4.

1 SOLUTIONS 189

CHAPTER FOUR
Solutions for Section 4.1

Exercises

1. There are many possible answers. One possible graph is shown in Figure 4.1.

Critical point

Critical point
Inflection point Not local max or min

Local min

x
2 4 6 8 x

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

2. We sketch a graph which is horizontal at the two critical points. One possibility is shown in Figure 4.2.
2
3. (a) A graph of f (x) = e−x is shown in Figure 4.3. It appears to have one critical point, at x = 0, and two inflection
points, one between 0 and 1 and the other between 0 and −1.

2
Critical
point
1
Inflection Inflection
point point

x
−2 −1 1 2

Figure 4.3

2
(b) To find the critical points, we set f 0 (x) = 0. Since f 0 (x) = −2xe−x = 0, there is one solution, x = 0. The only
critical point is at x = 0.
To find the inflection points, we first use the product rule to find f 00 (x). We have
2 2 2 2
f 00 (x) = (−2x)(e−x (−2x)) + (−2)(e−x ) = 4x2 e−x − 2e−x .

We set f 00 (x) = 0 and solve for x by factoring:

2 2
4x2 e−x − 2e−x = 0
2
(4x2 − 2)e−x = 0.
2
Since e−x is never zero, we have

4x2 − 2 = 0
1
x2 =
2
√
x = ±1/ 2.
√ √
There are exactly two inflection points, at x = 1/ 2 ≈ 0.707 and x = −1/ 2 ≈ −0.707.
190 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

4. We use the product rule to find f 0 (x):

f 0 (x) = (10.2x2 )(e−0.4x (−0.4)) + (20.4x)(e−0.4x ) = −4.08x2 e−0.4x + 20.4xe−0.4x .

To find the critical points, we set f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x by factoring:

−4.08x2 e−0.4x + 20.4xe−0.4x = 0

x(−4.08x + 20.4)e−0.4x = 0.

Since e−0.4x is never zero, the only two solutions to this equation are x = 0 and x = 20.4/4.08 = 5. There are exactly
two critical points, at x = 0 and at x = 5. You can sketch a graph of f (x) to check your results.
5. From the graph of f (x) in the figure below, we see that the function must have two inflection points. We calculate
f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 6x, and f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 6x − 6. Solving f 00 (x) = 0 we find that:
1
x1 = −1 and x2 = .
2
Since f 00 (x) > 0 for x < x1 , f 00 (x) < 0 for x1 < x < x2 , and f 00 (x) > 0 for x2 < x, it follows that both points are
inflection points.

4 f (x)

2  Inflection point
−2
x
Inflection point - 2
−2

6. We have
g 0 (x) = e−x − xe−x = (1 − x)e−x .
Hence x = 1 is the only critical point. We see that g 0 changes from positive to negative at x = 1 since e−x is always
positive, so by the first-derivative test g has a local maximum at x = 1. If we wish to use the second-derivative test, we
compute
g 00 (x) = (x − 2)e−x
and thus g 00 (1) = (−1)e−1 < 0, so again x = 1 gives a local maximum.
1
7. For h(x) = x + , we calculate
x
1
h0 (x) = 1 − 2
x
and so the critical points of h are at x = ±1. Now
2
h00 (x) =
x3
so h00 (1) = 2 > 0 and x = 1 gives a local minimum. On the other hand, h 00 (−1) = −2 < 0 so x = −1 gives a local
maximum.
8. (−1.4, 6.6)
6 f (x) = x3 − 6x + 1
1
x
−1
−6
(1.4, −4.6)

The graph of f above appears to be increasing for x < −1.4, decreasing for −1.4 < x < 1.4, and increasing
for x > 1.4. There is a local maximum near x = −1.4 and √ local minimum near x = 1.4. The derivative of f is
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6. Thus f 0 (x) = 0 when x2 = 2, that
√ is x = ± 2. This explains the critical√points near x = ±1.4. Since
f 0 (x) changes
√ from positive to negative at √
x = − 2, and from negative to positive at x = 2, there is a local maximum
at x = − 2 and a local minimum at x = 2.
 4.1 SOLUTIONS 191

9. The graph of f in Figure 4.4 appears to be increasing for all x, with no critical points. Since f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 6 and x2 ≥ 0
for all x, we have f 0 (x) > 0 for all x. That explains why f is increasing for all x.
(−1, 2)
f (x) = x3 + 6x + 1 2
8 f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3

x x
−1 1 −1 1

−8 −2
(1, −2)

Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5

10. The graph of f in Figure 4.5 appears to be increasing for x < −1, decreasing for −1 < x < 1 although it is flat at x = 0,
and increasing for x > 1. There are critical points at x = −1 and x = 1, and apparently also at x = 0.
Since f 0 (x) = 15x4 − 15x2 = 15x2 (x2 − 1), we have f 0 (x) = 0 at x = 0, −1, 1. Notice that although f 0 (0) = 0,
making x = 0 a critical point, there is no change in sign of f 0 (x) at x = 0; the only sign changes are at x = ±1. Thus
the graph of f must alternate increasing/decreasing for x < −1, −1 < x < 1, x > 1, just as we described.
11. The graph of f in Figure 4.6 looks like a climbing sine curve, alternately increasing and decreasing, with more time spent
increasing than decreasing. Here f 0 (x) = 1 + 2 cos x, so f 0 (x) = 0 when cos x = −1/2; this occurs when
2π 4π 8π 10π 14π 16π
x=±
,± ,± ,± ,± ,± ...
3 3 3 3 3 3
Since f 0 (x) changes sign at each of these values, the graph of f must alternate increasing/decreasing. However, the
distance between values of x for critical points alternates between (2π)/3 and (4π)/3, with f 0 (x) > 0 on the intervals
of length (4π)/3. For example, f 0 (x) > 0 on the interval (4π)/3 < x < (8π)/3. As a result, f is increasing on the
intervals of length (4π/3) and decreasing on the intervals of length (2π/3).
(8.4, 10.1)
f (x) = x + 2 sin x f (x) = ex − 10x
(2.1, 3.8) (10.5, 8.7)
x
6 x
(4.2, 2.5)

(2.3, −13.0)

Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7

12. The graph of f in Figure 4.7 appears to be decreasing for x < 2.3 (almost like a straight line for x < 0), and increasing
sharply for x > 2.3. Here f 0 (x) = ex − 10, so f 0 (x) = 0 when ex = 10, that is x = ln 10 = 2.302... This is the only
place where f 0 (x) changes sign, and it is a minimum of f . Notice that ex is small for x < 0 so f 0 (x) ≈ −10 for x < 0,
which means the graph looks like a straight line of slope −10 for x < 0. However, e x gets large quickly for x > 0, so
f 0 (x) gets large quickly for x > ln 10, meaning the graph increases sharply there.
13. The graph of f in Figure 4.8 looks like sin x for x < 0 and ex for x > 0. In particular, there are no waves for x > 0. We
have f 0 (x) = cos x + ex , and so the critical points of f occur at those values of x for which cos x = −e x . Since ex > 1
for all x > 0, we know immediately that there are no critical points at positive values of x. The specific locations of the
critical points at x < 0 must be determined numerically; the first few are x ≈ −1.7, −4.7, −7.9. For x < 0, the quantity
ex is small so that the graph looks like the graph of sin x. For x > 0, we have f 0 (x) > 0 since −1 ≤ cos x and ex > 1.
Thus, the graph is increasing for all x > 0 and there are no such waves.
(0.71, 0.43)

2
f (x) = xe−x
x
f (x) = ex + sin x

x
(−0.71, −0.43)

Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9

192 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

14. The graph of f in Figure 4.9 appears to be asymptotic to the x-axis from below for large negative x, decreasing to a local
minimum at about x = −0.71, increasing to a local maximum at about x = 0.71 (passing through the origin along the
way), and then decreasing asymptotically to the x-axis from above.
2 2 2
−x2
We have f 0 (x) = e−x + xe−x (−2x) = e−x (1 − 2x2 ). Since √e > 0 for all x, the sign of f 0 (x) is the
2 0
same as the sign of (1 − 2x ). Thus f (x) changes sign at x = ±1/ 2 ≈ ±0.71, going from negative to positive
2 2
to negative, which explains the critical points and increasing/decreasing behavior described. Note that xe −x = x/ex
2
clearly approaches 0 as x → ±∞, since ex is much larger than x when |x| is large. Thus the graph is asymptotic to the
2
x-axis as x → ±∞. Note also that the sign of f (x) = xe−x is the same as x, so f (x)√< 0 for x < 0 and f (x) > 0 for
x > 0. Since the graph√increases from x = 0 to x = 0.71 and then decreases, x = 1/ 2 is a local maximum. The local
minimum at x = −1/ 2 can be explained similarly.
15. The graph of f below appears to be decreasing for 0 < x < 0.37, and then increasing for x > 0.37. We have f 0 (x) =
ln x + x(1/x) = ln x + 1, so f 0 (x) = 0 when ln x = −1, that is, x = e−1 ≈ 0.37. This is the only place where f 0
changes sign and f 0 (1) = 1 > 0, so the graph must decrease for 0 < x < e−1 and increase for x > e−1 . Thus, there is a
local minimum at x = e−1 .
f (x) = x ln x

(0.37, −0.37)

16. (8) The graph of f (x) = x3 − 6x + 1 appears to be concave up for x > 0 and concave down for x < 0, with a point of
inflection at x = 0. This is because f 00 (x) = 6x is negative for x < 0 and positive for x > 0.
(9) Same answer as number 8.
00
(10) There appear to be three points of inflection at about x = ±0.7 3
√ and x = 0. This is because f (x) = 60x − 30x =
2
30x(2x − 1), which changes sign at x = 0 and x = ±1/ 2.
(11) There appear to be points of inflection equally spaced about 3 units apart. This is because f 00 (x) = −2 sin x, which
changes sign at x = 0, ±π, ±2π, . . ..
(12) The graph appears to be concave up for all x. This is because f 00 (x) = ex > 0 for all x.
(13) The graph appears to be concave up for all x > 0, and has almost periodic changes in concavity for x < 0. This is
because for x > 0, f 00 (x) = ex − sin x > 0, and for x < 0, since ex is small, f 00 (x) changes sign at approximately
the same values of x as sin x.
(14) There appears to be a point of inflection for some x < −0.71, for x = 0, and for some x > 0.71. This is because
2
f 0 (x) = e−x (1 − 2x2 ) so
2 2
f 00 (x) = e−x (−4x) + (1 − 2x2 )e−x (−2x)
2
= e−x (4x3 − 6x).
2
Since e−x > 0, this 00 3 2 00
p means f (x) has the same sign as (4x − 6x) = 2x(2x − 3). Thus f (x) changes sign at
x = 0 and x = ± 3/2 ≈ ±1.22.
(15) The graph appears to be concave up for all x. This is because f 0 (x) = 1 + ln x, so f 00 (x) = 1/x, which is greater
than 0 for all x > 0.
17. See Figure 4.10.

f 0 (x)
local min
local max 6
j
local max ? x
6 6
6 local max neither max
local min nor min

Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11

 4.1 SOLUTIONS 193

18. The critical points of f are zeros of f 0 . Just to the left of the first critical point f 0 > 0, so f is increasing. Immediately
to the right of the first critical point f 0 < 0, so f is decreasing. Thus, the first point must be a maximum. To the left of
the second critical point, f 0 < 0, and to its right, f 0 > 0; hence it is a minimum. On either side of the last critical point,
f 0 > 0, so it is neither a maximum nor a minimum. See the figure below. See Figure 4.11.
19. To find inflection points of the function f we must find points where f 00 changes sign. However, because f 00 is the deriva-
tive of f 0 , any point where f 00 changes sign will be a local maximum or minimum on the graph of f 0 . See Figure 4.12.

x-values of
these points give
inflection points of f
inflection points of f f 00 (x)
 ? f 0 (x)

U  U x
x

Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13

20. The inflection points of f are the points where f 00 changes sign. See Figure 4.13.

Problems

21. Differentiating using the product rule gives

f 0 (x) = 3x2 (1 − x)4 − 4x3 (1 − x)3 = x2 (1 − x)3 (3(1 − x) − 4x) = x2 (1 − x)3 (3 − 7x).

The critical points are the solutions to

f 0 (x) = x2 (1 − x)3 (3 − 7x) = 0

3
x = 0, 1, .
7
For x < 0, since 1 − x > 0 and 3 − 7x > 0, we have f 0 (x) > 0.
For 0 < x < 73 , since 1 − x > 0 and 3 − 7x > 0, we have f 0 (x) > 0.
For 73 < x < 1, since 1 − x > 0 and 3 − 7x < 0, we have f 0 (x) < 0.
For 1 < x, since 1 − x < 0 and 3 − 7x < 0, we have f 0 (x) > 0.
Thus, x = 0 is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum; x = 3/7 is a local maximum; x = 1 is a local
minimum.
22. By the product rule
dxm (1 − x)n
f 0 (x) = = mxm−1 (1 − x)n − nxm (1 − x)n−1
dt
= xm−1 (1 − x)n−1 (m(1 − x) − nx)
= xm−1 (1 − x)n−1 (m − (m + n)x).

We have f 0 (x) = 0 at x = 0, x = 1, and x = m/(m + n), so these are the three critical points of f .
We can classify the critical points by determining the sign of f 0 (x).
If x < 0, then f 0 (x) has the same sign as (−1)m−1 : negative if m is even, positive if m is odd.
If 0 < x < m/(m + n), then f 0 (x) is positive.
If m/(m + n) < x < 1, then f 0 (x) is negative.
If 1 < x, then f 0 (x) has the same sign as (−1)n : positive if n is even, negative if n is odd.
If m is even, then f 0 (x) changes from negative to positive at x = 0, so f has a local minimum at x = 0.
If m is odd, then f 0 (x) is positive to both the left and right of 0, so x = 0 is an inflection point of f .
At x = m/(m + n), the derivative f 0 (x) changes from positive to negative, so x = m/(m + n) is a local maximum
of f .
If n is even, then f 0 (x) changes from negative to positive at x = 1, so f has a local minimum at x = 1. If n is odd,
then f 0 (x) is negative to both the left and right of 1, so x = 1 is an inflection point of f .
194 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

23. A function may have any number of critical points or none at all. (See Figures 4.14–4.16.)

Critical points

? ?
1
x x
?
Critical point −1
x

Figure 4.14: A quadratic: Figure 4.15: f (x) = x3 + x + 1: Figure 4.16: f (x) = sin x:
One critical point No critical points Infinitely many critical points

24. (a) A critical point occurs when f 0 (x) = 0. Since f 0 (x) changes sign between x = 2 and x = 3, between x = 6 and
x = 7, and between x = 9 and x = 10, we expect critical points at around x = 2.5, x = 6.5, and x = 9.5.
(b) Since f 0 (x) goes from positive to negative at x ≈ 2.5, a local maximum should occur there. Similarly, x ≈ 6.5 is a
local minimum and x ≈ 9.5 a local maximum.
25. (a) It appears that this function has a local maximum at about x = 1, a local minimum at about x = 4, and a local
maximum at about x = 8.
(b) The table now gives values of the derivative, so critical points occur where f 0 (x) = 0. Since f 0 is continuous, this
occurs between 2 and 3, so there is a critical point somewhere around 2.5. Since f 0 is positive for values less than
2.5 and negative for values greater than 2.5, it appears that f has a local maximum at about x = 2.5. Similarly, it
appears that f has a local minimum at about x = 6.5 and another local maximum at about x = 9.5.
26. (a) Since P = 1/(1 + 10e−t ) = (1 + 10e−t )−1 , we have
dP 10e−t
= −(1 + 10e−t )−2 · (−10e−t ) =
dt (1 + 10e−t )2
d2 P 10e−t (10e−t − 1)
= −10e−t (1 + 10e−t )−2 + 10e−t (−2(1 + 10e−t )−3 · (−10e−t ) = .
dt 2 (1 + 10e−t )3
(b) See Figures 4.17 and 4.18.

P
L d2 P/dt2

t0
t

t
t0

Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18

27. First, we wish to have f 0 (6) = 0, since f (6) should be a local minimum:
f 0 (x) = 2x + a = 0
a
x=− =6
2
a = −12.
Next, we need to have f (6) = −5, since the point (6, −5) is on the graph of f (x). We can substitute a = −12 into our
equation for f (x) and solve for b:
f (x) = x2 − 12x + b
f (6) = 36 − 72 + b = −5
b = 31.
2
Thus, f (x) = x − 12x + 31.
 4.1 SOLUTIONS 195

28. We wish to have f 0 (3) = 0. Differentiating to find f 0 (x) and then solving f 0 (3) = 0 for a gives:
f 0 (x) = x(aeax ) + 1(eax ) = eax (ax + 1)
f 0 (3) = e3a (3a + 1) = 0
3a + 1 = 0
1
a=− .
3
Thus, f (x) = xe−x/3 .
29. Using the product rule on the function f (x) = axebx , we have f 0 (x) = aebx + abxebx = aebx (1 + bx). We want
f ( 13 ) = 1, and since this is to be a maximum, we require f 0 ( 13 ) = 0. These conditions give

f (1/3) = a(1/3)eb/3 = 1,
f 0 (1/3) = aeb/3 (1 + b/3) = 0.
Since ae(1/3)b is non-zero, we can divide both sides of the second equation by ae (1/3)b to obtain 0 = 1 + 3b . This
implies b = −3. Plugging b = −3 into the first equation gives us a( 13 )e−1 = 1, or a = 3e. How do we know we have
a maximum at x = 31 and not a minimum? Since f 0 (x) = aebx (1 + bx) = (3e)e−3x (1 − 3x), and (3e)e−3x is always
positive, it follows that f 0 (x) > 0 when x < 31 and f 0 (x) < 0 when x > 31 . Since f 0 is positive to the left of x = 31 and
negative to the right of x = 13 , f ( 13 ) is a local maximum.
30. Figure 4.19 contains the graph of f (x) = x2 + cos x.
y

8 15
g(x) = x2
f (x) = x2 + cos x 10
4
N
5  f (x) = x2 + cos x

x x
−2 2 −4 −2 2 4

Figure 4.19 Figure 4.20

The graph looks like a parabola with no waves because f 00 (x) = 2 − cos x, which is always positive. Thus, the graph
of f is concave up everywhere; there are no waves. If you plot the graph of f (x) together with the graph of g(x) = x 2 ,
you see that the graph of f does wave back and forth across the graph of g, but never enough to change the concavity of
f . See Figure 4.20.
2000
31. (a) From the graph of P (t) = in Figure 4.21, we see that the population levels off at about 2000 rabbits.
1 + e(5.3−0.4t)
Population of rabbits
2000

1500

1000

500

Years since 1774

10 20 30 40

Figure 4.21

(b) The population appears to have been growing fastest when there were about 1000 rabbits, about 13 years after Captain
Cook left them there.
(c) The rabbits reproduce quickly, so their population initially grew very rapidly. Limited food and space availability and
perhaps predators on the island probably account for the population being unable to grow past 2000.
196 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

32. (a) Since the volume of water in the container is proportional to its depth, and the volume is increasing at a constant rate,

d(t) = Depth at time t = Kt,

where K is some positive constant. So the graph is linear, as shown in Figure 4.22. Since initially no water is in the
container, we have d(0) = 0, and the graph starts from the origin.

depth of water
depth of water

d(t) d(t)

slope = K

t t

Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23

(b) As time increases, the additional volume needed to raise the water level by a fixed amount increases. Thus, although
the depth, d(t), of water in the cone at time t, continues to increase, it does so more and more slowly. This means
d0 (t) is positive but decreasing, i.e., d(t) is concave down. See Figure 4.23.
33. See Figure 4.24.

depth of water depth of water

time at which water

reaches corner of vase
time at which water reaches
widest part of urn

time time

Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25

34. See Figure 4.25.

35. From the first condition, we get that x = 2 is a local minimum for f . From the second condition, it follows that x = 4 is
an inflection point. A possible graph is shown in Figure 4.26.

Point of inflection

Local min
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 4.26
 4.1 SOLUTIONS 197

36. Since f is differentiable everywhere, f 0 must be zero (not undefined) at any critical points; thus, f 0 (3) = 0. Since f has
exactly one critical point, f 0 may change sign only at x = 3. Thus f is always increasing or always decreasing for x < 3
and for x > 3. Using the information in parts (a) through (d), we determine whether x = 3 is a local minimum, local
maximum, or neither.
(a) x = 3 is a local maximum because f (x) is increasing when x < 3 and decreasing when x > 3. See Figure 4.27.

3
3

Figure 4.27 Figure 4.28

(b) x = 3 is a local minimum because f (x) heads to infinity to either side of x = 3. See Figure 4.28.
(c) x = 3 is neither a local minimum nor maximum, as f (1) < f (2) < f (4) < f (5). See Figure 4.29.

1
x
3 3

Figure 4.29 Figure 4.30

(d) x = 3 is a local minimum because f (x) is decreasing to the left of x = 3 and must increase to the right of x = 3, as
f (3) = 1 and eventually f (x) must become close to 3. See Figure 4.30.
37. (a) (b)
A
A f D
D B
B g
x
x
C
C
E E
38. Neither B nor C is 0 where A has its maxima and minimum. Therefore neither B nor C is the derivative of A, so A = f 00 .
We can see B could be the derivative of C because where C has a maximum, B is 0. However, C is not the derivative of
B because B is decreasing for some x-values and C is never negative. Thus, C = f , B = f 0 , and A = f 00 .
39. A has zeros where B has maxima and minima, so A could be a derivative of B. This is confirmed by comparing intervals
on which B is increasing and A is positive. (They are the same.) So, C is either the derivative of A or the derivative of C is
B. However, B does not have a zero at the point where C has a minimum, so B cannot be the derivative of C. Therefore,
C is the derivative of A. So B = f , A = f 0 , and C = f 00 .
40. Since the derivative of an even function is odd and the derivative of an odd function is even, f and f 00 are either both odd
or both even, and f 0 is the opposite. Graphs I and III represent even functions; II represents an odd function, so II is f 0 .
Since the maxima and minima of II occur where I crosses the x-axis, I must be the derivative of f 0 , that is, f 00 . In addition,
the maxima and minima of III occur where II crosses the x-axis, so III is f .
41. Since the derivative of an even function is odd and the derivative of an odd function is even, f and f 00 are either both
odd or both even, and f 0 is the opposite. Graphs I and II represent odd functions; III represents an even function, so III
is f 0 . Since the maxima and minima of III occur where I crosses the x-axis, I must be the derivative of f 0 , that is, f 00 . In
addition, the maxima and minima of II occur where III crosses the x-axis, so II is f .
198 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

42. See Figure 4.31.

y y y 0 < 0 everywhere
y0 = 0
00
y 00 = 0 y 00
=0 y =0 0
y =0 y 00 = 0 y 00 = 0

y = f (x)

y0 > 0 y0 > 0 y0 > 0 y0 < 0

y 00 < 0 y 00 > 0 y 00 < 0 y 00 < 0
y 00 > 0 y 00 < 0 y 00 > 0 y 00 < 0

y = f (x)

x x
x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 x3

Figure 4.31 Figure 4.32

43. See Figure 4.32.

44. See Figure 4.33.

y
y 0 , y 00 undefined y0 = 0 y
y = f (x)

y0 > 0 y0 < 0 y0 > 0

y 00 > 0 y 00 > 0 y 00 > 0
y0 = 2 y0 > 0
y = f (x) y 00 = 0 y 00 > 0

x x
x1 x2 x1

Figure 4.33 Figure 4.34

45. See Figure 4.34.

46. (a) This is one of many possible graphs.

(b) Since f must have a bump between each pair of zeros, f could have at most four zeros.
(c) f could well have no zeros at all. To see this, consider the graph of the above function shifted vertically downward.
(d) f must have at least two inflection points. Since f has 3 maxima or minima, it has 3 critical points. Consequently f 0
will have 3 corresponding zeros. Between each consecutive pair of these zeroes f 0 must have a local maximum or
minimum. Thus f 0 will have one local maximum and one local minimum, which implies that f 00 will have two zeros.
These values, where the second derivative is zero, correspond to points of inflection on the graph of f .
(e) The 3 critical points are zeros of f 0 , so degree(f 0 ) ≥ 3. Thus degree(f ) ≥ 4.
(f) For example:
f (x) = −(x + 1)(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 5)
will look something like the graph in part (a). Many other answers are possible.
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 199

47. (a) When a number grows larger, its reciprocal grows smaller. Therefore, since f is increasing near x 0 , we know that
g (its reciprocal) must be decreasing. Another argument can be made using derivatives. We know that (since f is
0
increasing) f 0 (x) > 0 near x0 . We also know (by the chain rule) that g 0 (x) = (f (x)−1 )0 = − ff(x) (x)
2 . Since both
0 0
2
f (x) and f (x) are positive, this means g (x) is negative, which in turn means g(x) is decreasing near x = x0 .
(b) Since f has a local maximum near x1 , f (x) increases as x nears x1 , and then f (x) decreases as x exceeds x1 . Thus
the reciprocal of f , g, decreases as x nears x1 and then increases as x exceeds x1 . Thus g has a local minimum at
0
x = x1 . To put it another way, since f has a local maximum at x = x1 , we know f 0 (x1 ) = 0. Since g 0 (x) = − ff(x) (x)
2,
0 0 0 0 0
g (x1 ) = 0. To the left of x1 , f (x1 ) is positive, so g (x) is negative. To the right of x1 , f (x1 ) is negative, so g (x)
is positive. Therefore, g has a local minimum at x1 .
(c) Since f is concave down at x2 , we know f 00 (x2 ) < 0. We also know (from above) that
 
2f 0 (x2 )2 f 00 (x2 ) 1 2f 0 (x2 )2
g 00 (x2 ) = 3
− = − f 00 (x2 ) .
f (x2 ) f (x2 )2 f (x2 )2 f (x2 )
Since f (x12 )2 > 0, 2f 0 (x2 )2 > 0, and f (x2 ) > 0 (as f is assumed to be everywhere positive), we see that
00
g (x2 ) is positive. Thus g is concave up at x2 .
Note that for the first two parts of the problem, we did not need to require f to be positive (only non-zero).
However, it was necessary here.
48. (a) Since f 00 (x) > 0 and g 00 (x) > 0 for all x, then f 00 (x) + g 00 (x) > 0 for all x, so f (x) + g(x) is concave up for all x.
(b) Nothing can be concluded about the concavity of (f + g)(x). For example, if f (x) = ax 2 and g(x) = bx2 with
a > 0 and b < 0, then (f + g)00 (x) = a + b. So f + g is either always concave up, always concave down, or a
straight line, depending on whether a > |b|, a < |b|, or a = |b|. More generally, it is even possible that (f + g)(x)
may have one or more changes in concavity.
(c) It is possible to have infinitely many changes in concavity. Consider f (x) = x 2 + cos x and g(x) = −x2 . Since
f 00 (x) = 2 − cos x, we see that f (x) is concave up for all x. Clearly g(x) is concave down for all x. However,
f (x) + g(x) = cos x, which changes concavity an infinite number of times.

Solutions for Section 4.2

Exercises

1. The line of slope m through the point (x0 , y0 ) has equation

y − y0 = m(x − x0 ),

so the line we want is

y − 0 = 2(x − 5)
y = 2x − 10.

2. We want a function of the form y = a(x − h)2 + k, with a < 0 because the parabola opens downward. Since (h, k) is the
vertex, we must take h = 2, k = 5, but we can take any negative value of a. Figure 4.35 shows the graph with a = −1,
namely y = −(x − 2)2 + 5.

y (2, 5)

Figure 4.35: Graph of y = −(x − 2)2 + 5

200 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

3. A parabola with x-intercepts ±1 has an equation of the form

y = k(x − 1)(x + 1).

