Cyrus Q.

De Leon August 19, 2021

BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
History of Computers

The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need to solve a serious
number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the U.S. population had grown so large that it took more than seven
years to tabulate the U.S. Census results. The government sought a faster way to get the job done,
giving rise to punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms.

Today, we carry more computing power on our smartphones than was available in these early
models. The following brief history of computing is a timeline of how computers evolved from their
humble beginnings to the machines of today that surf the Internet, play games and stream multimedia
in addition to crunching numbers.

Ancient Times

Early Man relied on counting on his fingers and toes (which

by the way, is the basis for our base 10 numbering system).
He also used sticks and stones as markers. Later notched
sticks and knotted cords were used for counting. Finally
came symbols written on hides, parchment, and later paper.
Man invents the concept of number, then invents devices to
help keep up with the numbers of his possessions.

Roman Empire

The ancient Romans developed an Abacus, the first

"machine" for calculating. While it predates the Chinese
abacus we do not know if it was the ancestor of that Abacus.
Counters in the lower groove are 1 x 10 n, those in the upper
groove are 5 x 10n

Industrial Age - 1600

John Napier, a Scottish nobleman and politician devoted
much of his leisure time to the study of mathematics. He
was especially interested in devising ways to aid
computations. His greatest contribution was the invention
of logarithms. He inscribed logarithmic measurements on a
set of 10 wooden rods and thus was able to do
multiplication and division by matching up numbers on the
rods. These became known as Napier’s Bones.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1621 - The Slide rule

Napier invented logarithms, Edmund Gunter invented the

logarithmic scales (lines etched on metal or wood), but it
was William Oughtred, in England who invented the
sliderule. Using the concept of Napier’s bones, he inscribed
logarithms on strips of wood and invented the calculating
"machine" which was used up until the mid-1970s when the
first hand-held calculators and microcomputers appeared.

1642 - Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematical genius, at the age of

19 invented a machine, which he called the Pascaline that
could do addition and subtraction to help his father, who
was also a mathematician. Pascal’s machine consisted of a
series of gears with 10 teeth each, representing the
numbers 0 to 9. As each gear made one turn it would trip
the next gear up to make 1/10 of a revolution. This principle
remained the foundation of all mechanical adding machines
for centuries after his death. The Pascal programming
language was named in his honor.

1673 - Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented differential and

integral calculus independently of Sir Isaac Newton, who is
usually given sole credit. He invented a calculating machine
known as Leibniz’s Wheel or the Step Reckoner. It could add
and subtract, like Pascal’s machine, but it could also multiply
and divide. It did this by repeated additions or subtractions,
the way mechanical adding machines of the mid to late 20th
century did. Leibniz also invented something essential to
modern computers — binary arithmetic.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
1725 - The Bouchon Loom

Basile Bouchon, the son of an organ maker, worked in the

textile industry. At this time fabrics with very intricate
patterns woven into them were very much in vogue. To
weave a complex pattern, however involved somewhat
complicated manipulations of the threads in a loom which
frequently became tangled, broken, or out of place.
Bouchon observed the paper rolls with punched holes that
his father made to program his player organs and adapted
the idea as a way of "programming" a loom. The paper
passed over a section of the loom and where the holes
appeared certain threads were lifted. As a result, the pattern
could be woven repeatedly. This was the first punched
paper, stored program. Unfortunately the paper tore and
was hard to advance. So, Bouchon’s loom never really
caught on and eventually ended up in the back room
collecting dust.

1745 - Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)

It took inventor Joseph M. Jacquard to bring together

Bouchon’s idea of a continuous punched roll, and Falcon’s
ides of durable punched cards to produce a workable
programmable loom. Weaving operations were controlled
by punched cards tied together to form a long loop. And,
you could add as many cards as you wanted. Each time a
thread was woven in, the roll was clicked forward by one
card. The results revolutionized the weaving industry and
made a lot of money for Jacquard. This idea of punched data
storage was later adapted for computer data input.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1822 – Charles Babbage (1791-1871) and Ada Augusta, The Countess of Lovelace

Charles Babbage is known as the Father of the modern

computer (even though none of his computers worked or
were even constructed in their entirety). He first designed
plans to build, what he called the Automatic Difference
Engine. It was designed to help in the construction of
mathematical tables for navigation. Unfortunately,
engineering limitations of his time made it impossible for
the computer to be built. His next project was much more
ambitious.

While a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University

(where Stephen Hawkin is now), a position he never actually
occupied, he proposed the construction of a machine he
called the Analytic Engine. It was to have a punched card
input, a memory unit (called the store), an arithmetic unit
(called the mill), automatic printout, sequential program
control, and 20-place decimal accuracy. He had actually
worked out a plan for a computer 100 years ahead of its
time. Unfortunately it was never completed. It had to wait
for manufacturing technology to catch up to his ideas.

During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada Lovelace

translated Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's memoir
on Charles Babbage's Analytic Engine. With her translation
she appended a set of notes which specified in complete
detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the
Engine. Historians now recognize this as the world's first
computer program and honor her as the first programmer.
Too bad she has such an ill-received programming language
named after her.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
1939-1942 Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff(1903-1995) and Clifford Berry (1918-1963)

Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff and his graduate assistant,

Clifford Barry, built the first truly electronic computer,
called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer or ABC. Atanasoff said
the idea came to him as he was sitting in a small roadside
tavern in Illinois. This computer used a circuit with 45
vacuum tubes to perform the calculations, and capacitors
for storage. This was also the first computer to use binary
math.

1943 – Colossus I

The first really successful electronic computer was built in

Bletchley Park, England. It was capable of performing only
one function, that of code breaking during World War II. It
could not be re-programmed.

1944 – Mark I - Howard Aiken (1900-1973) and Grace

In 1944 Dr. Howard Aiken of Harvard finished the

construction of the Automatic Sequence Controlled
One of the popularly
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program errors.

