
 Generally, Imparting refers to direct teaching.
 The teacher’s role is as a director or controller
2. GUIDING
 Means teaching students how to teach themselves
 It also means showing students how to learn on their own .i.e. with little assistance from the teacher
 Engages students in independent learning activities (self-learn or self-study activities)
 Involves helping students seek for knowledge, develop skills and attitudes mainly through their own
conscious efforts
 Gives students a chance to plan, direct and control the instructional process by themselves
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 It refers to indirect teaching.
 The teacher engages students in independent learning activities (self-learn/self-study activities).
 Students get a chance to plan, control and direct the instructional process by themselves.
 The role of the teacher here is that of a facilitator. i.e not to spoon feed students with a collection of
information.
 The teacher employs student-centered instructional methods such as reading assignment, project works and
role-playing etc..
The guiding services become more efficient and effective only when the teacher gives the following services
to the students.
The teacher ought to:-
o Select, arrange and provide carefully the kind of learning environment and experiences to the students.
o Tell students what information (knowledge and skill) to seek for.
o Explain to students the reason why they should be engaged in a particular self-learn activity.
o Tell and show students where to obtain the information (experience) or Lead them to the possible sources
of information (resource person/material).
o Show student’s how they could obtain the particular information (experience). i.e teaching students about
the techniques and procedures of learning from the various sources (techniques of interviewing people,
observing events and activities, making experiments and researches, using/reading reference materials).
3. SUPPORTING
 This kind of service is entirely based on and naturally follows from the services of imparting and guiding.
 Everything that is imparted by a teacher might not be acquired or well understood by students. Because
they may encounter several learning difficulties. As a result, it becomes necessary that the teacher should
give the support, assistance and counseling that students would possibly require of him
 A teacher’s support to students is not a onetime service. The teacher has to answer students’ questions
and keep doing so until students are clear about their doubts.

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Generally, the teacher must be fully aware that it is his/her professional duty to render the services of
imparting, guiding and supporting to students.
1.1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER
1. A teacher should be a person of good character.
 Must respect the truth; should be sincere in word and act
 Must like people and especially children.
 His/her personal life must set a good example to his pupils
 Have a sense of humor
2. A good teacher must know his pupils as well as the subject he/she is teaching

3. A good teacher will be adaptable.

- Must be willing to face and solve new practical problems

4. A good teacher appreciates individual differences
- Children differ from each other physically, in temperament, in intelligence and in their special aptitude
- The teacher must tolerate when such gaps exist among students
5. A good teacher knows his/her world
- By keeping in touch with what is happening in the world, he informs students about new ideas,
inventions, and strange events that occurs every day.
- He/she helps students to understand what is puzzling to them
6. The good teacher will make social and emotional adjustment.
The teacher should show by his own behavior that he has met successfully his own problems. Because, the
frustrated teachers who is erratic and inconsistent in his behavior, exerts a definitely bad influence in the
class room moreover,
7. A good teacher remains a student all his life
- The test of a truly educated person is that he knows that he does not know all he ought to know
- The teacher must always know far more than it is necessary for his/her pupils to know
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 - A teacher must strive to enrich his mind with new knowledge and ideas so that his/her teaching
becomes more exciting and attractive
Characteristics of good teacher would also include the following:-
 Loves children,
 Sets proper examples for students,
 provide knowledge to children,
 have community acceptable morals,
 motivate children to learn,
 know he/she is not in it for its financial rewards,
 Works well with parents and have respect for his/her students.
 Understands thatstudents learn in different ways learn and there is no single best teaching method for all
children.
1.1.6 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF TEACHING
1. Planning the instruction
- Planning refers to an advance preparation, arrangement and organization of the instructional process.
- It involves a teacher’s anticipation & forward thinking about how the teaching & learning processes should
move.
 The process and result of teaching can never be the same when a teacher makes the necessary preparation
in advance and when he does not.
 The quality of a teacher’s job is greatly determined by the quality and amount of preparation he/she makes
in advance.
Planning the instruction means deciding on the following sets of educational intentions well advance:-
 Determining and writing a set of instructional objectives.
 Selecting instructional contents,
 Selecting instructional methods and activities
 Selecting and preparing instructional media
 Determining procedures and tools of evaluation.
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  The principal result of instructional planning is a plan.
Good teaching (imparting, guiding and supporting) is a function of good planning.
2. Implementing the instructional plans
Good plans alone does not lead students anywhere without proper implementation.
Implementation refers to:-
 Putting the contents of instructional plans in to action through class room instruction.
 Teaching strictly according to the plan designed in advance.
 Changing the sets of educational intentions to reality in classroom. It includes performing the following
sets of instructional activities.
 Working with the students towards the attainment of the set of instructional objectives.
 Presenting the intended knowledge, skills and attitudes to students.
 Applying the selected methods to help students and using the selected instructional media
(materials) to make lessons concrete and supervise if a teacher is properly implementing his/her plan
of instruction.
3. Evaluating the results of instruction
- Evaluation is an integral part of the activity of teaching.
- It refers to a systematic and continuous process of obtaining evidence about the extent to which students
have attained the objectives of instruction.
- If it is missing, then these will be no way of knowing whether or not the sets of educational intentions are
realized as planned.
- There are different types of evaluation techniques. The most common tools of evaluation are observations,
oral questions, paper and pencil tests (written) and performance tests.

1.2 THE TEACHING PROFESSION (IS TEACHING A PROFESSION?)

A PROFESSION:It is an occupation usually involving relatively long and specialized preparation on the level
of higher education and governed by its own code of ethics.
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A true profession:-
o Involves a relatively long period of specialized preparation.
o Involves activities that are predominantly intellectual and its member possess specialized knowledge and
skills.
o Sets relatively high standards for admission.
o Is regarded as a life-long career.
o Is represented by an effective organization.
o Has a broad range of autonomy and in large measures sets its own standards.
o Is dedicated to the extension of knowledge in the area of its concern.
o Gives high priority to service as opposed to personal gain.
o Emphasizes self-improvement and growth through in-service training.
o Safe guards the welfare of its members.
o Requires a license or certificate to practice.
o Bases its practice on clearly defined ethical principles.
Let us see some of the above characteristics of a profession in some detail.
A. Specialized knowledge base
A profession is based on a body of knowledge and skills that a professional teacher possesses:-
 Knowledge and understanding of the problems and features of the process of education.
 Knowledge of how schools operate and should operate.
 Knowledge of what the curriculum embraces and should embrace.
 Knowledge of the nature, characteristics and conditions of students.
 Knowledge and understanding about the processes, theories, principles, and conditions of teaching and
learning.
 Good mastery of the subject matter taught.

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  Knowledge and skills of choosing and using varieties of instructional media(materials) methods and
techniques of teaching, instructional planning, class room organization and management, constructing,
administrating, correcting, and scoring tests and also grading and reporting test results.
B. A profession is based on a long period of specialized training
The professional training that a teacher receives takes various forms such as pre-service (at higher learning
institutes), in-service and self-development programs. The professional training programs for teachers include
the following components.
 General education (supportive course)
 Training in the areas of specializations(major and minor)
 Professional education areas and student t teaching (teaching practice)

C. A professional enjoys autonomy and decision making authority in his/her respective specialty.
- A professional teacher has a considerable degree of autonomy and power to make decisions both inside
and outside the classroom concerning students, during planning, implementing and evaluating the
instruction.
- He/she makes several decisions instantly while conducting and managing a class, which students should
get what result based on continuous evaluation. etc..
D. Performance of a service to the public
Professional persons, by the nature of their work, provide a service to others in their society. The essence of a
profession is that, thought men enter it for the sake of livelihood; the measure of their success is the service
which they deliver, not the gain which they collect.
E. A profession is organized
The purpose of professional organizations are derived primarily from a need to give strength, respectability,
continuity and protection, which gives unity to the profession as also protects it from pressure from many
outside quarters.
F. A profession has a code of ethics
Code of ethics (professional ethics):
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  Refers to the basic moral guide lines (rules) that regulate acceptable behaviors for the members of a given
profession.
 Regulate the standard moral behaviors that a professional teacher shows during his/her day-today
relationships with students, colleagues, educational administrators, parents and the public in general.
 Represent the do’s and don’ts of the teaching profession.
The code of ethics of the teaching profession aim at:
 Promoting the status of the teaching profession.
 Maintaining and even raising the professional competence of the teacher.
1.2.3. THE PRINCIPAL CODES OF ETHICS OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION
The following is an interpretation of the codes of ethics prepared by the EI (education international) and NEA
(national education association) –USA. It includes the professional obligations and commitments of a teacher to
students.
The teacher:-
1. Shall not unreasonably restrain/control the student from independent action in the pursuit of learning.
 A teacher should not always spoon-feed students with a collection of information
 Students must be given a chance to see, discover and try and do things by themselves
 A teacher has to provide various learning experiences and situations where students engage in self
learning/study activities.
2. Shall not unreasonably deny the student access to varying points of view
 The teacher should not always impose his/her own views on students especially on issues which are
controversial in nature;
 He/she must rather expose students to the alternative point of views and make their own choices and
decisions.

3. Shall not deliberately suppress or distort subject matter relevant to the students’ progress.
 As long as a given subject matter/issue is relevant and useful to students’ progress, the teacher should
present it in a straight forward manner
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4. Shall make reasonable effort to protect the student from conditions harmful to learning or to health
and safety
 Teachers have responsibility for what students do and for what happens to them during their stay in the
classroom and the school
5. Shall not intentionally expose the student to shame or disparagement
 A teacher is expected to give love, show respect and kindness ,understanding and sympathy to students
6. Shall not on the basis of race, color, creed, sex, nationality origin, marital status, political or religious
beliefs, family, social or cultural background or sexual orientations.
 A teacher should never make discrimination between students.
 A teacher must see all of his students with equal eye.
7. Shall not use professional relationships with students for private advantage
8. Shall not disclose information about students obtained in the course of professional service, unless
disclosure serves a persuasive professional purpose or is required by law.

