Unit- 2

2.1. Generation and recombination of carriers:

Generation of carriers (free electrons and holes)-

The process by which free electrons and holes are generated in pair is called generation of
carriers.

When electrons in a valence band get enough energy, then they will absorb this energy and
jumps into the conduction band. The electron which is jumped into a conduction band is called
free electron and the place from where electron left is called hole. Likewise, two type of charge
carriers (free electrons and holes) gets generated.

Recombination of carriers (free electrons and holes)-

The process by which free electrons and the holes get eliminated is called recombination of

carriers. When free electron in the conduction band falls in to a hole in the valence band, then the
free electron and hole gets eliminated.

2.2. Continuity and Poisson equation :

Continuity equation:
The continuity equation gives the rate of change of carrier concentration inside a differential
section of semiconductor bar.
The continuity equation obeys the law of conservation of charge.
2.3. P-N Junction:

Generally junction refers to a point where two or more things are joined. When an n-type
semiconductor is joined with the p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The
region where the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined is called p-n junction. It is
also defined as the boundary between p-type and n-type semiconductor. This p-n junction
forms a most popular semiconductor device known as diode.

Before the invention of semiconductor diode there was vacuum tubes which are large in
size, takes more power, costly, and noisy. This problem was solved with invention of
semiconductor diode. Semiconductor diodes are small in size, low cost and consume less
power.

Depletion region:

The depletion region refers to a region where flow of charge carriers are decreased over a
given time and finally results in empty mobile charge carriers or full of immobile charge
carriers.

The depletion region is also called as depletion zone, depletion layer, space charge region,
or space charge layer. The depletion region acts like a wall between p-type and n-type
semiconductor and prevents further flow of free electrons and holes.
2.4. P-N Junction Diode:

A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the
electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse
direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand, if
the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction semiconductor diode
is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device.

In n-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority charge carriers whereas in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers. When the n-type semiconductor is joined
with the p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The p-n junction, which is formed when
the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined, is called as p-n junction diode.

The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium,
and gallium arsenide. For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over germanium. The p-
n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at higher temperature when
compared with the p-n junction diodes made from germanium semiconductors.

The basic symbol of p-n junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias is shown in the
below figure
Biasing of p-n junction semiconductor diode:

The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called
biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods: forward
biasing or reverse biasing.

If the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. Under forward
biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery.

If the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. Under reverse
biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery.

Advantages of p-n junction diode:

P-n junction diode is the simplest form of all the semiconductor devices. However, diodes plays
a major role in many electronic devices.

 A p-n junction diode can be used to convert the alternating current (AC) to the direct
current (DC). These diodes are used in power supply devices.

 If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current flow. On the other hand, if it is reverse
biased, it blocks the current flow. In other words, the p-n junction diode becomes on
when it is forward biased whereas the p-n junction diode becomes off when it is reversed
biased (I.e. it acts as switch). Thus, the p-n junction diode is used as electronic switch in
digital logic circuits.
Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics:

There are three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction Diode and these are:
 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode‟s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.
Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics:

2.5. Small signal switching models:

2.6. Avalanche diode:

An avalanche diode is a special type of semiconductor device designed to operate in reverse

breakdown region.

Avalanche diodes are generally made from silicon or other semiconductor materials. The
construction of avalanche diode is similar to zener diode but the doping level in avalanche diode
differs from zener diode.

Zener diodes are heavily doped. Therefore, the width of depletion region in zener diode is very
thin. Because of this thin depletion layer or region, reverse breakdown occurs at lower voltage in
zener diode.

On the other hand, avalanche diodes are lightly doped. Therefore, the width of depletion layer in
avalanche diode is very wide compared to the zener diode. Because of this wide depletion
region, reverse breakdown occurs at higher voltages in avalanche diode. The breakdown voltage
of avalanche diode is carefully set by controlling the doping level during manufacture.
Symbol of avalanche diode:

Working:

A normal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in forward direction whereas an
avalanche diode allows electric current in both forward and reverse directions. However,
avalanche diode is specifically designed to operate in reverse biased condition.

Avalanche diode allows electric current in reverse direction when reverse bias voltage exceeds
the breakdown voltage. The point or voltage at which electric current increases suddenly is
called breakdown voltage.

When the reverse bias voltage applied to the avalanche diode exceeds the breakdown voltage, a
junction breakdown occurs. This junction breakdown is called avalanche breakdown.

When forward bias voltage is applied to the avalanche diode, it works like a normal p-n junction
diode by allowing electric current through it.

When reverse bias voltage is applied to the avalanche diode, the free electrons (majority carriers)
in the n-type semiconductor and the holes (majority carriers) in the p- type semiconductor are
moved away from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region increases. Therefore,
the majority carriers will not carry electric current. However, the minority carriers (free electrons
in p-type and holes in n-type) experience a repulsive force from external voltage.

As a result, the minority carriers flow from p-type to n-type and n-type to p-type by carrying the
electric current. However, electric current carried by minority carriers is very small. This small
electric current carried by minority carriers is called reverse leakage current.