It was Howard Aiken, in 1947, who made the rather short-

sighted comment to the effect that the computer is a
wonderful machine, but I can see that six such machines
would be enough to satisfy all the computing needs of the
entire United States.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1946 – ENIAC - J. Prosper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980)

The first all electronic computer was the Electrical

Numerical Integrator and Calculator, known as ENIAC. It
was designed by J. Prosper Eckert and John W. Mauchly
of the Moore School of Engineering at the University of
Pennsylvania. ENIAC was the first multipurpose electronic
computer, though very difficult to re-program. It was
primarily used to computer aircraft courses, shell
trajectories, and to break codes during World War II.

ENIAC occupied a 20 x 40 foot room and used 18,000

vacuum tubes. ENIAC also could never be turned off. If it
was it blew too many tubes when turned back on. It had a
very limited storage capacity and it was programmed by
jumper wires plugged into a large board.
In 1948 an event occurred that was to forever change the
course of computers and electronics. Working at Bell Labs
1948 – The Transister three scientists, John Bordeen (1908-1991) (left), Waltar
Brattain (1902-1987) (right), and William Shockly (1910-
1989) (seated) invented the transistor. The change over
from vacuum tube circuits to transistor circuits occurred
between 1956 and 1959. This brought in the second
generation of computers, those based on transisters. The
first generation was mechanical and vacuum tube
computers.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1951 – UNIVAC

The first practical electronic computer was built by Eckert

and Mauchly (of ENIAC fame) and was known
as UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer). The first
UNIVAC was used by the Bureau of Census. The unique
feature of the UNIVAC was that it was not a one-of-a-
kind computer. It was mass produced.

1954 – IBM 650

In 1954 the first electronic computer for business was

installed at General Electric Appliance Park in Louisville,
Kentucky. This year also saw the beginning of operation of
the IBM 650 in Boston. This comparatively inexpensive
computer gave IBM the lead in the computer market. Over
1000 650s were sold.

1957-59 – IBM 704

From 1957-1959 the IBM 704 computer appeared, for which

the Fortran language was developed. At this time the state
of the art in computers allowed 1 component per chip, that
is individual transistors.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1958 - 1962 – Programming languages

From 1958-1962 many programming languages were developed.

FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)

LISP (LISt Processor)

ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)

BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

1964 – IBM System/360

In 1964 the beginning of the third-generation

computers came with the introduction of the
IBM System/360. Thanks to the
new hybrid circuits (that gross looking orange
thing in the circuit board on the right), the
state of the art in computer technology
allowed for 10 components per chip.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1965 - PDP-8

In 1965 the first integrated circuit computer, the PDP-8 from

Digital Equipment Corporation appeared. (PDP stands for
Programmable Data Processor) After this the real revolution
in computer cost and size began.

1970 - Integrated Circuits

By the early 70s the state of the art in computer technology

allowed for 1000 components per chip. To get an idea of
just how much the size of electronic components had
shrunk by this time look at the image on the right. The
woman is peering through a microscope at a 16K RAM
memory integrated circuit. The stand she has her
microscopy sitting on is a 16K vacuum tube memory curcuit
from about 20 years previous.

1971

The Intel corporation produced the first

microprocessor chip which was a 4-bit chip.
Today’s chips are 64-bit. At approximately 1/16 x
1/8 inches in size, this chip contained 250
transistors and had all the computing power of
ENIAC. It matched IBM computers of the early 60s
that had a CPU the size of an office desk.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
1975 – Altair 8800

The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics

carried an article, the first, to describe the Altair
8800, the first low-cost microprocessor
computer which had just became commercially
available.

Late 1970s to early 1980s – The Microcomputer Explosion

During this period many companies

appeared and disappeared,
manufacturing a variety
of microcomputers (they were
called micro to distinguish them from
the mainframes which some people
referred to as real computers). There
was Radio Shack’s TRS-80, the
Commodore 64, the Atari, but...

1977 - The Apple II

The most successful of the early
microcomputers was the Apple II,
designed and built by Steve Wozniak.
With fellow computer whiz and
business savvy friend, Steve Jobs, they
started Apple Computer in 1977 in
Woz’s garage. Less than three years
later the company earned over $100
million. Not bad for a couple of college
dropout computer geeks.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

1981

In 1981, IBM produced their first microcomputer. Then the

clones started to appear. This microcomputer explosion
fulfilled its slogan computers by the millions for the
millions. Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early
80s:

 Were 20 times faster (Apple II ran at the speed of ¼

Megahertz).
 Had a memory capacity as much as 16 times larger
(Apple had 64 K).
 Were thousands of times more reliable.
 Consumed the power of a light bulb instead of a
locomotive.
 Were 1/30,000 the size.
 Cost 1/10,000 as much in comparable dollars
 (An Apple II with full 64 K of RAM cost $1200 in 1979.
 That’s the equivalent of about $8000 to $10000 in
today's dollars)

1984-1989

In 1984 the Macintosh was introduced. This was the first

mass-produced, commercially-available computer with a
Graphical User Interface. In 1989 Windows 1.0 was
introduced for the PC. It was sort of Mac-like but greatly
inferior. Macintosh owners were know to refer to it
sarcastically as AGAM-84  Almost as Good As Macintosh 84.

1990s

Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the 90s:

 Were 36,000 times faster (450 Megahertz was the average speed)

Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1

 Had a memory capacity 1000 to 5000 times larger (average was between 4 and 20 Megabytes)
 Were 1/30,000 the size
 Cost 1/30,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC still cost around $1500 the equivalent of
about $2500 in 2008 dollars)

Early 2000s

Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 2000s:

 Are 180,000 times faster (2.5+ Gigahertz is the average speed)

 Have a memory capacity 25,000 times larger (average 1+ Gigabytes of RAM)
 Are 1/30,000 the size
 Cost 1/60,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC can cost from $700 to $1500)

Data Storage

Data storage has also grown in capacity and shrunk in size as dramatically as have computers. Today a
single data DVD will hold around 4.8 gigabytes. It would take 90,000,000 punch cards to hold the same
amount of data. And, there is talk of a new high density video disk (HVD) that will be able to hold fifty
times that much data. That's more than 240 gigabytes.