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 UNIT TWO
2. TEACHING PRINCIPLES
2.1 Meaning of Teaching Principles
Teaching principles are the fundamental guidelines or theories indicating where a teacher’s instructional
activities must especially and mentally focus on in order to ensure meaningful and effective learning of
students.
The difference between professional ethics and teaching principles

Professional Teaching principles

ethics
Identifyin - Moral - Technical guideline
g features guideline - Technical responsibility
- Moral - Professional competencies
obligation
- Moral
responsibility
- Moral
competence
Short Regulate Regulate the special kinds of technical and
descriptio desirable and professional competencies to be demonstrated
n acceptable by teachers so as to effectively organize and
relationships to manage the various aspects of instruction with
be maintained the ultimate aim of maximizing learning.
among teachers,
students and
other
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 stakeholders

2.1.2 Significance of Teaching Principles

Ultimately all teaching principles aim at making learning:
 Meaningful, applicable, and problem solving
 Aim oriented, deliberate and systematic
 Well integrated and coordinated
 Active and participatory
 Comprehensive and well balanced
 Need based, responsive, and appropriate to student’s conditions
 Concrete, activity and experience based
 Long lasting and permanent
 Measurable and assessable
2.1.3 Common Characteristics of Teaching Principle
1. They are essential: this means they are useful for enhancing and promoting student learning
2. They are universal: the use or application of teaching principles is not confined to certain types of subjects
or grade levels. They are rather applicable to all subjects and at all educational and grade levels
3. They are compulsory: since teaching principles are extremely useful for effective learning and since they
are applicable regardless of the types of subjects and grade levels one teaches, then it is a must for teachers to
strictly adhere to and apply all of them. Otherwise effective teaching becomes impossible
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2.2 Basic Principles of Teaching
1. The principle of connecting instruction with life
Schools are for preparing children for life, present and future. Therefore, whatever a teacher teaches in the
school (class room) must be related to real life conditions, activities, problems and solutions in a given society.
 This principle contains three essential aspects. They are:-
A. The principle of connecting instruction with the personal life and experience of the student.
The child comes to the school not with a blank mind; s/he comes with his or her own knowledge and experience
acquired in the past from various sources. Hence, this principle advises the teacher to:-
 Try to imagine or find out what students know already and are able to do in relation to the lesson s/he
teaches. This is called an entry behavior; it is the behavior student’s show before they being to learn a new
subject or lesson.
 Begin his/her lesson from where the students are; relate his/her lesson to the child’s present life
experiences and add newer experiences to the already existing ones.
B. The principle of relating instruction with life in the society. Crucial problems and issues and the main
activities in the society (present and future) have to be emphasized in the classroom. Not only should we
teach our students about the main problems of their own society. But also about the possible solutions to
these problems. Also students should be encouraged to seek for and suggest solutions by themselves.
C. The principle of utility or application
Students must be told, convinced, and persuaded about the importance, use and application of the subject matter
they are intended to learn. Therefore, this principle advises the teacher to show them how classroom knowledge
can be used to solve which specific problems (personal/social) in life.
 Practical suggestions for the application of this principle
 Give relevant and concrete examples that refer students’ personal experiences in life.
 Encourage students to share their personal experiences to the class.
 Organize various forms of discussions (panels and seminars) where students learn about life (society)
from knowledgeable people (resource persons) as well as from each other.
 Organize field trips and community study programs.
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  Use varieties of audio-visual materials (real object, model, photographs, diagrams, films etc...).
2. The principle of basing instruction on the syllabus
Generally, this principle deals with planning. It stresses on three very important issues.
1st, the principle stresses on the need for importance of instructional planning. It requires all teachers to plan
their teaching if they have to use instructional resources (time, energy and materials) effectively and efficiently.
2nd, the principle also points out the most logical and effective way of preparing the different types of
instructional plans. It advices to design smaller types of instructional plans on the basis of bigger types of plans

 Different types(levels) of plans

Curriculum _____ syllabus ______course plan _____unit plan ______lesson plan

3rd, effective plans alone don’t lead the teacher and students anywhere. Success in teaching and learning is
possible when a teacher teaches every single lesson according to his/her plan or put in to action.
3. The principle of coordinating instructions of different subjects
The ultimate aim of education is to bring about an all-rounded or unified development of the child’s
personality. Teaching only a single subject to students can never attain this aim. We have to teach them several
subjects/an integrated manner.
Teachers should always remained and insist their students to transfer knowledge and skills between related
subjects. Because, what a child learn in one subject has to support and facilitate his/her learning in another
subject.
The following table shows only some examples of related subjects and the common points (knowledge) at
which they meet.
Related subjects Common points (knowledge) or
points of contact
 Art and handicraft - Drawing, line...
 Art and geography - Enlarging and reducing pictures
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  Geography and agriculture and maps
 Agriculture and biology - Rocks, soils, climate, altitude
 Biology and home science - Plants, animals
 Language and music - Human reproduction
 Geography and chemistry - Literature, verses
 Mathematics and physics - Atmosphere, water
 Physics and geography -
- Motion, rotation, revolution

 Suggestions or strategies for integration

 Every teacher has to make a survey of the relevant school syllabuses in order to identify points of contact
(common topics) between subjects.
 Every teacher has to work closely with fellow teachers teaching related subjects, in identifying and
elaborating terms, concepts, principles… which are common to their.
4. The Principle of Providing For Active Learning and Student Centered Instructional Approaches
Generally this principle is concerned with the nature and type of roles teacher and students should play in the
instruction process. Increasing student role or participation in instruction is the principal intention in this
principle. It is a fact students learn best when they participate in the most active manner possible. The principle
here advocates for a major shift of emphasis (paradigm) from essentially teacher centered instructional approach
to student centered instructional approaches.
1. Teacher centered approach
The philosophy that lies behind this approach is that knowledge is some thing that a teacher deposits in students
mind; but not some thing that students acquire, construct and develop themselves. In teacher centered approach
it is assumed that the teacher is “know all things” and the sole source of knowledge. Therefore, the teacher
spoon feeds students with collection of information. It is also assumed instruction is the sole responsibility of
the teacher and students have little participation in the instruction process. The teacher is expected to take full
control of the whole instructional process. The lecture method is one best example of teacher centered approach.
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 2. Student-centered approach
The most important philosophy that lies behind this approach is that knowledge is some thing that should be
acquired, constructed and developed by learners themselves and not something they are spoon. In this approach
students are required to assume full responsibility for their own learning. With the teacher as a facilitator,
students have to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes by actively involving in varieties of independent
learning experiences.
Student centered instructional approaches include experience- based or actively methods like the various forms
of the discussion method, reading assignment, project, inquiry, role play and field trip methods etc…
5. The principle of making instruction comprehensive
This principle is based on one important aim of education; that is, bringing about a unified/all-rounded
development of students’ personality. It refers to the combined development of physical, intellectual, emotional,
social and moral sides of the individual’s personality. To use an every day language, unified development of a
person means the maturation and development of the head, the hand and the heart of the individual. The head,
heartand hand refers to the individual’s development in theoretical, emotional and practical aspects
respectively.
Therefore, school instruction must be designed and given in such a way that it leads to the all- sided
development of students. The following are specific examples of logical and hierarchal way of presenting
different levels of knowledge, skills and attitudes to students.
 Proceed from simple to complex, concert to abstract, general to particular, easy to difficult, known to
unknown etc…
6. The principle of providing for individual differences
Individual difference: - variation in character occurs among individual members of a group. For instance a class
of students differs from each other in their physical, characteristics (conditions), emotional, ability to socialize,
intelligence, power of memory and attention, learning ability and achievement(speed of grasping), maturity
level, learning style, skills, attitudes, interest, family, social, ethnic and cultural backgrounds, political and
religious beliefs etc…

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Providing for individual difference:- treating and helping individual student’s professionally according to their
special conditions, needs and problems. As result, teachers have to make sure that they give special attention
and make extra efforts to treat and help students with special needs, problems or conditions

.
7. The principle of concretizing instruction/using different instructional media.
This principle advises the teacher to minimize verbalism to the greatest extent possible. Verbalism: - means
teaching words without regard for their meaning.
Concentrating instruction: - means creating the environment and providing situations and experiences where
students can see, hear, smell, taste, feel, try and do things about which they learn.
According to some researchers conducted in the area: - about 11% of human learning comes through the sense
of hearing, 83% through sight, and 3.5% through smelling, 1.5% through touching, 1% through testing. Hence,
student learning becomes concrete and meaningful largely when varieties of instructional materials are used on
a permanent basis. Hence, in practice this principle demands teachers to use instructional materials in their
everyday teaching.
Suggestions and strategies for making instruction concrete
A. Bring into the classroom the real things (objects) about which students learn.
B. Take students out to where the relevant realities are available.
C. In the absence of the relevant reality and even alongside with this, use representative media like models,
different types of visual symbols, text, radio, T.V. etc…
8. The principle of stabilizing the result of teaching and learning
Stabilization: - means consolidating/uniting the key ideas that students acquire from various sources and in
various way. The aim of stabilization is to help students fight against forgetting and help them remember a
newly acquired knowledge and skill for a long time. To this end, teachers have to deliberately make students
focus on and remember they key ideas of a lesson.
Suggestions for stabilization
 Repeat the main ideas at various intervals in each lesson /at the end of each lesson, oral summary.
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  Give short notes (written summary) to students.
 Give students chance to exercise (practice) the newly learned knowledge and skill
 Provide different and new situations, activities or problems for students to apply the newly acquired
knowledge and skills.
9. The principle of continuously assessing students’ performance and learning results
In the process of evaluation, the teacher seeks for information or evidence about whether or not students have
shown progress or faced difficulties in their learning, have grasped (understood) the content taught and
eventually achieved the instructional objectives set. If the evaluation reveals that students have faced difficulties
in learning then the teacher decides either to re-teach the lesson or detain students in the same grade. The
ultimate aim in evaluation is to make decisions and take measure concerning students and the whole process of
teaching and learning.

UNIT THREE
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
3.1 The Concept of Instructional Planning
Instructional planning involves advance preparation, arrangement and organization of the various aspects of the
instruction process. It is forward thinking about the specific targets to be hit and tasks and activities to be
carried out during a given time of instruction. It helps to create concrete discipline and good atmosphere in the
class and purposeful teaching learning activity. No one can teach well without having good planning. i.e. good
planning results in good teaching and good teaching very likely results in good learning.
Planning is a decision making activity that requires the teacher to ascertain/determine objectives and deciding
on instructional activities to attain these objectives. To summarize planning can be considered as having three
characteristics.