Substituting the point x = 0, y = 3 gives

3 = k(−1)(1) so k = −3.

Thus, the equation we want is

y = −3(x − 1)(x + 1)
y = −3x2 + 3.

4. The equation of the whole circle is

x2 + y 2 = 5 2 ,
so the top half is p
y= 25 − x2 .
5. The equation of the whole circle is √
x2 + y 2 = ( 2)2 ,
so the bottom half is p
y=− 2 − x2 .
6. A circle with center (h, k) and radius r has equation (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Thus h = −1, k = 2, and r = 3, giving

(x + 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 9.

Solving for y, and taking the positive square root gives the top half, so

(y − 2)2 = 9 − (x + 1)2
p
y = 2+ 9 − (x + 1)2 .

See Figure 4.36.

 3 -
(−1, 2)

x
p
Figure 4.36: Graph of y = 2 + 9 − (x + 1)2

7. Since the horizontal asymptote is y = 5, we know a = 5. The value of b can be any number. Thus y = 5(1 − e −bx ) for
any b > 0.
8. Since the vertical asymptote is x = 2, we have b = −2. The fact that the horizontal asymptote is y = −5 gives a = −5.
So
−5x
y= .
x−2
9. Since the maximum is y = 2 and the minimum is y = 1.5, the amplitude is A = (2 − 1.5)/2 = 0.25. Between
the maximum and the minimum, the x-value changes by 10. There is half a period between a maximum and the next
minimum, so the period is 20. Thus
2π π
= 20 so B= .
B 10
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 201

The mid-line is y = C = (2 + 1.5)/2 = 1.75. Figure 4.37 shows a graph of the function
 
πx
y = 0.25 sin + 1.75.
10

y (5, 2)

y = 1.75

(15, 1.5)

x
5 10 15

Figure 4.37: Graph of y = 0.25 sin(πx/10) + 1.75

2
10. Since the maximum is on the y-axis, a = 0. At that point, y = be −0 /2
= b, so b = 3.
2
11. The maximum of y = e −(x−a) /b
occurs at x = a. (This is because the exponent −(x − a)2 /b is zero when x = a and
negative for all other x-values. The same result can be obtained by taking derivatives.) Thus we know that a = 2.
Points of inflection occur where d2 y/dx2 changes sign, that is, where d2 y/dx2 = 0. Differentiating gives
dy 2(x − 2) −(x−2)2 /b
=− e
dx b
 
2
d y 2 −(x−2)2 /b 4(x − 2)2 −(x−2)2 /b 2 −(x−2)2 /b 2 2
= − e + e = e −1 + (x − 2) .
dx2 b b2 b b
2
Since e−(x−2) /b
is never zero, d2 y/dx2 = 0 where
2
−1 + (x − 2)2 = 0.
b
We know d2 y/dx2 = 0 at x = 1, so substituting x = 1 gives
2
−1 + (1 − 2)2 = 0.
b
Solving for b gives
2
−1 + =0
b
b = 2.

Since a = 2, the function is

2
y = e−(x−2) /2
.
You can check that at x = 2, we have
d2 y 2
= e−0 (−1 + 0) < 0
dx2 2
so the point x = 2 does indeed give a maximum. See Figure 4.38.

y
 Max at x = 2

Point of inflection -  Point of inflection

at x = 1 at x = 3

x
1 2 3
2
Figure 4.38: Graph of y = e−(x−2) /2
202 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

12. Differentiating y = axb ln x, we have

dy 1
= abxb−1 ln x + axb · = axb−1 (b ln x + 1).
dx x
Since the maximum occurs at x = e2 , we know that
a(e2 )b−1 (b ln(e2 ) + 1) = 0.
Since a 6= 0 and (e2 )b−1 6= 0 for all b, we have
b ln(e2 ) + 1 = 0.
Since ln(e2 ) = 2, the equation becomes
2b + 1 = 0
1
b=− .
2
Thus y = ax−1/2 ln x. When x = e2 , we know y = 6e−1 , so
y = a(e2 )−1/2 ln e2 = ae−1 (2) = 6e−1
a = 3.
Thus y = 3x−1/2 ln x. To check that x = e2 gives a local maximum, we differentiate twice
dy 3 1 3
= − x−3/2 ln x + 3x−1/2 · = − x−3/2 ln x + 3x−3/2 ,
dx 2 x 2
d2 y 9 −5/2 3 −3/2 1 3
= x ln x − x · − · 3x−5/2
dx2 4 2 x 2
9 −5/2 −5/2 3 −5/2
= x ln x − 6x = x (3 ln x − 8).
4 4
At x = e2 , since ln(e2 ) = 2, we have a maximum because
d2 y 3
3
2
= (e2 )−5/2 3 ln(e2 ) − 8 = e−5 (3 · 2 − 8) < 0.
dx 4 4
See Figure 4.39.
y y

(e2 , 6e−1 )

x
1 5 7
x
20 60 100

Figure 4.39: Graph of y = 3x−1/2 ln x Figure 4.40: Graph of y = (x − 1)(x − 5)(x − 7)

13. A cubic polynomial of the form y = a(x − 1)(x − 5)(x − 7) has the correct intercepts for any value of a 6= 0. Figure 4.40
shows the graph with a = 1, namely y = (x − 1)(x − 5)(x − 7).
14. Since the x3 term has coefficient of 1, the cubic polynomial is of the form y = x3 + ax2 + bx + c. We now find a, b, and
c. Differentiating gives
dy
= 3x2 + 2ax + b.
dx
The derivative is 0 at local maxima and minima, so


dy 
 = 3(1)2 + 2a(1) + b = 3 + 2a + b = 0
dx 
x=1

dy 
 = 3(3)2 + 2a(3) + b = 27 + 6a + b = 0
dx 
x=3
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 203

Subtracting the first equation from the second and solving for a and b gives

24 + 4a = 0 so a = −6
b = −3 − 2(−6) = 9.

Since the y-intercept is 5, the cubic is

y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 5.
Since the coefficient of x3 is positive, x = 1 is the maximum and x = 3 is the minimum. See Figure 4.41. To confirm
that x = 1 gives a maximum and x = 3 gives a minimum, we calculate

d2 y
= 6x + 2a = 6x − 12.
dx2
d2 y
At x = 1, = −6 < 0, so we have a maximum.
dx2
d2 y
At x = 3, = 6 > 0, so we have a minimum.
dx2

y y

(−1, 4) (1, 4)

x x
1 3

Figure 4.41: Graph of y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 5 Figure 4.42: Graph of y = −x4 + 2x2 + 3

15. Since the graph of the quartic polynomial is symmetric about the y-axis, the quartic must have only even powers and be
of the form
y = ax4 + bx2 + c.
The y-intercept is 3, so c = 3. Differentiating gives
dy
= 4ax3 + 2bx.
dx
Since there is a maximum at (1, 4), we have dy/dx = 0 if x = 1, so

4a(1)3 + 2b(1) = 4a + 2b = 0 so b = −2a.

The fact that dy/dx = 0 if x = −1 gives us the same relationship

−4a − 2b = 0 so b = −2a.

We also know that y = 4 if x = ±1, so

a(1)4 + b(1)2 + 3 = a + b + 3 = 4 so a + b = 1.

Solving for a and b gives

a − 2a = 1 so a = −1 and b = 2.
2 2
Finding d y/dx so that we can check that x = ±1 are maxima, not minima, we see

d2 y
= 12ax2 + 2b = −12x2 + 4.
dx2
d2 y
Thus = −8 < 0 for x = ±1, so x = ±1 are maxima. See Figure 4.42.
dx2
204 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Problems

16. (a) Let p(x) = x3 − ax, and suppose a < 0. Then p0 (x) = 3x2 − a > 0 for all x, so p(x)pis always increasing.
p
(b) Now suppose a > 0. We have p0 (x) = 3x2 − a = 0 when x2 = a/3, i.e., when x = a/3 and x = − a/3. We
p p p
also have p00 (x) = 6x; so x = a/3 is a local minimum since 6 a/3 > 0, and x = − a/3 is a local maximum
p
since −6 a/3 < 0.
(c) Case 1: a < 0
In this case, p(x) is always increasing. We have p00 (x) = 6x > 0 if x > 0, meaning the graph is concave up for
x > 0. Furthermore, 6x < 0 if x < 0, meaning the graph is concave down for x < 0. Thus, x = 0 is an inflection
point.
Case 2: a > 0
We have
q  q 3 q √ √ √
a a a a a a a 2a a
p = −a = √ − √ = − √ < 0,
3 3 3 27 3 3 3
 q  √ √ q 
a a a a a a
and p − = − √ + √ = −p > 0.
3 27 3 3
 pa
 = 0 if |x| = p 3 ;
p0 (x) = 3x2 − a >0 if |x| > a
;
 p a3
<0 if |x| < 3
.
p p p p
So p is increasing for x < − a/3, decreasing for − a/3 < x < a/3, and increasing for x > a/3. Since
p00 (x) = 6x, the graph of p(x) is concave down for values of x less than zero and concave up for values greater than
zero. Graphs of p(x) for a < 0 and a > 0 are found in Figures 4.43 and 4.44, respectively.

x3 − ax x3 − ax

p
a/3
x x
p
− a/3

Figure 4.43: p(x) for a < 0 Figure 4.44: p(x) for a > 0

17. (a) We have p0 (x) = 3x2 − a, so

p increasing p decreasing p increasing

pa pa
x=− 3
x= 3

pa √
−a a
√
a a
√
Local maximum: p(− )= √ + √ = + 2a√
a
pa 3 27
p 3 √ 3 3
Local minimum: p( 3 ) = −p(− a3 ) = − 2a √
3 3
a

(b) Increasing the value of a moves the critical points of p away from the y-axis, and moves the critical values away from
the x-axis. Thus, the “bumps” get further apart and higher. At the same time, increasing the value of a spreads the
zeros of p further apart (while leaving the one at the origin fixed).
(c) See Figure 4.45
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 205

a=1 a=3

a=5

x
−2a −a

−a2

Figure 4.45 Figure 4.46

18. We have f (x) = x2 + 2ax = x(x + 2a) = 0 when x = 0 or x = −2a.

(
=0 when x = −a
f 0 (x) = 2x + 2a = 2(x + a) >0 when x > −a
<0 when x < −a.

See Figure 4.46. Furthermore, f 00 (x) = 2, so that f (−a) = −a2 is a global minimum, and the graph is always concave
up. Increasing |a| stretches the graph horizontally. Also, the critical value (the value of f at the critical point) drops
further beneath the x-axis. Letting a < 0 would reflect the graph shown through the y-axis.
19. (a) See Figure 4.47.
(b) The function f (x) = x + a sin x is increasing for all x if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x. We have f 0 (x) = 1 + a cos x. Because
cos x varies between −1 and 1, we have 1 + a cos x > 0 for all x if −1 < a < 1 but not otherwise. When a = 1,
the function f (x) = x + sin x is increasing for all x, as is f (x) = x − sin x, obtained when a = −1. Thus f (x) is
increasing for all x if −1 ≤ a ≤ 1.

a = 0.5 a=1
10 100 a = 20
a=3

x x
−10 10 −10 10

−10 −100

Figure 4.47 Figure 4.48

20. (a) See Figure 4.48.

(b) The function f (x) = x2 + a sin x is concave up for all x if f 00 (x) > 0 for all x. We have f 00 (x) = 2 − a sin x.
Because sin x varies between −1 and 1, we have 2 − a sin x > 0 for all x if −2 < a < 2 but not otherwise. Thus
f (x) is concave up for all x if −2 < a < 2.
21. Since lim N = a, we have a = 200,000. Note that while N (t) will never actually reach 200,000, it will become
t→∞
arbitrarily close to 200,000. Since N represents the number of people, it makes sense to round up long before t → ∞.
When t = 1, we have N = 0.1(200,000) = 20,000 people, so plugging into our formula gives


N (1) = 20,000 = 200,000 1 − e−k(1) .

Solving for k gives

0.1 = 1 − e−k
e−k = 0.9
k = − ln 0.9 ≈ 0.105.
206 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

22. T (t) = the temperature at time t = a(1 − e−kt ) + b.

(a) Since at time t = 0 the yam is at 20◦ C, we have


T (0) = 20◦ = a 1 − e0 + b = a(1 − 1) + b = b.

Thus b = 20◦ C. Now, common sense tells us that after a period of time, the yam will heat up to about 200 ◦ , or oven
temperature. Thus the temperature T should approach 200◦ as the time t grows large:

lim T (t) = 200◦ C = a(1 − 0) + b = a + b.

t→∞

Since a + b = 200◦ , and b = 20◦ C, this means a = 180◦ C.

(b) Since we’re talking about how quickly the yam is heating up, we need to look at the derivative, T 0 (t) = ake−kt :

T 0 (t) = (180)ke−kt .

We know T 0 (0) = 2◦ C/min, so

2 = (180)ke−k(0) = (180)(k).
So k = (2◦ C/min)/180◦ C = 1
90
min−1 .
23. We begin by finding the intercepts, which occur where f (x) = 0, that is
√
x−k x = 0
√ √
x( x − k) = 0
√
so x = 0 or x = k, x = k 2 .
So 0 and k 2 are the x-intercepts. Now we find the location of the critical points by setting f 0 (x) equal to 0:
 
1 −(1/2) k
f 0 (x) = 1 − k x = 1 − √ = 0.
2 2 x
This means
k √ 1 1 2
1= √ , so x = k, and x= k .
2 x 2 4
2
We can use the second derivative to verify that x = k4 is a local minimum. f 00 (x) = 1 + 4xk3/2 is positive for all x > 0.
So the critical point, x = 14 k 2 , is 1/4 of the way between the x-intercepts, x = 0 and x = k 2 . Since f 00 (x) = 14 kx−3/2 ,
f 00 ( 14 k 2 ) = 2/k 2 > 0, this critical point is a minimum.
24. Graphs of y = xe−bx for b = 1, 2, 3, 4 are shown below. All the graphs rise at first, passing through the origin, reach a
maximum and then decay toward 0. If b is small, the graph rises longer and to a higher maximum before the decay begins.

y
0.5
b=1

b=2
b=3


6
x
b=4 1 3

25. Since
dy
= (1 − bx)e−bx ,
dx
we see
dy 1
= 0 at x= .
dx b
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 207

The critical point has coordinates (1/b, 1/(be)). If b is small, the x and y-coordinates of the critical point are both large,
indicating a higher maximum further to the right. See figure below.

y
1
be y = xe−bx

x
1
b

p p
26. (a) f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 2ax = 2x(2x2 + a); so x = 0 and x = ± −a/2 (if ± −a/2 is real, i.e. if −a/2 ≥ 0) are
critical points.
(b) x = 0 is a critical point for any value of a. In order to guarantee that x = 0 is the only critical point, the factor
2x2 + a should not have a root other than possibly x = 0. This means a ≥ 0, since 2x 2 + a has only one root (x = 0)
for a = 0, and no roots for a > 0. There is no restriction on the constant b.
Now f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 2a and f 00 (0) = 2a.
If a > 0, then by the second derivative test, f (0) is a local minimum.
If a = 0, then f (x) = x4 + b, which has a local minimum at x = 0.
So x = 0 is a local minimum when a ≥ 0.
(c) Again, b will have no effect on the location of the critical points. In order for f 0 (x) = 2x(2x2 + a) to have three
different roots, the constant a has to be negative. Let a = −2c2 , for some c > 0. Then
f 0 (x) = 4x(x2 − c2 ) = 4x(x − c)(x + c). p
The critical points of f are x = 0 and x = ±c = ± −a/2.
To the left of x = −c, f 0 (x) < 0.
Between x = −c and x = 0, f 0 (x) > 0.
Between x = 0 and x = c, f 0 (x) < 0.
To the right of x = c, f 0 (x) > 0.
So, f (−c) and f (c) are local minima and f (0) is a local maximum.
(d) For a ≥ 0, there is exactly one critical point, x = 0. For a < 0 there are exactly three different critical points. These
exhaust all the possibilities. (Notice that the value of b is irrelevant here.)
27. Since f 0 (x) = abe−bx , we have f 0 (x) > 0 for all x. Therefore, f is increasing for all x. Since f 00 (x) = −ab2 e−bx , we
have f 00 (x) < 0 for all x. Therefore, f is concave down for all x.
28. (a) The graph of r has a vertical asymptote if the denominator is zero. Since (x − b) 2 is nonnegative, the denominator
can only be zero if a ≤ 0. Then

a + (x − b)2 = 0
(x − b)2 = −a
√
x − b = ± −a
√
x = b ± −a.

In order for there to be a vertical asymptote, a must be less than or equal to zero. There are no restrictions on b.
(b) Differentiating gives
−1
r0 (x) = · 2(x − b),
(a + (x − b)2 )2
so r 0 = 0 when x = b. If a ≤ 0, then r 0 is undefined at the same points at which r is undefined. Thus the only critical
point is x = b. Since we want r(x) to have a maximum at x = 3, we choose b = 3. Also, since r(3) = 5, we have
1 1 1
r(3) = = =5 so a= .
a + (3 − 3)2 a 5

29. (a) The x-intercept occurs where f (x) = 0, so

ax − x ln x = 0
x(a − ln x) = 0.
208 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Since x > 0, we must have

a − ln x = 0
ln x = a
x = ea .
(b) See Figures 4.49 and 4.50.
1
1

x
1 2 3 x
1 2 3

−1
−1
Figure 4.49: Graph of f (x) with
a = −1 Figure 4.50: Graph of f (x) with a = 1

(c) Differentiating gives f 0 (x) = a − ln x − 1. Critical points are obtained by solving

a − ln x − 1 = 0
ln x = a − 1
x = ea−1 .
Since ea−1 > 0 for all a, there is no restriction on a. Now,
f (ea−1 ) = aea−1 − ea−1 ln(ea−1 ) = aea−1 − (a − 1)ea−1 = ea−1 ,
so the coordinates of the critical point are (ea−1 , ea−1 ). From the graphs, we see that this critical point is a local
maximum; this can be confirmed using the second derivative:
1
f 00 (x) = − <0 for x = ea−1 .
x
30. (a) Figures 4.51- 4.54 show graphs of f (x) = x2 + cos(kx) for various values of k. For k = 0.5 and k = 1, the graphs
look like parabolas. For k = 3, there is some waving in the parabola, which becomes more noticeable if k = 5. The
waving begins to happen at about k = 1.5.

x x x x

Figure 4.51: k = 0.5 Figure 4.52: k = 1 Figure 4.53: k = 3 Figure 4.54: k = 5

(b) Differentiating, we have

f 0 (x) = 2x − k sin(kx)
f 00 (x) = 2 − k 2 cos(kx).
√
If k 2 ≤ 2, then f 00 (x) ≥ 2 − 2 cos(kx) ≥ 0, since cos(kx) ≤ 1. Thus, the graph is always concave up if k ≤ 2.
If k 2 > 2, then f 00 (x) changes sign whenever cos(kx) = 2/k 2 , which occurs for infinitely many values of x, since
0 < 2/k 2 < 1.
(c) Since f 0 (x) = 2x − k sin(kx), we want to find all points where
2x − k sin(kx) = 0.
Since
−1 ≤ sin(kx) ≤ 1,
f 0 (x) 6= 0 if x > k/2 or x < −k/2. Thus, all the roots of f 0 (x) must be in the interval −k/2 ≤ x ≤ k/2. The roots
occur where the line y = 2x intersects the curve y = k sin(kx), and there are only a finite number of such points for
−k/2 ≤ x ≤ k/2.
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 209

31. (a) Figure 4.55 suggests that each graph decreases to a local minimum and then increases sharply. The local minimum
appears to move to the right as k increases. It appears to move up until k = 1, and then to move back down.

k=2 k=4

k=1

k = 1/2
k = 1/4
x

Figure 4.55

(b) f 0 (x) = ex − k = 0 when x = ln k. Since f 0 (x) < 0 for x < ln k and f 0 (x) > 0 for x > ln k, f is decreasing to
the left of x = ln k and increasing to the right, so f reaches a local minimum at x = ln k.
(c) The minimum value of f is
f (ln k) = eln k − k(ln k) = k − k ln k.
Since we want to maximize the expression k − k ln k, we can imagine a function g(k) = k − k ln k. To maximize
this function we simply take its derivative and find the critical points. Differentiating, we obtain
g 0 (k) = 1 − ln k − k(1/k) = − ln k.
Thus g 0 (k) = 0 when k = 1, g 0 (k) > 0 for k < 1, and g 0 (k) < 0 for k > 1. Thus k = 1 is a local maximum for
g(k). That is, the largest global minimum for f occurs when k = 1.
2
32. Let f (x) = Ae−Bx . Since
2 (x−0)2
− (1/B)
f (x) = Ae−Bx = Ae ,
(x−a)2
this is just the family of curves y = e b multiplied by a constant A. This family of curves is discussed in the text;
here, a = 0, b = B1 . When x = 0, y = Ae0 = A, so A determines the y-intercept. A also serves to flatten or stretch the
2 2
graph of e−Bx vertically. Since f 0 (x) = −2ABxe−Bx , f (x) has a critical point at x = 0. For B > 0, the graphs are
bell-shaped curves centered at x = 0, and f (0) = A is a global maximum.
2
To find the inflection points of f , we solve f 00 (x) = 0. Since f 0 (x) = −2ABxe−Bx ,
2 2
f 00 (x) = −2ABe−Bx + 4AB 2 x2 e−Bx .
2
Since e−Bx is always positive, f 00 (x) = 0 when
−2AB + 4AB 2 x2 = 0
2AB
x2 =
4AB 2
r
1
x=± .
2B
These are points of inflection, since the second derivative changes sign here. Thus for large values of B, the inflection
points are close to x = 0, and for smaller values of B the inflection points are further from x = 0. Therefore B affects
the width of the graph.
In the graphs in Figure 4.56, A is held constant, and variations in B are shown.

 Small B

 Large B
x
−Bx2
Figure 4.56: f (x) = Ae for varying B
210 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

33. (a) Let f (x) = axe−bx . To find the local maxima and local minima of f , we solve
(
= 0 if x = 1/b
0 −bx −bx −bx
f (x) = ae − abxe = ae (1 − bx) < 0 if x > 1/b
> 0 if x < 1/b.
Therefore, f is increasing (f 0 > 0) for x < 1/b and decreasing (f 0 > 0) for x > 1/b. A local maximum occurs at
x = 1/b. There are no local minima. To find the points of inflection, we write

f 00 (x) = −abe−bx + ab2 xe−bx − abe−bx

= −2abe−bx + ab2 xe−bx
= ab(bx − 2)e−bx ,
so f 00 = 0 at x = 2/b. Therefore, f is concave up for x < 2/b and concave down for x > 2/b, and the inflection
point is x = 2/b.
(b) Varying a stretches or flattens the graph but does not affect the critical point x = 1/b and the inflection point x = 2/b.
Since the critical and inflection points are depend on b, varying b will change these points, as well as the maximum
f (1/b) = a/be. For example, an increase in b will shift the critical and inflection points to the left, and also lower
the maximum value of f .
(c) y Varying a Varying b
4 a = 4
be
3 a = 3
be
a = 2 b=1
2
be
a = 1
1 b=2
be
x
x b=3
1 2
1 2

34. Graphs of y = e−ax sin(bx) for b = 1 and various values of a are shown in Figure 4.57. The parameter a controls the
amplitude of the oscillations.
y a = 0.2
a = 0.4
1 a = 0.6
a = 0.8



0 x
π 2π

−1

Figure 4.57

35. y
1
b=1

?
0 x
π 2π
6
6 6b = 2
b=3
−1 b=4
The larger the value of b, the narrower the humps and more humps per given region there are in the graph.
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 211

36. (a) The larger the value of |A|, the steeper the graph (for the same x-value).
(b) The graph is shifted horizontally by B. The shift is to the left for positive B, to the right for negative B. There is a
vertical asymptote at x = −B. See Figure 4.58.
(c) y
A = 2, B = 5
A = 20, B = 0
10
 A = 2, B = 0

−10
x
10

−10

Figure 4.58

37. (a) Since  

a2 − ax
U =b = 0 when x = a,
x2
the x-intercept is x = a. There is a vertical asymptote at x = 0 and a horizontal asymptote at U = 0.
(b) Setting dU/dx = 0, we have
   
dU 2a2 a −2a2 + ax
=b − 3 + 2 =b = 0.
dx x x x3

So the critical point is

x = 2a.
When x = 2a,  
a2 a b
U =b − =− .
4a2 2a 4
The second derivative of U is  
d2 U 6a2 2a
=b − 3 .
dx2 x4 x
When we evaluate this at x = 2a, we get
 
d2 U 6a2 2a b
=b − = > 0.
dx2 (2a)4 (2a)3 8a2

Since d2 U/dx2 > 0 at x = 2a, we see that the point (2a, −b/4) is a local minimum.
(c)
U

a 2a
x

(2a, −b/4)

38. Both U and F have asymptotes at x = 0 and the x-axis. In Problem 37 we saw that U has intercept (a, 0) and local
minimum (2a, −b/4). Differentiating U gives
 
2a2 a
F =b − 2 .
x3 x

Since  
2a2 − ax
F =b = 0 for x = 2a,
x3
212 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

F has one intercept: (2a, 0). Differentiating again to find the critical points:
   
dF 6a2 2a −6a2 + 2ax
=b − 4 + 3 =b = 0,
dx x x x4
so x = 3a. When x = 3a,  
2a2 a b
F =b − 2 =− .
27a3 9a 27a
By the first or second derivative test, x = 3a is a local minimum of F . See figure below.

U F

a 2a 3a
x

(2a, −b/4)
(3a, −b/(27a))

39. (a) The force is zero where

A B
f (r) = − + 3 =0
r2 r
Ar3 = Br 2
B
r= .
A
The vertical asymptote is r = 0 and the horizontal asymptote is the r-axis.
(b) To find critical points, we differentiate and set f 0 (r) = 0:
2A 3B
f 0 (r) = − 4 =0
r3 r
2Ar 4 = 3Br 3
3B
r= .
2A
Thus, r = 3B/(2A) is the only critical point. Since f 0 (r) < 0 for r < 3B/(2A) and f 0 (r) > 0 for r > 3B/(2A),
we see that r = 3B/(2A) is a local minimum. At that point,
 
3B A B 4A3
f =− + =− .
2A 9B 2 /4A2 27B 3 /8A3 27B 2
Differentiating again, we have
6A 12B 6
f 00 (r) = −
+ 5 = − 5 (Ar − 2B).
r4 r r
So f 00 (r) < 0 where r > 2B/A and f 00 (r) > 0 when r < 2B/A. Thus, r = 2B/A is the only point of inflection.
At that point
 
2B A B A3
f =− 2 2 + = − .
A 4B /A 8B 3 /A3 8B 2
(c)

f (r)

r
B
A
2B −A3
−4A3 ( A , 8B 2 )
( 3B
2A
, 27B 2 )
 4.2 SOLUTIONS 213

(d) (i) Increasing B means that the r-values of the zero, the minimum, and the inflection point increase, while the f (r)
values of the minimum and the point of inflection decrease in magnitude. See Figure 4.59.
(ii) Increasing A means that the r-values of the zero, the minimum, and the point of inflection decrease, while the
f (r) values of the minimum and the point of inflection increase in magnitude. See Figure 4.60.