If the reverse bias voltage applied to the avalanche diode is further increased, the minority
carriers (free electrons or holes) will gain large amount of energy and accelerated to greater
velocities.

The free electrons moving at high speed will collide with the atoms and transfer their energy to
the valence electrons.
The valance electrons which gains enough energy from the high-speed electrons will be detached
from the parent atom and become free electrons. These free electrons are again
accelerated. When these free electrons again collide with other atoms, they knock off more
electrons.

Because of this continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of minority carriers (free
electrons or holes) are generated. These large numbers of free electrons carry excess current in
the diode.

When the reverse voltage applied to the avalanche diode continuously increases, at some point
the junction breakdown or avalanche breakdown occurs. At this point, a small increase in voltage
will suddenly increases the electric current. This sudden increase of electric current may
permanently destroys the normal p-n junction diode. However, avalanche diodes may not be
destroyed because they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region.

Fig- Avalanche breakdown

The breakdown voltage of the avalanche diode depends on the doping density. Increasing the
doping density will decreases the breakdown voltage of the avalanche diode.

Applications of avalanche diodes:

 Avalanche diodes can be used as white noise generators.

 Avalanche diodes are used in protecting circuits.

2.7. Zener diode:

A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown region.
Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under forward biased condition. When forward
biased voltage is applied to the zener diode it allows large amount of electric current and blocks
only a small amount of electric current.

Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very thin
depletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n
junction diodes.

Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode but also allows
electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is greater than the zener
voltage. Zener diode is always connected in reverse direction because it is specifically designed
to work in reverse direction.

A zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is carefully set by controlling the
doping level during manufacture.

Breakdown in zener diode:

There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode: avalanche breakdown and
zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown

The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes at high reverse voltage.
When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the free electrons (minority
carriers) gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities.

The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with the atoms and knock off more
electrons. These electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are generated. As a result,
electric current in the diode increases rapidly. This sudden increase in electric current may
permanently destroys the normal diode. However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed
because they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

Zener breakdown:

The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their narrow
depletion region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow
depletion region generates strong electric field.

When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage, the electric field
in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence
electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field of depletion region will
breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance electrons which break bonding with parent
atom will become free electrons. This free electrons carry electric current from one place to
another place. At zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the
electric current.

Symbol of zener diode:

VI characteristics of zener diode:

Fig-zener breakdown

The VI characteristics of a zener diode is shown in the above figure. When forward biased
voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a normal diode. However, when reverse biased
voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works in different manner.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage
current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When reverse biased voltage applied to the
zener diode reaches zener voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this
point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increases the electric current. Because of
this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called zener breakdown. However, zener
diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that does damage the device.

The zener breakdown voltage of the zener diode is depends on the amount of doping applied. If
the diode is heavily doped, zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other hand, if
the diode is lightly doped, the zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages.

Advantages of zener diode:

 Power dissipation capacity is very high

 High accuracy
 Small size
 Low cost

Applications of zener diode:

 It is normally used as voltage reference

 Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
 Zener diodes are used in switching operations
 Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
 Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits

2.8.Schottky Diode:

A Schottky Diode is a metal-semiconductor diode with a low forward voltage drop and a very
fast switching speed.

Schottky Diodes are constructed using a metal electrode bonded to an N-type semiconductor.
Since they are constructed using a metal compound on one side of their junction and doped
silicon on the other side, the Schottky diode therefore has no depletion layer and are classed as
unipolar devices unlike typical pn-junction diodes which are bipolar devices.
Schottky Diode Construction and Symbol:

Above shows the simplified construction and symbol of a Schottky diode in which a lightly
doped n-type silicon semiconductor is joined with a metal electrode to produce what is called a
“metal-semiconductor junction”. The width of the ms-junction will depend on the type of metal
and semiconductor material used, but when forward-biased, electrons move from the n-type
material to the metal electrode allowing current to flow. Thus current through the Schottky diode
is the result of the drift of majority carriers.

Schottky Diode IV-Characteristics

The general shape of the metal-semiconductor Schottky diode I-V characteristics is very similar
to that of a standard pn-junction diode, except the corner or knee voltage at which the ms-
junction diode starts to conduct is much lower at around 0.4 volts.
The metal–to-semiconductor or ms-junction provides a much lower knee voltage of typically 0.3
to 0.4 volts compared against a value of 0.6 to 0.9 volts seen in a standard silicon base pn-
junction diode for the same value of forward current.
Due to this lower value, the forward current of a silicon Schottky diode can be many times larger
than that of a typical pn-junction diode, depending on the metal electrode used.
This lower power loss makes the Schottky diode a good choice in low-voltage and high-current
applications such as solar photovoltaic panels where the forward-voltage, (VF) drop across a
standard pn-junction diode would produce an excessive heating effect. However, it must be
noted that the reverse leakage current, (IR) for a Schottky diode is generally much larger than for
a pn-junction diode.
A lower turn-on voltage, faster switching time and reduced power consumption makes the
Schottky diode extremely useful in many integrated-circuit applications
Schottky diodes are quickly becoming the preferred rectification device in low voltage, high
current applications for use in renewable energy and solar panel applications.