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1. Planning is anticipatory/preventive in nature. This means that a decision has to be made now as to what to
do and how, before it is actually done. In other words, plan is a blue print/proposal of what will be done in
the future, but to be prepared at present.
2. Planning is decision making system. It involves a process of making decisions which will defines to what
to be achieved in the future and the formation of plans for achievement of the goals.
3. Planning is focused on desired results . It is a means of ensuring that important instructional objectives are
accomplished as and when desired. Planning involves the process of determining, formulating, selecting,
preparing, set of instructional objectives, contents, methods and materials (media), and evaluation
procedures.
1.2 Importance of Instructional Planning
A teacher who comes to the classroom un-prepared is very likely to fail in his/her teaching and eventually
causes bad learning on students’ part. The following set of statements explains what planning specifically
means to teachers and what difference it makes in their work in the classroom:
1. Planning provides the teacher with well-defined and clearly specified tasks to be accomplished by him/her
and the students with in a given time of instruction. Any good plan of instruction shows the following well
defined and specified instructional tasks; the instructional objectives to be met, the subject matter to be
taught and learned, the methods/strategies and media of teaching and learning to be used, the procedures
and tools to be used in order to evaluate the results of teaching and learning.
2. With its set of fixed aims in view/vision, planning gives the teacher and students clear direction and vision
and also energy to meet the aims.
3. Planning helps the teacher and students to act efficiently and in a competent way. i.e. it protects the teacher
from going off the way, and to carry out the sets of specific instructional activities in a smooth, continuous,
organized and interconnected manner. It also helps to use all resources (time, energy, materials) in proper
and economical ways.
4. Planning gives the teacher confidence to face the class.
5. It informs everyone concerned (school administrators, supervisors, parents…) about what a teacher and his
students do in the classroom.
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3.3 Basic Questions In Instructional Planning
The planning process will be systematic and efficient and its product or plan would be effective only if teachers
give sufficient answers for the following basic questions of instructional planning: whom to teach?, why to
teach?, what to teach?, when to teach?, how much to teach?, how to teach?, with what to teach?, where to
teach?, how to check the actual results of teaching and learning?.
Essential Components of Instructional Plans
All good plans of instruction comprise the following essential elements in common: these are:-
Objectives, contents, learning experiences or activities or methods, media and materials, procedures and tools of
evaluation and time and setting for instruction…
3.4 Different Types of Educational/Instructional Plans
See the structure of educational plan at page 6 in chart
3.4.1 Educational Policy
It is the broadest and most comprehensive plan designed for the national education system as a whole. It is the
basic and official document of education indicating the national direction that a country chooses to follow in the
education sector. It contains sets of general mission statements, concerning the philosophy/viewpoint,
organization, and operation of the whole sector of education as well as the much broader set of educational
intentions for various aspects of the education sector. Different kinds of curricula are developed on the basis of
the same national policy of education.
Main Components of a Policy of Education
 National goals of education
 Broad contents of education
- Basic education - general education - preparatory education
 Set of implementation strategies
- Control and administration of education
- Federal, regional, local
- Centralized and decentralized
- Educational finance
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 - Government priorities, sources
- Educational structure and delivery systems
- Formal and non formal education
- Language of instruction at different levels
- Standards for curriculum development
- Educational support inputs
- Production, supply, distribution, utilization of educational resources and facilities
- Educational evaluation and national examination systems
- Promotion, certification…
3.4.2 Curriculum
It is a total or more comprehensive plan prepared to guide and controls the over all educational programs
(activities) conducted at certain level or sector of education. It is a very broad and unified plan prepared
commonly for a set of subjects taught in the same level or sector of education. Curriculum is a plan for many
subjects in common but not a plan for single subjects.
Examples of curricula for different levels of education;
- Pre-school curriculum; primary school curriculum; secondary school curriculum; higher education
curriculum.
Examples of curricula for different sectors of education;
- Special education curriculum; teacher education curriculum; technical education curriculum; medical school
curriculum.
3.4.3. Syllabus
A syllabus is a plan designed for a single subject taught at a certain grade level. It contains set of objectives,
contents, methods and media… of instruction selected for a single subject. A syllabus emanates/originates from
a curriculum. Eventually the objectives, contents and the other components of a syllabus are elaborations of the
general aims, contents and the other components embodied in the curriculum. The following are the essential
features of a syllabus
1. Syllabuses are usually designed centrally at a national level or in some cases at regional levels.
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 2. Syllabuses are obligatory in nature. It is a must that they are uniformly implemented( with certain
modifications) through out the schools in a given country/region
3. Syllabus design is a cooperative activity. i.e. subject specialists play the central role during the design.
4. The preparation of syllabuses does not consider conditions peculiar to individual schools. But rather a
syllabus is designed on the basis of general and common conditions prevailing in all the schools in a given
country or region.
5. A syllabus from an essential basis for the preparation of an annual (course) plan.
6. A syllabus is a relatively long lasting plan. i.e. it is not changed every year like a course plan.
3.4.3 Annual/Yearly Plan- Course Plan
An annual plan is a more elaborated plan of a single subject that is prepared at school or departmental level
Essential features
An annual plan is:-
1. A further elaboration of the syllabus for the same subjects. i.e. it is prepared on the basis of the syllabus.
2. Prepared with in each school at departmental level;
3. Always prepared by subject teachers- teaching the same subject in the same school;
4. Entirely based on the special conditions prevailing in each school;
5. Implemented only in the school in which it is prepared;
6. Prepared to serve for one whole academic year or if the course is a semester course it serves for one whole
semester; it must be changed or modified every year/semester to fit to the new conditions prevailing in the
new academic year/semester.
7. The basis for the preparation of a lesson plan;
8. Prepared in a chart form; however since it is a more elaborated one, it includes more elements than a syllabus
does.
3.4.4 Unit Plan
It is a specific plan designed for teaching an individual unit in a given subject, which is elaborated by subject
teachers based on the suggestions in the relevant syllabus. Except for some modifications, teachers don’t

24
prepare new unit plans by themselves. Usually they just adapt the individual unit plans already existing in the
national/regional syllabus.
3.4.5. Lesson plan
It is a smaller unit of instruction dealing with a very specific topic (one or two) that is taught /learned in a
relatively shorter period of time; lessons could vary in their duration. In the context of teacher-centered
lessons, it is prepared to guide and control one period’s instruction. But in the context of students centered
lessons, the plan is prepared to guide instruction that might perhaps last for a few days/weeks.
Lessons show variations in too many respects. Some lessons could be predominantly knowledge lessons, while
other lessons could be predominantly skills or attitude lessons. But in quiet many cases we have lessons
containing different combinations of knowledge, skill and attitude aspects of the same single instructional
topic/issue.
Despite such variations, however all lessons show certain characteristics and elements in common. All lessons
have certain sets of well defined and well specified objectives, contents, methods and media of instruction.
They all have a specified time, space, setting and audience and structure as well. Of course, different lessons
can vary from each other in their objectives, contents, methods, duration and place. However, most lessons are
similar in their organization, that is, most lessons show definite and visible structure.
Essential feature
A lesson plan:
1. Is a further elaboration of the annual plan, i.e. it is prepared on the basis of the annual plan.
2. It is always prepared at a classroom level and only on individual basis.
3. It is prepared on the basis of the specific conditions of the classes of students’ taught by the teacher
himself/herself.
4. Serves for a single period (mostly teacher- centered) or for a few days or weeks to deal with a well-
defined and specified instructional topic or issues only.

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 5. Serves to directly and closely guide and control the day to day classroom Instruction more than any other
type of instructional plan.
6. A lesson plan is prepared in a special format designed for the purpose.
3.5 The structure of a lesson and its instructional phases/steps.
3.5.1 Instructional Phases/Steps
Teaching steps refers to sequences of instructional events and tasks performed by the teacher and students at
different stages/levels in a given lesson.
The following are the more common instructional phases or steps.
 Introduction, Presentation/Development, Stabilization, and also Checking and Evaluation.
Importance of structuring a lesson with teaching steps
Structuring, organizing and conducting lessons through such visible, logical and sequential teaching steps has
several advantages. The main aim is that it facilitates and ensuring learning. When lessons are conducted in
such an organized manner students would surely have a clear vision of how the present lesson is connected with
the past lessons(revision), they would be ware of topics and sub-topics, objectives, what specific responsibilities
they have (their tasks). Also students would have a time to practice (exercise).

 Major Instructional Tasks Performed In Each of The Teaching Steps

1. The Introduction phase of a lesson

Introduction is where lesson beings, it involves:-
a. Revising the previous lesson.
b. Introducing the topic and sub topics of a lesson at hand.
c. Explaining to students about the objectives and importance/use of the lesson.
d. Telling students about their tasks and responsibilities in the lesson.

26
The aim in ‘C’ and‘D’ above are to motivate students; arouse their interest and attract their attention to the
lesson. Introduction is usually short in duration. It is suggested that introduction should not take more than 10%
of the total class time.
2. The presentation phase of a lesson
This is the main body of the lesson. Presentation means imparting new knowledge, skills and attitudes. It
involves developing, elaborating, expanding the optic and sub topic (main ideas) that were introduced to
students at the beginning of the period. During presentation the teacher applies nearly all the basic principles of
teaching. For example, she/he:
 Develop the topic gradually by maintaining logical order /simple to complex.
 Encourages active class participation.
 Use combinations of various types of teaching methods and instructional materials.
 Tells relevant examples, stories and cases.
Presentation usually takes much of the class time. It is suggested that it takes about 45% of the whole class time.
3. The stabilization phase of a lesson
During this time students are assisted to focus on the key ideas transmitted during presentation, hold, remember
and apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes imparted during the time of presentation in order to make more
stable, long lasting and applicable.
Main forms or ways of stabilization
A. Repetition: - giving an oral summary of the lesson at hand. It is the lowest form because what is merely told
is likely to be forgotten by students after a while.
B. Systematization: - arranging the set of key ideas of the lesson in a logical and orderly manner. Showing the
students the whole structure of the content of the lesson by giving a short and well-organized written
summary (short note) to the students. The aim is to show students how the main ideas in the lesson flow
sequentially and also to view and understand the lesson as a whole and in a unified manner. This has a great
contribution for students to comprehend, retain and remember the learned material.
C. Exercising: -itinvolves practicing the newly acquired knowledge and a skill until mastery is attained.
Exercise and practice enable students to directly imitate and reproduce the knowledge and skills exactly in
27
 the same way as told, shown and demonstrated by the teacher. It can be made by students in different forms,
like class activities or home works.
D. Application: - it occurs when students change classroom theories into practice. It takes place when students
try to solve newer problems in the real life situation by transferring and using the knowledge, skills and
attitudes they learned in the classroom setting. It is the highest form of stabilization.
4. The Checking and Evaluation Phase of A Lesson
A typical teacher-centered lesson comes to an end by checking. Checking and evaluation is an instructional
phase where the teacher tries to find out about the actual outcomes of the lesson. It can be two forms. 1. Direct
checking: - it involves the deliberate evaluation of students’ performance by carefully planning and setting
different oral and written questions ahead of time. It can progressively do either at the end of every single topic
or mainly at the end of the whole lesson. 2. Indirect checking: - this takes place spontaneously at any point in
the instruction process. Here, the teacher obtains evidence about the result of students’ learning not from what
they answer orally or in written form, but rather from his/her own observation of how students behave while
s/he is teaching. Observation is the most natural way of indirectly checking students’ performance.
 Instructional Phase/Steps in Student Centered Lessons
It is important to know that student-centered lessons are not as rigidly structured as teacher-centered lessons.
This is so because, the roles played by teacher and students as well as the time, space, settings and resources for
teacher centered and student centered lesson are not the same.
It passes through four instructional phases/stages. Namely:-
1. The introduction phase: in most cases, the teacher might largely control the introductory phase for s/he
has to organize and prepare the class for the proposed independent learning. Students could also be given
chance to make choices and decisions on the specific kind of learning tasks to do and on how, when and
where to do them.
2. The development phase: - in here the teacher presents little or no knowledge and skills to students
directly and personally. S/he is there just to facilitate, guide and supervise the learning process. The
development phase of instruction that employs independent learning methods like assignment; inquiry,
discovery and project work,might take a time ranging between a few hours or few days and a few weeks.
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 3. The consolidation phase:- this phase different from the stabilization phase not in purpose but mainly in
the increased amount of student responsibility. In both cases the intention is to make provision for
permanent learning. The difference here is that all of the individual activities that lead to consolidation
(remembering) are fully controlled by the students themselves.
4. The checking and evaluation phase:-students take much responsibility for checking and assessing their
own learning progress and difficulties. Here of course there is still checking done by the teacher,
particularly at the end. But predominantly there is students’ self assessment taking place continuously
through out the process of learning.