 Small B  Large A

 Large B  Small A

r r

Figure 4.59: Increasing B Figure 4.60: Increasing A

40. For −5 ≤ x ≤ 5, we have the graphs of y = a cosh(x/a) shown below.

y
a=1
10
a=2
a=3

1
x
−5 5

Increasing the value of a makes the graph flatten out and raises the minimum value. The minimum value of y occurs
at x = 0 and is given by
   
0 e0/a + e−0/a
y = a cosh =a = a.
a 2

41. (a) The graphs are shown in Figures 4.61–4.66.

y y y

A=2
A=B=1 A = −B = 1 B=1

x x x

Figure 4.61: A > 0, B > 0 Figure 4.62: A > 0, B < 0 Figure 4.63: A > 0, B > 0
y y y

A=2
B = −1

x x x

A = −2 A = −2
B = −1 B=1

Figure 4.64: A > 0, B < 0 Figure 4.65: A < 0, B < 0 Figure 4.66: A < 0, B > 0
214 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

(b) If A and B have the same sign, the graph is U -shaped. If A and B are both positive, the graph opens upward. If A
and B are both negative, the graph opens downward.
(c) If A and B have different signs, the graph appears to be everywhere increasing (if A > 0, B < 0) or decreasing (if
A < 0, B > 0).
(d) The function appears to have a local maximum if A < 0 and B < 0, and a local minimum if A > 0 and B > 0.
To justify this, calculate the derivative
dy
= Aex − Be−x .
dx
Setting dy/dx = 0 gives

Aex − Be−x = 0
Aex = Be−x
B
e2x = .
A
This equation has a solution only if B/A is positive, that is, if A and B have the same sign. In that case,
 
B
2x = ln
A
 
1 B
x= ln .
2 A
This value of x gives the only critical point.
To determine whether the critical point is a local maximum or minimum, we use the first derivative test. Since
dy
= Aex − Be−x ,
dx
we see that:
If A > 0, B > 0, we have dy/dx > 0 for large positive x and dy/dx < 0 for large negative x, so there is a
local minimum.
If A < 0, B < 0, we have dy/dx < 0 for large positive x and dy/dx > 0 for large negative x, so there is a
local maximum.
42. (a) See Figure 4.67.

t = 0.5 t = 1.5
y t=0 t=1 t=2
R ? ?

Figure 4.67

(b) (i) For fixed t, the function represents the surface of the water at time t. The shape of the surface is a sine wave of
period 2π.
(ii) For fixed x, the function represents the vertical (up-and-down) motion of a particle at position x.
(c) For fixed t, the derivative dy/dx represents the slope of the surface of the wave at position x and time t.
(d) For fixed x, the derivative dy/dt represents the vertical velocity of a particle of water at position x and time t.
b−c·0 b
43. (a) The vertical intercept is W = Ae−e = Ae−e . There is no horizontal intercept since the exponential function
is always positive. There is a horizontal asymptote. As t → ∞, we see that e b−ct = eb /ect → 0, since t is positive.
Therefore W → Ae0 = A, so there is a horizontal asymptote at W = A.
 4.3 SOLUTIONS 215

(b) The derivative is

dW b−ct b−ct
= Ae−e (−eb−ct )(−c) = Ace−e eb−ct .
dt
Thus, dW/dt is always positive, so W is always increasing and has no critical points. The second derivative is

d2 W d b−ct b−ct d
= (Ace−e )eb−ct + Ace−e (eb−ct )
dt2 dt dt
b−ct b−ct
= Ac2 e−e eb−ct eb−ct + Ace−e (−c)eb−ct
b−ct
= Ac2 e−e eb−ct (eb−ct − 1).

Now eb−ct decreases from eb > 1 when t = 0 toward 0 as t → ∞. The second derivative changes sign from positive
to negative when eb−ct = 1, i.e., when b − ct = 0, or t = b/c. Thus the curve has an inflection point at t = b/c,
b−(b/c)c
where W = Ae−e = Ae−1 .
(c) See Figure 4.68.

W
A = 50, b = 2, c = 5

A = 50, b = 2, c = 1

A = 20, b = 2, c = 1

Figure 4.68

(d) The final size of the organism is given by the horizontal asymptote W = A. The curve is steepest at its inflection
point, which occurs at t = b/c, W = Ae−1 . Since e = 2.71828 . . . ≈ 3, the size the organism when it is growing
fastest is about A/3, one third its final size. So yes, the Gompertz growth function is useful in modeling such growth.

Solutions for Section 4.3

Exercises

1. See Figure 4.69.

Local and Local and

y y global max global max
Global and local max
8
4
6 3 Local min
Local min
4 2 Local min
2 Global and local min 1 Local and global min
x x
1 2 3 4 5 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 4.69 Figure 4.70

2. The global maximum is achieved at the two local maxima, which are at the same height. See Figure 4.70.
216 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

3. (a) Setting the derivative of p(1 − p)4 equal to 0

d
(p(1 − p)4 ) = (1 − p)4 − 4p(1 − p)3 = 0
dp
(1 − p)3 (1 − p − 4p) = 0
(1 − p)3 (1 − 5p) = 0
p = 1/5, 1.

Thus, the critical points are p = 1/5 and p = 1.

(b) Since
d2 d
(p(1 − p)4 ) = ((1 − p)4 − 4p(1 − p)3 )
dp2 dp
= −4(1 − p)3 − 4(1 − p)3 + 12p(1 − p)2
= 4(1 − p)2 (−2(1 − p) + 3p)
= 4(1 − p)2 (−2 + 5p),

substituting p = 1/5 and p = 1, we have

 
  2 
d2  4 d2 
(p(1 − p)4 ) =4 (−1) < 0 and (p(1 − p)4 ) =0
dp2  5 dp2 
p=1/5 p=1

Thus p = 1/5 is a local maximum. The second derivative test does not enable us to classify p = 1. However,
p(1 − p)4 is positive everywhere except at p = 0 and p = 1, where it is 0. Thus, p = 1 is a local minimum.
(c) The global maximum occurs at the local maximum, at p = 1/5, so
 4
1 1 44 256
Maximum = 1− = = .
5 5 55 3125
The global minimum occurs at the end points, so

Minimum = 0(1 − 0)4 = 1(1 − 1)4 = 0.

4. (a) We have f 0 (x) = 10x9 − 10 = 10(x9 − 1). This is zero when x = 1, so x = 1 is a critical point of f . For values of
x less than 1, x9 is less than 1, and thus f 0 (x) is negative when x < 1. Similarly, f 0 (x) is positive for x > 1. Thus
f (1) = −9 is a local minimum.
We also consider the endpoints f (0) = 0 and f (2) = 1004. Since f 0 (0) < 0 and f 0 (2) > 0, we see x = 0 and
x = 2 are local maxima.
(b) Comparing values of f shows that the global minimum is at x = 1, and the global maximum is at x = 2.
5. (a) f 0 (x) = 1 − 1/x. This is zero only when x = 1. Now f 0 (x) is positive when 1 < x ≤ 2, and negative when
0.1 < x < 1. Thus f (1) = 1 is a local minimum. The endpoints f (0.1) ≈ 2.4026 and f (2) ≈ 1.3069 are local
maxima.
(b) Comparing values of f shows that x = 0.1 gives the global maximum and x = 1 gives the global minimum.
6. (a) Differentiating

f (x) = sin2 x − cos x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π

f 0 (x) = 2 sin x cos x + sin x = (sin x)(2 cos x + 1)

f 0 (x) = 0 when sin x = 0 or when 2 cos x + 1 = 0. Now, sin x = 0 when x = 0 or when x = π. On the
other hand, 2 cos x + 1 = 0 when cos x = −1/2, which happens when x = 2π/3. So the critical points are x = 0,
x = 2π/3, and x = π.
Note that sin x > 0 for 0 < x < π. Also, 2 cos x + 1 < 0 if 2π/3 < x ≤ π and 2 cos x + 1 > 0 if
0 < x < 2π/3. Therefore,
2π
f 0 (x) < 0 for <x<π
3
2π
f 0 (x) > 0 for 0<x< .
3
Thus f has a local maximum at x = 2π/3 and local minima at x = 0 and x = π.
 4.3 SOLUTIONS 217

(b) We have

f (0) = [sin(0)]2 − cos(0) = −1

  h  i2
2π 2π 2π
f = sin − cos = 1.25
3 3 3
f (π) = [sin(π)]2 − cos(π) = 1.

Thus the global maximum is at x = 2π/3, and the global minimum is at x = 0.

7. This is a parabola opening downward. We find the critical points by setting g 0 (x) = 0:

g 0 (x) = 4 − 2x = 0
x = 2.

Since g 0 (x) > 0 for x < 2 and g 0 (x) < 0 for x > 2, the critical point at x = 2 is a local maximum.
As x → ±∞, the value of g(x) → −∞. Thus, the local maximum at x = 2 is a global maximum of g(2) =
4 · 2 − 22 − 5 = −1. There is no global minimum. See Figure 4.71.

2
x
−1 g(x) = 4x − x2 − 5
2 f (x) = x + 1/x

x
1

Figure 4.71 Figure 4.72

8. Differentiating gives
1
f 0 (x) = 1 − ,
x2
so the critical points satisfy
1
1− =0
x2
2
x =1
x=1 (We want x > 0).
0 0
Since f is negative for 0 < x < 1 and f is positive for x > 1, there is a local minimum at x = 1.
Since f (x) → ∞ as x → 0+ and as x → ∞, the local minimum at x = 1 is a global minimum; there is no global
maximum. See Figure 4.72. The the global minimum is f (1) = 2.
9. Differentiating using the product rule gives

g 0 (t) = 1 · e−t − te−t = (1 − t)e−t ,

so the critical point is t = 1.

Since g 0 (t) > 0 for 0 < t < 1 and g 0 (t) < 0 for t > 1, the critical point is a local maximum.
As t → ∞, the value of g(t) → 0, and as t → 0+ , the value of g(t) → 0. Thus, the local maximum at x = 1 is
a global maximum of g(1) = 1e−1 = 1/e. In addition, the value of g(t) is positive for all t > 0; it tends to 0 but never
reaches 0. Thus, there is no global minimum. See Figure 4.73.

1/e
g(t) = te−t
1 f (x) = x − ln x

t x
1 1

Figure 4.73 Figure 4.74

218 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

10. Differentiating gives

1
f 0 (x) = 1 − ,
x
so the critical points satisfy
1
1− =0
x
1
=1
x
x = 1.

Since f 0 is negative for 0 < x < 1 and f 0 is positive for x > 1, there is a local minimum at x = 1.
Since f (x) → ∞ as x → 0+ and as x → ∞, the local minimum at x = 1 is a global minimum; there is no global
maximum. See Figure 4.74. Thus, the global minimum is f (1) = 1.
11. Differentiating using the quotient rule gives

1(1 + t2 ) − t(2t) 1 − t2
f 0 (t) = = .
(1 + t2 )2 (1 + t2 )2
The critical points are the solutions to

1 − t2
=0
(1 + t2 )2
t2 = 1
t = ±1.

Since f 0 (t) > 0 for −1 < t < 1 and f 0 (t) < 0 otherwise, there is a local minimum at t = −1 and a local maximum at
t = 1.
As t → ±∞, we have f (t) → 0. Thus, the local maximum at t = 1 is a global maximum of f (1) = 1/2, and the
local minimum at t = −1 is a global minimum of f (−1) = −1/2. See Figure 4.75.

2
t
f (t) = 1+t2
1/2
−1 t
t −3π−2π −π π 2π 3π
1
−1/2 −2

Figure 4.75 Figure 4.76

12. Differentiating using the product rule gives

f 0 (t) = 2 sin t cos t · cos t − (sin2 t + 2) sin t = 0

sin t(2 cos2 t − sin2 t − 2) = 0
sin t(2(1 − sin2 t) − sin2 t − 2) = 0
sin t(−3 sin2 t) = −3 sin3 t = 0.

Thus, the critical points are where sin t = 0, so

t = 0, ±π, ±2π, ±3π, . . . .

0 3
Since f (t) = −3 sin t is negative for −π < t < 0, positive for 0 < t < π, negative for π < t < 2π, and so on, we find
that t = 0, ±2π, . . . give local minima, while t = ±π, ±3π, . . . give local maxima. Evaluating gives

f (0) = f (±2π) = (0 + 2)1 = 2

f (±π) = f (±3π) = (0 + 2)(−1) = −2.

Thus, the global maximum of f (t) is 2, occurring at t = 0, ±2π, . . ., and the global minimum of f (t) is −2, occurring at
t = ±π, ±3π, . . . . See Figure 4.76.
 4.3 SOLUTIONS 219

13. Let y = x3 − 4x2 + 4x. To locate the critical points, we solve y 0 = 0. Since y 0 = 3x2 − 8x + 4 = (3x − 2)(x − 2), the
critical points are x = 2/3 and x = 2. To find the global minimum and maximum on 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, we check the critical
points and the endpoints: y(0) = 0; y(2/3) = 32/27; y(2) = 0; y(4) = 16. Thus, the global minimum is at x = 0 and
x = 2, the global maximum is at x = 4, and 0 ≤ y ≤ 16.
2 2
14. Let y = e−x . Since y 0 = −2xe−x , y is increasing for x < 0 and decreasing for x > 0. Hence y = e 0 = 1 is a global
maximum.
When x = ±0.3, y = e−0.09 ≈ 0.9139, which is a global minimum on the given interval. Thus e −0.09 ≤ y ≤ 1 for
|x| ≤ 0.3.
15. Examination of the graph suggests that 0 ≤ x3 e−x ≤ 2. The lower bound of 0 is the best possible lower bound since
f (0) = (0)3 e−0 = 0.
To find the best possible upper bound, we find the critical points. Differentiating, using the product rule, yields
f 0 (x) = 3x2 e−x − x3 e−x
Setting f 0 (x) = 0 and factoring gives
3x2 e−x − x3 e−x = 0
x2 e−x (3 − x) = 0
So the critical points are x = 0 and x = 3. Note that f 0 (x) < 0 for x > 3 and f 0 (x) > 0 for x < 3, so f (x) has a local
maximum at x = 3. Examination of the graph tells us that this is the global maximum. So 0 ≤ x 3 e−x ≤ f (3).
f (3) = 33 e−3 ≈ 1.34425
So 0 ≤ x3 e−x ≤ 33 e−3 ≈ 1.34425 are the best possible bounds for the function.

33 e−3 ≈ 1.34425
1

f (x) = x3 e−x

Figure 4.77

16. The graph of y = x + sin x in Figure 4.78 suggests that the function is nondecreasing over the entire interval. You can
confirm this by looking at the derivative:
y 0 = 1 + cos x
y

2π

π
y = x + sin x

x
−π π 2π

−π

Figure 4.78: Graph of y = x + sin x

Since cos x ≥ −1, we have y 0 ≥ 0 everywhere, so y never decreases. This means that a lower bound for y is 0 (its
value at the left endpoint of the interval) and an upper bound is 2π (its value at the right endpoint). That is, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π:
0 ≤ y ≤ 2π.
These are the best bounds for y over the interval.
220 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

17. Let y = ln(1 + x). Since y 0 = 1/(1 + x), y is increasing for all x ≥ 0. The lower bound is at x = 0, so, ln(1) = 0 ≤ y.
There is no upper bound.
18. Let y = ln(1 + x2 ). Then y 0 = 2x/(1 + x2 ). Since the denominator is always positive, the sign of y 0 is determined by
the numerator 2x. Thus y 0 > 0 when x > 0, and y 0 < 0 when x < 0, and we have a local (and global) minimum for y
at x = 0. Since y(−1) = ln 2 and y(2) = ln 5, the global maximum is at x = 2. Thus 0 ≤ y ≤ ln 5, or (in decimals)
0 ≤ y < 1.61. (Note that our upper bound has been rounded up from 1.6094.)

Problems

19. We want to maximize the height, y, of the grapefruit above the ground, as shown in the figure below. Using the derivative
we can find exactly when the grapefruit is at the highest point. We can think of this in two ways. By common sense, at the
peak of the grapefruit’s flight, the velocity, dy/dt, must be zero. Alternately, we are looking for a global maximum of y,
so we look for critical points where dy/dt = 0. We have
dy −50
= −32t + 50 = 0 and so t= ≈ 1.56 sec.
dt −32
Thus, we have the time at which the height is a maximum; the maximum value of y is then

y ≈ −16(1.56)2 + 50(1.56) + 5 = 44.1 feet.

y
60
40
20
t
1 2 3

20. The speed is given for r in the interval 0 ≤ r ≤ R. We have v(r) = a(R − r)r 2 = aRr 2 − ar3 , and v 0 (r) =
2aRr − 3ar 2 = 2ar(R − 32 r), which is zero if r = 23 R, or if r = 0, and so v(r) has critical points there.
Since r = 23 R is the only critical point in the interval 0 < r < R and v(0) = v(R) = 0, we know that r = 23 R is
the global maximum.
21. (a) We have
 
C D CD2 D3
T (D) = − D2 = − ,
2 3 2 3
and
dT
= CD − D 2 = D(C − D).
dD
Since, by this formula, dT /dD is zero when D = 0 or D = C, negative when D > C, and positive when D < C,
we have (by the first derivative test) that the temperature change is maximized when D = C.
(b) The sensitivity is dT /dD = CD − D 2 ; its derivative is d2 T /dD 2 = C − 2D, which is zero if D = C/2, negative
if D > C/2, and positive if D < C/2. Thus by the first derivative test the sensitivity is maximized at D = C/2.
22. (a) Since a/q decreases with q, this term represents the ordering cost. Since bq increases with q, this term represents the
storage cost.
(b) At the minimum,
dC −a
= 2 +b=0
dq q
giving q
a a
q2 = so q = .
b b
Since
d2 C 2a
= 3 > 0 for q > 0,
dq 2 q
p p
we know that q = a/b gives a local minimum. Since q = a/b is the only critical point, this must be the global
minimum.
 4.3 SOLUTIONS 221

23. (a) If we expect the rate to be nonnegative, then we must have 0 ≤ y ≤ a. See Figure 4.79.

rate (gm/sec)
Max rate

y (gm)
a/2 a

Figure 4.79

(b) The maximum value of the rate occurs at y = a/2, as can be seen from Figure 4.79, or by setting
d
(rate) = 0
dy
d d
(rate) = (kay − ky 2 ) = ka − 2ky = 0
dy dy
a
y= .
2
From the graph, we see that y = a/2 gives the global maximum.
24. We set f 0 (r) = 0 to find the critical points:
2A 3B
− 4 =0
r3 r
2Ar − 3B
=0
r4
2Ar − 3B = 0
3B
r= .
2A
The only critical point is at r = 3B/(2A). If r > 3B/(2A), we have f 0 > 0 and if r < 3B/(2A), we have f 0 < 0.
Thus, the force between the atoms is minimized at r = 3B/(2A).
25. (a) To show that R is an increasing function of r1 , we show that dR/dr1 > 0 for all values of r1 . We first solve for R:
1 1 1
= +
R r1 r2
1 r2 + r 1
=
R r1 r2
r1 r2
R= .
r2 + r 1
We use the quotient rule (and remember that r2 is a constant) to find dR/dr1 :

dR (r2 + r1 )(r2 ) − (r1 r2 )(1) (r2 )2

= 2
= .
dr1 (r2 + r1 ) (r2 + r1 )2

Since dR/dr1 is the square of a number, we have dR/dr1 > 0 for all values of r1 , and thus R is increasing for all
r1 .
(b) Since R is increasing on any interval a ≤ r1 ≤ b, the maximum value of R occurs at the right endpoint r1 = b.
26. (a) We want the maximum value of I. Using the properties of logarithms, we rewrite the expression for I as

I = k(ln S − ln S0 ) − S + S0 + I0 .
222 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Since k and S0 are constant, differentiating with respect to S gives

dI k
= − 1.
dS S
Thus, the critical point is at S = k. Since dI/dS is positive for S < k and dI/dS is negative for S > k, we see that
S = k is a local maximum.
We only consider positive values of S. Since S = k is the only critical point, it gives the global maximum value
for I, which is
I = k(ln k − ln S0 ) − k + S0 + I0 .
(b) Since both k and S0 are in the expression for the maximum value of I, both the particular disease and how it starts
influence the maximum.
27. (a) For a point (t, s), the line from the origin has rise = s and run = t; See Figure 4.80. Thus, the slope of the line OP
is s/t.

s (km)

(t, s)

P 6
s

? t (hours)
O  t -
Figure 4.80

(b) Sketching several lines from the origin to points on the curve, we see that the maximum slope occurs at the point P ,
where the line to the origin is tangent to the graph. Reading from the graph, we see t ≈ 2 hours at this point.

s (km)

t (hours)

(c) The instantaneous speed of the cyclist at any time is given by the slope of the corresponding point on the curve. At
the point P , the line from the origin is tangent to the curve, so the quantity s/t equals the cyclist’s speed at the point
P.
28. For x > 0, the line in Figure 4.81 has
y x2 e−3x
Slope = = = xe−3x .
x x
If the slope has a maximum, it occurs where
d
(Slope) = 1 · e−3x − 3xe−3x = 0
dx
e−3x (1 − 3x) = 0
1
x= .
3
For this x-value,
1 −3(1/3) 1 1
Slope = e = e−1 = .
3 3 3e
 4.3 SOLUTIONS 223

Figure 4.81 shows that the slope tends toward 0 as x → ∞; the formula for the slope shows that the slope tends toward 0
as x → 0. Thus the only critical point, x = 1/3, must give a local and global maximum.

(x, x2 e−3x )
y6
? x
 x -
Figure 4.81

29. Suppose the points are given by x and −x, where x ≥ 0. The function is odd, since

(−x)3 x3
y= 4
=− ,
1 + (−x) 1 + x4
so the corresponding y-coordinates are also opposite. See Figure 4.82. For x > 0, we have
 
x3 x 3
− − 1+x
1+x4 4
1 2x3 x2
m= = · = .
x − (−x) 2x 1 + x4 1 + x4
For the maximum slope,

dm 2x x2 (4x3 )
= − =0
dx 1 + x4 (1 + x4 )2
2x(1 + x4 ) − 4x5
=0
(1 + x4 )2
2x(1 − x4 )
=0
(1 + x4 )2


x 1 − x4 = 0
x = 0, ±1.

For x > 0, there is one critical point, x = 1. Since m tends to 0 when x → 0 and when x → ∞, the critical point x = 1
gives the maximum slope. Thus, the maximum slope occurs when the line has endpoints
   
1 1
−1, − and 1, .
2 2

y  
x3
x,
1 + x4
−x
x
x
 
−x3
−x,
1 + x4

Figure 4.82

30. (a) To maximize benefit (surviving young), we pick 10, because that’s the highest point of the benefit graph.
(b) To optimize the vertical distance between the curves, we can either do it by inspection or note that the slopes of the
two curves will be the same where the difference is maximized. Either way, one gets approximately 9.
224 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

31. (a) At higher speeds, more energy is used so the graph rises to the right. The initial drop is explained by the fact that the
energy it takes a bird to fly at very low speeds is greater than that needed to fly at a slightly higher speed. When it flies
slightly faster, the amount of energy consumed decreases. But when it flies at very high speeds, the bird consumes a
lot more energy (this is analogous to our swimming in a pool).
(b) f (v) measures energy per second; a(v) measures energy per meter. A bird traveling at rate v will in 1 second travel
v meters, and thus will consume v · a(v) joules of energy in that 1 second period. Thus v · a(v) represents the energy
consumption per second, and so f (v) = v · a(v).
(c) Since v · a(v) = f (v), a(v) = f (v)/v. But this ratio has the same value as the slope of a line passing from the origin
through the point (v, f (v)) on the curve (see figure). Thus a(v) is minimal when the slope of this line is minimal. To
find the value of v minimizing a(v), we solve a0 (v) = 0. By the quotient rule,

vf 0 (v) − f (v)
a0 (v) = .
v2

energy

f (v)
a(v)

Thus a0 (v) = 0 when vf 0 (v) = f (v), or when f 0 (v) = f (v)/v = a(v). Since a(v) is represented by the slope
of a line through the origin and a point on the curve, a(v) is minimized when this line is tangent to f (v), so that the
slope a(v) equals f 0 (v).
(d) The bird should minimize a(v) assuming it wants to go from one particular point to another, i.e. where the distance
is set. Then minimizing a(v) minimizes the total energy used for the flight.
32. (a) Figure 4.83 contains the graph of total drag, plotted on the same coordinate system with induced and parasite drag. It
was drawn by adding the vertical coordinates of Induced and Parasite drag.
(b) Airspeeds of approximately 160 mph and 320 mph each result in a total drag of 1000 pounds. Since two distinct
airspeeds are associated with a single total drag value, the total drag function does not have an inverse. The parasite
and induced drag functions do have inverses, because they are strictly increasing and strictly decreasing functions,
respectively.
(c) To conserve fuel, fly the at the airspeed which minimizes total drag. This is the airspeed corresponding to the lowest
point on the total drag curve in part (a): that is, approximately 220 mph.

f (v) (gallons/hour)
drag
(thousands
100
of pounds)

3
75
f (v)

2 Total
Drag 50

?
1  Parasite 25
Induced- Drag
Drag
speed
v (miles/hour)
200 400 600 (mph) 100 200 300 400 500 600

Figure 4.83 Figure 4.84

 4.3 SOLUTIONS 225

33. (a) To obtain g(v), which is in gallons per mile, we need to divide f (v) (in gallons per hour) by v (in miles per hour).
Thus, g(v) = f (v)/v.
(b) By inspecting the graph, we see that f (v) is minimized at approximately 220 mph.
(c) Note that a point on the graph of f (v) has the coordinates (v, f (v)). The line passing through this point and the
origin (0, 0) has
f (v) − 0 f (v)
Slope = = = g(v).
v−0 v
So minimizing g(v) corresponds to finding the line of minimum slope from the family of lines which pass through
the origin (0, 0) and the point (v, f (v)) on the graph of f (v). This line is the unique member of the family which is
tangent to the graph of f (v). The value of v corresponding to the point of tangency will minimize g(v). This value
of v will satisfy f (v)/v = f 0 (v). From the graph in Figure 4.84, we see that v ≈ 300 mph.
(d) The pilot’s goal with regard to f (v) and g(v) would depend on the purpose of the flight, and might even vary within
a given flight. For example, if the mission involved aerial surveillance or banner-towing over some limited area, or
if the plane was flying a holding pattern, then the pilot would want to minimize f (v) so as to remain aloft as long
as possible. In a more normal situation where the purpose was economical travel between two fixed points, then the
minimum net fuel expenditure for the trip would result from minimizing g(v).
34. Since the function is positive, the graph lies above the x-axis. If there is a global maximum at x = 3, t 0 (x) must be
positive, then negative. Since t0 (x) and t00 (x) have the same sign for x < 3, they must both be positive, and thus the
graph must be increasing and concave up. Since t0 (x) and t00 (x) have opposite signs for x > 3 and t0 (x) is negative,
t00 (x) must again be positive and the graph must be decreasing and concave up. A possible sketch of y = t(x) is shown
in Figure 4.85.

(−2, g(−2))
y
g(x)
(3, 3)
(0, g(0))

y = t(x)

x
(2, g(2))

Figure 4.85 Figure 4.86

35. One possible graph of g is in Figure 4.86.

(a) From left to right, the graph of g(x) starts “flat”, decreases slowly at first then more rapidly, most rapidly at x = 0.
The graph then continues to decrease but less and less rapidly until flat again at x = 2. The graph should exhibit
symmetry about the point (0, g(0)).
(b) The graph has an inflection point at (0, g(0)) where the slope changes from negative and decreasing to negative and
increasing.
(c) The function has a global maximum at x = −2 and a global minimum at x = 2.
(d) Since the function is decreasing over the interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

g(−2) = 5 > g(0) > g(2).

Since the function appears symmetric about (0, g(0)), we have

g(−2) − g(0) = g(0) − g(2).