Just how much data is that

Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 K = 1 Megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes
1024 Mb = 1 Gigabyte = 10,73,741,824 bytes
1024 Gb = 1 Terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
1024 Tb = 1 Petabyte = 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes
1024 Pb = 1 Exabyte = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes
1024 Eb = 1 Zettabyte = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes
1024 Zb = 1 Yottabyte = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes

HARDWARE

Computer Hardware is the physical part of a computer, as distinguished from the computer

software that executes or runs on the hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequently changed,
while software and data are modified frequently. The term soft refers to readily created, modified, or
erased. These are unlike the physical components within the computer which are hard.

INTERNAL HARDWARE

Motherboard

The motherboard is the body or mainframe of the computer, through which all other
components interface. It is the central circuit board making up a complex electronic system. A
motherboard provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system
communicate. The mother board includes many components such as: central processing unit (CPU),
random access memory (RAM), firmware, and internal and external buses.

Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU; sometimes just called processor) is a machine that can
execute computer programs. It is sometimes referred to as the brain of the computer.

There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute,
and writeback. The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction from program memory. In the
decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU.
During the execute step various portions of the CPU, such as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
the floating point unit (FPU) are connected so they can perform the desired operation. The final step,
writeback, simply writes back the results of the execute step to some form of memory.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
Random Access Memory

Random access memory (RAM) is fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is power-
down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard and is used to store programs that are currently running.
RAM is a set of integrated circuits that allow the stored data to be accessed in any order (why it is called
random). There are many different types of RAMS. Distinctions between these different types include
writable vs. read-only, static vs. dynamic, volatile vs. non-volatile, etc.

Firmware

Firmware is loaded from the Read only memory (ROM) run from the Basic Input-Output System
(BIOS). It is a computer program that is embedded in a hardware device, for example a microcontroller. As
its name suggests, firmware is somewhere between hardware and software. Like software, it is a computer
program which is executed by a microprocessor or a microcontroller. But it is also tightly linked to a piece
of hardware and has little meaning outside of it. Most devices attached to modern systems are special-
purpose computers, running their own software. Some of these devices store that software (“firmware”) in
a ROM within the device itself

Power Supply

The power supply as its name might suggest is the device that supplies power to all the
components in the computer. Its case holds a transformer, voltage control, and (usually) a cooling fan. The
power supply converts about 100-120 volts of AC power to low-voltage DC power for the internal
components to use. The most common computer power supplies are built to conform with the ATX form
factor. This enables different power supplies to be interchangeable with different components inside the
computer. ATX power supplies also are designed to turn on and off using a signal from the motherboard
and provide support for modern functions such as standby mode.

Removable Media Devices

If you’re putting something in your computer and taking it out is most likely a form of removable
media. There are many different removable media devices. The most popular are probably CD and DVD
drives which almost every computer these days has at least one of. There are some new disc drives such as
Blu-ray which can hold a much larger amount of information than normal CDs or DVDs. One type of
removable media which is becoming less popular is floppy disk.

Compact Disk

CDs are the most common type of removable media. They are inexpensive but also have short
lifespan. There are a few different kinds of CDs. CD-ROM which stands for Compact Disc read-only memory
is popularly used to distribute computer software although any type of data can be stored on them. CD-R
is another variation which can only be written to once but can be read many times. CD-RW (rewritable) can
be written to more than once as well as read more than once. Some other types of CDs which are not as
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
popular include Super Audio CD (SACD), Video Compact Discs (VCD), Super Video Compact Discs (SVCD),
Photo CD, Picture CD, CD-i, and Enhanced CD.

There are two types of devices in a computer that use CDs: CD-ROM drive and a CD writer. The CD-ROM
drive used for reading a CD. The CD writer drive can read and write a CD. CD writers are much more
popular are new computers than a CD-ROM drive. Both kinds of CD drives are called optical disc drives
because the use a laser light or electromagnetic waves to read or write data to or from a CD.

DVD

DVDs (digital versatile discs) are another popular optical disc storage media format. The main uses
for DVDs are video and data storage. Most DVDs are of the same dimensions as compact discs. Just like
CDs there are many different variations. DVD-ROM has data which can only be read and not written. DVD-
R and DVD+R can be written once and then function as a DVD-ROM. DVD-RAM, DVD-RW, or DVD+RW hold
data that can be erased and re-written multiple times. DVD-Video and DVD-Audio discs respectively refer
to properly formatted and structured video and audio content. The devices that use DVDs are very similar
to the devices that use CDs. There is a DVD-ROM drive as well as a DVD writer that work the same way as a
CD-ROM drive and CD writer. There is also a DVD-RAM drive that reads and writes to the DVD-RAM
variation of DVD.

Blu-ray

Blu-ray is a newer optical disc storage media format. Its main uses are high-definition video and
data storage. The disc has the same dimensions as a CD or DVD. The term “Blu-ray” comes from the blue
laser used to read and write to the disc. The Blu-ray discs can store much more data than CDs or DVDs. A
dual layer Blu-ray disc can store up to 50GB, almost six times the capacity of a dual layer DVD (WOW!).
Blu-ray discs have similar devices used to read them and write to them as CDs have. A BD-ROM drive can
only read a Blu-ray disc and a BD writer can read and write a Blu-ray disc.

Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is a type of data storage that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible(“floppy”)
magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. Floppy disks are read and
written by a floppy disk drive. Floppy disks are a dying and being replaced by the optical and flash drives.
Many new computers do not come with floppy drives anymore but there are a lot of older ones with
floppy drives lying around. While floppy disks are very cheap the amount of storage on them compared to
the amount of storage for the price of flash drives makes floppy disks unreasonable to use.

Internal Storage

Internal storage is hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains
persistent even when the computer has no power. There are a few different types of internal storage.
Cyrus Q. De Leon August 19, 2021
BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
Hard disks are the most popular type of internal storage. Solid-state drives have grown in popularity
slowly. A disk array controller is popular when you need more storage then a single hard disk can hold.

Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on
rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Just about every new computer comes with a hard disk
these days unless it comes with a new solid-state drive. Typical desktop hard disk drives store between 120
and 400GB, rotate at 7,200 rpm, and have a media transfer rate of 1 Gbit/s or higher. Hard disk drives are
accessed over one of several bus types, including parallel ATA (also called IDE), Serial ATA (SATA), SCSI,
Serial Attached SCSI, and Fiber Channel.

Solid-State Drive

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a data storage device that uses solid-state memory to store persistent
data. An SSD emulates a hard disk drive, thus easily replacing it in any application. SSDs have begun to
appear in laptops because they can be smaller than HDDs. SSDs are currently more expensive per unit of
capacity than HDDs which is why they have not caught on so quickly.

Disk Array Controller

A disk array controller is a device which manage the physical disk drives and presents them to the
computer as logical units. It almost always implements hardware RAID. RAID (Redundant Array of
Independent Drives) is a technology that employs the simultaneous use of two or more hard disk drives to
achieve greater levels of performance, reliability, and/or larger data volume sizes. A disk array controller
also provides additional disk cache.

EXTERNAL HARDWARE

Tower

The tower is the central brain of the computer. It holds all the major internal components
needed for the machine to function properly. It is generally designed to sit flat on a desk or upright on
the floor. Most of the ports for plugging in other devices are located here, such as the PS/2 ports for the
keyboard and mouse, USB ports for printers, cameras and other devices, microphone and speaker ports,
VGA port for the monitor and Ethernet and modem ports for Internet and network connection.

Monitor

The computer's monitor, or screen, is the window into the workings of the computer. Its visual
display allows for a visual interpretation of all that is happening. There are two major forms of computer
monitors. The first is the CRT, which projects the picture from behind the screen and is therefore very
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BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
bulky and heavy. The second is LCD, which uses liquid crystals and electronic triggers to display images,
allowing for a much sleeker and more lightweight unit.

Keyboard

The keyboard allows typed input into the computer. It has buttons for all the letters of the
alphabet as well as numbers, symbols and special function keys. Some keyboards, especially on
Macintosh computers, have USB ports available on them for easy access.

Mouse

The mouse allows movement of the cursor on the screen. It allows the selection of icons and
links much more quickly and smoothly than the keyboard.

Printers and Scanners

Printers and scanners, although not necessary for the overall function of a computer, are helpful
tools that allow for document management, whether that be uploading a document into the computer
using the scanner or creating a document using the printer.

Troubleshooting Tips

1. Free up RAM by closing other open programs.

Every piece of software uses Random Access Memory (RAM). The more software that's running
on your computer, the more RAM it uses. This can be especially problematic if you're using older
machines that don't have a lot of RAMS. So, if a software program refuses to load or is running slowly,
the first thing to do is to close all other open applications.

If you want to find out which open applications might be hogging your RAM, both Windows and
Macintosh operating systems (OS) have tools that display this information:

 In Windows, hit Ctrl+Alt+Delete, then choose the Start Task Manager option. From the window
that appears, click the Processes tab, then click the Memory menu item. This sorts all open
processes based on the amount of RAM they're using. You can shut down a runaway process by
clicking the End Process button. Before you do that, you may want to do a bit of research on the
process to ensure that you don't accidentally stop a critical process or program.

 In Mac OS X, use the Activity Monitor (called the Process Viewer in older versions of OS X).
Access the Activity Monitor by going to Applications > Utilities. Once you've called up the
Activity Monitor, sort programs based on RAM usage by clicking the column labeled "Real
Memory."
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BSIE – 1A A111L

Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
2. Restart the software.

Software problems can stem from a conflict with other programs or simply from difficulties the software
encountered when starting up. Shutting the program down and restarting it can sometimes resolve
these issues.

3. Shut down and restart your computer.

If restarting the problematic program doesn't resolve the issue, try rebooting your computer.
Once the computer has fully restarted, re-launch the application in question and see if the problem has
been resolved.

4. Use the Internet to find help.

No matter what software problems you encounter, chances are it's happened to someone else. So
there's a good chance you can find help on the Internet. Here are a few places to get started:
 Search for answers: In your search engine query, include the software program name and
version, the problem you encountered, and the circumstances under which the problem
occurred. If you received a specific error message, enter the exact error message text, along
with the name of the application.
 Check the vendor's website: Most software vendors provide some form of product help, such as
answers to frequently asked questions, product documentation, or user discussion forums.
 Check other websites: TechSoup's article Learning About Technology Online lists a number of
other websites that offer technology tutorials, articles, and discussion forums.

5. Undo any recent hardware or software changes.

Changes to software and hardware can sometimes cause software problems, such as:
 Conflicts with other software: Newly installed software may conflict with other software. For
example, Symantec Norton Antivirus can conflict with competing antivirus products. So, if you
recently installed another antivirus program and Norton Antivirus no longer works correctly,
uninstalling the other antivirus product could solve your problem.
 Changes to computer settings: Undo any recent changes to your computer's settings and try
launching the software again. For example, the Windows Control Panel includes an option to
"Set Program Access and Defaults," which allows you to disable access to certain applications. If
you accidentally disable access to a program here, the program may not run.
 Conflicts with new or improperly configured hardware, such as scanners and printers. If you've
recently connected new hardware to one of your computers, try disconnecting the hardware
and see if that corrects the software issue.