3.6 Educational Objectives

3.6.1 Meaning: - educational objectives indicate the expected end results of any given instruction process. On
their own, educational objectives are not instructional activities or products; rather they are just carefully
formulated wishes or intentions about the learning outcome of students; educational objectives make clear in
advance the:-
o Learning outcomes intended for students;
o Types of knowledge, skills and attitudes intended to be developed in students,
They are the main components of instructional plans. They form the basis for selecting and preparing the other
components of instructional plans. Educational objectives determine the:-
 Type, nature and amount of content to be selected and presented to students,
 Types of methods, materials and activities of instruction to be used,
 Types of tools and procedures (tests-questions…) of evaluation etc.
3.6.2. Types of Educational Objectives
Different type instructional plans contain different types of educational objectives. Depending on their level of
generality or specificity, educational objective can be divided in to five major types.
1. Goals of education (National level):- Goals of education are extremely broad statements expressing the
cumulative, combined and long-term/several year’s effects to be brought on citizens as result of providing
education and training at various levels and sectors of education.
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 2. Curricular aims (Institution level):- curricular aims represent the long rage educational out comes to be
achieved by students at the completion of an educational/ training program in a certain level or sector of
education. They indicate general behavioral changes expected to be shown by students after going through
a few years of schooling. Mostly, they are equated with institutional level objectives that can only be
realized by successfully finishing a school program at a particular level or sector (i.e. pre school, primary,
secondary level…) examples of curricular aims include:-
- Aims of: - pre-school education, primary education, secondary education, primary teacher training program,
health professional training program.
3. Course objectives (course level):- are general statements indicating behavioral changes expected to be
shown by students after studying a single course/one whole subject. In many cases, a team of curriculum
workers and subject specialists is responsible for the design of syllabuses and writes course objectives at a
national or regional level. Course objectives are embodied in all kinds of syllabuses and course plans.
E.gcourse(objectives) of grade:- 8 Biology, 7 Social studies, 6 English language… course objectives
from the basis for writing specific objectives for individual units( i.e unit objectives).
4. Unit objectives: - are very specific statements expressing smaller behavioral changes after covering a
given unit. It might take from a few days to a few weeks time. It indicates learning outcomes: - written for
a single unit, to be achieved after a number of periods of instruction, written at national/regional level by
the same people who designed the relevant syllabus. Usually the sets of objectives of all the units in a
given subject are embodied in the relevant syllabus.
5. Lesson objectives: - are very specific statements expressing small behavioral changes expected to be
shown by students after learning a few number of topics of a given lesson or units. It indicate learning
outcomes:- written for a single lesson or unit, to be achieved immediately after one or more periods of
instruction, written at classroom level or for definite class of students by subject teachers- on individual
basis…
 See a chart on page 7 for more understandingabout educational objectives
3.6.3. Classes of educational objectives

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 Depending on the nature and king of the desired behavioral changes, educational objectives can be grouped
in to three broad classes (domains)
1. Cognitive objectives: - are those statements of objectives emphasizing on the development of the
knowledge (theoretical) aspects of a given subject. They indicate the body of information (i.e., facts,
concepts, theories and principles...) to be known, understood, analyzed, applied and evaluated by students
at the end of a given process of instruction. E.g. Define the meaning of an island, know common terms
used in Biology, Explain how the digestive system functions, understand the real causes of world wars I
and II, , and analyze the main contents of the atmosphere.
2. Affective objectives: - are those statements of objectives emphasizing on the development of emotional
(feeling) aspects of a given subject. They indicates ideas, objects and activities to which students show
willingness to attend, inclination, interest, commitment, appreciation, attitude, convictions… as result of
their participation in a given process of instruction. E.g. show interest in protecting the environment from
pollution, oppose the acts of destroying forests and wildlife, appreciate efforts in preserving historic
places, develop sense of responsibility for children and old people, and show concern about the rapid
growth of unemployment
3. Psychomotor objectives: - are those statements of objectives emphasizing on the development of the skill
(practical) aspects of a given subject or content of instruction. They indicate the practical and intellectual
skills and abilities to be perceived, imitated, tried, demonstrated, automatically performed, adapted and
created by students at the end of a given process of instruction. E.g Enlarge and reduce maps, read maps,
measure and record weather conditions, prepare an agricultural plot, demonstrate forward and backward
rolling.
3.6.4. Principles and procedures for writing educational objectives
Educational objectives play very decisive role in the determination of all of the other components
of instructional plans, i.e instructional contents, methods, activities, media and evaluation procedures and tools
are all selected and prepared on the basis of the set of educational objectives set in advance.
The following criteria, principles and procedures serve as guidelines for writing good objectives that serve the
purposes indicated above.
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1. The number of course and lesson objectives we write must be reasonable, for example:-
A. It is suggested that you write between 3-5 objectives for a given lesson;
B. The number of objectives written for a given subject (i.e., course objectives) could be between 7-10
2. All objectives we write must be based on and reflect the more general or broader objectives already
formulated at the next higher level.
3. The objectives we write must indicate and stress the desired products (end-results) or the intended outcomes
of learning. Rather than emphasizing on the means and ways of attaining the ends. All statements of
objectives can begin with the following standard phrases:
- At the end of this lesson/unit student…… (For lesson objectives.
- At the end of this course….(for course objectives)
- At the end of their (primary ….) education… or after they completed their primary education…(for
goals or aims of education)
4. The sets of objectives we write at all levels must be comprehensive enough to fairly include all classes of
educational objectives/domains.
5. Objectives must be written in terms of students’ behaviors, but not in terms of teachers’ behaviors.
6. Any statement of objective must contain two essential aspects, namely the behavior and the content aspect
7. In any statement of objective only one type of behavior and only one type of content should be indicated.
8. When we write any statement of objective, we must carefully choose the term (word) that best indicates the
type of behavior expected to be shown by students.

o General and specific terms: -

Are used to indicate behavioral changes that have different magnitude and scope
A. General Terms: - they are shown only when students go through all the units (topics) of a given subject
or many subjects in one whole academic year. Such big changes in behavior are expressed in course
objectives and goals or aims of education. So, in course objectives we must use general and broad terms.
Such terms help us indicate bigger, broader and cumulative changes of behavior.

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 Example of general terms/words: - know, understand, grasp, acquire, be aware of, be familiar with,
develop, support, oppose, appreciate, show concern, contribute, differentiate.
-They are comprehensive and also inclusive of several specific terms (words). -They are implicit, unobservable
and un measurable in nature. As result, they are open for many interpretations and each general term can be
further broken down in to operation terms. E.g. the term “know” refers to a general kind of behavior. In terms of
action, it could be interpreted and specified as any one of the following action verbs (specific terms): explain,
describe, define, identify, give examples etc…
B. Specific Terms:-are terms used to indicate smaller, specific and immediate changes of behavior. They
indicate bit-by-bit changes. They are bit of changes and immediate effects of a short time of instruction.
(E.g. one or more periods) they are shown just after students learn one single topic or a few numbers of
topics. Smaller and specific behavioral changes are expressed in lesson and unit objectives. Therefore, in
lesson objectives we must use clear, precise, and specific terms (words). Specific words/terms are all
operational term or action verbs, i.e., they explicitly indicate what the learner should do, perform, or say
right after a given lesson. Examples of specific terms(words):-Compare, perform, convert, prepare,
show, demonstrate, select, relate, contrast, analyze, give example, indicate, state, match, identify,
define, write, tell, name, describe, explain etc…
Actions or behaviors that expressed in specific terms are all observable and measurable. One can easily and
clearly observe when a students describe, explains etc… it is also easer to measure whether a student can
explain a principle or not. When we write objectives for a lesson, our objectives should be” SMART”
S= Specific M= Measurable A= Attainable R= Realistic T= Time Bound

UNIT FOUR
General Methods of Teaching

33
They are used to teach virtually all types of topics and subjects. i.e., their application is not confined to this or
that particular type of subject.
4.1 Meaning and Purposes of Teaching Methods and Techniques
Teaching methods refers to the general ways, means, procedures, situations and activities a teacher provides,
uses and performs in order to impart a given subject matter to students and also to engage the in self learn
activities. The concept involves two essential aspects.
Teaching methods are the general ways and activities by means of which:-
1. Teacher imparts knowledge, skills and attitudes to students and guides them in their learning/method of
teaching for teachers
2. Students acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes from the teacher as well as from other sources/method of
learning for students.
General Functions
Teaching methods serve as a bridge connecting the activities of teaching and learning (the teacher and students).
They are like bloodlines, for they give life to the system of teaching and learning. They serve as routes through
which knowledge, skills and attitudes pass and reach students. They are the driving forces that move the
teaching-learning process. As essential way of sending and receiving instructional messages, ultimately they
help students attain the intended set of instructional objectives.