36. (a) We know that h00 (x) < 0 for −2 ≤ x < −1, h00 (−1) = 0, and h00 (x) > 0 for x > −1. Thus, h0 (x) decreases to its
minimum value at x = −1, which we know to be zero, and then increases; it is never negative.
(b) Since h0 (x) is non-negative for −2 ≤ x ≤ 1, we know that h(x) is never decreasing on [−2, 1]. So a global
maximum must occur at the right hand endpoint of the interval.
(c) The graph below shows a function that is increasing on the interval −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 with a horizontal tangent and an
inflection point at (−1, 2).
226 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS
y
h(x)
(−1, 2)

x
−2 −1 1

37. False. For example, if f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (0) = 0, so x = 0 is a critical point, but x = 0 is neither a local maximum nor
a local minimum.
38. False, since f (x) = 1/x takes on arbitrarily large values as x → 0 + . The Extreme Value Theorem requires the interval
to be closed as well as bounded.
39. False. The Extreme Value Theorem says that continuous functions have global maxima and minima on every closed,
bounded interval. It does not say that only continuous functions have such maxima and minima.
40. Suppose f has critical points x = a and x = b. Suppose a < b. By the Extreme Value Theorem, we know that
the derivative function, f 0 (x), has global extrema on [a, b]. If both the maximum and minimum of f 0 (x) occur at the
endpoints of [a, b], then f 0 (a) = 0 = f 0 (b), so f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in [a, b]. In this case, f would have more than two
critical points. Since f has only two critical points, there is a local maximum or minimum of f 0 inside the interval [a, b].
41. (a) If both the global minimum and the global maximum are at the endpoints, then f (x) = 0 everywhere in [a, b], since
f (a) = f (b) = 0. In that case f 0 (x) = 0 everywhere as well, so any point in (a, b) will do for c.
(b) Suppose that either the global maximum or the global minimum occurs at an interior point of the interval. Let c be
that point. Then c must be a local extremum of f , so, by the theorem concerning local extrema on page 168, we have
f 0 (c) = 0, as required.
42. (a) The equation of the secant line between x = a and x = b is
f (b) − f (a)
y = f (a) + (x − a)
b−a
and
f (b) − f (a)
g(x) = f (x) − f (a) − (x − a),
b−a
so g(x) is the difference, or distance, between the graph of f (x) and the secant line. See Figure 4.87.

y
y = f (x)
 
f (b) − f (a)
y = f (a) + (x − a)
Secant b−a
line

? 6
?
I
g(x)
x
a b
Figure 4.87: Value of g(x) is the difference between the secant line
and the graph of f (x)

(b) Figure 4.87 shows that g(a) = g(b) = 0. You can also easily check this from the formula for g(x). By Rolle’s
Theorem, there must be a point c in (a, b) where g 0 (c) = 0.
(c) Differentiating the formula for g(x), we have
f (b) − f (a)
g 0 (x) = f 0 (x) − .
b−a
So from g 0 (c) = 0, we get
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = ,
b−a
as required.
 4.4 SOLUTIONS 227

Solutions for Section 4.4

Exercises

1. The fixed costs are $5000, the marginal cost per item is $2.40, and the price per item is $4.
2. (a) Total cost, in millions of dollars, C(q) = 3 + 0.4q.
(b) Revenue, in millions of dollars, R(q) = 0.5q.
(c) Profit, in millions of dollars, π(q) = R(q) − C(q) = 0.5q − (3 + 0.4q) = 0.1q − 3.
3. The profit π(q) is given by

π(q) = R(q) − C(q) = 500q − q 2 − (150 + 10q) = 490q − q 2 − 150.

The maximum profit occurs when

π 0 (q) = 490 − 2q = 0 so q = 245 items.

Since π 00 (q) = −2, this critical point is a maximum. Alternatively, we obtain the same result from the fact that the graph
of π is a parabola opening downward.
4. First find marginal revenue and marginal cost.

M R = R0 (q) = 450

M C = C 0 (q) = 6q
Setting M R = M C yields 6q = 450, so marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue when
450
q= = 75 units.
6
Is profit maximized at q = 75? Profit = R(q) − C(q);

R(75) − C(75) = 450(75) − (10,000 + 3(75)2 )

= 33,750 − 26,875 = $6875.

Testing q = 74 and q = 76:

R(74) − C(74) = 450(74) − (10,000 + 3(74)2 )

= 33,300 − 26,428 = $6872.

R(76) − C(76) = 450(76) − (10,000 + 3(76)2 )

= 34,200 − 27,328 = $6872.

Since profit at q = 75 is more than profit at q = 74 and q = 76, we conclude that profit is maximized locally at q = 75.
The only endpoint we need to check is q = 0.

R(0) − C(0) = 450(0) − (10,000 + 3(0)2 )

= −$10,000.

This is clearly not a maximum, so we conclude that the profit is maximized globally at q = 75, and the total profit at this
production level is $6,875.
5. The profit function is positive when R(q) > C(q), and negative when C(q) > R(q). It’s positive for 5.5 < q < 12.5,
and negative for 0 < q < 5.5 and 12.5 < q. Profit is maximized when R(q) > C(q) and R 0 (q) = C 0 (q) which occurs
at about q = 9.5. See Figure 4.88.
228 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

$ (thousands)
C(q)
400 Profit function
is positive
 - R(q)

300

200

100

q (thousands)
5 10 15

Figure 4.88

6. Since for q = 500, we have M C(500) = C 0 (500) = 75 and M R(500) = R0 (500) = 100, so M R(500) > M C(500).
Thus, increasing production from q = 500 increases profit.
7. Since marginal revenue is larger than marginal cost around q = 2000, as you produce more of the product your revenue
increases faster than your costs, so profit goes up, and maximal profit will occur at a production level above 2000.
8. Since fixed costs are represented by the vertical intercept, they are $1.1 million. The quantity that maximizes profit is
about q = 70, and the profit achieved is $(3.7 − 2.5) = $1.2 million
9. (a) Profit is maximized when R(q)−C(q) is as large as possible. This occurs at q = 2500, where profit = 7500−5500 =
$2000.
(b) We see that R(q) = 3q and so the price is p = 3, or $3 per unit.
(c) Since C(0) = 3000, the fixed costs are $3000.
10. (a) At q = 5000, M R > M C, so the marginal revenue to produce the next item is greater than the marginal cost. This
means that the company will make money by producing additional units, and production should be increased.
(b) Profit is maximized where M R = M C, and where the profit function is going from increasing (M R > M C) to
decreasing (M R < M C). This occurs at q = 8000.

Problems

11. Marginal
Cost Marginal
Revenue
Profit

q
q1 q2

q q
q1 q2 q1 q2

12. (a) π(q) is maximized when R(q) > C(q) and they are as far apart as possible. See Figure 4.89.
(b) π 0 (q0 ) = R0 (q0 ) − C 0 (q0 ) = 0 implies that C 0 (q0 ) = R0 (q0 ) = p.
Graphically, the slopes of the two curves at q0 are equal. This is plausible because if C 0 (q0 ) were greater than p
or less than p, the maximum of π(q) would be to the left or right of q 0 , respectively. In economic terms, if the cost
were rising more quickly than revenues, the profit would be maximized at a lower quantity (and if the cost were rising
more slowly, at a higher quantity).
(c) See Figure 4.90.
 4.4 SOLUTIONS 229

$ $
C(q) C 0 (q)
R(q)

I p
maximum π(q)

q q
q0 q0

Figure 4.89 Figure 4.90

13. (a) We know that Profit = Revenue − Cost, so differentiating with respect to q gives:

Marginal Profit = Marginal Revenue − Marginal Cost.

We see from the figure in the problem that just to the left of q = a, marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, so
marginal profit is negative there. To the right of q = a marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost, so marginal
profit is positive there. At q = a marginal profit changes from negative to positive. This means that profit is decreasing
to the left of a and increasing to the right. The point q = a corresponds to a local minimum of profit, and does not
maximize profit. It would be a terrible idea for the company to set its production level at q = a.
(b) We see from the figure in the problem that just to the left of q = b marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost, so
marginal profit is positive there. Just to the right of q = b marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, so marginal
profit is negative there. At q = b marginal profit changes from positive to negative. This means that profit is increasing
to the left of b and decreasing to the right. The point q = b corresponds to a local maximum of profit. In fact, since
the area between the M C and M R curves in the figure in the text between q = a and q = b is bigger than the area
between q = 0 and q = a, q = b is in fact a global maximum.
14. (a) The value of C(0) represents the fixed costs before production, that is, the cost of producing zero units, incurred for
initial investments in equipment, and so on.
(b) The marginal cost decreases slowly, and then increases as quantity produced increases. See Problem 11, graph (b).
(c) Concave down implies decreasing marginal cost, while concave up implies increasing marginal cost.
(d) An inflection point of the cost function is (locally) the point of maximum or minimum marginal cost.
(e) One would think that the more of an item you produce, the less it would cost to produce extra items. In economic
terms, one would expect the marginal cost of production to decrease, so we would expect the cost curve to be con-
cave down. In practice, though, it eventually becomes more expensive to produce more items, because workers and
resources may become scarce as you increase production. Hence after a certain point, the marginal cost may rise
again. This happens in oil production, for example.
15. (a) The fixed cost is 0 because C(0) = 0.
(b) Profit, π(q), is equal to money from sales, 7q, minus total cost to produce those items, C(q).

π = 7q − 0.01q 3 + 0.6q 2 − 13q

π 0 = −0.03q 2 + 1.2q − 6
p
−1.2 ± (1.2)2 − 4(0.03)(6)
π0 = 0 if q = ≈ 5.9 or 34.1.
−0.06
Now π 00 = −0.06q + 1.2, so π 00 (5.9) > 0 and π 00 (34.1) < 0. This means q = 5.9 is a local min and q = 34.1 a
local max. We now evaluate the endpoint, π(0) = 0, and the points nearest q = 34.1 with integer q-values:

π(35) = 7(35) − 0.01(35)3 + 0.6(35)2 − 13(35) = 245 − 148.75 = 96.25,

π(34) = 7(34) − 0.01(34)3 + 0.6(34)2 − 13(34) = 238 − 141.44 = 96.56.

So the (global) maximum profit is π(34) = 96.56. The money from sales is $238, the cost to produce the items is
$141.44, resulting in a profit of $96.56.
230 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

(c) The money from sales is equal to price×quantity sold. If the price is raised from $7 by $x to $(7 + x), the result is a
reduction in sales from 34 items to (34 − 2x) items. So the result of raising the price by $x is to change the money
from sales from (7)(34) to (7 + x)(34 − 2x) dollars. If the production level is fixed at 34, then the production costs
are fixed at $141.44, as found in part (b), and the profit is given by:

π(x) = (7 + x)(34 − 2x) − 141.44

This expression gives the profit as a function of change in price x, rather than as a function of quantity as in part (b).
We set the derivative of π with respect to x equal to zero to find the change in price that maximizes the profit:
dπ
= (1)(34 − 2x) + (7 + x)(−2) = 20 − 4x = 0
dx
So x = 5, and this must give a maximum for π(x) since the graph of π is a parabola which opens downward. The
profit when the price is $12 (= 7 + x = 7 + 5) is thus π(5) = (7 + 5)(34 − 2(5)) − 141.44 = $146.56. This is
indeed higher than the profit when the price is $7, so the smart thing to do is to raise the price by $5.
16. (a) Say n passengers sign up for the cruise. If n ≤ 100, then the cruise’s revenue is R = 1000n, and so the maximum
revenue if n ≤ 100 is R = 1000 · 100 = 100,000. If n ≥ 100, then the price is

p = 1000 − 5(n − 100)

and hence revenue is

R = n(1000 − 5(n − 100)) = 1500n − 5n2 .
To find the maximum of this, we set dR/dn = 0, or 10n = 1500, or n = 150, yielding revenue of (1000 − 5 · 50) ·
150 = 112500. Since this is more than the maximum revenue when n ≤ 100, we see that the boat maximizes its
revenue with 150 passengers, each paying $750.
(b) We approach this problem in a similar way to part (a), except now we are dealing with the profit function π. If n ≤
100, we have that π = 1000n−40,000−200n, and thus π would be maximized with 100 passengers yielding a profit
of π = 800·100−40,000 = $40,000. If n > 100, we have the formula π = n(1000−5(n−100))−(40,000+200n).
We again wish to set dπ/dn = 0, or 1300 = 10n, or n = 130, yielding profit of $44,500. So the boat will maximize
profit by boarding 130 passengers, each paying $850. This gives the boat $44,500 in profit.
17. For each month,

Profit = Revenue − Cost

π = pq − wL = pcK α Lβ − wL

The variable on the right is L, so at the maximum

dπ
= βpcK α Lβ−1 − w = 0
dL
Now β − 1 is negative, since 0 < β < 1, so 1 − β is positive and we can write
βpcK α
=w
L1−β
giving
  1−β
1
βpcK α
L=
w
Since β − 1 is negative, when L is just above 0, the quantity Lβ−1 is huge and positive, so dπ/dL > 0. When L is large,
Lβ−1 is small, so dπ/dL < 0. Thus the value of L we have found gives a global maximum, since it is the only critical
point.
18. (a) N = 100 + 20x, graphed in Figure 4.91.
(b) N 0 (x) = 20 and its graph is just a horizontal line. This means that rate of increase of the number of bees with acres
of clover is constant — each acre of clover brings 20 more bees.
On the other hand, N (x)/x = 100/x + 20 means that the average number of bees per acre of clover approaches
20 as more acres are put under clover. See Figure 4.92. As x increases, 100/x decreases to 0, so N (x)/x approaches
20 (i.e. N (x)/x → 20). Since the total number of bees is 20 per acre plus the original 100, the average number of
bees per acre is 20 plus the 100 shared out over x acres. As x increases, the 100 are shared out over more acres, and
so its contribution to the average becomes less. Thus the average number of bees per acre approaches 20 for large x.
 4.4 SOLUTIONS 231
bees/acre

number of bees
N (x) = 100 + 20x
2100

N (x) 100
= + 20
x x
20 i N 0 (x) = 20
100 x (acres) x (acres)
50 100 50 100

Figure 4.91 Figure 4.92

19. This question implies that the line from the origin to the point (x, R(x)) has some relationship to r(x). The slope of this
line is R(x)/x, which is r(x). So the point x0 at which r(x) is maximal will also be the point at which the slope of this
line is maximal. The question claims that the line from the origin to (x0 , R(x0 )) will be tangent to the graph of R(x). We
can understand this by trying to see what would happen if it were otherwise.
If the line from the origin to (x0 , R(x0 )) intersects the graph of R(x), but is not tangent to the graph of R(x) at x 0 ,
then there are points of this graph on both sides of the line — and, in particular, there is some point x 1 such that the line
from the origin to (x1 , R(x1 )) has larger slope than the line to (x0 , R(x0 )). (See the graph below.) But we picked x0 so
that no other line had larger slope, and therefore no such x1 exists. So the original supposition is false, and the line from
the origin to (x0 , R(x0 )) is tangent to the graph of R(x).
(a) See (b).
(b) Line through origin
is tangent here
R(x)

Optimal point on r(x)

?
r(x)

(c)
R(x)
r(x) =
x
0
xR (x) − R(x)
r0 (x) =
x2
So when r(x) is maximized 0 = xR0 (x) − R(x), the numerator of r 0 (x), or R0 (x) = R(x)/x = r(x). i.e.
when r(x) is maximized, r(x) = R0 (x).
Let us call the x-value at which the maximum of r occurs xm . Then the line passing through R(xm ) and the
origin is y = x · R(xm )/xm . Its slope is R(xm )/xm , which also happens to be r(xm ). In the previous paragraph,
we showed that at xm , this is also equal to the slope of the tangent to R(x). So, the line through the origin is the
tangent line.
20. (a) The value of M C is the slope of the tangent to the curve at q 0 . See Figure 4.93.
(b) The line from the curve to the origin joins (0, 0) and (q0 , C(q0 )), so its slope is C(q0 )/q0 = a(q0 ).
232 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

(c) Figure 4.94 shows that the line whose slope is the minimum a(q) is tangent to the curve C(q). This line, therefore,
also has slope M C, so a(q) = M C at the q making a(q) minimum.
$
C(q) $
Slope= M C C(q)

?
I
Slope of
this line is
 Slope=
C(q0 )
= a(q0 ) minimum a(q)
q0

q
q0 q

Figure 4.93 Figure 4.94

21. (a) a(q) = C(q)/q, so C(q) = 0.01q 3 − 0.6q 2 + 13q.

(b) Taking the derivative of C(q) gives an expression for the marginal cost:
C 0 (q) = M C(q) = 0.03q 2 − 1.2q + 13.
To find the smallest M C we take its derivative and find the value of q that makes it zero. So: M C 0 (q) = 0.06q−1.2 =
0 when q = 1.2/0.06 = 20. This value of q must give a minimum because the graph of M C(q) is a parabola
opening upward. Therefore the minimum marginal cost is M C(20) = 1. So the marginal cost is at a minimum when
the additional cost per item is $1.
(c) a0 (q) = 0.02q − 0.6
Setting a0 (q) = 0 and solving for q gives q = 30 as the quantity at which the average is minimized, since the graph
of a is a parabola which opens upward. The minimum average cost is a(30) = 4 dollars per item.
(d) The marginal cost at q = 30 is M C(30) = 0.03(30)2 − 1.2(30) + 13 = 4. This is the same as the average cost at
this quantity. Note that since a(q) = C(q)/q, we have a0 (q) = (qC 0 (q) − C(q))/q 2 . At a critical point, q0 , of a(q),
we have
q0 C 0 (q0 ) − C(q0 )
0 = a0 (q0 ) = ,
q02
so C 0 (q0 ) = C(q0 )/q0 = a(q0 ). Therefore C 0 (30) = a(30) = 4 dollars per item.
Another way to see why the marginal cost at q = 30 must equal the minimum average cost a(30) = 4 is to view
C 0 (30) as the approximate cost of producing the 30th or 31st good. If C 0 (30) < a(30), then producing the 31st
good would lower the average cost, i.e. a(31) < a(30). If C 0 (30) > a(30), then producing the 30th good would
raise the average cost, i.e. a(30) > a(29). Since a(30) is the global minimum, we must have C 0 (30) = a(30).
22. (a) Differentiating C(q) gives
 
K (1/a)−1 K 1
C 0 (q) = q , C 00 (q) = − 1 q (1/a)−2 .
a a a
If a > 1, then C 00 (q) < 0, so C is concave down.
(b) We have
C(q) Kq 1/a + F
a(q) = =
q q
0 K (1/a)−1
C (q) = q
a
so a(q) = C 0 (q) means
Kq 1/a + F K
= q (1/a)−1 .
q a
Solving,
K 1/a
Kq 1/a + F = q
a
 
1
K − 1 q 1/a = F
a
 a
Fa
q= .
K(1 − a)
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 233

23. (a) Since the company can produce more goods if it has more raw materials to use, the function f (x) is increasing. Thus,
we expect the derivative f 0 (x) to be positive.
(b) The cost to the company of acquiring x units of raw material is wx, and the revenue from the sale of f (x) units of
the product is pf (x). The company’s profit is π(x) = Revenue − Cost = pf (x) − wx.
(c) Since profit π(x) is maximized at x = x∗ , we have π 0 (x∗ ) = 0. From π 0 (x) = pf 0 (x) − w, we have pf 0 (x∗ ) − w =
0. Thus f 0 (x∗ ) = w/p.
(d) Computing the second derivative of π(x) gives π 00 (x) = pf 00 (x). Since π(x) has a maximum at x = x∗ , the second
derivative π 00 (x∗ ) = pf 00 (x∗ ) is negative. Thus f 00 (x∗ ) is negative.
(e) Differentiate both sides of pf 0 (x∗ ) − w = 0 with respect to w. The chain rule gives
d 0 ∗
p f (x ) − 1 = 0
dw
dx∗
pf 00 (x∗ ) −1 = 0
dw
dx∗ 1
= .
dw pf 00 (x∗ )
Since f 00 (x∗ ) < 0, we see dx∗ /dw is negative.
(f) Since dx∗ /dw < 0, the quantity x∗ is a decreasing function of w. If the price w of the raw material goes up, the
company should buy less.

Solutions for Section 4.5

Exercises

1. We look for critical points of M :

dM 1
= wL − wx.
dx 2
Now dM/dx = 0 when x = L/2. At this point d2 M/dx2 = −w so this point is a local maximum. The graph of M (x)
is a parabola opening downward, so the local maximum is also the global maximum.
2. We set dU /dx = 0 to find the critical points:
 
−2a2 a
b + 2 =0
x3 x
−2a2 + ax = 0
x = 2a.
The only critical point is at x = 2a. When x < 2a we have dU/dx < 0, and when x > 2a we have dU/dx > 0. The
potential energy, U , is minimized at x = 2a.
3. Since I(t) is a periodic function with period 2π/w, it is enough to consider I(t) for 0 ≤ wt ≤ 2π. Differentiating, we
find
dI √
= −w sin(wt) + 3w cos(wt).
dt
At a critical point
√
−w sin(wt) + 3w cos(wt) = 0
√
sin(wt) = 3 cos(wt)
√
tan(wt) = 3.
So wt = π/3 or 4π/3, or these values plus multiples of 2π. Substituting into I, we see
  √   √ 
π π π 1 √ 3
At wt = : I = cos + 3 sin = + 3· = 2.
3 3 3 2 2
  √   √ 
4π 4π 4π 1 √ 3
At wt = : I = cos + 3 sin =− − 3· = −2.
3 3 3 2 2
Thus, the maximum value is 2 amps and the minimum is −2 amps.
234 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

4. Call the stacks A and B. (See below.) Assume that A corresponds to k 1 , and B corresponds to k2 .

20 miles

A x B

Suppose the point where the concentration of deposit is a minimum occurs at a distance of x miles from stack A. We
want to find x such that  
k1 k2 7 1
S= 2 + = k2 +
x (20 − x)2 x2 (20 − x)2
is a minimum, which is the same thing as minimizing f (x) = 7x−2 + (20 − x)−2 since k2 is nonnegative.
We have
−14 2 −14(20 − x)3 + 2x3
f 0 (x) = −14x−3 − 2(20 − x)−3 (−1) = + = .
x3 (20 − x)3 x3 (20 − x)3

Thus we want to find x such that −14(20 − x)3 + 2x3 = 0, which implies 2x3 = 14(20 − x)3 . That’s equivalent to x3 =
7(20 − x)3 , or 20−x
x
= (1/7)1/3 ≈ 0.523. Solving for x, we have 20 − x = 0.523x, whence x = 20/1.523 ≈ 13.13.
To verify that this minimizes f , we take the second derivative:
42 6
f 00 (x) = 42x−4 + 6(20 − x)−4 = + >0
x4 (20 − x)4
for any 0 < x < 20, so by the second derivative test the concentration is minimized 13.13 miles from A.
5. (a) If we expect the rate to be nonnegative, we must have 0 ≤ y ≤ a and 0 ≤ y ≤ b. Since we assume a < b, we restrict
y to 0 ≤ y ≤ a.
In fact, the expression for the rate is nonnegative for y greater than b, but these values of y are not meaningful
for the reaction. See Figure 4.95.

rate (gm/sec)
kab

y (gm)
a b

Figure 4.95

(b) From the graph, we see that the maximum rate occurs when y = 0; that is, at the start of the reaction.
6. We only consider λ > 0. For such λ, the value of v → ∞ as λ → ∞ and as λ → 0 + . Thus, v does not have a maximum
velocity. It will have a minimum velocity. To find it, we set dv/dλ = 0:
 −1/2  
dv 1 λ c 1 c
=k + − 2 = 0.
dλ 2 c λ c λ
Solving, and remembering that λ > 0, we obtain
1 c
− 2 =0
c λ
1 c
= 2
c λ
λ2 = c 2 ,
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 235

so
λ = c.
Thus, we have one critical point. Since
dv
<0 for λ < c
dλ
and
dv
> 0 for λ > c,
dλ
the first derivative test tells us that we have a local minimum of v at x = c. Since λ = c is the only critical point, it gives
the global minimum. Thus the minimum value of v is
q √
c c
v=k + = 2k.
c c

7.
dE (µ + θ)(1 − 2µθ) − (θ − µθ 2 ) µ(1 − 2µθ − θ 2 )
= = .
dθ (µ + θ)2 (µ + θ)2
p p
Now dE/dθ = 0 when θ = −µ ± 1 + µ2 . Since θ > 0, the only possible critical point is when θ = −µ + µ2 + 1.
Differentiating again gives E 00 < 0 at this point and so it is a local maximum. Since E(θ) is continuous for θ > 0 and
E(θ) has only one critical point, the local maximum is the global maximum.
8. A graph of F against θ is shown below.

F (newtons)

1.0mg
0.15mg
F = sin θ+0.15 cos θ

θ
π
2

Taking the derivative:

dF mgµ(cos θ − µ sin θ)
=− .
dθ (sin θ + µ cos θ)2
At a critical point, dF/dθ = 0, so

cos θ − µ sin θ = 0
1
tan θ =
µ
 
1
θ = arctan .
µ

If µ = 0.15, then θ = arctan(1/0.15) = 1.422 ≈ 81.5◦ . To calculate the maximum and minimum values of F , we
evaluate at this critical point and the endpoints:
0.15mg
At θ = 0, F = = 1.0mg newtons.
sin 0 + 0.15 cos 0
0.15mg
At θ = 1.422, F = = 0.148mg newtons.
sin(1.422) + 0.15 cos(1.422)
0.15mg
At θ = π/2, F = = 0.15mg newtons.
sin( π2 ) + 0.15 cos( π2 )
236 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Thus, the maximum value of F is 1.0mg newtons when θ = 0 (her arm is vertical) and the minimum value of F is
0.148mg newtons is when θ = 1.422 (her arm is close to horizontal). See Figure 4.96.

F
1.0mg
0.15mg
F = sin θ+0.15 cos θ

0.148mg
θ
1.422

Figure 4.96

9. The domain for E is all real x. Note E → 0 as x → ±∞. The critical points occur where dE/dx = 0. The derivative is

dE k 3 kx(2x)
= − ·
dx (x2 + r02 )3/2 2 (x2 + r02 )5/2


k x2 + r02 − 3x2
=
(x2 + r02 )5/2


k r02 − 2x2
= .
(x2 + r02 )5/2

So dE/dx = 0 where

r02 − 2x2 = 0
r0
x = ±√ .
2
Looking at the formula for dE/dx shows
dE r0 r0
> 0 for − √ < x < √
dx 2 2
dE r0
< 0 for x < − √
dx 2
dE r0
< 0 for x > √ .
dx 2
√ √
Therefore, x = −r0 / 2 gives the minimum value of E and x = r0 / 2 gives the maximum value of E.

r0
−√
2
x
r0
√
2

10. We take the derivative, set it equal to 0, and solve for x:

dt 1 1 1
−1/2
= − · (2000 − x)2 + 6002 · 2(2000 − x) = 0
dx 6 4 2
2
1/2
(2000 − x) = (2000 − x)2 + 6002
3
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 237
4

(2000 − x)2 = (2000 − x)2 + 6002
9
5 4
(2000 − x) = · 6002
2
9 9
r
4 1200
2000 − x = · 6002 = √
5 5
1200
x = 2000 − √ feet.
5
√
Note that 2000 − (1200/ 5) ≈ 1463 feet, as given in the example.