6. Uninstall the software, then reinstall it.

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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
Sometimes, software problems occur because critical application files have been removed,
updated, or deleted. For example, many Windows applications use Dynamic Link Library (DLL) files to
perform basic tasks. Often, several applications will use the same DLL file. If you've recently removed
one program from your computer, it's possible you removed DLL files that another program relied on.
Similarly, adding a program could add or update DLL files. Applications that were dependent on those
DLL files may become unstable or stop working entirely.

To ensure that all the necessary files are intact, you can completely uninstall the problematic software,
then reinstall it. Even if you remove a program using its built-in uninstall wizard (if it includes one), it's
still a good idea to check your hard drive's Program Files folder — usually located on the C drive — for
any remnants of the program and delete any files or folders you find.

Before reinstalling, check to see if there's a new version of the program available. The vendor or
developer might have introduced bug fixes that address the issue you're having.

7. Look for software patches.

Software vendors may also fix bugs by issuing patches — small software updates that address
known problems. Even if you're using the most current version of the software, there may be a more
recent patch available for that version.

8. Scan for viruses and malware.

Viruses, spyware, and other forms of malicious software (or "malware") can cause software to
freeze, crash, or quit working entirely.

If tips 1 through 8 haven't helped solve your software problem, you may also want to scan the computer
using both antivirus and anti-malware tools to find and remove viruses and malware. Use the most
thorough scan mode available and remember to restart your machine if the antivirus or anti-malware
programs found any threats.

9. Check for a firewall conflict.

Some organizations may choose to install personal firewall software on each computer, rather
than a centralized hardware or software-based firewall. Personal firewalls can be an important line of
defense against hackers and other security threats, but they can also cause software conflicts.

Firewalls frequently display messages asking whether it should allow a program to run or block it.
Therefore, it's possible to accidentally tell the personal firewall to block a program from running. Check
the firewall's settings to see if the problematic software was added to the firewall's list of programs to
block. If so, change the firewall's settings to allow the software to run, then check to see if you're still
having issues with your software.
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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
10. Boot up in Safe Mode.

Some software malfunctions can be caused by OS settings or other system problems. Windows
and Mac operating systems both offer a troubleshooting environment known as Safe Mode. Safe Mode
disables non-critical applications and processes, which theoretically makes it easier to isolate problems.

Most Windows computers allow you to enter Safe Mode by pressing the F8 key as your computer is
booting up. On a Mac, enter Safe Mode by pressing the Shift key while your computer boots up (or
immediately after it boots up).

Once your computer is in Safe Mode, launch the problematic software and try to replicate the problem
you had while your computer was in normal mode. If you don't have the same problem in safe mode,
there's a good chance that the issue was caused by your OS or another program, not by the application
you are troubleshooting.

11. Defragment your hard drive.

As a final troubleshooting step, you might defragment your computer's hard drive.
Defragmenting rearranges your hard drive's file structure so that the system runs more efficiently.
Defragmenting will probably be most useful if you're experiencing overall sluggishness on your
computer, because defragmenting is meant to make your entire system run faster. Note that
defragmenting a hard drive applies primarily to Windows-based computers.

Most recent Windows editions — including XP, Vista, and Windows 7 — include a built-in disk-
defragmentation tool. To launch it, go to Start > All Programs > Accessories > System Tools > Disk
Defragmenter. Be aware that defragmenting a hard drive can be time-consuming, so make sure to
perform this task when you will be away from your computer for a few hours.

SOFTWARE

System Software is a set of programs that control and manage the operations of computer
hardware. It also helps application programs to execute correctly.

System Software are designed to control the operation and extend the processing functionalities of a
computer system. System software makes the operation of a computer more fast, effective, and secure.
Example: Operating system, programming language, Communication software, etc.

Types of System Software

Here are the important types of System Software:

 Operating systems: - Operating system software helps you for the effective utilization of all
hardware and software components of a computer system.
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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
 Programming language translators: - Transforms the instructions prepared by developers in a
programming language into a form that can be interpreted or compiled and executed by a
computer system.
 Communication Software: - Communication software allows us to transfer data and programs
from one computer system to another.
 Utility programs: - Utility programs are a set of programs that help users in system maintenance
tasks, and in performing tasks of routine nature.

Features of System Software

An important feature of System Software is:

 System Software is closer to the system
 Generally written in a low-level language
 The system software is difficult to design and understand
 Fast in speed
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Hard to manipulate

Application Software is a program that does real work for the user. It is mostly created to
perform a specific task for a user.

Application Software acts as a mediator between the end-user and System Software. It is also
known as an application package. This type of software is written using a high-level language like C, Java,
VB. Net, etc. It is a user-specific and is designed to meet the requirements of the user.

You can also install multiple Application Software on a single System Software. You can store this
kind of software on CDs, DVDs, flash derive, or keychain storage devices. Example: Word-processing,
Spreadsheet, Database, etc.

Types of Application Software

Here, are some important types of Application Software

 Word-processing software: - It makes use of a computer for creating, modifying, viewing,
storing, retrieving, and printing documents.
 Spreadsheet software: - Spreadsheet software is a numeric data-analysis tool that allows you to
create a computerized ledger.
 Database software: - A database software is a collection of related data that is stored and
retrieved according to user demand.
 Graphics software: - It allows computer systems for creating, editing, drawings, graphs, etc.
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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
 Education software: - Education software allows a computer to be used as a learning and
teaching tool.
 Entertainment software: - This type of app allows a computer to be used as an entertainment
tool.