4.2 Broad Classes and Types of Teaching Methods

On the basis of different criteria, teaching methods can be classified in many ways. The basis for the following
classification is:-
A. The kind of role and responsibility of the teacher in the instruction process
B. The type and nature of student participation in the same process. So depending on the above criterion,
teaching methods can grouped in to two broad classes, each of which contains different types of methods
4.2.1 TEACHER CENTERED METHODS
This class includes different types of methods in which the teacher takes the larger and more active part than the
students in the instructional process. i.e, the teacher plans and controls most of the activities in the classroom.
34
S/he gathers, organizes and presents information him/herself. The teacher uses much of the class time for
imparting a certain set of knowledge, skills and attitudes to students. In most cases, information flows in one
direction. i.e., mainly from the teacher to students
Teacher centered methods include the following types of teaching methods:-
A. Lecture method
B. Showing/display method
C. Demonstration method
D. Question and answer method
Let us see one by one the above methods of teaching

A. Lecture method
Meaning and characteristics
It is known as explanation method/telling information to students through oral means or teaching by
words/verbal. It is one of the more traditional and popular methods of teaching. Its history goes back to the
early periods of the ancient civilization. And at present, it is more widely used than any other methods of
teaching. The teacher holds the active part in a lecture. Students remain passive. i.e., their participation is
confined to listening, note taking, and to some mental processes.
Types of lecture method: - there are formal and informal lecture methods.
1. Formal lecture: - known as pure or unmodified lecture. A teacher talks for the entire period without any
interruption coming from students. What student do is only listening and taking notes. Students don’t have
time and chance to raise questions. Information always flows to and from the teacher to students. For the
most part students learn by using a single sense/hearing which makes their learning a more abstract one. It is

35
 not suitable to especially for small children. They will have no appetite and patience for uninterrupted and,
very long lectures.
2. Informal lecture: - known as modified/improved lecture. Because it involves varieties of teaching and
learning activities that complement the teacher’s oral presentation. It is a short lecture usually followed by
other activities that allow students to participate in some ways. The teacher sometimes uses conversational
approaches rather than merely talking.
For instance s/he sometimes:-
 Raise some thought provoking questions and answers them him/herself.
 Ask questions for students to answer.
 Give students chance to ask question
 Give short written summary either at the end or at some points during his/her lectures.
It obviously minimizes the problems and weaknesses observed in the 1 st one. That is, it gives students a better
chance for an increased participation as well as for using more senses (sense organs). Generally, informal
lecture is more suitable for all kinds of students and particularly for small children than the 1st one.
Main procedures and steps involved in a lecture method
1. gathering information for the lecture:- the type of information to be gathered must be,
o relevant to the topic, useful to the students, up to date(new), arousing the interest of students
2. organizing the lecture material(information)
3. Delivering the lecture

B. Showing/Display Method
Meaning and purpose
This is a method of teaching factual information (facts, concepts, generalizations, systems...) mainly by showing
their visual representations such as real objects and models, visual symbols(drawing, picture…) and other types

36
of instructional materials. An important purpose of showing method is to give concrete meaning to words.
More specifically, it helps to:-
 Print visual images of words, ideas and concepts in student’s mind.
 Raise students’ visual understanding
 Make ideas and concepts vivid and concrete to students
 Give true and real meaning to words
 Make students remember a learned material for a long period of time.
How students learn? When a showing method is used, students learn mainly by seeing, touching, handling
and investigating real things, events and activities … shown by teachers.
This method can also be serving as a supplementary one for many other methods of instruction. For instance, a
teacher can at the same time use a showing method in a lesson conducted mainly with a lecture (informal)
method. We can use showing as a method at any stage in the instruction process. For instance:-
o To revise main ideas of a past lesson
o To introduce a topic and to stimulate interest
o To present (illustrate) factual information
o To summarize lesson
o To check students’ grasp of main ideas
This method can be used, both inside and outside classrooms.
Requirements of the method: - if a showing method has to be effective then we require,
- Visual materials, displayer teacher, audience students, and techniques or facilities for display.
 Common and available techniques and facilities for display
A teacher can show visual materials to students by using any one or the combination of the following display
media, techniques and facilities:
1. Display by holding up:-
- Display by holding up- taking a central and front position in the classroom
- Display by holding up- hanging positions/moving around the classroom
2. Display by passing the visual material on to each student during the class
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3. Display by distributing copies of the visual material to the class
4. Display by means of boards
4.1 chalk board display
4.2 white (marker) board display
4.3 cloth board display
4.4 magnetic board display (mobile display)
4.5 bulletin- board display:- Bulletin board: A bulletin board is a surface intended for the posting of
public messages, for example, to advertise items wanted or for sale, announce events, or provide
information. Bulletin boards are often made of a material such as cork to facilitate addition and removal
of messages, or they can be placed on computer networks so people can leave and erase messages for
other people to read and see
5. Display by means of tables, cabinets and shelves. This can take the following forms.
5.1 By inviting small groups of students to the teacher’s display table during class time.
5.2 By gathering groups of students around the display(demonstration) table set in the class room
5.3 By organizing a classroom exhibition on display boards, shelves, cabinets or tables.
6. Wall display (hanging or painting on wall)
6.1 inside the classroom
6.2 in the hall ways (corridors)
6.3 outside of the classroom (building walls)
7. Easel display: - An easel is a tripod/stand which is an upright support used for displaying and/or fixing
something resting upon it. A tripod: - three- legged rack used for support.

8. screen display (over head projector- OHP, opaque projector and slide presentations)
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 9. display by means of field trips (most appropriate for showing real things, scenes, events, phenomena and
activities)
4.1 Chalk Board Display: - a teacher can show diagrams … to students by drawing them on the chalkboard.
But if s/he is not good in drawing, then s/he can use some aids to his/her chalkboard work. e.g. Templates
and Fine- Guide lines
Templates:- are flat items that are cutout of different materials such as cardboard, sheet, plastic… template
are used for reproducing easily and mainly outlines of visual symbols(diagrams, maps) on a chalkboard. You
can reproduce the picture by holding the template firmly against the chalkboard and then by tracing the
outline with a chalk.
Fine guide lines: - it represented perforated lines that show not just outlines but also internal divisions or
parts in visual symbols. Fine guidelines are used for reproducing quickly and accurately outlines and internal
subdivisions of pictorial materials exclusively on a chalk board. The technique is also called a stencil
method. It involves the following procedures.
 Draw the outline and internal divisions of the map or diagram on a piece of paper,
 Perforate the outline and internal divisions at short intervals,
 Hold the perforated pattern firmly against the chalkboard and rub with a dust eraser(duster) along the
perforated lines,
 Connect the dots, make the lines bold and colored and label parts when appropriate,
 Then you will have the chalk-copy of the picture(diagram or map) reproduced on the chalk board,
 Lines of chalk dots showing the general and detailed patterns of the pictorial material will emerge on the
chalkboard.
4.3 Cloth Board Display: - it is usually made of a piece of cloth/blanket with a wooden frame around all of
its sides. You can attach/mount two dimensional/flat materials, which are called flash cards. Flash cards are
series of smaller cards showing letters, words, phrases, numbers, symbols and picture.
Guide Lines for an Effective Use of the Showing Method
1. Collect/prepare the relevant visual materials, give priority for real objects
2. Determine the necessary media/facilities for display
39
3. Check if the necessary media/facilities are available and well arranged
4. Don’t show pictures and diagrams when you can serve the purpose better by showing the real thing itself
5. All pictorial materials should be big, bold and simple
6. Don’t merely display picture:
 Provide captions and labels.., give appropriate verbal explanations..
7. Teach students how to read pictorial materials,
8. Be sure that everyone in the class can see the visual materials you are showing,
9. Give students ample time to see, analyze, and understand the message conveyed through the visual
materials, or if the showing method is used in the context of a field trip, consider the following points:
 Explore and identify the places and people to visit (shown...); these must be relevant to the topic you
want your students to learn.
 Pay a preliminary visit to the place and make necessary arrangements in advance with the people
concerned;
o Explain to the hosts about the purpose of the visit,
o Inform them about the background of the students(grade level);
o Arrange suitable time for the visit;
o Learn about the rules and other relevant matters in the place to be visited...
 Aware your students about the field trip in advance (where, when, and why the visit is necessary or
what use it gives).
 Tell your students what preparations to make for the field trip, i.e.,
 What questions to ask and how
 The need for taking notes..
 Tell your students about what is expected of them after the visit;
 Prepare oral/written reports about their visit
 Dramatize in the classroom their experience from the visit;
 Organize exhibitions using charts, photographs…
C. Demonstration Method
40
This is a method of teaching different skills by deliberately performing the relevant activities before the eyes of
students. The teacher performs an activity him/her self in order to show students how the activity is done. And
students learn the skill by seeing (observing) and more by practicing/doing the activities repeatedly under the
skillful guidance and supervision of their teacher. Besides, students learn the skills by listening, touching and
handling. Demonstration is not a method of teaching factual information as is the case in the showing method.
But rather it is a method of teaching skills. By means of a demonstration method a teacher can teach skills of:-
 Performing certain activities, handling tools, operating( using ) machines…. Generally, this method helps to
teach two kinds of skills, namely:-
o Practical (motor) skills, intellectual skills
Practical (motor) skill: - examples include typing, riding, swimming, gymnastics, cultivating a garden, playing
a musical instrument, cutting a grass, writing, mixing and separating.
Intellectual skills: - examples include preparing curriculum and instructional plans, writing objectives, finding
square roots, reading and listening skills…
The following list represents the application of the demonstration method in certain subjects:
 An art teacher can demonstrate how to prepare paints for painting
 A home economics teacher can demonstrate how to cane tomatoes
 A music teacher can demonstrate how to sing a song or to use musical instruments
 A science teacher can demonstrate air pressure or the separation of hydrogen from oxygen by electrolysis
 A language teacher demonstrates the pronunciation of a sound by showing the class the position of the lips
and the tongue
 A mathematics teacher can demonstrate the method of finding square roots...
Procedures or Steps in Using the Demonstration Method
1. Plan a sequence of a few clear-cut steps that should be grasped by the students in order to perform the
activity.
2. Identify the specific materials and equipment necessary for the activity and make sure that they are
available, properly arranged, and fu7nctional

41
3. Using the standard procedures and steps, practice the whole activity for yourself before you actually
demonstrate it in the class
4. Being the lesson by indicating how the demonstration is related to the topic at hand
5. Show students the materials necessary for the demonstration
6. Tell students in advance, if there are some safety measures to be taken
7. Explain and show the principles, techniques, and procedures (steps) involved in the skill to be learned
8. Perform the activity slowly and deliberately in front of students; keep summarizing as you go along
9. Find some more time to repeat the demonstration for the student
10. Give students time and chance to try (practice) the activity themselves.
D. Question and Answer Method
It is a method where by a teacher pull information from students in order to help them add newer knowledge
upon the already existing ones. Questions asked by the teacher are (should be) with in the experience of
students or are based on students’ prior knowledge and experience. This method involves two sub- divisions,
namely: - Catechetical and Heuristic Methods.
Common procedures
 The teacher prepares a set of questions ahead of time,
 The questions must be with in students’ experience,
 The questions must be relevant to the topic at hand, and should be taken from the content of instruction.
1. Catechetical method: - catechetical questioning involves simple and closed questions. Simple questions
are questions asking for facts and concepts. Here, students are required to remember facts (names, places
and times…); identify objects and parts; explain concepts (define terms). Closed questions on the other
hand, are questions that usually have only one agreed upon answer.
Nature of catechetical questions: - generally, they are questions of what, who, which, where, when,
(“W” questions). The following are some examples of catechetical questions:
(‘Battle of Adwa’)
o When did the battle of Adwa take place?
o Which countries fought this battle?
42
 o Who won the battle?
o Who led the Ethiopian side?
This is a method where one student attempts one question only; or different questions are given for different
students. The following diagram illustrates the method