Problems
√ √
11. We wish to choose a to maximize the area of the rectangle with corners at (a, a) and (9, a). The area of this rectangle
will be given by the formula √
R = h · l = a(9 − a) = 9a1/2 − a3/2 .
We are restricted to 0 ≤ a ≤ 9. To maximize this area, we set dR/da = 0, and then check that the resulting area is
greater than the area if a = 0 or a = 9. Since R = 0 if a = 0 or a = 9, all we need to do is to find where dR/da = 0:
dR 9 3
= a−1/2 − a1/2 = 0
da 2 2
√
9 3 a
√ =
2 a 2
18 = 6a
a = 3.
√
Thus, the dimensions of the maximal rectangle are 6 by 3.
12. The triangle in Figure 4.97 has area, A, given by
1 1
A= x · y = x3 e−3x .
2 2
If the area has a maximum, it occurs where
dA 3 3
= x2 e−3x − x3 e−3x = 0
dx 2 2
3 2
x (1 − x) e−3x = 0
2
x = 0, 1.

The value x = 0 gives the minimum area, A = 0, for x ≥ 0. Since

dA 3
= x2 (1 − x)e−3x ,
dx 2
we see that
dA dA
> 0 for 0 < x < 1 and < 0 for x > 1.
dx dx
Thus, x = 1 gives the local and global maximum of
1 3 −3·1 1
A= 1 e = 3.
2 2e
y

(x, x2 e−3x )
6
y
? x
 x -
Figure 4.97
238 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

13. The rectangle in Figure 4.98 has area, A, given by

2x
A = 2xy = for x ≥ 0.
1 + x2
At a critical point,
 
dA 2 −2x
= + 2x =0
dx 1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2
2(1 + x2 − 2x2 )
=0
(1 + x2 )2
1 − x2 = 0
x = ±1.

Since A = 0 for x = 0 and A → 0 as x → ∞, the critical point x = 1 is a local and global maximum for the area. Then
y = 1/2, so the vertices are    
1 1
(−1, 0) , (1, 0) , 1, , −1, .
2 2

1
y=
1 + x2 6
y
? x
x-
Figure 4.98

14. (a) The rectangle in Figure 4.99 has area, A, given by

A = xy = xe−2x .

At a critical point, we have

dA
= 1 · e−2x − 2xe−2x = 0
dx
e−2x (1 − 2x) = 0
1
x= .
2
Since A = 0 when x = 0 and A → 0 as x → ∞, the critical point x = 1/2 is a local and global maximum. Thus
the maximum area is
1 1
A = e−2(1/2) = .
2 2e
(b) The rectangle in Figure 4.99 has perimeter, P , given by

P = 2x + 2y = 2x + 2e−2x .

At a critical point, we have

dP
= 2 − 4e−2x = 0
dx
1
e−2x =
2
1
−2x = ln
2
1 1 1
x = − ln = ln 2.
2 2 2
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 239

To see if this critical point gives a maximum or minimum, we find

d2 P
= 8e−2x .
dx2
Since d2 P/dx2 > 0 for all x, including x = 1
2
ln 2, the critical point is a local and global minimum. Thus, the
minimum perimeter is
 
1 1 1
P =2 ln 2 + 2e−2( 2 ln 2) = ln 2 + 2e− ln 2 = ln 2 + 2 · = ln 2 + 1.
2 2
y

6 y = e−x/2
y

? x
 x -
Figure 4.99
√
15. Figure 4.100 shows the vertical cross section through the cylinder and sphere. The circle has equation y = 1 − x2 , so
if the cylinder has radius x and height y, its volume, V , is given by
p
V = πx2 y = πx2 1 − x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
At a critical point, dV /dx = 0, so
p  
dV 1
= 2πx 1 − x2 + πx2 (1 − x2 )−1/2 (−2x) = 0
dx 2
p πx3
2πx 1 − x2 − √ =0
1 − x2
 p 2 
πx 2
√ 2 1− x2 −x =0
1 − x2
x(2 − 3x2 ) = 0
r
2
x = 0, ± .
3
p
Since V = 0 at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 1, and V is positive at the only critical point, x = 2/3, in the interval,
p
the critical point x = 2/3 is a local and global maximum. Thus, the cylinder with maximum volume has
r
2
Radius = x =
3
v
u r !2 r
u 2 1
t
Height = y = 1 − = .
3 3

6y = √1 − x2
y

? x
−1  x - 1

Figure 4.100
240 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

16. (a) Suppose the height of the box is h. The box has six sides, four with area xh and two, the top and bottom, with area
x2 . Thus,
4xh + 2x2 = A.
So
A − 2x2
h= .
4x
Then, the volume, V , is given by
 
2 2 A − 2x2 x

V =x h=x = A − 2x2
4x 4
A 1
= x − x3 .
4 2
(b) The graph is shown in Figure 4.101. We are assuming A is a positive constant. Also, we have drawn the whole graph,
but we should only consider V > 0, x > 0 as V and x are lengths.
V

A
V = 4
x − 12 x3

pA x
2

Figure 4.101

(c) To find the maximum, we differentiate, regarding A as a constant:

dV A 3
= − x2 .
dx 4 2
So dV /dx = 0 if
A 3
− x2 = 0
4 2
r
A
x=± .
6
p
For a real box, we must use x = A/6. Figure 4.101 makes it clear that this value of x gives the maximum.
p
Evaluating at x = A/6, we get
r r !3 r r  3/2
A A 1 A A A 1 A A A
V = − = − · = .
4 6 2 6 4 6 2 6 6 6

17. Let w and l be the width and length, respectively, of the rectangular area you wish to enclose. Then
w + w + l = 100 feet
l = 100 − 2w
Area = w · l = w(100 − 2w) = 100w − 2w 2

WALL

w w

l
To maximize area, we solve A0 = 0 to find critical points. This gives A0 = 100 − 4w = 0, so w = 25, l = 50. So
the area is 25 · 50 = 1250 square feet. This is a local maximum by the second derivative test because A 00 = −4 < 0.
Since the graph of A is a parabola, the local maximum is in fact a global maximum.
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 241

18. From the triangle shown in Figure 4.102, we see that

 2  2
w h
+ = 302
2 2
w2 + h2 = 4(30)2 = 3600.

30
h/2

w/2

Figure 4.102

The strength, S, of the beam is given by

S = kwh2 ,
for some constant k. To make S a function of only one variable, substitute for h 2 , giving

S = kw(3600 − w 2 ) = k(3600w − w 3 ).

Differentiating and setting dS/dw = 0,

dS
= k(3600 − 3w 2 ) = 0.
dw
Solving for w gives √
w= 1200 = 34.64 cm,
so

h2 = 3600 − w 2 = 3600 − 1200 = 2400

√
h = 2400 = 48.99 cm.

Thus, w = 34.64 cm and h = 48.99 cm give a critical point. To check that this is a local maximum, we compute

d2 S
= −6w < 0 for w > 0.
dw2
Since d2 S/dw 2 < 0, we see that w = 34.64 cm is a local maximum. It is the only critical point, so it is a global
maximum.
19. Consider the rectangle of sides x and y shown in the figure below.

The total area is xy = 3000, so y = 3000/x. Suppose the left and right edges and the lower edge have the shrubs
and the top edge has the fencing. The total cost is

C = 25(x + 2y) + 10(x)

= 35x + 50y.

Since y = 3000/x, this reduces to

C(x) = 35x + 50(3000/x) = 35x + 150,000/x.

242 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Therefore, C 0 (x) = 35 − 150,000/x2 . We set this to 0 to find the critical points:

150,000
35 − =0
x2
150,000
= 35
x2
x2 = 4285.71
x ≈ 65.5 ft

so that
y = 3000/x ≈ 45.8 ft.
+
Since C(x) → ∞ as x → 0 and x → ∞, x = 65.5 is a minimum. The minimum total cost is then

C(65.5) ≈ $4583.

20. Figure 4.103 shows the the pool has dimensions x by y and the deck extends 5 feet at either side and 10 feet at the ends
of the pool.

10

5 5
y

10

Figure 4.103

The dimensions of the plot of land containing the pool are then (x + 5 + 5) by (y + 10 + 10). The area of the land
is then
A = (x + 10)(y + 20),
which is to be minimized. We also are told that the area of the pool is xy = 1800, so

y = 1800/x

and
 
1800
A = (x + 10) + 20
x
18000
= 1800 + 20x + + 200.
x
We find dA/dx and set it to zero to get

dA 18000
= 20 − =0
dx x2
20x2 = 18000
x2 = 900
x = 30 feet.

Since A → ∞ as x → 0+ and as x → ∞, this critical point must be a global minimum. Also, y = 1800/30 = 60 feet.
The plot of land is therefore (30 + 10) = 40 by (60 + 20) = 80 feet.
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 243

21. Volume: V = x2 y,
Surface: S = x2 + 4xy = x2 + 4xV /x2 = x2 + 4V /x.
To find the dimensions which minimize the area, find x such that dS/dx = 0.

dS 4V
= 2x − 2 = 0,
dx x
so
x3 = 2V,
√
and solving for x gives x = 2V . To see that this gives a minimum, note that for small x, S ≈ 4V /x is decreasing. For
3

large x, S ≈ x2 is increasing. Since

pthere is only one critical point, this must give a global minimum. Using x to find y
gives y = V /x2 = V /(2V )2/3 = 3 V /4.
22. If the illumination is represented by I, then we know that
k cos θ
I= .
r2
See Figure 4.104.

r
h

O 10 P

Figure 4.104

√
Since r 2 = h2 + 102 and cos θ = h/r = h/ h2 + 102 , we have
kh
I= .
(h2 + 102 )3/2
To find the height at which I is maximized, we differentiate


dI k 3kh(2h) k(h2 + 102 ) − 3kh2 k 102 − 2h2
= − = = .
dh (h2 + 102 )3/2 2 (h2 + 102 )5/2 (h2 + 102 )5/2 (h2 + 102 )5/2
Setting dI/dh = 0 gives
102 − 2h2 = 0
√
h = 50 meters.
√ √ √
Since dI/dh > 0 for 0 ≤ h < 50 and dI/dh < 0 for h > 50, we know that I is a maximum when h = 50 meters.

23. The distance from a given point on the parabola (x, x2 ) to (1, 0) is given by
p
D= (x − 1)2 + (x2 − 0)2 .
Minimizing this is equivalent to minimizing d = (x − 1)2 + x4 . (We can ignore the square root if we are only
interested in minimizing because the square root is smallest when the thing it is the square root of is smallest.) To minimize
d, we find its critical points by solving d0 = 0. Since d = (x − 1)2 + x4 = x2 − 2x + 1 + x4 ,
d0 = 2x − 2 + 4x3 = 2(2x3 + x − 1).
By graphing d0 = 2(2x3 + 2x − 1) on a calculator, we see that it has only 1 root, x ≈ 0.59. This must give a minimum
because d → ∞ as x → −∞ and as x → +∞, and d has only one critical point. This is confirmed by the second
derivative test: d00 = 12x2 + 2 = 2(6x2 + 1), which is always positive. Thus the point (0.59, 0.592 ) ≈ (0.59, 0.35) is
approximately the closest point of y = x2 to (1, 0).
244 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

24. Any point on the curve can be written (x, x2 ). The distance between such a point and (3, 0) is given by
p p
s(x) = (3 − x)2 + (0 − x2 )2 = (3 − x)2 + x4 .
Plotting this function in Figure 4.105, we see that there is a minimum near x = 1.
To find the value of x that minimizes the distance we can instead minimize the function Q = s 2 (the derivative is
simpler). Then we have
Q(x) = (3 − x)2 + x4 .
Differentiating Q(x) gives
dQ
= −6 + 2x + 4x3 .
dx
Plotting the function 4x3 + 2x − 6 shows that there is one real solution at x = 1, which can be verified by substitution; the
required coordinates are therefore (1, 1). Because Q00 (x) = 2 + 12x2 is always positive, x = 1 is indeed the minimum.
See Figure 4.106.
y
17.5 y

15 100

12.5
50
10
7.5 x
−4 −2 2 4
5
2.5 −50

x
−4 −2 0 2 4 −100

Figure 4.105 Figure 4.106

25. We see that the width of the tunnel is 2r. The area of the rectangle is then (2r)h. The area of the semicircle is (πr 2 )/2.
The cross-sectional area, A, is then
1
A = 2rh + πr2
2
and the perimeter, P , is
P = 2h + 2r + πr.
From A = 2rh + (πr 2 )/2 we get
A πr
h= − .
2r 4
Thus,  
A πr A πr
P =2 − + 2r + πr = + 2r + .
2r 4 r 2
We now have the perimeter in terms of r and the constant A. Differentiating, we obtain
dP A π
=− 2 +2+ .
dr r 2
To find the critical points we set P 0 = 0:
A π
− + +2 = 0
r2 2
r2 2
=
A 4+π
r
2A
r= .
4+π
Substituting this back into our expression for h, we have
√ √
A 4+π π 2A
h= · √ − ·√ .
2 2A 4 4+π
Since P → ∞ as r → 0+ and as r → ∞, this critical point must be a global minimum. Notice that the h-value simplifies
to r
2A
h= = r.
4+π
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 245

26. Let the sides of the rectangle have lengths a and b. We shall look for the minimum of the square s of the length of either
diagonal, i.e. s = a2 + b2 . The area is A = ab, so b = A/a. This gives
A2
s(a) = a2 + .
a2
To find the minimum squared length we need to find the critical points of s. Differentiating s with respect to a gives
 
ds A2
= 2a + (−2)A2 a−3 = 2a 1 − 4
da a
√ d2 s
The derivative ds/da = 0 when a = A, that is when a = b and so the rectangle is a square. Because =
  da2
3A2
2 1+ 4 > 0, this is a minimum.
a
27. Let x equal the number of chairs ordered in excess of 300, so 0 ≤ x ≤ 100.
Revenue = R = (90 − 0.25x)(300 + x)
= 27, 000 − 75x + 90x − 0.25x2 = 27, 000 + 15x − 0.25x2
At a critical point dR/dx = 0. Since dR/dx = 15 − 0.5x, we have x = 30, and the maximum revenue is $27, 225 since
the graph of R is a parabola which opens downward. The minimum is $0 (when no chairs are sold).
28. If v is the speed of the boat in miles per hour, then
Cost of fuel per hour (in $/hour) = kv 3 ,
where k is the constant of proportionality. To find k, use the information that the boat uses $100 worth of fuel per hour
when cruising at 10 miles per hour: 100 = k103 , so k = 100/103 = 0.1. Thus,
Cost of fuel per hour (in $/hour) = 0.1v 3 .
From the given information, we also have
Cost of other operations (labor, maintenance, etc.) per hour (in $/hour) = 675.
So
Total Cost per hour (in $/hour) = Cost of fuel (in $/hour) + Cost of other (in $/hour)
= 0.1v 3 + 675.
However, we want to find the Cost per mile, which is the Total Cost per hour divided by the number of miles that the ferry
travels in one hour. Since v is the speed in miles/hour at which the ferry travels, the number of miles that the ferry travels
in one hour is simply v miles. Let C = Cost per mile. Then
Total Cost per hour (in $/hour)
Cost per mile (in $/mile) =
Distance traveled per hour (in miles/hour)
0.1v 3 + 675 675
C= = 0.1v 2 + .
v v
We also know that 0 < v < ∞. To find the speed at which Cost per mile is minimized, set
dC 675
= 2(0.1)v − 2 = 0
dv v
so
675
2(0.1)v =
v2
3 675
v = = 3375
2(0.1)
v = 15 miles/hour.
Since
d2 C 2(675)
= 0.2 + >0
dv 2 v3
for v > 0, v = 15 gives a local minimum for C by the second-derivative test. Since this is the only critical point for
0 < v < ∞, it must give a global minimum.
29. (a) We have
1/x
x1/x = eln (x )
= e(1/x) ln x .
246 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Thus
d(x1/x ) d(e(1/x) ln x ) d( 1 ln x) (1/x) ln x
= = x e
dx dx dx
 
ln x 1
= − 2 + 2 x1/x
x x
(
= 0 when x = e
x1/x
= 2 (1 − ln x) < 0 when x > e
x
> 0 when x < e.
Hence e1/e is the global maximum for x1/x , by the first derivative test.
(b) Since x1/x is increasing for 0 < x < e and decreasing for x > e, and 2 and 3 are the closest integers to e, either
21/2 or 31/3 is the maximum for n1/n . We have 21/2 ≈ 1.414 and 31/3 ≈ 1.442, so 31/3 is the maximum.
(c) Since e < 3 < π, and x1/x is decreasing for x > e, 31/3 > π 1/π .
√
30. (a) If, following the hint, we set f (x) = (a + x)/2 − ax, then f (x) represents the difference between the arithmetic
and geometric means for some fixed a and any x > 0. We can find where this difference is minimized by solving
√ √ √
f 0 (x) = 0. Since f 0 (x) = 12 − 12 ax−1/2 , if f 0 (x) = 0 then 12 ax−1/2 = 12 , or x = a. Since f 00 (x) = 41 ax−3/2
is positive for all positive
√ x, by the second derivative test f (x) has a minimum
√ at x = a, and f (a) = 0. Thus
f (x) = (a + x)/2 − ax ≥ 0 for all x > 0, which means (a + x)/2 ≥ ax. This means that the arithmetic mean
is greater than the geometric mean unless a = x, in which case the two means are equal.
Alternatively, and without using calculus, we obtain
√
a+b √ a − 2 ab + b
− ab =
2 2
√ √
( a − b)2
= ≥ 0,
2
√
and again we have (a + b)/2 ≥ ab. √
(b) Following the hint, set f (x) = a+b+x − abx. Then f (x) represents the difference between the arithmetic and
3
3
geometric means for some fixed a, b√and any x > 0. We can find where this √ difference is minimized√ by solving
f 0 (x) = 0. Since f 0 (x) = 31 − 13 abx−2/3 , f 0 (x) = 0 implies that 31 abx−2/3 = 31 , or x = ab. Since
3 3
√ √
f 00 (x) = 29 abx−5/3 is positive for all positive x, by the second derivative test f (x) has a minimum at x = ab.
3

But √ √ √
√ a + b + ab
p
3 √ a + b + ab √ a + b − 2 ab
f ( ab) = − ab ab = − ab = .
3 √ 3 3 √
By the first part of this problem, we know that 2 − ab ≥ 0, which implies that a + b − 2 ab ≥ 0. Thus
a+b
√ √ √
f ( ab) = a+b−2 ab
≥ 0. Since f has a maximum at x = ab, f (x) is always nonnegative. Thus f (x) =
√ 3 √
− abx ≥ 0, so a+b+c ≥ abc. Note that equality holds only when a = b = c. (Part (b) may also be done
a+b+x 3 3
3 3
without calculus, but it’s harder than (a).)
31. (a) The line in the left-hand figure has slope equal to the rate worms arrive. To understand why, see line (1) in the
right-hand figure. (This is the same line.) For any point Q on the loading curve, the line P Q has slope
QT QT load
= = .
PT P O + OT traveling time + searching time
(b) The slope of the line P Q is maximized when the line is tangent to the loading curve, which happens with line (2).
The load is then approximately 7 worms.
(c) If the traveling time is increased, the point P moves to the left, to point P 0 , say. If line (3) is tangent to the curve, it
will be tangent to the curve further to the right than line (2), so the optimal load is larger. This makes sense: if the
bird has to fly further, you’d expect it to bring back more worms each time.
load load
(number of worms) (number of worms) (2)
8 Number of worms 8 Number of worms
(3)

4 Q
(1)
time time
P O P0 P O T
Traveling time Searching time
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 247
√
32. Let x be asp
indicated in the figure in the text. Then the distance from S to Town 1 is 1 + x2 and the distance from S to
√
Town 2 is (4 − x)2 + 42 = x2 − 8x + 32.
p p
Total length of pipe = f (x) = 1 + x2 + x2 − 8x + 32.
We want to look for critical points of f . The easiest way is to graph f and see that it has a local minimum at about x = 0.8
miles. Alternatively, we can use the formula:
2x 2x − 8
f 0 (x) = √ + √
2 1 + x2 2 x2 − 8x + 32
x x−4
= √ +√
1 + x2 x2 − 8x + 32
√ √
x x2 − 8x + 32 + (x − 4) 1 + x2
= √ √ = 0.
1 + x2 x2 − 8x + 32
f 0 (x) is equal to zero when the numerator is equal to zero.
p p
x x2 − 8x + 32 + (x − 4) 1 + x2 = 0
p p
x x2 − 8x + 32 = (4 − x) 1 + x2 .
Squaring both sides and simplifying, we get
x2 (x2 − 8x + 32) = (x2 − 8x + 16)(14x2 )
x4 − 8x3 + 32x2 = x4 − 8x3 + 17x2 − 8x + 16
15x2 + 8x − 16 = 0,
(3x + 4)(5x − 4) = 0.
So x = 4/5. (Discard x = −4/3 since we are only interested in x between 0 and 4, between the two towns.) Using the
second derivative test, we can verify that x = 4/5 is a local minimum.
33. (a) The distance the pigeon flies over water is
AB 500
BP = = ,
sin θ sin θ
and over land is
500 500 cos θ
P L = AL − AP = 2000 − = 2000 − .
tan θ sin θ
Therefore the energy required is
   
500 500 cos θ
E = 2e + e 2000 −
sin θ sin θ
   
2 − cos θ 500 π
= 500e + 2000e, for arctan ≤θ≤ .
sin θ 2000 2
2 − cos θ
(b) Notice that E and the function f (θ) = must have the same critical points since the graph of E is just a
sin θ
2 − cos θ
stretch and a vertical shift of the graph of f . The graph of for arctan( 2000
500
) ≤ θ ≤ π2 in Figure 4.107
sin θ
shows that E has precisely one critical point, and that a minimum for E occurs at this point.

θ
500 π π
arctan 2000 3 2

Figure 4.107: Graph of f (θ) = 2−cos θ

sin θ
for arctan( 2000
500
)≤θ≤ π
2
248 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

To find the critical point θ, we solve f 0 (θ) = 0 or

 
0 sin θ · sin θ − (2 − cos θ) · cos θ
E = 0 = 500e
sin2 θ
 
1 − 2 cos θ
= 500e .
sin2 θ
Therefore 1 − 2 cos θ = 0 and so θ = π/3.
(c) Letting a = AB and b = AL, our formula for E becomes
   
a a cos θ
E = 2e +e b−
sin θ sin θ
   
2 − cos θ a π
= ea + eb, for arctan ≤θ≤ .
sin θ b 2
2 − cos θ
Again, the graph of E is just a stretch and a vertical shift of the graph of . Thus, the critical point θ = π/3
sin θ
is independent of e, a, and b. But the maximum of E on the domain arctan(a/b) ≤ θ ≤ π2 is dependent on the ratio
AB
a/b = . In other words, the optimal angle is θ = π/3 provided arctan(a/b) ≤ π3 ; otherwise, the optimal angle
AL
is arctan(a/b), which means the pigeon should fly over the lake for the entire trip—this occurs when a/b > 1.733.
34. We want to maximize the viewing angle, which is θ = θ1 − θ2 .

92

6
θ = θ 1 − θ2
46 θ1

?? θ2
x

Now
 
92 92
tan(θ1 ) = so θ1 = arctan
x x
 
46 46
tan(θ2 ) = so θ2 = arctan .
x x
Then    
92 46
θ = arctan − arctan for x > 0.
x x
We look for critical points of the function by computing dθ/dx:
   
dθ 1 −92 1 −46
= −
dx 1 + (92/x)2 x2 1 + (46/x)2 x2
−92 −46
= 2 − 2
x + 922 x + 462
−92(x2 + 462 ) + 46(x2 + 922 )
=
(x2 + 922 ) · (x2 + 462 )
46(4232 − x2 )
= .
(x2 + 922 ) · (x2 + 462 )
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 249

Setting dθ/dx = 0 gives

x2 = 4232
√
x = ± 4232.
√
Since x > 0, the critical point is x = √4232 ≈ 65.1 meters. To verify√
that this is indeed where θ attains a maximum,
we note that dθ/dx
√ > 0 for 0 < x < 4232 and dθ/dx < 0 for x > 4232. By the First Derivative Test, θ attains a
maximum at x = 4232 ≈ 65.1.
35. (a) Since the speed of light is a constant, the time of travel is minimized when the distance of travel is minimized. From
Figure 4.108,
−
−→ p p
Distance OP = x2 + 12 = x2 + 1
−
−→ p p
Distance P Q = (2 − x)2 + 12 = (2 − x)2 + 1

Thus, p p
Total distance traveled = s = x2 + 1 + (2 − x)2 + 1.
The total distance is a minimum if
ds 1 1
= (x2 + 1)−1/2 · 2x + ((2 − x)2 + 1)−1/2 · 2(2 − x)(−1) = 0,
dx 2 2
giving
x 2−x
√ −p =0
x2 + 1 (2 − x)2 + 1
x 2−x
√ = p
x2 + 1 (2 − x)2 + 1

Squaring both sides gives

x2 (2 − x)2
= .
x2 +1 (2 − x)2 + 1
Cross multiplying gives
x2 ((2 − x)2 + 1) = (2 − x)2 (x2 + 1).
Multiplying out

x2 (4 − 4x + x2 + 1) = (4 − 4x + x2 )(x2 + 1)
4x2 − 4x3 + x4 + x2 = 4x2 − 4x3 + x4 + 4 − 4x + x2 .

Collecting terms and canceling gives

0 = 4 − 4x
x = 1.

We can see that this value of x gives a minimum by comparing the value of s at this point and at the endpoints,
x = 0, x = 2.
At x = 1, p p
s = 12 + 1 + (2 − 1)2 + 1 = 2.83.
At x = 0, p p
s= 02 + 1 + (2 − 0)2 + 1 = 3.24.
At x = 2, p p
s= 22 + 1 + (2 − 2)2 + 1 = 3.24.
Thus the shortest travel time occurs when x = 1; that is, when P is at the point (1, 1).
(b) Since x = 1 is halfway between x = 0 and x = 2, the angles θ1 and θ2 are equal.
250 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

A Medium 1
Velocity 1
y P = (x, 1) a
1 θ1
R
A0  c−x - x B0

θ2

Medium 2
A Velocity 2
x B
O x (2 − x) 2  c -
Figure 4.108 Figure 4.109

36. (a) Since RB 0 = x and A0 R = c − x, we have

p p
AR = a2 + (c − x)2 and RB = b2 + x 2 .
See Figure 4.109.
The time traveled, T , is given by
Distance AR Distance RB
T = Time AR + Time RB = +
v1 v2
p √
a2 + (c − x)2 b2 + x 2
= + .
v1 v2
(b) Let us calculate dT /dx:
dT −2(c − x) 2x
= p + √ .
dx 2
2v1 a + (c − x) 2 2v 2
2 b +x
2

At the minimum dT /dx = 0, so

c−x x
p = √ .
v1 a2 + (c − x)2 v2 b2 + x 2
But we have
c−x x
sin θ1 = p and sin θ2 = √ .
a2 + (c − x)2 b + x2
2

Therefore, setting dT /dx = 0 tells us that

sin θ1 sin θ2
=
v1 v2
which gives
sin θ1 v1
= .
sin θ2 v2
37. We know that the time taken is given by
p √
a2 + (c − x)2
b2 + x 2
T = +
v1 v2
dT −(c − x) x
= p + √ .
dx 2
v1 a + (c − x) 2 v 2 b 2 + x2

Differentiating again gives

d2 T 1 (c − x)(−2(c − x)) 1 x(2x)
= p + + √ −
dx2 2
v1 a + (c − x) 2 2v 1 (a 2 + (c − x)2 )3/2 2
v2 b + x 2 2v 2 (b 2 + x2 )3/2

a2 + (c − x)2 − (c − x)2 b2 + x 2 − x 2
= 2 2 3/2
+
v1 (a + (c − x) ) v2 (b2 + x2 )3/2
a2 b2
= + .
v1 (a2 + (c − x)2 )3/2 v2 (b2 + x2 )3/2
This expression for d2 T /dx2 shows that for any value of x, a, c, v1 , and v2 with v1 , v2 > 0, we have d2 T /dx2 > 0.
Thus, any critical point must be a local minimum. Since there is only one critical point, it must be a global minimum.
 4.5 SOLUTIONS 251

38. (a) See Figure 4.110.

x2 + y 2 = 9 y
x2 + y 2 = 4 4
x2 + y 2 = 1
R
R
R x+y =4
x
4

Figure 4.110

(b) As C increases in the equation x2 + y 2 = C, the circle expands outward. For C = 4, the circle does not intersect the
line. As C increases from 4, the circle expands until it touches the line. At C = 9, the circle cuts the line twice.
The minimum value of C = x2 + y 2 occurs where a circle tangent to the line. For larger C-values, x2 + y 2 = C
cuts the line twice, for smaller C-values, the circle does not touch the line.
(c) At the point at when the circle touches the line, the slope of the circle equals the slope of the line, namely −1. Implicit
differentiation gives the slope of x2 + y 2 = C:

2x + 2y · y 0 = 0
−x
y0 = .
y
Thus, at the point where a circle touches the line, we have
x
− = −1
y
x = y.