Features of Application Software

An important feature of Application Software:

 System Software is closer to the system
 Generally written in a low-level language
 The system software is difficult to design and understand
 Fast in speed
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Hard to manipulate

Here are major differences between System and Application software:

System Software Application Software

They are designed to manage the resources of the They are designed to fulfill the requirements of
system, like memory and process management, the user for performing specific tasks.
security, etc.
It is written in a low-level language like a machine A high-level language is used to write Application
or assembly language. Software.
The System Software starts running when the The Application Software starts when the user
system is powered on and runs until the system is begins, and it ends when the user stops it.
powered off.
The System Software is a general-purpose Application Software is specific purpose software.
software
It is classified as a package program or It is classified as time-sharing, resource sharing,
customized program. client-server.
Installed on the computer system at the time Installed as per user's requirements.
when the operating system is installed.
Capable of running independently. Can't run independently.
Users never interact with system software as it Users interact with application software while
functions in the background. using specific applications.
System software are independent of the Application software needs system software to
application software run.
System software is crucial for the effective Application software is not extremely important
functioning of a system. for the functioning of the system.

Keyboard Shortcuts
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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
Here is a list of commonly used short-cut keys that can provide an easier and quicker method of using
computer programs:

List of basic computer shortcut keys:

 Alt + F--File menu options in the current program.

 Alt + E--Edits options in the current program.
 F1--Universal help (for any sort of program).
 Ctrl + A--Selects all text.
 Ctrl + X--Cuts the selected item.
 Ctrl + Del--Cut selected item.
 Ctrl + C--Copy the selected item.
 Ctrl + Ins-- Copy the selected item.
 Ctrl + V--Paste the selected item.
 Shift + Ins -- Paste the selected item.
 Home -- Takes the user to the beginning of the current line.
 Ctrl + Home--Go to the beginning of the document.
 End -- Go to the end of the current line.
 Ctrl + End -- Go to the end of a document.
 Shift + Home -- Highlight from current position to beginning of the line.
 Shift + End -- Highlight from current position to end of the line.
 Ctrl + (Left arrow) -- Move one word to the left at a time.
 Ctrl + (Right arrow) -- Move one word to the right at a time.

Microsoft Windows shortcut keys list

 Alt + Tab -- Switch between open applications.

 Alt + Shift + Tab -- Switch backward between open applications.
 Alt + Print Screen -- Create screenshot for the current program.
 Ctrl + Alt + Del -- Reboot/Windows task manager.
 Ctrl + Esc -- Bring up the start menu.
 Alt + Esc -- Switch between applications on the taskbar.
 F2 -- Rename selected icon.
 F3 -- Start find from the desktop.
 F4 -- Open the drive selection when browsing.
 F5 -- Refresh contents.
 Alt + F4 -- Close current open program.
 Ctrl + F4 -- Close window in program.
 Ctrl + Plus Key-- Automatically adjust widths of all columns in Windows Explorer.
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Assignment 1
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 Alt + Enter -- Open properties window of selected icon or program.
 Shift + F10 -- Simulate right-click on selected item.
 Shift + Del -- Delete programs/files permanently.
 Holding Shift During Boot up -- Boot safe mode or bypass system files.
 Holding Shift During Boot up -- When putting in an audio CD, will prevent CD Player from
playing.

Word shortcut keys

 Ctrl + A -- Select all contents of the page.

 Ctrl + B -- Bold highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + C -- Copy selected text.
 Ctrl + X -- Cut selected text.
 Ctrl + N -- Open new/blank document.
 Ctrl + O -- Open options.
 Ctrl + P -- Open the print window.
 Ctrl + F -- Open find box.
 Ctrl + I -- Italicized highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + K -- Insert link.
 Ctrl + U -- Underline highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + V -- Paste.
 Ctrl + Y -- Redo the last action performed.
 Ctrl + Z -- Undo last action.
 Ctrl + G -- Find and replace options.
 Ctrl + H -- Find and replace options.
 Ctrl + J -- Justify paragraph alignment.
 Ctrl + L -- Align selected text or line to the left.
 Ctrl + Q -- Align selected paragraph to the left.
 Ctrl + E -- Align selected text or line to the center.
 Ctrl + R -- Align selected text or line to the right.
 Ctrl + M -- Indent the paragraph.
 Ctrl + T -- Hanging indent.
 Ctrl + D -- Font options.
 Ctrl + Shift + F -- Change the font.
 Ctrl + Shift + > -- Increase selected font +1.
 Ctrl + ] -- Increase selected font +1.
 Ctrl + [ -- Decrease selected font -1.
 Ctrl + Shift + * -- View or hide nonprinting characters.
 Ctrl + (Left arrow) -- Move one word to the left.
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Assignment 1
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 Ctrl + (Right arrow) -- Move one word to the right.
 Ctrl + (Up arrow) -- Move to the beginning of the line or paragraph.
 Ctrl + (Down arrow) -- Move to the end of the paragraph.
 Ctrl + Del -- Delete word to the right of the cursor.
 Ctrl + Backspace -- Delete word to the left of the cursor.
 Ctrl + End -- Move cursor to end of the document.
 Ctrl + Home -- Move cursor to the beginning of the document.
 Ctrl + Space -- Reset highlighted text to default font.
 Ctrl + 1 -- Single-space lines.
 Ctrl + 2 -- Double-space lines.
 Ctrl + 5 -- 1.5-line spacing.
 Ctrl + Alt + 1 Change text to heading 1.
 Ctrl + Alt + 2 Change text to heading 2.
 Ctrl + Alt + 3 Change text to heading 3.
 F1 -- Open help.
 Shift + F3 -- Change case of selected text.
 Shift + Insert -- Paste.
 F4 -- Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+).
 F7 -- Spell check selected text and/or document.
 Shift + F7 -- Activate the thesaurus.
 F12 -- Save as.
 Ctrl + S -- Save.
 Shift + F12 -- Save.
 Alt + Shift + D -- Insert the current date.
 Alt + Shift + T -- Insert the current time.
 Ctrl + W -- Close document.