Teach
er
Q1
A1 Q2 A2 Q3A3 Q4A4

St1 St3 St4

St2

2. Heuristic Method: - it involves complex and open questions. Complex questions are questions that
require students to transfer (apply) old knowledge, analyze, synthesize, and relate ideas, compare and
contrast, evaluate or judge the worth or value of ideas. Here, students are asked to explain reasons, cause
and effect relationships, processes and systems. The questions are more complex and challenging in nature
and involve students in divergent thinking. Heuristic questions are open questions because they could have
more than one answer, or may need lengthy elaboration, or may include personal opinion and
imaginations.
Nature of heuristic questions:-generally, questions of why and how fall in this category 9including what
would you do if… or what could have happened if …). The following are some examples of heuristic
questions:
o Give the basic reasons for the battle of Adwa,
o Compare and contrast the military capacity of the two warring parties,

43
 o What could have happened, if Emperor Menelik had pushed northward after his victory at the battle
of Adwa?
o Explain how the digestive system functions
Heuristic is a method where several students attempt the same question one by one; the same question is given
for different students. You can also make use of a probing technique here. Probing is a systematic way through
which a teacher requires a student to further develop his/her argument (answer) or modify and refine his/her
answer.
The following diagram illustrates the method:

Teach
er
Q1
A1 Q1A2 Q1A3 Q1A4
St1 St2 St3
St4

Purposes of the Question and Answer Method

The major purpose of this method is pulling information from students’ experience. However, the same
questions in this method could also serve one or the combination of the following purposes:
For revising the main ideas of a past lesson at the beginning;
For provoking students’ thoughts and to arouse their curiosity;
For summarizing and stabilizing knowledge;
For pooling information from students’ experiences and rising their participation in the main body of the
lesson;
For checking students’ performance and learning results
Guidelines and procedures for an effective use of the question and answer method
44
 1. Prepare a set of question in advance and keep balance b/n simpler and more complex questions
2. Write one or more answers for each of the questions you set
3. Think of the ways you will use to react to correct and incorrect answers given by student
4. Don’t embarrass students when you ask them questions; create a relaxed atmosphere in class.
5. Refrain from insulting, ridiculing and discouraging students who fail to give correct answers;
6. When students make mistake, first appreciate their effort and then let them know their mistake without
hurting their feeling;
7. Give praise for correct responses;
8. Don’t always ask those few students who are frequently volunteer to answer questions; call out
(participate) the non- volunteers too.
9. Never call a student by name before a question is asked. Because this may alert only a particular student.
So, first present a question to the whole class and then decide which student should take the chance.
10. Give students enough time to analyze and the question before you call any one student to attempt
the question.
4.2.2. STUDENT CENTERED METHODS
Students learn through their own effort/not spoon-fed by the teacher with facts and information. The teacher
does not control the instruction process fully. His/her role would rather be that of a helper and facilitator.
Students are free to learn according to their interest, ability, and pace. The following are the major types of
methods contained in the students’ independent study methods:-
1. Discussion method
1.1. Whole class discussion
1.2. Buzz group discussion
1.3. Cooperative learning
1.4. Seminar discussion
1.5. Panel
2. Assignment method
3. Project method
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 4. Role-play method
4.2.2.1 DISCUSSION METHOD
This is a method where students learn by sharing ides, opinions, and experiences mainly by verbal interactions.
Learning by discussion gives students more chance to:- air opinions, express feelings, clarify one’s point of
view, see other’s opinion. The main aim of this method is to find solutions for problems and issues related to the
content of a given instruction. Thus, it is sometimes called a problem solving method.
Forms of the discussion method
A. Whole class discussion: - the leader role is to draw students out and to keep the conversation moving in the
direction it should go. To draw students out, ask open-ended, broad, thought provoking questions. Divergent
questions are much more likely to be successful than are convergent ones. To involve more students, bounce
the questions around. Asking students to comment on other student’s answers can be effective. Questions
such as “do you agree with Mamo, Hirut?” “What would you do in such a situation?”, and if you had a
choice, which would you prefer?” tend to keep the conversation going and tend to free students’ ideas.
B. Buzz-Group Discussion: - literally buzz is the sound of bee. But, in our context buzz refers to a general
sound of people talking in a small groups. In buzz group discussion about a half dozen students discuss a
topic freely and informally for about six minutes. Because of these characteristics, buss groups are some
times called 6 x 6 groups. Buzz group discussion has two main purposes to serve, namely:
1. To let every student in a class express his/her views, opinions, ideas and feelings on a given issues.
2. To add variety to the instruction process by changing the instruction style.
Guidelines and Procedures for an Effective Use of the Buzz Group Method
Introduction – the teacher;
A. Describes the nature of the task to be done, i.e., the form of discussion to be held.
B. Explain the purpose of the discussion or the use it gives to students;
C. Tell how students should behave during the discussion, i.e., task description
Preparation- the teacher;
D. Divides the whole class into a number of small groups;