Substitution into x + y = 4 gives 2x = 4, so x = 2 and y = 2. Thus, the minimum is x 2 + y 2 = 22 + 22 = 8.

39. (a) See Figure 4.111.

y
Q = 100
Q = 200
Q = 300

5 C = x + 2y = 10

x
10

Figure 4.111

(b) Comparing the curves Q = 100, Q = 200, and Q = 300, we see that production increases as we move away from
the origin. The curve Q = 100 cuts the line C = x + 2y = 10 twice while the curves Q = 200 and Q = 300 do not
cut the line.
The maximum possible Q occurs where a curve touches the line. At this point, the slope of the production curve
equals the slope of the budget line, namely −1/2.
(c) Using implicit differentiation, the slope of the curve 10xy = C is given by

10y + 10xy 0 = 0
y
y0 = − .
x
252 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Thus, at the point where the curve touches the line, whose slope is −1/2, we have
y 1
− =−
x 2
x
y= .
2
Substituting into C = x + 2y = 10 gives 2x = 10, so x = 5 and y = 5/2. Thus, the maximum production is
5
Q = 10 · 5 · = 125.
2

40. (a) See Figure 4.112.

y
4
C=4

C=3
2

C=2

Q = x1/2 y 1/2
x
2 4

Figure 4.112

(b) Comparing the lines C = 2, C = 3, C = 4, we see that the cost increases as we move away from the origin. The
line C = 2 does not cut the curve Q = 1; the lines C = 3 and C = 4 cut twice.
The minimum cost occurs where a cost line is tangent to the production curve.
(c) Using implicit differentiation, the slope of x1/2 y 1/2 = 1 is given by
1 −1/2 1/2 1 1/2 −1/2 0
x y + x y y =0
2 2
−x−1/2 y 1/2 y
y 0 = 1/2 −1/2 = − .
x y x
The cost lines all have slope −2. Thus, if the curve is tangent to a line, we have
y
− = −2
x
y = 2x.

Substituting into Q = x1/2 y 1/2 = 1 gives

x1/2 (2x)1/2 = 1
√
2x = 1
1
x= √
2
1 √
y = 2 · √ = 2.
2
Thus the minimum cost is
1 √ √
C = 2 √ + 2 = 2 2.
2
 4.6 SOLUTIONS 253

Solutions for Section 4.6

Exercises

1. The rate of growth, in billions of people per year, is

dP
= 6.342(0.011)e0.011t .
dt
On January 1, 2004, we have t = 0, so
dP
= 6.342(0.011)e0 = 0.0698 billion/year = 69.8 million/year.
dt
2. The rate of change of temperature is
dH
= 16(−0.02)e−0.02t = −0.32e−0.02t .
dt
When t = 0,
dH
= −0.32e0 = −0.32◦ C/min.
dt
When t = 10,
dH
= −0.32e−0.02(10) = −0.262◦ C/min.
dt
3. The rate of change of the power dissipated is given by
dP 81
= − 2.
dR R
4. (a) The rate of change of the period is given by
dT 2π d √ 2π 1 π 1 π
= √ ( l) = √ · l−1/2 = √ ·√ = √ .
dl 9.8 dl 9.8 2 9.8 l 9.8l
√
(b) The rate decreases since l is in the denominator.
5. (a) The rate of change of thickness of ice is
dy
= 0.2(1.5)t0.5 = 0.3t0.5 cm/hr.
dt
Thus, at t = 1 
dy 
 = 0.3(1)0.5 = 0.3 cm/hr.
dt t=1
At t = 2, 
dy 
 = 0.3(2)0.5 = 0.424 cm/hr.
dt t=2
(b) Since both y = 0.2t1.5 and dy/dt = 0.3t0.5 increase as t increase on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 3, the thickness, y, and
the rate, dy/dt, are both greatest when t = 3.
6. (a) The rate of change of temperature change is
 
dT d C 3 D4 3C 2 4D3
= D − = D − .
dD dD 2 3 2 3

(b) We want to know for what values of D the value of dT /dD is positive. This occurs when
 
dT 3C 4D
= − D2 > 0
dD 2 3
Since D 2 ≥ 0 for all D, we have
3C 4 3C 4 9C
− D>0 so > D so D< .
2 3 2 3 8
So the rate of change of temperature change is positive for doses less than 9C/8.
254 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

7. The rate of change of velocity is given by

 
dv mg k −kt/m
=− − e = ge−kt/m .
dt k m
When t = 0, 
dv 
 = g.
dt t=0
When t = 1, 
dv 
 = ge−k/m .
dt t=1
These answers give the acceleration at t = 0 and t = 1. The acceleration at t = 0 is g, the acceleration due to gravity,
and at t = 1, the acceleration is ge−k/m , a smaller value.
8. (a) The rate of change of average cost as quantity increases is
dC a
= − 2 dollars/cell phone.
dq q
(b) We are told that dq/dt = 100, and we want dC/dt. The chain rule gives

dC dC dq a 100a
= · = − 2 · 100 = − 2 dollars/week.
dt dq dt q q
Since a is positive, dC/dt is negative, so C is decreasing.
9. (a) The rate of change of force with respect to distance is
dF 2A 3B
= 3 − 4.
dr r r
The units are units of force per units of distance.
(b) We are told that dr/dt = k and we want dF/dt. By the chain rule
 
dF dF dr 2A 3B
= · = − 4 k.
dt dr dt r3 r
The units are units of force per unit time.
10. (a) (i) Differentiating thinking of r as a constant gives
dP r
= 500ert/100 · = 5rert/100 .
dt 100
Substituting t = 0 gives
dP
= 5rer·0/100 = 5r dollars/yr.
dt
(ii) Substituting t = 2 gives
dP
= 5rer·2/100 = 5re0.02r dollars/yr.
dt
(b) To differentiate thinking of r as variable, think of the function as

P = 500er(t)·t/100 ,

and use the chain rule (for ert/100 ) and the product rule (for r(t) · t):

dP 1 d

= 500er(t)·t/100 · · (r(t) · t) = 5er(t)·t/100 r(t) · 1 + r 0 (t) · t .
dt 100 dt
Substituting t = 2, r = 4, and r 0 (2) = 0.3 gives
dP
= 5e4·2/100 (4 + 0.3 · 2) = 24.916 dollars/year
dt
Thus, the price is increasing by about $25 per year at that time.
 4.6 SOLUTIONS 255

11. We know dR/dt = 0.2 when R = 5 and V = 9 and we want to know dI/dt. Differentiating I = V /R with V constant
gives  
dI 1 dR
=V − 2 ,
dt R dt
so substituting gives  
dI 1
= 9 − 2 · 0.2 = −0.072 ohms per second.
dt 5

12. We differentiate F = k/r 2 with respect to t using the chain rule to give
dF 2k dr
=− 3 · .
dt r dt
We know that k = 1013 newton · km2 and that the rocket is moving at 0.2 km/sec when r = 104 km. In other words,
dr/dt = 0.2 km/sec when r = 104 . Substituting gives

dF 2 · 1013
=− · 0.2 = −4 newtons/sec.
dt (104 )3

Problems

13. (a) From the second figure in the problem, we see that θ ≈ 3.3 when t = 2. The coordinates of P are given by x = cos θ,
y = sin θ. When t = 2, the coordinates of P are

(x, y) ≈ (cos 3.3, sin 3.3) = (−0.99, −0.16).

(b) Using the chain rule, the velocity in the x-direction is given by
dx dx dθ dθ
vx = = · = − sin θ · .
dt dθ dt dt
From Figure 4.113, we estimate that when t = 2,

dθ 
 ≈ 2.
dt t=2
So
dx
vx = ≈ −(−0.16) · (2) = 0.32.
dt
Similarly, the velocity in the y-direction is given by
dy dy dθ dθ
vy = = · = cos θ · .
dt dθ dt dt
When t = 2
dy
vy = ≈ (−0.99) · (2) = −1.98.
dt

3.3

t
2

Figure 4.113
256 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

14. (a) On the interval 0 < M < 70, we have

∆G 2.8
Slope = = = 0.04 gallons per mile.
∆M 70
On the interval 70 < M < 100, we have
∆G 4.6 − 2.8 1.8
Slope = = = = 0.06 gallons per mile.
∆M 100 − 70 30
(b) Gas consumption, in miles per gallon, is the reciprocal of the slope, in gallons per mile. On the interval 0 < M < 70,
gas consumption is 1/(0.04) = 25 miles per gallon. On the interval 70 < M < 100, gas consumption is 1/(0.06) =
16.667 miles per gallon.
(c) In Figure 4.85 in the text, we see that the velocity for the first hour of this trip is 70 mph and the velocity for the
second hour is 30 mph. The first hour may have been spent driving on an interstate highway and the second hour may
have been spent driving in a city. The answers to part (b) would then tell us that this car gets 25 miles to the gallon
on the highway and about 16 miles to the gallon in the city.
(d) Since M = h(t), we have G = f (M ) = f (h(t)) = k(t). The function k gives the total number of gallons of gas
used t hours into the trip. We have
G = k(0.5) = f (h(0.5)) = f (35) = 1.4 gallons.
The car consumes 1.4 gallons of gas during the first half hour of the trip.
(e) Since k(t) = f (h(t)), by the chain rule, we have
dG
= k 0 (t) = f 0 (h(t)) · h0 (t).
dt
Therefore:

dG 
= k 0 (0.5) = f 0 (h(0.5)) · h0 (0.5) = f 0 (35) · 70 = 0.04 · 70 = 2.8 gallons per hour,
dt t=0.5
and 
dG 
= k 0 (1.5) = f 0 (h(1.5)) · h0 (1.5) = f 0 (85) · 30 = 0.06 · 30 = 1.8 gallons per hour.
dt t=1.5
Gas is being consumed at a rate of 2.8 gallons per hour at time t = 0.5 and is being consumed at a rate of 1.8
gallons per hour at time t = 1.5. Notice that gas is being consumed more quickly on the highway, even though the
gas mileage is significantly better there.
15. (a) Assuming that T (1) = 98.6 − 2 = 96.6, we get
96.6 = 68 + 30.6e−k·1
28.6 = 30.6e−k
0.935 = e−k .
So
k = − ln(0.935) ≈ 0.067.
(b) We’re looking for a value of t which gives T 0 (t) = −1. First we find T 0 (t):
T (t) = 68 + 30.6e−0.067t
T 0 (t) = (30.6)(−0.067)e−0.067t ≈ −2e−0.067t .
Setting this equal to −1 per hour gives
−1 = −2e−0.067t
ln(0.5) = −0.067t
ln(0.5)
t=− ≈ 10.3.
0.067
Thus, when t ≈ 10.3 hours, we have T 0 (t) ≈ −1◦ F per hour.
(c) The coroner’s rule of thumb predicts that in 24 hours the body temperature will decrease 25 ◦ F, to about 73.6◦ F. The
formula predicts a temperature of
T (24) = 68 + 30.6e−0.067·24 ≈ 74.1◦ F.
 4.6 SOLUTIONS 257

16. (a) Since P = 1 when V = 20, we have

k = 1 · (201.4 ) = 66.29.
Thus, we have
P = 66.29V −1.4 .
Differentiating gives
dP
= 66.29(−1.4V −2.4 ) = −92.8V −2.4 atmospheres/cm3 .
dV
(b) We are given that dV /dt = 2 cm3 /min when V = 30 cm3 . Using the chain rule, we have

  
dP dP dV atm cm3
= · = −92.8V −2.4 3 2
dt dV dt cm min

atm
= −92.8 30−2.4 2
min
= −0.0529 atmospheres/min
Thus, the pressure is decreasing at 0.0529 atmospheres per minute.
17. (a) The surface of the water is circular with radius r cm. Applying Pythagoras’ Theorem to the triangle in Figure 4.114
shows that
(10 − h)2 + r2 = 102
so p p
r = 102 − (10 − h)2 = 20h − h2 cm.
(b) We know dh/dt = −0.1 cm/hr and we want to know dr/dt when h = 5 cm. Differentiating
p
r= 20h − h2
gives  
dr 1 dh dh 10 − h dh
= (20h − h2 )−1/2 20 − 2h = √ · .
dt 2 dt dt 20h − h2 dt
Substituting dh/dt = −0.1 and h = 5 gives

dr  5 1
= √ · (−0.1) = − √ = −0.0577 cm/hr.
dt h=5 20 · 5 − 52 2 75
Thus, the radius is decreasing at 0.0577 cm per hour.
6 cm -
6
6 r
(10 − h)
10 -
10 cm
? 6
6 I h
h
r
? ? ?

Figure 4.114 Figure 4.115

18. (a) When full

1 2 1
Volume of water in filter = πr h = π62 · 10 = 120π.
3 3
Water flows out at a rate of 1.5 cm3 per second, so
120π
Time to empty = = 80π = 251.327 secs.
1.5
The time taken is 251.327 sec or just over 4 minutes.
(b) Let the radius of the surface of the water be r cm when the depth is h cm. See Figure 4.115. Then by similar triangles
6 r
=
10 h
3
r = h.
5
258 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Thus, when the depth of the water is h,

 2
1 2 1 3 3
Volume of water = V = πr h = π h h= πh3 cm3 .
3 3 5 25
(c) We know that water is flowing out at 1.5 cm3 per second, so dV /dt = −1.5. We want to know dh/dt when h = 8.
Differentiating the answer to part (b), we have
dV 3 dh 9 dh
= π3h2 = πh2 .
dt 25 dt 25 dt
Substituting dV /dt = −1.5 and h = 8 gives

9 dh
−1.5 = π82 ·
25 dt
dh 1.5 · 25
=− = −0.0207 cm/sec.
dt 9π82
Thus, the water level is dropping by 0.0207 cm per second.
19. When the radius is r, the volume V of the snowball is
4 3
V = πr .
3
We know that dr/dt = −0.2 when r = 15 and we want to know dV /dt at that time. Differentiating, we have

dV 4 dr dr
= π3r2 = 4πr 2 .
dt 3 dt dt
Substituting dr/dt = −0.2 gives

dV 
= 4π(15)2 (−0.2) = −180π = −565.487 cm3 /hr.
dt r=15

Thus, the volume is decreasing at 565.487 cm3 per hour.

20. (a) Since the slick is circular, if its radius is r meters, its area, A, is A = πr 2 . Differentiating with respect to time using
the chain rule gives
dA dr
= 2πr .
dt dt
We know dr/dt = 0.1 when r = 150, so

dA
= 2π150(0.1) = 30π = 94.248 m2 /min.
dt
(b) If the thickness of the slick is h, its volume, V , is given by

V = Ah.

Differentiating with respect to time using the product rule gives

dV dA dh
= h+A .
dt dt dt
We know h = 0.02 and A = π(150)2 and dA/dt = 30π. Since V is fixed, dV /dt = 0, so

dh
0 = 0.02(30π) + π(150)2 .
dt
Thus
dh 0.02(30π)
=− = −0.0000267 m/min,
dt π(150)2
so the thickness is decreasing at 0.0000267 meters per minute.
 4.6 SOLUTIONS 259

21. Let the volume of clay be V. The clay is in the shape of a cylinder, so V = πr 2 L. We know dL/dt = 0.1 cm/sec and we
want to know dr/dt when r = 1 cm and L = 5 cm. Differentiating with respect to time t gives

dV dr dL
= π2rL + πr 2 .
dt dt dt
However, the amount of clay is unchanged, so dV /dt = 0 and

dr dL
2rL = −r 2 ,
dt dt
therefore

dr r dL
=− .
dt 2L dt
When the radius is 1 cm and the length is 5 cm, and the length is increasing at 0.1 cm per second, the rate at which
the radius is changing is
dr 1
=− · 0.1 = −0.01 cm/sec.
dt 2·5
Thus, the radius is decreasing at 0.01 cm/sec.
22. Let the origin be at the center of the wheel and (x, y) be the coordinates of a point on the wheel. Then x 2 + y 2 = R2 ,
where R = 62.5 meters is the radius of the wheel. One minute into the ride,we know the passenger is rising at 0.1 meters
per second, so dy/dt = 0.1. We want to know dx/dt. Differentiating with respect to time, t, gives

dx dy
2x + 2y = 0,
dt dt
so
dx y dy
=− .
dt x dt
Suppose we are looking at the wheel in such a way that it appears to be rotating counter clockwise. In one minute,
the wheel travels through 360◦ /20 = 18◦ . From Figure 4.116, we see that at this time the coordinates of the passenger
are x = R sin 18◦ and y = −R cos 18◦ . Since the vertical speed of the cabin is dy/dt = 0.1 meters per second, the
horizontal speed of the wheel, dx/dt, is

dx −R cos 18◦
=− 0.1 = 0.308 meters/second.
dt R sin 18◦

Truck

18◦ y h
R

•
(x, y)
Start Gas station x Car

Figure 4.116 Figure 4.117

23. (a) Let x, y be the distances, in miles, of the car and truck respectively, from the gas station. See Figure 4.117. If the car
and truck are h miles apart, Pythagoras’ Theorem gives

h2 = x 2 + y 2 .
260 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

We know that when x = 3, dx/dt = −100 (the negative sign represents the fact that the distance from the gas
station is decreasing), and y = 4, dy/dt = 80. Thus

h2 = 32 + 42 = 25 so h = 5 miles.

We want to find dh/dt. Differentiating h2 = x2 + y 2 gives

dh dx dy
2h = 2x + 2y
dt dt dt
dh
5 = 3(−100) + 4(80)
dt
dh −300 + 320
= = 4 mph.
dt 5
Thus, the distance is increasing at 4 mph.
(b) If dy/dt = 70, we have
dh
5 = 3(−100) + 4(70)
dt
dh −300 + 280
= = −4 mph.
dt 5
Thus, the distance is decreasing at 4 mph.
24. (a) Using Pythagoras’ theorem, we see
z 2 = 0.52 + x2
so p
z= 0.25 + x2 .
(b) We want to calculate dz/dt. Using the chain rule, we have

dz dz dx 2x dx
= · = √ .
dt dx dt 2 0.25 + x2 dt
Because the train is moving at 0.8 km/hr, we know that
dx
= 0.8 km/hr.
dt
At the moment we are interested in z = 1 km so

12 = 0.25 + x2

giving √
x= 0.75 = 0.866 km.
Therefore
dz 2(0.866)
= √ · 0.8 = 0.866 · 0.8 = 0.693 km/min.
dt 2 0.25 + 0.75
(c) We want to know dθ/dt, where θ is as shown in Figure 4.118. Since
x
= tan θ
0.5
we know  
x
θ = arctan ,
0.5
so
dθ 1 1 dx
= · .
dt 1 + (x/0.5)2 0.5 dt
√
We know that dx/dt = 0.8 km/min and, at the moment we are interested in, x = 0.75. Substituting gives
dθ 1 1
= · · 0.8 = 0.4 radians/min.
dt 1 + 0.75/0.25 0.5
 4.6 SOLUTIONS 261
0 x km Train
- L
θ
0.5 2
z km
θ
,
Camera O x S

Figure 4.118 Figure 4.119

25. Using the triangle OSL in Figure 4.119, we label the distance x.
We want to calculate dx/dθ. First we must find x as a function of θ. From the triangle, we see
x
= tan θ so x = 2 tan θ.
2
Thus,
dx 2
= .
dθ cos2 θ

26. From Figure 4.120, Pythagoras’ Theorem shows that the ground distance, d, between the train and the point, B, vertically
below the plane is given by
d2 = x2 + y 2 .
Figure 4.121 shows that
z 2 = d2 + 42
so
z 2 = x2 + y 2 + 4 2 .
We know that when x = 1, dx/dt = 80, y = 5, dy/dt = 500, and we want to know dz/dt. First, we find z:
√
z 2 = 12 + 52 + 42 = 42, so z = 42.
Differentiating z 2 = x2 + y 2 + 42 gives
dz dx dy
2z = 2x + 2y .
dt dt dt
Canceling 2s and substituting gives
√ dz
42 = 1(80) + 5(500)
dt
dz 2580
= √ = 398.103 mph.
dt 42
B Plane: 4 miles above
this point
6

d y

Plane

z
4 miles
Train ?
A  - Train
x A d B

Figure 4.120: View from air Figure 4.121: Vertical view

262 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

27. If V is the volume of the balloon and r is its radius, then

4 3
V = πr .
3
We want to know the rate at which air is being blown into the balloon, which is the rate at which the volume is increasing,
dV /dt. We are told that
dr
= 2 cm/sec when r = 10 cm.
dt
Using the chain rule, we have
dV dV dr dr
= · = 4πr 2 .
dt dr dt dt
Substituting gives
dV
= 4π(10)2 2 = 800π = 2513.3 cm3 /sec.
dt

28. We are given that the volume is increasing at a constant rate dV

dt
= 400. The radius r is related to the volume by the
formula V = 43 πr3 . By implicit differentiation, we have
dV 4 dr dr
= π3r2 = 4πr 2
dt 3 dt dt
Plugging in dV
dt
= 400 and r = 10, we have
dr
400 = 400π
dt
so dr
dt
= 1
π
≈ 0.32µm/day.
29. Let r be the radius of the raindrop. Then its volume V = 43 πr3 cm3 and its surface area is S = 4πr 2 cm2 . It is given that
dV
= 2S = 8πr 2 .
dt
Furthermore,
dV
= 4πr 2 ,
dr
so from the chain rule,
dV dV dr dr dV /dt
= · and thus = = 2.
dt dr dt dt dV /dr
Since dr/dt is a constant, dr/dt = 2, the radius is increasing at a constant rate of 2 cm/sec.
30. The volume, V , of a cone of height h and radius r is
1 2
V =
πr h.
3
√
Since the angle of the cone is π/6, so r = h tan(π/6) = h/ 3
 2
1 h 1 3
V = π √ h= πh .
3 3 9
Differentiating gives
dV 1
= πh2 .
dh 3
To find dh/dt, use the chain rule to obtain
dV dV dh
= .
dt dh dt
So,
dh dV /dt 0.1meters/hour 0.3
= = = meters/hour.
dt dV /dh πh2 /3 πh2
√
Since r = h tan(π/6) = h/ 3, we have
dr dh 1 1 0.3
= √ = √ meters/hour.
dt dt 3 3 πh2
 4.6 SOLUTIONS 263

31. (a) The end of the pipe sweeps out a circle of circumference 2π · 20 = 40π meters in 5 minutes, so
40π
Speed = = 8π = 25.133 meters/min.
5
(b) The distance, h, between P and Q is given by the Law of Cosines:

h2 = 502 + 202 − 2 · 50 · 20 cos θ.

When θ = π/2, we have

h2 = 502 + 202 − 2 · 50 · 20 · 0.
√
h = 2900 = 53.852 m.
When θ = 0, we have h = 30 m.
Since the pipe makes one rotation of 2π radians every 5 minutes, we know
dθ 2π
= radians/minute.
dt 5
Differentiating the relationship h2 = 502 + 202 − 2 · 50 · 20 cos θ gives
dh dθ
2h = 2 · 50 · 20 sin θ .
dt dt
When θ = π/2, we have
√ dh 2π
2 2900 = 2 · 50 · 20 · 1 ·
dt 5
dh 50 · 20 2π
= √ · = 23.335 meters/min.
dt 2900 5
When θ = 0, we have
dh 2π
2 · 30 = 2 · 50 · 20 · 0 ·
dt 5
dh
= 0 meters/min.
dt

32. The volume, V, of a cone of radius r and height h is

1 2
V = πr h.
3
Figure 4.122 shows that h/r = 10/8, thus r = 8h/10, so
 2
1 8 64
V = π h h= πh3 .
3 10 300
Differentiating V with respect to time, t, gives
dV 64 dh
= πh2 .
dt 100 dt
Since water is flowing into the tank at 0.1 cubic meters/min but leaking out at a rate of 0.001h 2 cubic meters/min, we also
have
dV
= 0.1 − 0.001h2 .
dt
Equating the two expressions for dV /dt, we have

64 dh
πh2 = 0.1 − 0.001h2 .
100 dt
Solving for dh/dt gives
dh 0.1(100 − h2 )
= .
dt 64πh2
264 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

We conclude that if h < 10 then dh/dt > 0. Therefore, the depth increases until h = 10 when the tank is full. At that
point dh/dt = 0, so the water level does not continue to rise and the tank does not overflow.
8 cm -
6

r
-
10 cm
6
h

? ?

Figure 4.122

33. (a) Since the elevator is descending at 30 ft/sec, its height from the ground is given by h(t) = 300 − 30t, for 0 ≤
t ≤ 10.
(b) From the triangle in the figure,
h(t) − 100 300 − 30t − 100 200 − 30t
tan θ = = = .
150 150 150
Therefore  
200 − 30t
θ = arctan
150
and  
 
dθ 1 −30 1 1502
=
·
200−30t 2
=− .
dt 1+ 150 5 150 + (200 − 30t)2
2
150

Notice that dθ
dt
is always negative, which is reasonable since θ decreases as the elevator descends.
(c) If we want to know when θ changes (decreases) the fastest, we want to find out when dθ/dt has the largest magnitude.
This will occur when the denominator, 1502 + (200 − 30t)2 , in the expression for dθ/dt is the smallest, or when
200 − 30t = 0. This occurs when t = 200 30
seconds, and so h( 200
30
) = 100 feet, i.e., when the elevator is at the level
of the observer.
34. (a) We differentiate a2 (t) + b2 (t) = c with respect to t to find
d 2 d
(a (t) + b2 (t)) = c,
dt dt
or
2a(t) · a0 (t) − 2b(t) · b0 (t) = 0,
giving
a(t) · a0 (t) = −b(t) · b0 (t).
(b) (i) If Angela likes Brian, then a(t) > 0, so b0 (t) < 0. This means that b(t) is decreasing, so Brian’s affection
decreases when Angela likes him.
(ii) If Angela dislikes Brian, then a(t) < 0, so b0 (t) > 0. This means that b(t) is increasing, so Brian’s affection
increases when Angela dislikes him.
(c) Substituting b0 (t) = −a(t) into a(t) · a0 (t) = −b(t) · b0 (t) gives

a(t) · a0 (t) = −b(t) · b0 (t) = −b(t)(−a(t)),

so
a0 (t) = b(t).
0
(i) If Brian likes Angela, then b(t) > 0, so a (t) > 0. This means that a(t) is increasing, so Angela’s affection
increases when Brian likes her.
(ii) If Brian dislikes Angela, then b(t) < 0, so a0 (t) < 0. This means that a(t) is decreasing, so Angela’s affection
decreases when Brian dislikes her.
(d) When t = 0, they both like each other. This means that Angela’s affection increases, while Brian’s decreases.
Eventually b(t) < 0, when he dislikes her.
 4.7 SOLUTIONS 265

35. (a) We have either x(0) = 50 and y(0) = 40, or y(0) = 50 and x(0) = 40. In the first case c = x 2 (0) − y 2 (0) =
502 − 402 = 900 whereas in the second c = x2 (0) − y 2 (0) = 402 − 502 = −900. But c > 0, so c = 900 and we
have x2 (t) − y 2 (t) = 900.
(b) Because√ x2 (t) − y 2 (t) = 900 we have x2 (3) − y 2 (3) = 900 so x2 (3) = y 2 (3) + 900 = 162 + 900 = 1156, giving
x(3) = 1156 = 34. After 3 hours, y has 16 ships, and x has 34 ships.
(c) The condition y(T ) = 0 means that there are no more ships on that side, so the battle ends at time T hours.
(d) We have x2 (T ) − y 2 (T ) = 900 with y(T ) = 0 so x(T ) = 30 ships.
(e) The rate per hour at which y loses ships is y 0 (t), so y 0 (t) = kx. Because y is decreasing, k is negative.
(f) We differentiate x2 (t) − y 2 (t) = 900 with respect to t to find
d 2 d
(x (t) − y 2 (t)) = 900,
dt dt
or
2x(t) · x0 (t) − 2y(t) · y 0 (t) = 0,
giving
y(t) 0
x0 (t) = y (t).
x(t)
But y 0 (t) = kx(t) so
y(t)
x0 (t) = kx(t) = ky(t).
x(t)
(g) From part (b), we know that when t = 3 we have x(3) = 34, y(3) = 16; we are now given that x 0 (3) = 32. But
x0 (t) = ky(t) so 32 = ky(3) = 16k giving k = 2. In this case y 0 (3) = kx(3) = 2 · 34 = 68 ships/hour.