Excel shortcut keys

 F2 -- Edit the selected cell.

 F5 -- Go to a specific cell.
 F7 -- Spell check selected text and/or document.
 F11 -- Create chart
 Ctrl + Shift + ; -- Enter the current time.
 Ctrl + ; -- Enter the current date
 Alt + Shift + F1 -- Insert new worksheet.
 Shift + F3 -- Open the Excel formula window.
 Shift + F5 -- Bring up the search box
 Ctrl + A -- Select all contents of a worksheet.
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Assignment 1
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 Ctrl + B -- Bold highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + I -- Italicize highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + C -- Copy selected text.
 Ctrl + V -- Paste
 Ctrl + D -- Fill
 Ctrl + K -- Insert link
 Ctrl + F -- Open find and replace options.
 Ctrl + G -- Open go-to options.
 Ctrl + H -- Open find and replace options.
 Ctrl + U -- Underline highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + Y -- Underline selected text.
 Ctrl + 5 -- Strikethrough highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + O -- Open options.
 Ctrl + N -- Open new document.
 Ctrl + P -- Open print dialog box.
 Ctrl + S -- Save.
 Ctrl + Z -- Undo last action.
 Ctrl + F9 -- Minimize current window.
 Ctrl + F10 -- Maximize currently selected window.
 Ctrl + F6 -- Switch between open workbooks/windows.
 Ctrl + Page up & Page Down -- Move between Excel worksheets in the same document.
 Ctrl + Tab -- Move between two or more open Excel files
 Alt + = -- Create the formula to sum all of the above cells.
 Ctrl + -- Insert the value of above cell into the current cell.
 Ctrl + Shift +! -- Format number in comma format.
 Ctrl + Shift + $ -- Format number in currency format.
 Ctrl + Shift + # -- Format number in date format.
 Ctrl + Shift + % -- Format number in percentage format.
 Ctrl + Shift + ^ -- Format number in scientific format.
 Ctrl + Shift + @ -- Format number in time format.
 Ctrl + (Right arrow) -- Move to next section of text.
 Ctrl + Space -- Select entire column.
 Shift + Space -- Select entire row.
 Ctrl + W -- Close document.

Outlook shortcut keys

 Alt + S -- Send the email.

 Ctrl + C -- Copy selected text.
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Assignment 1
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 Ctrl + X -- Cut selected text.
 Ctrl + P -- Open print dialog box.
 Ctrl + K -- Complete name/email typed in address bar.
 Ctrl + B -- Bold highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + I -- Italicize highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + U -- Underline highlighted selection.
 Ctrl + R -- Reply to an email.
 Ctrl + F -- Forward an email.
 Ctrl + N -- Create a new email.
 Ctrl + Shift + A -- Create a new appointment to your calendar.
 Ctrl + Shift + O -- Open the outbox.
 Ctrl + Shift + I -- Open the inbox.
 Ctrl + Shift + K -- Add a new task.
 Ctrl + Shift + C -- Create a new contact.
 Ctrl + Shift+ J -- Create a new journal entry

WINKEY shortcuts:

 WINKEY + D -- Bring desktop to the top of other windows.

 WINKEY + M -- Minimize all windows.
 WINKEY + SHIFT + M -- Undo the minimize done by WINKEY + M and WINKEY + D.
 WINKEY + E -- Open Microsoft Explorer.
 WINKEY + Tab -- Cycle through open programs on the taskbar.
 WINKEY + F -- Display the Windows Search/Find feature.
 WINKEY + CTRL + F -- Display the search for computers window.
 WINKEY + F1 -- Display the Microsoft Windows help.
 WINKEY + R -- Open the run window.
 WINKEY + Pause /Break -- Open the system properties window.
 WINKEY + U -- Open utility manager.
 WINKEY + L -- Lock the computer (Windows XP & later).