46
 E. Advise each group to elect a chairman and a secretary (reporter) and explains their responsibilities during
and after the small group discussion;
F. Makes anew sitting arrangement that suits to the task at hand (small group discussion);
G.Gives the same question or topic for all groups to discussion
H.Gives ten minute time for the small group discussion. s/he follows-up how the discussion proceeds by
rounding about the groups;
I. (when the given time is over) bring the whole class back together; invites the secretaries of each group to
report to the whole class about the consensus reached in their respective groups;
J. Makes a chalk board summary of each of the reports;
K. Gives an oral and written summary, which covers all of the reports and his/her comments too.
C. Group Work (Cooperative Learning):- it involves the splitting of a class of students in to a manageable
number of cells or groups for the purpose of learning. It is effective learning tool for classrooms with a large
number of students.
Group work can be organized in many different ways from having up to 10 students working together on a
project of having individual students working alone and then, coming back to report to the group.
D. Seminar Discussion: - this is a method where a group of students report to the whole class about the results
of a field survey or a small library research or the combination of these two. The class report or the seminar
discussion is always based on or preceded by an inquiry made by students about a findable or knowable topic
or problem. So this method is some times known as an inquiry method or inquiry based learning. Because
here students do for themselves what is often done for them by the teacher; that is, they seek (gather),
organize and present the knowledge themselves.
Guidelines and Procedures for an Effective Use of the Seminar Discussion Method
Preparation- the teacher will/should:
1. Explain the nature and purpose of the whole task to be accomplished by students (seminar discussion);
2. Divide the whole class into small groups. The groups must be academically and socially balanced. To this
effect, the teacher can use the ‘ability’ grouping technique where students of all abilities (high, medium, and
low achievers) are assigned in each group.
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3. Give each group different topics or problems to solve.
4. Explain the main procedures or requirements students should use and fulfill both during the surveys and the
presentations; e.g.,
- Tell students which sources to use in order to obtain valuable information, or
- Tell them what techniques to use in order to gather information (i.e., observation and visits, interview,
references materials…)
5. Give students enough time to accomplish the task (set a definite time table for the class report or a
submission date for a written report)
6. Inform or aware all concerned parties in advance about the learning task given to students, so that, these
parties would cooperate students in all parties
During The Survey- students:
 Elect a group leader, prepare a plan of action, make a labor division among the group members, set out to
gather data ( note: follow-up and assistance by the teacher is essential),
 Organize the findings of the study:-
o prepare for the class report ( rehearsal…), prepare a written report(if required)
During Presentation:
 The teacher must give introductory remarks tell the whole class about the learning tasks expected of them
during and after the report.
 All group members should appear before the whole class and every members should have a part in the
presentation,
 The group leader has to chair the presentation,
 After the report, the entire class must be invited to ask questions, give comments…
 The group depends it self by giving replies and clarifications,
 The teacher must give concluding remarks.
E. Panel Discussion: - literally, ‘panel’ is a group of speakers chosen to speak/answer questions before and
audience. This is a discussion situation where knowledgeable, experienced and successful people are invited
to a classroom or school as guest speakers to share their knowledge and experience to students. It involves
48
 bringing to the classroom school people representing different community activities (i.e., business and
economic, political, social and cultural, and intellectual activities etc.). It is a quite useful learning experience
for students. Because, it gives students chance to directly meet/right resource persons. The resource
persons/guest speakers would:-
 Give students first-hand experience and authentic/original information about certain topics/issues contained
in the school curriculum;
 Serves as role-models /good-examples with whom our students identify them selves. 9 remember that a
teacher is not a ‘know all person’. That is why s/he needs guest speakers/resource persons sometimes).
A panel discussion can take place in the classroom, at the school hall/large room or in the open air etc. as the
case may be. Examples of resource persons:- a successful farmer, a respected house wife, a weaver, carpenter,
weatherman, fireman, policeman, a judge, veterans, famous athletes, writers, singers, a scientist, a businessman,
medical practitioners etc.. Panel discussio0n involves:- a chairperson (the teacher), panelist(panel
members/guest speakers, and audience/students.
Guidelines and Procedures for an Effective Use of the Panel Discussion Method
Responsibilities of the teacher
A. Before the discussion (preparation);
1. Select topics from the contents of instruction that may be taught best with the help of guest speakers
2. Identify and invite the right persons for the topics;
3. Tell students in advance about the panel discussion to be held;
- Tell them: - how they should behave during the discussion, what learning tasks are required of them during
and after the discussion (taking notes, rising hands to ask for permission to speak, asking…)
4. Inform the speaker about the: - topic of the discussion, purpose of the discussion, background of the
students, time allocated for each speaker…
B. At the beginning of the discussion
5. Introduce the speaker: introduce names, responsibilities, qualifications, and experience and introduce
who speaks on what topic....
C. During the discussion
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 6. Invite the speakers to give their presentation
7. Summarize the speech made by each panelist
8. Invite students to pose questions,
9. Let the speakers give replies to questions raise
D. After the discussion: (expressing thanks):- (one student expressing thanks on behalf of students or by
applause...)
4.2.2.2 READING ASSIGNMENT METHOD
It variously called reading assignment, text book assignment, and read-review-recite method. In this method,
students are required to seek for knowledge, mainly by reading textbooks and reference materials suggested to
them by their teacher. But the reading activity is not an end in its own. Rather, it is to be followed by other
equally useful and, relevant learning activities. After their reading, students are also required to accomplish any
one/the combination of the following learning tasks:
- Write out answers to questions about the material read, write summaries for instance, of the chapters they
read, i.e., essay; conduct class discussion about the material read; teach the entire class about the material
they read etc..
Purposes: - here students read not merely for getting pleasure out of their reading. Neither do they read merely
for improving their reading ability. Students are required to do a reading assignment for the following specific
purposes:-
1. To stabilize/consolidate or even enrich the lesson they learned in class,
2. To be prepared ahead of time for a lesson to come
3. To cover/study on their own a topic which is little or not treated in the class at all etc…
Forms of the assignment method: a reading assignment could take the following forms;
A. Page or paragraph assignment
B. Chapter assignment
C. Topic assignment
Guidelines and Procedures for an Effective Use of the Assignment Method
1. Tell students about the nature and specific purposes of the assignment
50
2. Give clear directions/instructions to the students clear directions remove students’ difficulties in working the
assignment. The instruction should indicate:-
- What specific information are sought for; i.e., give key or leading questions,
- What form the assignment takes i.e., the pages, paragraphs, chapter or topic to be read…
- What learning tasks to be accomplished after their reading , i.e., writing out answers, essays;
3. Frame the questions carefully so that students would not answer them unless they read and study the material
suggested;
4. Indicate the list of reference materials to be read for the assignment and make sure that they are available to
students; rely more on student text book, because they are more available…
5. Give students feed back about their work; (i.e., answer they give, essay they wrote...). One way of giving
feedback to students is to correct students’ answers.
Methods of Correcting Students’ Assignments
- Correction of the entire student work by the teacher, personally and directly,
- Glance checking and signing by the teacher,
- Correction with the help of the chalk board,
- Correction by interchanging the exercise books between students etc...
4.2.2.3. THE PROJECT METHOD
It is a practical unit of learning activity carried out by students. So it is a method by which students learn by
performing practical activities in the real life situation. It is an activity- centered-method or a method where
students learn mainly by doing. It involves not only a practical study but also a cooperative study made by
groups of students under the guidance of the teacher.
Purposes in the project method: - a project method;
1. Provides students with a change to apply classroom knowledge into practice;
2. Help students develop further knowledge and new skills outside the classroom(in the real life situation)
3. Exposes students to real life problems and gives them chance to solve these problems by thinking and
working together
4. Bring students in to real contact with the various activities in t5heir community
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 To sum up, a project method makes learning real and social. Also it requires students to produce or construct a
material object or an article. Examples of project works:- collecting specimens of different things (e.g., rock
samples, crop seeds, plants…), constructing different models, measuring length and area of a garden, school
ground, etc..
Guidelines and procedures for an effective application of the project method
(For the teacher)
1. Plan the projects carefully and makes sure that they are real, purposeful and worth while
2. Explain to the students what they have to do (i.e., nature and type of projects, why they do it and how it
should be done (i.e., suggest sources of information and materials, and resource persons for students to
consult...)
3. Provide time in and outside the class for students to work on the project
4. Give students sufficient time to complete the project works
5. Lead students plan the specific procedures and strategies for their projects (i.e., labor division, resources,
time table...)
6. Follow up progress formally and give them assistance when they need it;
7. Evaluate the results of the projects and give students feedback;
8. Unite all the various contributions of students in to a whole at the end of the project(i.e., summary)
Note: project method should be combined with periods of formal teaching.
4.2.2.4. THE ROLE PLAY METHOD
This is a method by which students learn about real life situations through dramatized experiences. Hence, the
method is also called a drama method.
Few students participate in the drama directly as role-players or actors, while the rest of the class participates
indirectly as audience or observers. The teacher coordinates or facilitates the drama and never plays an
interventionist role. It gives them chance to experience others’ feelings, beliefs and points of views about
certain social problems. So, ultimately role playing aims at changing students’ attitudes in a desired direction.
Characteristically, a role-paying situation involves specific activities like debating, conversing, analyzing
negotiating and persuading.
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Guidelines and Procedures for an Effective Role Play
Before the drama;
1. Select and plan the role-playing situation (story) carefully;
2. Explain the role-playing situation (story) to the whole class. This could be done in a “story telling” form.
3. Ask for volunteers to participate in the role play. i.e., select actors on a voluntary basis.
4. Brief the actors with the detailed descriptions of the personality, feelings, and basic beliefs… of the
characteristics.
5. Assign the audience with useful tasks to be done during and after the drama
During the drama
6. Take back seat in the classroom and don’t interfere, once the play is an action.
After the drama
7. Participate the entire class to review and evaluate the characteristics in the drama and not the artistic
quality of the actors..
8. Summarize the lesson drawn from the dramatized experience.
Merits and demerits of the students’ independent study methods
Merits; the method helps students to:-
1. acquire a deeper and long lasting knowledge skill and attitude;
2. develop positive attitude toward learning and work;
3. develop the habit of independent learning and a habit of learning and working with enjoyment;
4. develop the sprit of inquiry and efficiency in acquiring knowledge
5. develop the sprit of cooperation (working in group):
6. Be exposed to real life situations.
Demerits
1. Students who lack purpose, self-initiative and self discipline may not benefit from these methods (may not
whole-heartedly participate);
2. It is difficult to evaluate students’ progress in a given subject as a whole. Because one
project/assignment/drama is often concerned with only a single topic in a given subject.
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 3. They may be time consuming.
5.3 Principles for Selecting Instructional Methods
A. Validity: - selecting appropriate methods (learning experiences and opportunities) that give students
chance to practice and eventually realize the particular objectives set.
B. Variety:- provide varieties of methods ( learning experiences) that respond appropriately to the different
learning styles, pace as well as needs and interests of students,
C. Suitability: - employ instructional methods or offer learning opportunities that go in line with the general
level (educational, age...) of students.
D. Multiple learning:- select methods ( learning experiences), which at the same time contribute for the
attainment of several objectives; and select as many methods as possible, which could collectively lead to
the attainment of particular objectives,
E. Comprehensiveness: - the methods or learning experiences should be distributed between mental
experiences (knowledge aspect), physical experiences (skills) and emotional experiences (attitudes). The
purpose here is to ensure all rounded development of the personality of students through the employment
of balanced methods and learning experiences.

UNIT FIVE
Classroom management and organization
Classroom management in broadly speaking it is:-
 Deals with all the essential aspects of classroom instruction.
 Refers to the management of students’ behavior and their social relationships, lesson content, instructional
techniques and the scarce resource, time and space, routines and the myriad classroom instructional
activities.
Narrowly speaking, classroom management:-
 Refers to the act of administering, directing, controlling and disciplining student behavior and their social
relationships in the instructional setting. In view of this narrower definition, it becomes clear that the
54
 principal focus of classroom management is the establishment and maintenance of discipline and order in
the classroom.
Classroom management is:-
 An integral part of teaching and teachers can and must acquire techniques of managing students.
 Refers to the process of organizing and carrying out classes so that learning occurs smoothly and
efficiently.
o Its major aim is to focus classes on learning. The attainment of this purpose depends on establishing
a suitable classroom climate.
o Creating a scatter structured class will facilitate the type of classroom climate you need.
Classroom management and discipline are crucial elements in determining teaching process. These terms seems
synonymous when commonly used in informal discussion, however, in more formal situation, classroom
management includes the provisions and procedures necessary to establish and maintain an environment in
which teaching and learning can occur while the term discipline refers to the treatment of misbehavior in
classrooms or schools and also it refers to negative consequences for a student who does not follow the rules
The following tasks are among the provisions and procedures involved in classroom management.
 Planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling, communicating and housekeeping.
 Manipulating time, space, personnel, materials authority, rewards and punishment.
 Resolving conflicts between school and society, between roles and personalities, between the group and
individuals, between immediate and long-term goals, among personalities and among roles.
 Maximize students’ time on task.
These tasks are influenced by situational factors such as group size, age and background of the students,
solidarity of the groups, organizational content, space, facilities and resources. Classroom management is
both difficult and complicated, but when it is done well, it is worth the effort. It sets the quality for the
class. It allows teaching strategies to move smoothly. It improves class morale, group cohesiveness, and
55
 student motivation. It directs student effort toward learning. Remember that the purpose of classroom
management is to ensure that class time is concentrated on teaching and learning not on side issues.
Establishing an effective classroom environment
Classroom climate is the atmosphere or mood in which interactions between you and your student take place.
Your classroom climate is created by the manner and degree to which you exercise authority, show warmth and
support, encourage competitiveness or cooperation, and allow for independent judgment and choice although
seldom recognized; the climate of your classroom is your choice, just as are your instructional methods.
There are two aspects of an effective classroom climate:
 The social environment: - meaning the interaction patterns you promote in the classroom. The social
environment of your classroom can vary from authoritarian, in which you are the primary provider of
information, opinions, and instruction, to lazes faire, in which your students become the primary
providers of information, opinions, and instruction. Between these extremes lies the middle ground in
which you and your students share responsibilities. Students are given freedom of choice and judgment
under your direction. and
 The organizational environment: - In addition to arranging the social climate of your classroom, you
also must arrange the physical and visual arrangement of the classroom climate. This is to say that, a
classroom should be attractive, well lighted, comfortable and colorful. What may be important, however,
is the way the internal features of your classroom (desks, chairs, tables) are arranged. Students quickly get
used to and accept the external factors of a classroom, good or bad. But the internal arrangement of the
classroom will affect your students every day of the school year.
Types of sitting arrangements
There are four different types of sitting structures. These are as follows
 Places your desk at front of the room and aligns the students’ desks in rows
 V-shape