Solutions for Section 4.7

Exercises

1. Since f 0 (a) > 0 and g 0 (a) < 0, l’Hopital’s rule tells us that
f (x) f 0 (a)
lim = 0 < 0.
x→a g(x) g (a)

2. Since f 0 (a) < 0 and g 0 (a) < 0, l’Hopital’s rule tells us that
f (x) f 0 (a)
lim = 0 > 0.
x→a g(x) g (a)

3. Here f (a) = g(a) = f 0 (a) = g 0 (a) = 0, and f 00 (a) > 0 and g 00 (a) < 0.
f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (a)
lim = lim 0 = 00 <0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x) g (a)

4. Note that f (0) = g(0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = g 0 (0). Since x = 0 looks like a point of inflection for each curve, f 00 (0) =
g 00 (0) = 0. Therefore, applying l’Hopital’s rule successively gives us
f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) f 000 (x)
lim = lim 0 = lim 00 = lim 000 .
x→0 g(x) x→0 g (x) x→0 g (x) x→0 g (x)

Now notice how the concavity of f changes: for x < 0, it is concave up, so f 00 (x) > 0, and for x > 0 it is concave
down, so f 00 (x) < 0. Thus f 00 (x) is a decreasing function at 0 and so f 000 (0) is negative. Similarly, for x < 0, we see g
is concave down and for x > 0 it is concave up, so g 00 (x) is increasing at 0 and so g 000 (0) is positive. Consequently,
f (x) f 000 (0)
lim = lim 000 < 0.
x→0 g(x) x→0 g (0)
266 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

5. The denominator approaches zero as x goes to zero and the numerator goes to zero even faster, so you should expect that
the limit to be 0. You can check this by substituting several values of x close to zero. Alternatively, using l’Hopital’s rule,
we have
x2 2x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x

6. The numerator goes to zero faster than the denominator, so you should expect the limit to be zero. Using l’Hopital’s rule,
we have
sin2 x 2 sin x cos x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 1

7. The denominator goes to zero more slowly than x does, so the numerator goes to zero faster than the denominator, so you
should expect the limit to be zero. With l’Hopital’s rule,
sin x cos x
lim = lim 1 −2/3 = lim 3x2/3 cos x = 0.
x→0 x1/3 x→0 x
3
x→0

8. The denominator goes to zero more slowly than x. Therefore, you should expect that the limit to be 0. Using l’Hopital’s
rule,
x 1 3(sin x)2/3
lim 1/3
= lim 1 = lim = 0,
x→0 (sin x) x→0 (sin x)
3
−2/3 cos x x→0 cos x
since sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1.
9. The larger power dominates. Using l’Hopital’s rule

x5 5x4 20x3
lim 7
= lim 6
= lim
x→∞ 0.1x x→∞ 0.7x x→∞ 4.2x5
2
60x 120x 120
= lim = lim = lim =0
x→∞ 21x4 x→∞ 84x3 x→∞ 252x2

so 0.1x7 dominates.
10. We apply l’Hopital’s rule twice to the ratio 50x2 /0.01x3 :

50x2 100x 100

lim = lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ 0.01x3 x→∞ 0.03x2 x→∞ 0.06x

Since the limit is 0, we see that 0.01x3 is much larger than 50x2 as x → ∞.
11. The power function dominates. Using l’Hopital’s rule
1
ln(x + 3) (x+3) x0.8
lim 0.2
= lim −0.8
= lim .
x→∞ x x→∞ 0.2x x→∞ 0.2(x + 3)

Using l’Hopital’s rule again gives

x0.8 0.8x−0.2
lim = lim = 0,
x→∞ 0.2(x + 3) x→∞ 0.2
so x 0.2
dominates.
12. The exponential dominates. After 10 applications of l’Hopital’s rule

x10 10x9 10!

lim 0
= lim = · · · = lim = 0.
x→∞ e .1x x→∞ 0.1e0.1x x→∞ (0.1)10 e0.1x

so e0.1x dominates.
13. Let f (x) = ln x and g(x) = 1/x so f 0 (x) = 1/x and g 0 (x) = −1/x2 and

ln x 1/x x
lim = lim 2
= lim = 0.
x→0+ 1/x x→0+ −1/x x→0+ −1
 4.7 SOLUTIONS 267

Problems

14. We want to find lim f (x), which we do by three applications of l’Hopital’s rule:
x→∞

2x3 + 5x2 6x2 + 10x 12x + 10 12 2

lim = lim = lim = lim = .
x→∞ 3x3 − 1 x→∞ 9x2 x→∞ 18x x→∞ 18 3
So the line y = 2/3 is the horizontal asymptote.
15. Observe that both f (4) and g(4) are zero. Also, f 0 (4) = 1.4 and g 0 (4) = −0.7, so by l’Hopital’s rule,
f (x) f 0 (4) 1.4
lim = 0 = = −2.
x→4 g(x) g (4) −0.7

16. (a) Since f 0 (x) = 3 cos(3x), we have f 0 (0) = 3.

(b) Since g 0 (x) = 5, we have g 0 (0) = 5.
(c) Since f (x) = sin 3x and g(x) = 5x are both 0 at x = 0, we apply l’Hopital’s rule to obtain
sin(3x) f 0 (0) 3
lim = 0 = .
x→0 5x g (0) 5

17. Let f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x2 − 1, so f (1) = 0 and g(1) = 0 and l’Hopital’s rule can be used. To apply l’Hopital’s
rule, we first find f 0 (x) = 1/x and g 0 (x) = 2x, then

ln x 1/x 1 1
lim = lim = lim = .
x→1 x2 − 1 x→1 2x x→1 2x2 2

18. Let f (t) = sin2 t and g(t) = t − π, then f (π) = 0 and g(π) = 0 but f 0 (t) = 2 sin t cos t and g 0 (t) = 1, so f 0 (π) = 0
and g 0 (π) = 1. L’Hopital’s rule can be used, giving

sin2 t 0
lim = = 0.
t→π t−π 1

19. If f (x) = sinh(2x) and g(x) = x, then f (0) = g(0) = 0, so we use l’Hopital’s Rule:
sinh 2x 2 cosh 2x
lim = lim = 2.
x→0 x x→0 1

20. If f (x) = 1 − cosh(3x) and g(x) = x, then f (0) = g(0) = 0, so we use l’Hopital’s Rule:
1 − cosh 3x −3 sinh 3x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 1

21. To get this expression in a form in which l’Hopital’s rule applies, we rewrite it as a fraction:
ln x
xa ln x = .
x−a
Letting f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x−a , we have
1
lim f (x) = lim ln x = −∞, and lim g(x) = lim = ∞.
x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ x→0+ xa
So l’Hopital’s rule can be used. To apply l’Hopital’s rule we differentiate to get f 0 (x) = 1/x and g 0 (x) = −ax−a−1 .
Then

ln x
lim xa ln x = lim
x→0+ x→0+ x−a
1/x
= lim −a−1
x→0+ −ax
1
= − lim xa
a x→0+
= 0.
268 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

22. Since cos 0 = 1, we have cos−1 (1) = 0 and lim cos−1 x = 0. Therefore, both cos−1 x and (x − 1) tend to 0 as
x→1−1
x →√1− , so l’Hopital’s rule can be applied. Let f (x) = cos−1 x and g(x) = x − 1, and differentiate to get f 0 (x) =
−1/ 1 − x2 and g 0 (x) = 1. Applying l’Hopital’s rule gives
√
cos−1 x −1/ 1 − x2
lim = lim
x→1− x − 1 x→1− 1
−1
= lim √ .
x→1− 1 − x2
√
However, 1 − x2 → 0 as x → 1− , so the limit does not exist.
23. Let f (t) = 3 sin t − sin 3t and g(t) = 3 tan t − tan 3t, then f (0) = 0 and g(0) = 0. Similarly,
f 0 (t) = 3 cos t − 3 cos 3t f 0 (0) = 0
00
f (t) = −3 sin t + 9 sin 3t f 00 (0) = 0
000
f (t) = −3 cos t + 27 cos 3t f 000 (0) = 24
0 2
g (t) = 3sec t − 3sec 3t 2
g 0 (0) = 0
00 2 2
g (t) = 6 sec t tan t − 18 sec 3t tan 3t g 00 (0) = 0
g 000 (t) = −54 sec4 3t − 108 sec2 37 tan2 3t + 6 sec4 t + 12 sec2 t tan2 t g 000 (0) = −48
Since the first and second derivatives of f and g are both 0 at t = 0, we have to go as far as the third derivative to use
l’Hopital’s rule. Applying l’Hopital’s rule gives

3 sin t − sin 3t f 0 (t) f 00 (t) f 000 (t) 24 1

lim = lim 0 = lim 00 = lim 000 = =− .
t→0+ 3 tan t − tan 3t t→0+ g (t) t→0+ g (t) t→0+ g (t) −48 2

24. To get this expression in a form in which l’Hopital’s rule applies, we combine the fractions:
1 1 sin x − x
− = .
x sin x x sin x
Letting f (x) = sin x − x and g(x) = x sin x, we have f (0) = 0 and g(0) = 0 so l’Hopital’s rule can be used.
Differentiating gives f 0 (x) = cos x − 1 and g 0 (x) = x cos x + sin x, so f 0 (0) = 0 and g 0 (0) = 0, so f 0 (0)/g 0 (0) is
undefined. Therefore, to apply l’Hopital’s rule we differentiate again to obtain f 00 (x) = − sin x and g 00 (x) = 2 cos x −
x sin x, for which f 00 (0) = 0 and g 00 (0) = 2 6= 0. Then

   
1 1 sin x − x
lim − = lim
x→0 x sin x x→0 x sin x
 
cos x − 1
= lim
x→0 x cos x + sin x
 
− sin x
= lim
x→0 2 cos x − x sin x
0
= = 0.
2
25. Let y = (1 + sin 3/x)x . Taking logs gives
 
3
ln y = x ln 1 + sin .
x
To use l’Hopital’s rule, we rewrite ln y as a fraction:

  
3
lim ln y = lim x ln 1 + sin
x→∞ x→∞ x
ln(1 + sin(3/x))
= lim .
x→∞ 1/x

Let f (x) = ln(1 + sin(3/x)) and g(x) = 1/x then

cos(3/x)(−3/x2 ) 1
f 0 (x) = and g 0 (x) = − .
(1 + sin(3/x)) x2
 4.7 SOLUTIONS 269

Now apply l’Hopital’s rule to get

f (x)
lim ln y = lim
x→∞ x→∞g(x)
f 0 (x)
= lim 0
x→∞ g (x)

cos(3/x)(−3/x2 )/(1 + sin(3/x))

= lim
x→∞ −1/x2
3 cos(3/x) 3 cos 0
= lim =
x→∞ 1 + sin(3/x) 1 + sin 0
= 3.

Since limx→∞ ln y = 3, we have

lim y = e3 .
x→∞
Thus,  x
3
lim 1 + sin = e3 .
x→∞ x
26. Let f (x) = sin(2x) and g(x) = x. Observe that f (1) = sin 2 6= 0 and g(1) = 1 6= 0. Therefore l’Hopital’s rule does
not apply. However,
sin 2x sin 2
lim = = 0.909297.
x→1 x 1
27. Let f (x) = cos x and g(x) = x. Observe that since f (0) = 1, l’Hopital’s rule does not apply. But since g(0) = 0,
cos x
lim does not exist.
x→0 x

28. Let f (x) = e−x and g(x) = sin x. Observe that as x increases, f (x) approaches 0 but g(x) oscillates between −1 and
1. Since g(x) does not approach 0 in the limit, l’Hopital’s rule does not apply. Because g(x) is in the denominator and
oscillates through 0 forever, the limit does not exist.
29. (a) Since a + b = 1, as p → 0, we have
ln(axp + by p ) → ln(ax0 + by 0 ) = ln(a + b) = ln 1 = 0.
Thus, the limit is of the form 0/0, so l’Hopital’s rule applies. Since d(x p )/dp = (ln x)xp ,
d ln(axp + by p ) a(ln x)xp + b(ln y)y p
=
dp axp + by p
and dp/dp = 1 we have
ln(axp + by p ) a(ln x)xp + b(ln y)y p a(ln x)x0 + b(ln y)y 0 a(ln x) + b(ln y)
lim = lim p p
= = = a ln x+b ln y.
p→0 p p→0 (ax + by ) · 1 ax0 + by 0 a+b
(b) Because p
+by p ))/p
(axp + by p )1/p = e(ln(ax
and the exponential function is continuous, using part (a), we have
p
+by p ))/p p
+by p ))/p
lim (axp + by p )1/p = lim e(ln(ax = elimp→0 (ln(ax = ea ln x+b ln y = xa y b .
p→0 p→0

30. (a) Let f (x) = π − 2 tan−1 x and g(x) = e−x , so lim g(x) = 0. Since lim tan x = ∞, we have lim tan−1 x =
x→∞ x→π/2 x→∞
π/2 so
π
lim (π − 2 tan−1 x) = π − 2 =0
x→∞ 2
To apply l’Hopital’s rule we differentiate to get
−2
f 0 (x) = and g 0 (x) = −e−x
1 + x2
so lim f 0 (x) = 0 and lim g 0 (x) = 0. Therefore, to apply l’Hopital’s rule we must differentiate again, getting
x→∞ x→∞

4x
f 00 (x) = and g 00 (x) = e−x
(1 + x2 )2
270 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

and find lim f 00 (x) = 0 and lim g 00 (x) = 0. No matter how many times we repeat this process we end up with
x→∞ x→∞
the lim f (n) (x) = 0 and lim g (n) (x) = 0 so l’Hopital’s rule does not give a limit.
x→∞ x→∞
π − 2 tan−1 x
(b) Figure 4.123 shows lim does not exist.
t→∞ e−x

y
107

5 · 106

π−2 tan−1 x
y= e−x

x
10 20

Figure 4.123

31. Let n = 1/x, so n → ∞ as x → 0+ . Thus

 n
1
lim (1 + x)1/x = lim 1+ = e.
x→0+ n→∞ n

32. Let k = n/2, so k → ∞ as n → ∞. Thus,

 n  2k  k  2
2 1 1
lim 1+ = lim 1+ = lim 1+ = e2 .
n→∞ n k→∞ k k→∞ k

33. Let n = 1/(kx), so n → ∞ as x → 0+ . Thus

 nkt  n kt
1 1
lim (1 + kx)t/x = lim 1+ = lim 1+ = ekt .
x→0+ n→∞ n n→∞ n

34. Let  n
1
y = 1− .
n
Then    
1 n 1 ln(1 − 1/n)
= n ln 1 −
ln y = ln 1 − = .
n n 1/n
As n → ∞, both the numerator and the denominator of the last fraction tend to 0. Thus, applying L’Hopital’s rule, we
have
1
ln(1 − 1/n) 1−1/n
· n12 1
lim = lim = lim − = −1.
n→∞ 1/n n→∞ −1/n2 n→∞ 1 − 1/n
Thus,

lim ln y = −1
n→∞

lim y = e−1 ,
n→∞

so  
1
lim 1− = e−1 .
n→∞ n

35. Let k = n/λ, so k → ∞ as n → ∞. Thus

 n  kλ  k  λ
λ 1 1
lim 1− = lim 1− = lim 1− = (e−1 )λ = e−λ .
n→∞ n k→∞ k k→∞ k
 4.7 SOLUTIONS 271

36. This limit is of the form 00 so we apply l’Hopital’s rule to

ln (3t + 5t )/2
ln f (t) = .
t
We have



(ln 3)3t + (ln 5)5t / 3t + 5t
lim ln f (t) = lim
t→−∞ t→−∞ 1
(ln 3)3t + (ln 5)5t
= lim
t→−∞ 3t + 5 t
ln 3 + (ln 5)(5/3)t
= lim
t→−∞ 1 + (5/3)t
ln 3 + 0
= = ln 3.
1+0
Thus
lim f (t) = lim eln f (t) = elimt→−∞ ln f (t) = eln 3 = 3.
t→−∞ t→−∞

37. This limit is of the form ∞0 so we apply l’Hopital’s rule to

ln (3t + 5t )/2
ln f (t) = .
t
We have



(ln 3)3t + (ln 5)5t / 3t + 5t
lim ln f (t) = lim
t→+∞ t→+∞ 1
(ln 3)3t + (ln 5)5t
= lim
t→+∞ 3t + 5 t
(ln 3)(3/5)t + ln 5
= lim
t→+∞ (3/5)t + 1
0 + ln 5
= lim = ln 5.
t→+∞ 0 + 1

Thus
lim f (t) = lim eln f (t) = elimt→−∞ ln f (t) = eln 5 = 5.
t→−∞ t→−∞

38. This limit is of the form 1∞ so we apply l’Hopital’s rule to

ln (3t + 5t )/2
ln f (t) = .
t
We have



(ln 3)3t + (ln 5)5t / 3t + 5t
lim ln f (t) = lim
t→0 t→0 1
(ln 3)3t + (ln 5)5t
= lim
t→0 3t + 5 t
ln 3 + ln 5 ln 15
= = .
1+1 2
Thus √
lim f (t) = lim eln f (t) = elimt→−∞ ln f (t) = e(ln 15)/2 = 15.
t→−∞ t→−∞
272 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

39. (a) The graphs inFigure 4.124

 are almost indistinguishable.
x−a
(b) Since lim ln = 0 and lim (a − 1) = 0 we can use l’Hopital’s rule. The variable is a, so we differentiate
a→1 x−1 a→1
with respect to a.
x−1 −1
ln( x−a
x−1
) d
da
ln( x−a
x−1
) x−1 d x−a
(
x−a da x−1
) x−a x−1 1
lim = lim d
= lim = lim = .
a→1 a−1 a→1
da
(a − 1) a→1 1 a→1 1 1−x
ln((x − a)/(x − 1))
(c) Part (b) tells us that as a gets closer and closer to 1, the function gets closer and closer to
a−1
1
, which is what part (a) is saying graphically.
1−x
y y
10 10

5 5

x x
−10 −5 5 10 −10 −5 5 10
−5 −5

−10 −10

Figure 4.124 Figure 4.125

40. (a) The graphs inFigure 4.125

 are almost indistinguishable.
x+a
(b) Since lim ln = 0 and lim a = 0 we can use l’Hopital’s rule. The variable is a, so we differentiate with
a→0 x−a a→1
respect to a.
x+a d x+a x−a d x+a x−a 2x
ln( x−a ) da
ln( x−a ) (
x+a da x−a
) x+a (x−a)2 1
lim = lim d
= lim = lim = .
a→0 2a a→0
da
(2a) a→0 2 a→0 2 x
ln((x + a)/(x − a)) 1
(c) Part (b) tells us that as a gets closer and closer to 0, the function gets closer and closer to ,
2a x
which is what part (a) is saying graphically.
41. (a) Let f (r) = xr − 1 and g(r) = r, where we are to compute limr→0 f (r)/g(r). Since f (0) = g(0) = 0, the limit is
of the form 0/0 and l’Hopital’s rule applies. Then f 0 (r) = (ln x)xr and g 0 (r) = 1. Thus
xr − 1 (ln x)x0
h0 (x) = lim = = ln x.
r→0 r 1
(b) See Figure 4.126.
r=2
r=1
2

1 r=0

r = −2
r = −5
x
1 2 3

−1

−2

Figure 4.126
 4.8 SOLUTIONS 273

Solutions for Section 4.8

Exercises

1. Between times t = 0 and t = 1, x goes at a constant rate from 0 to 1 and y goes at a constant rate from 1 to 0. So the
particle moves in a straight line from (0, 1) to (1, 0). Similarly, between times t = 1 and t = 2, it goes in a straight line
to (0, −1), then to (−1, 0), then back to (0, 1). So it traces out the diamond shown in Figure 4.127.

y
1 t = 0, t = 4

t=3 t=2
t=3 t=1
x
−1 1

t = 0, t = 4 t=1
x
−1 t=2 1 2

Figure 4.127 Figure 4.128

2. This is like Example 2, except that the x-coordinate goes all the way to 2 and back. So the particle traces out the rectangle
shown in Figure 4.128.
3. As the x-coordinate goes at a constant rate from 2 to 0, the y-coordinate goes from 0 to 1, then down to −1, then back
to 0. So the particle zigs and zags from (2, 0) to (1.5, 1) to (1, 0) to (.5, −1) to (0, 0). Then it zigs and zags back again,
forming the shape in Figure 4.129.

y
t = 2.5 t = .5 y
1 t=0 1
t=4 t=1

t=1 t=0
t=2 t=3 t=4 x x
1 2 −1 1

−1 t=2 t=3
t = 1.5 t = 3.5 −1

Figure 4.129 Figure 4.130

4. Between times t = 0 and t = 1, x goes from −1 to 1, while y stays fixed at 1. So the particle goes in a straight line from
(−1, 1) to (1, 1). Then both the x- and y-coordinates decrease at a constant rate from 1 to −1. So the particle goes in a
straight line from (1, 1) to (−1, −1). Then it moves across to (1, −1), then back diagonally to (−1, 1). See Figure 4.130.
5. For 0 ≤ t ≤ π2 , we have x = sin t increasing and y = cos t decreasing, so the motion is clockwise for 0 ≤ t ≤ π
2
.
Similarly, we see that the motion is clockwise for the time intervals π2 ≤ t ≤ π, π ≤ t ≤ 3π
2
, and 3π
2
≤ t ≤ 2π.
6. The particle moves clockwise: For 0 ≤ t ≤ π2 , we have x = cos t decreasing and y = − sin t decreasing. Similarly, for
the time intervals π2 ≤ t ≤ π, π ≤ t ≤ 3π
2
, and 3π
2
≤ t ≤ 2π, we see that the particle moves clockwise.
274 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

7. Let f (t) = t2 . The particle is moving clockwise when f (t) is decreasing, that is, when f 0 (t) = 2t < 0, so when t < 0.
The particle is moving counterclockwise when f 0 (t) = 2t > 0, so when t > 0.
8. Let f (t) = t3 − t. The particle is moving clockwise when f (t) is decreasing, that is, when 0
p 1 f (t) = 3t
2
p 1− 1 < 0,
0 2
and counterclockwise when f (t) = 3t − 1 > 0. That is, it moves clockwise when − 3 < t < , between
p1 3 p1 p1 3 p1 p1 3 p1 p1 3 p1 3
(cos((− 3 ) + ), sin((− 3 ) + )) and (cos(( 3 ) − ), sin(( 3 ) − ), and counterclockwise
p 3 p 3 3 3
when t < − 31 or t > 1
3
.
9. Let f (t) = ln t. Then f 0 (t) = 1t . The particle is moving counterclockwise when f 0 (t) > 0, that is, when t > 0. Any
other time, when t ≤ 0, the position is not defined.
10. Let f (t) = cos t. Then f 0 (t) = − sin t. The particle is moving clockwise when f 0 (t) < 0, or − sin t < 0, that is, when

2kπ < t < (2k + 1)π,

where k is an integer. The particle is otherwise moving counterclockwise, that is, when

(2k − 1)π < t < 2kπ,

where k is an integer. Actually, the particle does not fully trace out a circle. The range of f (t) is [−1, 1] so the particle
oscillates between the points (cos(−1), sin(−1)) and (cos 1, sin 1).
11. We have dx/dt = 2t and dy/dt = 3t2 . Therefore, the speed of the particle is
r 2  2
dx dy p p
v= + = ((2t)2 + (3t2 )2 ) = |t| · (4 + 9t2 ).
dt dt
√
The particle comes to a complete stop when its speed is 0, that is, if t 4 + 9t2 = 0, and so when t = 0.
12. We have dx/dt = −2t sin(t2 ) and dy/dt = 2t cos(t2 ). Therefore, the speed of the particle is given by
p
v= (−2t sin(t2 ))2 + (2t cos(t2 ))2
p
= 4t2 (sin(t2 ))2 + 4t2 (cos(t2 ))2
p
= 2|t| sin2 (t2 ) + cos2 (t2 )
= 2|t|.

The particle comes to a complete stop when speed is 0, that is, if 2|t| = 0, and so when t = 0 .
13. We have
dx dy
= −2 sin 2t, = cos t.
dt dt
The speed is p
v= 4 sin2 (2t) + cos2 t.
Thus, v = 0 when sin(2t) = cos t = 0, and so the particle stops when t = ±π/2, ±3π/2, . . . or t = (2n + 1) π2 , for any
integer n.
14. We have
dx dy
= (2t − 2), = (3t2 − 3).
dt dt
The speed is given by: p
v= (2t − 2)2 + (3t2 − 3)2 .
2
The particle stops when 2t − 2 = 0 and 3t − 3 = 0. Since these are both satisfied only by t = 1, this is the only time
that the particle stops.
15. At t = 2, the position is (22 , 23 ) = (4, 8), the velocity in the x-direction is 2 · 2 = 4, and the velocity in the y-direction
is 3 · 22 = 12. So we want the line going through the point (4, 8) at the time t = 2, with the given x- and y-velocities:

x = 4 + 4(t − 2), y = 8 + 12(t − 2).

16. One possible answer is x = 3 cos t, y = −3 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

17. One possible answer is x = −2, y = t.
18. One possible answer is x = 2 + 5 cos t, y = 1 + 5 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
 4.8 SOLUTIONS 275

19. The parameterization x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, is a circle of radius 2 traced out counterclockwise starting at
the point (2, 0). To start at (−2, 0), put a negative in front of the first coordinate

x = −2 cos t y = 2 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Now we must check whether this parameterization traces out the circle clockwise or counterclockwise. Since when t
increases from 0, sin t is positive, the point (x, y) moves from (−2, 0) into the second quadrant. Thus, the circle is traced
out clockwise and so this is one possible parameterization.
20. The slope of the line is
3 − (−1)
m= = −4.
1−2
The equation of the line with slope −4 through the point (2, −1) is y − (−1) = (−4)(x − 2), so one possible parame-
terization is x = t and y = −4t + 8 − 1 = −4t + 7.
21. The ellipse x2 /25 + y 2 /49 = 1 can be parameterized by x = 5 cos t, y = 7 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
22. The parameterization x = −3 cos t, y = 7 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, starts at the right point but sweeps out the ellipse
in the wrong direction (the y-coordinate becomes positive as t increases). Thus, a possible parameterization is x =
−3 cos(−t) = −3 cos t, y = 7 sin(−t) = −7 sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
23. We have
dy dy/dt 2t
= = 2 .
dx dx/dt 3t − 1
Thus when t = 2, the slope of the tangent line is 4/11. Also when t = 2, we have

x = 23 − 2 = 6, y = 22 = 4.