Computer Acronyms and Meanings

ACL Access Control List

ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter
ADF Automatic Document Feeder
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AGP Accelerated Graphics Port
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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
AIFF Audio Interchange File Format
AIX Advanced Interactive Executive
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API Application Program Interface
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASP Active Server Page
ASP Application Service Provider
ATA Advanced Technology Attachment
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
BASIC Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BCC Blind Carbon Copy
BIOS Basic Input/Output System
BLOB Binary Large Object
BMP Bitmap
CAD Computer-Aided Design
CC Carbon Copy
CCD Charged Coupled Device
CD Compact Disc
CD-R Compact Disc Recordable
CD-ROM Compact Disc Read-Only Memory
CD-RW Compact Disc Re-Writable
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CGI Common Gateway Interface
CISC Complex Instruction Set Computing
CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
CMYK Cyan, Magenta Yellow Black
CPA Cost Per Action
CPC Cost Per Click
CPL Cost Per Lead
CPM Cost Per 1,000 Impressions
CPS Classroom Performance System
CPU Central Processing Unit
CRM Customer Relationship Management
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
CSS Cascading Style Sheet
CTP Composite Theoretical Performance
CTR Click-Through Rate
DAC Digital-to-Analog Converter
DBMS Database Management System
DDR Double Data Rate
DDR2 Double Data Rate 2
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DIMM Dual In-Line Memory Module
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Assignment 1
Computer Fundamentals and Programming 1
DLL Dynamic Link Library
DMA Direct Memory Access
DNS Domain Name System
DOS Disk Operating System
DPI Dots Per Inch
DRAM Dynamic Random-Access Memory
DRM Digital Rights Management
DSL Digital Subscriber Line
DSLAM Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
DTD Document Type Definition
DV Digital Video
DVD Digital Versatile Disc
DVD+R Digital Versatile Disc Recordable
DVD+RW Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable
DVD-R Digital Versatile Disc Recordable
DVD-RAM Digital Versatile Disc Random Access Memory
DVD-RW Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable
DVI Digital Video Interface
DVR Digital Video Recorder
ECC Error Correction Code
EDI Electronic Data Interchange
EPS Encapsulated PostScript
EUP Enterprise Unified Process
FAQ Frequently Asked Questions
FIFO First In, First Out
FIOS Fiber Optic Service
FLOPS Floating Point Operations Per Second
FPU Floating Point Unit
FSB Frontside Bus
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GIF Graphics Interchange Format; Applied to Image Format As .gif
GIGO Garbage In, Garbage Out
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GPS Global Positioning System
GPU Graphics Processing Unit
GUI Graphical User Interface
GUID Globally Unique Identifier
HDMI High-Definition Multimedia Interface
HDTV High-Definition Television
HDV High-Definition Video
HFS Hierarchical File System
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HSF Heat Sink and Fan
HTML Hyper-Text Markup Language
HTTP Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol
HTTPS Hyper-Text Transport Protocol Secure
I/O Input/Output
ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
ICF Internet Connection Firewall
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
ICS Internet Connection Sharing
IDE Integrated Device Electronics
IDE Integrated Development Environment
IEEE Institute Of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IGP Integrated Graphics Processor
IM Instant Message
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
INTERNIC Internet Network Information Center
IP Internet Protocol
IPX Internetwork Packet Exchange
IRC Internet Relay Chat
IRQ Interrupt Request
ISA Industry Standard Architecture
ISCSI Internet Small Computer Systems Interface
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISP Internet Service Provider
IT Information Technology
IVR Interactive Voice Response
JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group; Applied to Image Format As .jpeg
JRE Java Runtime Environment
JSP Java Server Page
KBPS Kilobits Per Second
KDE K Desktop Environment
KVM Switch Keyboard, Video, And Mouse Switch
LAN Local Area Network
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
LIFO Last In, First Out
LPI Lines Per Inch
LUN Logical Unit Number
MAC Media Access Control Address
(ADDRESS)
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MANET Mobile Ad Hoc Network
MBPS Megabits Per Second
MCA Micro Channel Architecture
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface
MIPS Million Instructions Per Second
MP3 MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3
MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group; Video Format
MTU Maximum Transmission Unit
NAT Network Address Translation
NETBIOS Network Basic Input/Output System
NIC Network Interface Card
NNTP Network News Transfer Protocol
NOC Network Operations Center
NTFS New Technology File System
OASIS Organization For the Advancement Of Structured Information Standards
OCR Optical Character Recognition
ODBC Open Database Connectivity
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OLAP Online Analytical Processing
OLE Object Linking and Embedding
OOP Object-Oriented Programming
P2P Peer To Peer
PC Personal Computer
PCB Printed Circuit Board
PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect
PCI-X Peripheral Component Interconnect Extended
PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PDF Portable Document Format
PHP Hypertext Preprocessor
PIM Personal Information Manager
PMU Power Management Unit
PNG Portable Network Graphic; Image Format
POP3 Post Office Protocol
PPC Pay Per Click
PPGA Plastic Pin Grid Array
PPI Pixels Per Inch
PPL Pay Per Lead
PPM Pages Per Minute
PPP Point To Point Protocol
PPTP Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
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Assignment 1
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PRAM Parameter Random Access Memory
PS/2 Personal System/2
QBE Query By Example
RAID Redundant Array of Independent Disks
RAM Random Access Memory
RDF Resource Description Framework
RDRAM Rambus Dynamic Random-Access Memory
RGB Red, Green Blue
RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computing
ROM Read-Only Memory
RPC Remote Procedure Call
RPM Revenue Per 1,000 Impressions. (M Is the Roman Numeral For 1,000)
RSS RDF Site Summary
RTE Runtime Environment
RTF Rich Text Format
RUP Rational Unified Process
SAN Storage Area Network
SATA Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
SCSI Small Computer System Interface
SD Secure Digital
SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory
SDSL Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line
SEM Search Engine Marketing
SEO Search Engine Optimization
SIMM Single In-Line Memory Module
SKU Stock Keeping Unit
SLI Scalable Link Interface
SMART Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology
SMB Server Message Block
SMS Short Message Service
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SO-DIMM Small Outline Dual In-Line Memory Module
SOA Service Oriented Architecture
SOAP Simple Object Access Protocol
SQL Structured Query Language
SRAM Static Random-Access Memory
SRGB Standard Red Green Blue
SSH Secure Shell
SSID Service Set Identifier
SSL Secure Sockets Layer
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TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TFT Thin-Film Transistor
TIFF Tagged Image File Format; Image Format
TTL Time To Live (DNS)
TWAIN Toolkit Without an Informative Name
UDDI Universal Description Discovery and Integration
UDP User Datagram Protocol
UML Unified Modeling Language
UNC Universal Naming Convention
UPNP Universal Plug and Play
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
URI Uniform Resource Identifier
URL Uniform Resource Locator
USB Universal Serial Bus
VCI Virtual Channel Identifier
VESA Video Electronics Standards Association
VFAT Virtual File Allocation Table
VGA Video Graphics Array
VLB VESA Local Bus
VLE Virtual Learning Environment
VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol
VPI Virtual Path Identifier
VPN Virtual Private Network
VPS Virtual Private Server
VRAM Video Random Access Memory
VRML Virtual Reality Modeling Language
WAIS Wide Area Information Server
WAN Wide Area Network
WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy
WI-FI Wireless Fidelity
WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access
WWW World Wide Web
XHTML Extensible Hypertext Markup Language
XML Extensible Markup Language
XSLT Extensible Style Sheet Language Transformation
Y2K Year 2000
ZIF Zero Insertion Force