56
  rectangular
 Circular;
A major goal of effective classroom management is student self discipline. Self-discipline is a necessary for
success in one’s studies as well as in later life; however, it does not come naturally. It must be learned, and
learning it takes time consciously try to help your students develop self-discipline,
Effective classroom managers are distinguished by their success in preventing problems from arising in the first
place, rather than by special skills in dealing with problems once they occur. Good management practice begins
on the first day of school with carefully organized, systematic plans for accomplishing classroom tasks and
activities.
Enhancing your classroom management approach
How do you develop and maintain a positive approach to classroom management or whatever discipline
approach you wish to adapt? Here are some practical suggestions that will work in most situations.
Affective dimensions
1. Be positive. Stress what should be done, not what should not be done.
2. Use encouragement. Show that you appreciate hard work and good behavior.
3. Trust. Trust students, but don’t be an easy mark, make students feel you believe in them as long as they
are honest with you and don’t take advantage of you.
4. Express interest. Talk to individual students about what interests them, what they did over the weekend,
how school work is progressing in other areas or subjects. Be sensitive and respectful about social trends,
styles and school events that affect the behavior of the group. Be aware that peer group pressure affects
individual behavior.
5. Be fair and consistent. Don’t have “pets “or “goats”. Don’t condemn an infraction one time and ignore it
another time.
6. Show respect, avoid sarcasm. Be respectful and considerate toward students. Understand their needs and
interests. Don’t be arrogant or condescending or rely on one up man-ship to make a point.
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 Procedural dimensions
7. Establish classroom rules. Make rules clear and concise and enforce them. Your rules should eventually be
construed as their rules.
8. Discuss consequences. Students should understand the consequences for rids and acceptable and
unacceptable behavior. Invoke logical consequences that is, appropriate rewards and punishment. Don’t
punish too often, it loses effects after a while.
9. Establish routines. Students should know what to do under what conditions. Routine procedures provide
an orderly and secure classroom environment.
10. Confront misbehavior. Don’t ignore violations of rules or disruptions of routines. Deal with
misbehavior in a way that does not interfere with your teaching. Don’t accept or excuse serious or
contagious misbehavior even if you have to stop your teaching. If you ignore it, it will worsen.
11. Reduce failure, promote success. Academic failure should be kept to a minimum since it is a cause
of frustration, withdrawal and hostility when students see themselves as winners and receive recognition
for success. They become more civil, calm and confident, they are easier to work with and teach.
12. Set a good example. Model what you preach and expect. For example, speak the way you want
students to speak; keep an orderly room if you expect students to be orderly; check homework if you
expect students to do the homework.
Classroom management aims at:
 Promoting an environment (physical and emotion) conductive to effective teaching and learning.
 Guarantying class time to be devoted for learning effectively.
 Securing the support and cooperation of students in classroom activities.
 Ensuring the active and meaningful engagements of students to the learning task at hand etc.
1.2Student misbehavior

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 Students’ misbehavior is any act of a student that disrupts the normal process of teaching and learning in the
classroom or it could be defined as any act of a student that violates the established or implied classroom rules.
5.2.1. Forms of students misbehavior
In general student misbehavior takes various forms, ranging from a student’s inattentiveness for a brief moment
to a student striking another student in the class. The following are the major forms.
a) Minor misbehavior problems of a passing kind
b) Repeated minor misbehavior
c) Persistent and serious misbehavior
A. Minor misbehavior of a passing kind
In this category are included problems that are mostly limited to a single student and are likely to pass very
soon. E.g. Inattentiveness, distraction, mischievousness.
B. Repeated minor misbehaviors
Minor, but, repeated, problems are those problems, which do not spread to and not distract other students in the
class. E.g. being uncommunicative and withdrawn, failure to show interest, day dreaming, not meeting work
requirements, attention seeking, persistent in attentiveness and persistent restlessness.
C. Persistent and serious problems
These are major offences and are likely to harm the teaching and learning activity as well as the social
relationship existing in the class. E.g. Breaking class rules, antisocial behavior, insensitivity to others,
disrespect, disobedience, insulting, leaving seat without permission, or excessive movement about the room,
running calling out without raising one’s hand, flicking someone with ruler or pencil, using bad language,
whispering and over-noisy talk, gigging, physical aggression to another student etc.
1.3Causes of misbehavior
The reasons that force students show inappropriate behaviors come from many directions or sources. The causes
can be categorized in the following groups; and in certain cases, some of these sources or cases may overlap
with one another.
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 1. Teacher related causes.
2. Student-related causes
3. School environment related causes.
4. Home environment related causes
1. Teacher related causes
A. Poor teaching
Any one or the combination of the following conditions causes poor teaching.
 Poor mastery of subject matter taught
 Lack of planning and preparation
 Ineffective style of presentation
 Failure to use suitable and varieties of instructional methods and aids
 Failure to involve students in the instruction process
 Failure to apply the main principles of teaching
 Failure to structure one’s lesson and present it following the main steps in teaching, etc.
B. Failure to set the right task
As the saying goes “ a problem known is half solved”, anticipating the various forms, levels and causes of
student misbehavior naturally eases the pain in the teacher’s job of maintaining classroom discipline.
C .Failure to enforce rules
If the teacher forgets or does not care to remind the student to observe the relevant rule, then other students are
likely to talk at will, following the example of the offending child. Their misbehavior is caused by the teacher’s
failure to enforce one of the rules.
1. Student related causes
The list of student related causes of classroom misbehavior is very long. Only typical examples are given
below.
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  Antipathy to school or disinterest in learning in general (students).
 Lack of interest in a particular subject
 Dislike of teachers or hostility towards a teacher, students might manifest such kinds of negative feelings
for various reasons. Whatever the reason may be, students will find school work and learning irrelevant
and meaningless.
 Attention seeking: Students who seek attention and are derived by the teacher are actually encouraged to
misbehave further to attract more attention
 Ignorance of classroom rules: If student are ignorant of the ‘dos’ and ‘ don’ts’ in the classroom, they are
more likely to show inappropriate behavior, which disrupts the learning process, or conversely they are
less likely to misbehave if they know what is expected of them.
3. School environment related causes
 Large class sizes: Students who are aggressive tend to become more aggressive in a more crowded
condition.
 Conflicting rules: Difficulties can sometimes arise when a student is confronted (confused) with two sets
of conflicting rules, those of the school and of their home. A behavior that is perfectly acceptable at home
may be considered as indiscipline and frowned upon in school
(Or classroom).
4. Home environment related causes
 Unsettled or disruptive home environment
 Unpleasant peer relations
 Emotionally upset
 Bad physical health condition etc.
1.4Types of preventative techniques

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1.1Establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relationship.
1.2Effective or good teaching
1.3Giving rewards
1.4Sharing responsibilities to students
1.5Cooperative rule making
1.6Explaining procedures
1.1 Establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relationships
Interpersonal relationship in the classroom refers mainly to the relationship that exists between the teacher and
students and among students themselves. Good social relationship can be established and maintained in the
classroom, if the teacher commits him/herself to the following situations:
 Keep on mentioning the need for showing live, concern and respect to one another, the need for thought of
others etc.
 Treat students with respect and kindness and provide opportunities for success in the classroom.
1.2 Giving rewards
Reward involves showing recognition and approval to appropriate student behavior. When a teacher rewards a
positive behavior, the student who gets the reward would be motivated and encouraged to keep behaving in a
desired way. And, students exhibiting negative behavior tend to improve their behavior to match that of their
peer. So, one of the key elements in maintaining good class discipline is motivation, which is initiated by
reward.
Kinds of behaviors to be rewarded:
 An extra ordinary performance or best work
 Successful work/a job well done
 Genuine effort-especially, where slower students are involved, it is more advisable to reward effort rather
than the final result.
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  Good conduct that conforms to the rules; Helpfulness and cooperation
 Quick answers etc.
Principles of reward
If reward has to be effective, teachers must give serious consideration for the following principles:
Reward:
 Must be sincere or genuine and should not be considered as bribery. Avoid cheap praise. Cheap praise
both offends and disappoints, and it conceals the distinction that should exist between good and bad
performances.
 Must have a merit; Must be accessible to all and can be earned with striven
 Must not be excessive; because excessive reward may result in over confidence
 Must be discrete; should not be given too frequently
 Praise students in private as well as in front of the class. The second form helps to motivate other students
to follow the example of the rewarded student (positive ripple effect).
Types of rewards
Reward can be divided into material and non material
1. Material reward
This is a prize in the form of books, pencils and other stationary materials, candy, ball, playing materials, post
cards, photos, cutout of magazines etc. And committed teachers should never fail to explore and exploit all
sources available, which can donate materials to be handed over to students as prizes.
2. Non material reward
Non material reward takes two forms: Verbal and non verbal. In general, non material reward involves verbal
praise, positions of honor, marks, and other non-verbal expressions and signals; for instance, a smile and an
affirmative nod of head.

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Guidelines to classroom control
Some of the general issues involved in the day to day management are illustrated in the chart below.
Factors you can control or Factors you can’t control
improve
Classroom space The weather
Space to display Natural abilities
Lesson content The children’s previous
experience
Lesson pace Classroom size and furniture
Variety of content Outside noise
Motivation of the class The children’s home environment
Rules for behavior An imposed course book
Involving children in decision-
making process
Fairness in class
Mutual respect
Group dynamics/relationships
with the class

Techniques for controlling the classroom

a/ Getting the children’s attention
 Establishing an attention getting code ( clap, dim the lights).
 Fold your arms and give the class a heavy look
 Walk up to a noisy child or a group and talk quietly to them
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b/ Maintaining a fairly low noise level ( speak quietly and culture permitting, place a hand gently on a child’s
head or shoulder).
c/ Calming a class down
 Do relaxation activities, such as having children sit with eyes cloth and relax and tense.
 Use a calming gesture
 Change the activity to one that provides a change of pace
d/ Developing a responsible behavior
 Negotiate a contract with the children on agreed behavior and include yourself in it
 Notice when children are being good. Support a disruptive child by praising even the most minor of good
actions. Build up a list of positive statements about such children, rather than negative ones.
Working with special need children
There are children in the classroom that have special needs. Some may be faster and smarter than other children,
and you will need to think about how to keep them from being bored. Other children might be slower, they will
need special help. Still others might have physical disabilities that need to be addressed. Here are a few
suggestions to help you in the classroom.
 Be flexible. If a student is very quick give him/her extra work, or assign him/her to help some other
children. If a child is slow, have him/her work with other children or find time to work with him/her
individually.
 Never stigmatize a child for his/her differences. If you show respect and tolerance for different children,
the students in your class will also learn those qualities.
 If you notice a child is having a problem because of a disability find a way to help him/her manage. For
instance, a child with a hearing or vision problem should sit in the front of the class.
Working with adults

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There might have few adults in primary class who might have some self esteem problems because they are so
far behind. They should always be treated with the respect their age requires. Adults also learn differently from
children: they have a longer attention span, they can handle more verbal input, and they like to have more
explanation. You should give these adults some leadership role in the class, and additional work and challenges
as appropriate.
Summary
All the theories, approaches and methods in the world are useless if you do not have a well-managed,
disciplined class. So, the teacher has to develop a positive relationship with the students and encourage positive
relationships between the students. Children who are treated negatively tend to adopt negative behavior.

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