Therefore the equation of the tangent line is

4
(y − 4) = (x − 6).
11

24. We have
dy dy/dt 2t + 2
= = .
dx dx/dt 2t − 2
When t = 1, the denominator is zero and the numerator is nonzero, so the tangent line is vertical. Since x = −1 when
t = 1, the equation of the tangent line is x = −1.
25. We have
dy dy/dt 4 cos(4t)
= = .
dx dx/dt 3 cos(3t)
Thus when t = π, the slope of the tangent line is −4/3. Since x = 0 and y = 0 when t = π, the equation of the tangent
line is y = −(4/3)x.

Problems

26. (a) We get the part of the line with x < 10 and y < 0.
(b) We get the part of the line between the points (10, 0) and (11, 2).
27. (a) If t ≥ 0, we have x ≥ 2, y ≥ 4, so we get the part of the line to the right of and above the point (2, 4).
(b) When t = 0, (x, y) = (2, 4). When t = −1, (x, y) = (−1, −3). Restricting t to the interval −1 ≤ t ≤ 0 gives the
part of the line between these two points.
(c) If x < 0, giving 2 + 3t < 0 or t < −2/3. Thus t < −2/3 gives the points on the line to the left of the y-axis.
28. (a) Eliminating t between
x = 2 + t, y = 4 + 3t
gives

y − 4 = 3(x − 2),
y = 3x − 2.

Eliminating t between
x = 1 − 2t, y = 1 − 6t
276 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

gives

y − 1 = 3(x − 1),
y = 3x − 2.

Since both parametric equations give rise to the same equation in x and y, they both parameterize the same line.
(b) Slope = 3, y-intercept = −2.
29. In all three cases, y = x2 , so that the motion takes place on the parabola y = x2 .
In case (a), the x-coordinate always increases at a constant rate of one unit distance per unit time, so the equations
describe a particle moving to the right on the parabola at constant horizontal speed.
In case (b), the x-coordinate is never negative, so the particle is confined to the right half of the parabola. As t moves
from −∞ to +∞, x = t2 goes from ∞ to 0 to ∞. Thus the particle first comes down the right half of the parabola,
reaching the origin (0, 0) at time t = 0, where it reverses direction and goes back up the right half of the parabola.
In case (c), as in case (a), the particle traces out the entire parabola y = x 2 from left to right. The difference is that
the horizontal speed is not constant. This is because a unit change in t causes larger and larger changes in x = t 3 as t
approaches −∞ or ∞. The horizontal motion of the particle is faster when it is farther from the origin.
30. (a) C1 has center at the origin and radius 5, so a = b = 0, k = 5 or −5.
(b) C2 has center at (0, 5) and radius 5, so a = 0, b = 5, k = 5 or −5. p √ √
(c) C3 has center at (10, −10), so a = 10, b = −10. The radius of C3 is 102 + (−10)2 = 200, so k = 200 or
√
k = − 200.
31. (I) has a positive slope and so must be l1 or l2 . Since its y-intercept is negative, these equations must describe l2 . (II)
has a negative slope and positive x-intercept, so these equations must describe l 3 .

32. It is a straight line through the point (3, 5) with slope −1. A linear parameterization of the same line is x = 3 + t,
y = 5 − t.
33. (a) The curve is a spiral as shown in Figure 4.131.
(b) At t = 2, the position is (2 cos 2, 2 sin 2) = (−0.8323, 1.8186), and at t = 2.01 the position is (2.01 cos 2.01, 2.01 sin 2.01) =
(−0.8546, 1.8192). The distance between these points is
p
(−0.8546 − (−0.8323))2 + (1.8192 − 1.8186)2 ≈ 0.022.

Thus the speed is approximately 0.022/0.01 ≈ 2.2. See Figure 4.132.

y y

t=2

x t=6
x

t=4

Figure 4.131: The spiral Figure 4.132: The spiral x = t cos t, y = t sin t and three velocity
x = t cos t, y = t sin t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π vectors

(c) Evaluating the exact formula p

v= (cos t − t sin t)2 + (sin t + t cos t)2
gives : p
v(2) = (−2.235)2 + (0.077)2 = 2.2363.
 4.8 SOLUTIONS 277

34. (a) The chain rule gives

dy dy/dt 4e2t
= = t = 4et .
dx dx/dt e
(b) We are given y = 2e2t so y = 2(et )2 . Since x = et , we can substitute x for et . Thus y = 2x2 .
(c) Differentiating y = 2x2 with respect to x, we get dy/dx = 4x. Notice that, since x = et , this is equivalent to the
answer that we obtained in part (a).
35. (a) In order for the particle to stop, its velocity both dx/dt and dy/dt must be zero,
dx
= 3t2 − 3 = 3(t − 1)(t + 1) = 0,
dt
dy
= 2t − 2 = 2(t − 1) = 0.
dt
The value t = 1 is the only solution. Therefore, the particle stops when t = 1 at the point (t 3 − 3t, t2 − 2t)|t=1 =
(−2, −1).
(b) In order for the particle to be traveling straight up or down, the velocity in the x-direction must be 0. Thus, we
solve dx/dt = 3t2 − 3 = 0 and obtain t = ±1. However, at t = 1 the particle has no vertical motion, as we
saw in part (a). Thus, the particle is moving straight up or down only when t = −1. The position at that time is
(t3 − 3t, t2 − 2t)|t=−1 = (2, 3).
(c) For horizontal motion we need dy/dt = 0. That happens when dy/dt = 2t − 2 = 0, and so t = 1. But from part (a)
we also have dx/dt = 0 also at t = 1, so the particle is not moving at all when t = 1. Thus, there is no time when
the motion is horizontal.
36. (a) (i) A horizontal tangent occurs when dy/dt = 0 and dx/dt 6= 0. Thus,
dy
= 6e2t − 2e−2t = 0
dt
6e2t = 2e−2t
1
e4t =
3
1
4t = ln
3
1 1
t = ln = −0.25 ln 3 = −0.275.
4 3
We need to check that dx/dt 6= 0 when t = −0.25 ln 3. Since dx/dt = 2e 2t + 2e−2t is always positive, dx/dt
is never zero.
(ii) A vertical tangent occurs when dx/dt = 0 and dy/dt 6= 0. Since dx/dt = 2e 2t + 2e−2t is always positive,
there is no vertical tangent.
(b) The chain rule gives
dy dy/dt 6e2t − 2e−2t 3e2t − e−2t
= = 2t −2t
= 2t .
dx dx/dt 2e + 2e e + e−2t
(c) As t → ∞, we have e−2t → 0. Thus,
dy 3e2t − e−2t 3e2t
lim = lim 2t −2t
= lim 2t = 3.
t→∞ dx t→∞ e +e t→∞ e

As t → ∞, the fraction gets closer and closer to 3.

37. (a) Figure 4.133 shows the path and the clockwise direction of motion. (The curve is an ellipse.)
y
4

x
−5 5

−4

Figure 4.133
278 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

(b) At t = π/4, the position is given by

2π π 2π π
x(π/4) = 5 sin = 5 sin = 5 and y(π/4) = 4 cos = 4 cos = 0.
4 2 4 2
Differentiating, we get x0 (t) = 10 cos(2t) and y 0 (t) = −8 sin(2t). At t = π/4, the velocity is given by
2π π 2π π
x0 (π/4) = 10 cos = 10 cos = 0 and y 0 (π/4) = −8 sin = −8 sin = −8.
4 2 4 2
(c) As t increases from 0 to 2π, the ellipse is traced out twice. Thus, the particle passes through the point (5, 0) twice.
(d) Since x0 (π/4) = 0 and y 0 (π/4) = −8, when t = π/4, the particle is moving in the negative y-direction, parallel to
the y-axis.
(e) At time t, p p
Speed = (x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 = (10 cos(2t))2 + (−8 sin(2t))2 .
When t = π, p p
Speed = (10 cos(2π))2 + (−8 sin(2π))2 = (10 · 1)2 + (−8 · 0)2 = 10.
38. (a) Substituting α = 36◦ = π/5 and v0 = 60 into x(t) = (v0 cos α)t and y(t) = (v0 sin α)t − 12 gt2 , we get
     
π π 1 π
x(t) = 60 cos t and y(t) = 60 sin t− (32)t2 = 60 sin t − 16t2 .
5 5 2 5
(b) Figure 4.134 shows the path and the direction of motion.

Figure 4.134

(c) When the football hits the ground, y(t) = 0, so

 
π
60 sin t − 16t2 = 0
5
 
π
4t 15 sin − 4t = 0
5
15 sin(π/5)
t=0 or t = = 2.204 seconds.
4
The ball hits the ground in approximately 2.204 seconds. The ball’s distance from the spot where it was kicked is
x(2.204) = 106.994 feet.
(d) At its highest point, the football is moving neither upward nor downward, so y 0 (t) is zero. To find the time when the
football reaches its maximum height, we set y 0 (t) = 0, giving
 
π
y 0 (t) = 60 sin − 32t = 0
5
60 sin(π/5)
t= = 1.102 seconds.
32
This makes sense since this is half the time it took the football to reach the ground. The maximum height is
y(1.102) = 19.434 feet.
Thus the football reaches

19.434 feet.
(e) Since x(t) = 60 cos π5 t and y(t) = 60 sin π5 t − 16t2 , we have
π π
x0 (t) = 60 cos and y 0 (t) = 60 sin − 32t.
5 5
Thus, r
p 2  2
π π
Speed = (x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 = 60 cos + 60 sin − 32t .
5 5
At t = 1, r 2  2
π π
Speed = 60 cos + 60 sin − 32 = 48.651 feet/sec.
5 5
 4.8 SOLUTIONS 279

39. (a) To determine if the particles collide, we check whether they are ever at the same point at the same time. We first set
the two x-coordinates equal to each other:

4t − 4 = 3t
t = 4.

When t = 4, both x-coordinates are 12. Now we check whether the y-coordinates are also equal at t = 4:

yA (4) = 2 · 4 − 5 = 3
yB (4) = 42 − 2 · 4 − 1 = 7.

Thus, the particles do not collide since they are not at the same point at the same time.
(b) For the particles to collide, we need both x- and y-coordinates to be equal. Since the x-coordinates are equal at t = 4,
we find the k value making yA (4) = yB (4).
Substituting t = 4 into yA (t) = 2t − k and yB (t) = t2 − 2t − 1, we have

8 − k = 16 − 8 − 1
k = 1.

(c) To find the speed of the particles, we differentiate.

For particle A,
x(t) = 4t − 4, so x0 (t) = 4, and x0 (4) = 4
y(t) = 2t − 1, so y 0 (t) = 2, and y 0 (4) = 2
p p √
Speed A = (x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 = 42 + 2 2 = 20.
For particle B,
x(t) = 3t, so x0 (t) = 3, and x0 (4) = 3
y(t) = t2 − 2t − 1, so y 0 (t) = 2t − 2, and y 0 (4) = 6
p p √
Speed B = (x0 (t))2 + (y 0 (t))2 = 32 + 6 2 = 45.
Thus, when t = 4, particle B is moving faster.
40. (a) Since x = t3 + t and y = t2 , we have
dy dy/dt 2t
w= = = 2 .
dx dx/dt 3t + 1
Differentiating w with respect to t, we get
dw (3t2 + 1)2 − (2t)(6t) −6t2 + 2
= = ,
dt (3t2 + 1)2 (3t2 + 1)2
so
d2 y dw dw/dt −6t2 + 2
2
= = = .
dx dx dx/dt (3t2 + 1)3
(b) When t = 1, we have d2 y/dx2 = −1/16 < 0, so the curve is concave down.
41. (a) The x and y-coordinates of the point on the graph when t = π/3 are given by
 
π 2π 1
x=3· =π and y = cos =− .
3 3 2
Thus when t = π/3, the particle is at the point (π, −1/2).
To find the slope, we find dy/dx
dy dy/dt −2 sin(2t)
= = .
dx dx/dt 3
When t = π/3, √
dy −2 sin(2π/3) 3
= =− .
dx 3 3
The equation of the tangent line when t = π/3 is:
√
1 3
y+ =− (x − π).
2 3
280 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

(b) To find the smallest positive value of t for which the y-coordinate is a local maximum, we set dy/dt = 0. We have
dy
= −2 sin(2t) = 0
dt
2t = π or 2t = 2π
π
t= or t = π.
2
There is a minimum of y = cos(2t) at t = π/2, and a maximum at t = π.
(c) To find d2 y/dx2 when t = 2, we use the formula:

d2 y dw/dt dy
= where w= .
dx2 dx/dt dx
Since w = −2 sin(2t)/3 from part (a), we have

d2 y −4 cos(2t)/3
= .
dx2 3
When t = 2, we have
d2 y −4 cos(4)/3
= = 0.291.
dx2 3
Since the second derivative is positive, the graph is concave up when t = 2.
42. (a) We differentiate for both x and y in terms of t, giving us:

dy dy/dt 2e2t + 6et

= = = 2et + 6.
dx dx/dt et

(b) To find d2 y/dx2 , we use the formula:

d2 y dw/dt dy
= where w=
dx2 dx/dt dx
d2 y 2et
2
= t = 2.
dx e
Since the second derivative is always positive, the graph is concave up everywhere.
(c) We are given y = e2t + 6et + 9. We can factor this to y = (et + 3)2 . Since x = et + 3, we can substitute x for
et + 3. Thus, y = x2 for x > 3.
(d) Since y = x2 , dy/dx = 2x and d2 y/dx2 = 2.
From part (a), we have dy/dx = 2et + 6. We can factor this to dy/dx = 2(et + 3) = 2x.
Part (b) tells us that d2 y/dx2 = 2, which is what we have just determined.
Our graph is a parabola that is concave up everywhere.
43. (a) The particle touches the x-axis when y = 0. Since y = cos(2t) = 0 for the first time when 2t = π/2, we have
t = π/4. To find the speed of the particle at that time, we use the formula
r 2  2
dx dy p
Speed = + = (cos t)2 + (−2 sin(2t))2 .
dt dt
When t = π/4,
p q√ p
Speed = (cos(π/4))2 + (−2 sin(π/2))2 = ( 2/2)2 + (−2 · 1)2 = 9/2.
p
(b) The particle is at rest when its speed is zero. Since (cos t)2 + (−2 sin(2t))2 ≥ 0, the speed is zero when

cos t = 0 and − 2 sin(2t) = 0.

Now cos t = 0 when t = π/2 or t = 3π/2. Since −2 sin(2t) = −4 sin t cos t, we see that this expression also
equals zero when t = π/2 or t = 3π/2.
(c) We need to find d2 y/dx2 . First, we must determine dy/dx. We know
dy dy/dt −2 sin 2t −4 sin t cos t
= = = = −4 sin t.
dx dx/dt cos t cos t
 4.8 SOLUTIONS 281

Since dy/dx = −4 sin t, we can now use the formula:

d2 y dw/dt dy
= where w=
dx2 dx/dt dx
d2 y −4 cos t
= = −4.
dx2 cos t
Since d2 y/dx2 is always negative, our graph is concave down everywhere.
Using the identity y = cos(2t) = 1 − 2 sin2 t, we can eliminate the parameter and write the original equation
as y = 1 − 2x2 , which is a parabola that is concave down everywhere.
44. Let
dy dy/dt
w= = .
dx dx/dt
We want to find
d2 y dw dw/dt
= = dt.
dx2 dx dx
To find dw/dt, we use the quotient rule:
dw (dx/dt)(d2 y/dt2 ) − (dy/dt)(d2 x/dt2 )
= .
dt (dx/dt)2
We then divide this by dx/dt again to get the required formula, since
d2 y dw dw/dt
= = .
dx2 dx dx/dt

45. For 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, we get Figure 4.135.

y y

x x
−1 1 1

Figure 4.135 Figure 4.136

46. For 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, we get Figure 4.136.

47. For 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, we get Figure 4.137.
y
y 1

x
x −1 1
1

−1

Figure 4.137 Figure 4.138

48. This curve never closes on itself. The plot for 0 ≤ t ≤ 8π is in Figure 4.138.
282 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

49. (a) To find the equations of the moon’s motion relative to the star, you must first calculate the equation of the planet’s
motion relative to the star, and then the moon’s motion relative to the planet, and then add the two together.
The distance from the planet to the star is R, and the time to make one revolution is one unit, so the parametric
equations for the planet relative to the star are x = R cos t, y = R sin t.
The distance from the moon to the planet is 1, and the time to make one revolution is twelve units, therefore, the
parametric equations for the moon relative to the planet are x = cos 12t, y = sin 12t.
Adding these together, we get:

x = R cos t + cos 12t,

y = R sin t + sin 12t.

(b) For the moon to stop completely at time t, the velocity of the moon must be equal to zero. Therefore,
dx
= −R sin t − 12 sin 12t = 0,
dt
dy
= R cos t + 12 cos 12t = 0.
dt
There are many possible values to choose for R and t that make both of these equations equal to zero. We choose
t = π, and R = 12.
(c) The graph with R = 12 is shown below.

Solutions for Chapter 4 Review

Exercises

1. See Figure 4.139.

Local and global max Local and global max

50 Local max 8 Local max
f (x) f (x)
40 Critical point
Local max 6
30 (not max or min)
Local min 4
20
10 Local and global min 2 Local and global min
x x
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 4.139 Figure 4.140

2. See Figure 4.140.

 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 283

3. (a) We wish to investigate the behavior of f (x) = x3 − 3x2 on the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 3. We find:
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2)
f 00 (x) = 6x − 6 = 6(x − 1)
(b) The critical points of f are x = 2 and x = 0 since f 0 (x) = 0 at those points. Using the second derivative test, we
find that x = 0 is a local maximum since f 0 (0) = 0 and f 00 (0) = −6 < 0, and that x = 2 is a local minimum since
f 0 (2) = 0 and f 00 (2) = 6 > 0.
(c) There is an inflection point at x = 1 since f 00 changes sign at x = 1.
(d) At the critical points, f (0) = 0 and f (2) = −4.
At the endpoints: f (−1) = −4, f (3) = 0.
So the global maxima are f (0) = 0 and f (3) = 0, while the global minima are f (−1) = −4 and f (2) = −4.
(e) See Figure 4.141.

| incr. | decreasing | incr. |

| concave down | concave up |

−1 1 3

π 2π
| increasing |
−4 | concave down | concave up |

Figure 4.141 Figure 4.142

4. (a) First we find f 0 and f 00 ; f 0 (x) = 1 + cos x and f 00 (x) = − sin x.

(b) The critical point of f is x = π, since f 0 (π) = 0.
(c) Since f 00 changes sign at x = π, it means that x = π is an inflection point.
(d) Evaluating f at the critical point and endpoints, we find f (0) = 0, f (π) = π, f (2π) = 2π,. Therefore, the global
maximum is f (2π) = 2π, and the global minimum is f (0) = 0. Note that x = π is not a local maximum or
minimum of f , and that the second derivative test is inconclusive here.
(e) See Figure 4.142.
5. (a) First we find f 0 and f 00 :
f 0 (x) = −e−x sin x + e−x cos x
f 00 (x) = e−x sin x − e−x cos x
−e−x cos x − e−x sin x
= −2e−x cos x
(b) The critical points are x = π/4, 5π/4, since f 0 (x) = 0 here.
(c) The inflection points are x = π/2, 3π/2, since f 00 changes sign at these points.
√
(d) At the endpoints,
√ f (0) = 0, f (2π) = 0. So we have f (π/4) = (e −π/4 )( 2/2) as the global maximum; f (5π/4) =
−5π/4
−e ( 2/2) as the global minimum.
(e) See Figure 4.143.
2

1.9

1.8

π 3π
2 π 2 2π 1.2 2 3.5
x x
| conc. down | concave up | conc. down |
| incr. | | | | decr | incr |
decreasing increasing
| concave up |

Figure 4.143 Figure 4.144

284 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

6. (a) We first find f 0 and f 00 :

2 5 1 2 1 5
f 0 (x) = − x− 3 + x− 3 = x− 3 (x − 2)
3 3 3
10 − 38 2 5 2 8
f 00 (x) = x − x− 3 = − x− 3 (x − 5)
9 9 9
(b) Critical point: x = 2.
(c) There are no inflection points, since f 00 does not change sign on the interval 1.2 ≤ x ≤ 3.5.
(d) At the endpoints, f (1.2) ≈ 1.94821 and f (3.5) ≈ 1.95209. So, the global minimum is f (2) ≈ 1.88988 and the
global maximum is f (3.5) ≈ 1.95209.
(e) See Figure 4.144.
7. The polynomial f (x) behaves like 2x3 as x goes to ∞. Therefore, lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = −∞.
x→∞ x→−∞
We have f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 18x + 12 = 6(x − 2)(x − 1), which is zero when x = 1 or x = 2.
Also, f 00 (x) = 12x − 18 = 6(2x − 3), which is zero when x = 3/2. For x < 3/2, f 00 (x) < 0; for x > 3/2,
00
f (x) > 0. Thus x = 3/2 is an inflection point.
The critical points are x = 1 and x = 2, and f (1) = 6, f (2) = 5. By the second derivative test, f 00 (1) = −6 < 0,
so x = 1 is a local maximum; f 00 (2) = 6 > 0, so x = 2 is a local minimum.
Now we can draw the diagrams below.

y0 > 0 y0 < 0 y0 > 0

increasing x = 1 decreasing x = 2 increasing

y 00 < 0 y 00 > 0

concave down x = 3/2 concave up

The graph of f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 1 is shown in Figure 4.145. It has no global maximum or minimum.

f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 1

4 4x2
f (x) = x2 +1
6
5

x
1 2 x

Figure 4.145 Figure 4.146

8. If we divide the denominator and numerator of f (x) by x2 we have

4x2 4
lim = lim =4
x→±∞ x2 +1 x→±∞ 1 + 12
x

since
1
lim = 0.
x→±∞ x2
Using the quotient rule we get

(x2 + 1)8x − 4x2 (2x) 8x

f 0 (x) = = 2 ,
(x2 + 1)2 (x + 1)2
which is zero when x = 0, positive when x > 0, and negative when x < 0. Thus f (x) has a local minimum when x = 0,
with f (0) = 0.
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 285

Because f 0 (x) = 8x/(x2 + 1)2 , the quotient rule implies that

(x2 + 1)2 8 − 8x[2(x2 + 1)2x]
f 00 (x) =
(x2 + 1)4
8x2 + 8 − 32x2 8(1 − 3x2 )
= = .
(x2 + 1)3 (x2 + 1)3
p p p
The denominator is always positive, so f 00 (x) = 0 when x = ± 1/3, positive when − 1/3 < x < 1/3, and
p p
negative when x > 1/3 or x < − 1/3. This gives the diagram

y0 < 0 y0 > 0
decreasing increasing
x=0

y 00 < 0 y 00 > 0 y 00 < 0

concave down concave up concave down
p p
x=− 1/3 x= 1/3
p
and the graph of f looks Figure 4.146. with inflection points x = ± 1/3, a global minimum at x = 0, and no
local or global maxima (since f (x) never equals 4).
9. As x → −∞, e−x → ∞, so xe−x → −∞. Thus limx→−∞ xe−x = −∞.
As x → ∞, exx → 0, since ex grows much more quickly than x. Thus limx→∞ xe−x = 0.
Using the product rule,
f 0 (x) = e−x − xe−x = (1 − x)e−x ,
which is zero when x = 1, negative when x > 1, and positive when x < 1. Thus f (1) = 1/e 1 = 1/e is a local
maximum.
Again, using the product rule,
f 00 (x) = −e−x − e−x + xe−x
= xe−x − 2e−x
= (x − 2)e−x ,
which is zero when x = 2, positive when x > 2, and negative when x < 2, giving an inflection point at (2, 2
e2
). With the
above, we have the following diagram:

y0 > 0 y0 < 0

increasing decreasing
x=1

y 00 < 0 y 00 > 0

concave down concave up

x=2
The graph of f is shown in Figure 4.147. and f (x) has one global maximum at 1/e and no local or global minima.

f (x) = xe−x

x
1 2

1
h(z) = + 4z 2
3 z

z
1/2

Figure 4.147 Figure 4.148

286 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

10. We rewrite h(z) as h(z) = z −1 + 4z 2 .

Differentiating gives
h0 (z) = −z −2 + 8z,
so the critical points satisfy

−z −2 + 8z = 0
z −2 = 8z
8z 3 = 1
1
z3 =
8
1
z= .
2
Since h0 is negative for 0 < z < 1/2 and h0 is positive for z > 1/2, there is a local minimum at z = 1/2.
Since h(z) → ∞ as z → 0+ and as z → ∞, the local minimum at z = 1/2 is a global minimum; there is no global
maximum. See Figure 4.148. Thus, the global minimum is h(1/2) = 3.
11. Since g(t) is always decreasing for t ≥ 0, we expect it to a global maximum at t = 0 but no global minimum. At t = 0,
we have g(0) = 1, and as t → ∞, we have g(t) → 0.
Alternatively, rewriting as g(t) = (t3 + 1)−1 and differentiating using the chain rule gives

g 0 (t) = −(t3 + 1)−2 · 3t2 .

Since 3t2 = 0 when t = 0, there is a critical point at t = 0, and g decreases for all t > 0. See Figure 4.149.

1/2 1
1 f (x) =
(x − 1)2 + 2

1
g(t) =
t3 + 1 x
x 1

Figure 4.149 Figure 4.150

12. We begin by rewriting f (x):

1
f (x) = = ((x − 1)2 + 2)−1 = (x2 − 2x + 3)−1 .
(x − 1)2 + 2
Differentiating using the chain rule gives
2 − 2x
f 0 (x) = −(x2 − 2x + 3)−2 (2x − 2) = ,
(x2 − 2x + 3)2
so the critical points satisfy
2 − 2x
=0
(x2 − 2x + 3)2
2 − 2x = 0
2x = 2
x = 1.

Since f 0 is positive for x < 1 and f 0 is negative for x > 1, there is a local maximum at x = 1.
Since f (x) → 0 as x → ∞ and as x → −∞, the local maximum at x = 1 is a global maximum; there is no global
minimum. See Figure 4.150. Thus, the global maximum is f (1) = 1/2.
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 287

13. lim f (x) = +∞, and lim f (x) = −∞.

x→∞ x→−∞
There are no asymptotes.
f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 6x − 9 = 3(x + 3)(x − 1). Critical points are x = −3, x = 1.
f 00 (x) = 6(x + 1).

x −3 −1 1
f0 + 0 − − − 0 +
f 00 − − − 0 + + +
f %_ &_ &^ %^

Thus, x = −1 is an inflection point. f (−3) = 12 is a local maximum; f (1) = −20 is a local minimum. There are
no global maxima or minima.

12 f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 15

x
−3 1

−20

14. lim f (x) = +∞, and lim f (x) = −∞.

x→+∞ x→−∞
There are no asymptotes.
f 0 (x) = 5x4 − 45x2 = 5x2 (x2 − 9) = 5x2 (x + 3)(x − 3).
The critical points are x = 0, x = ±3. f 0 changes sign at 3 and −3 √
but not at 0.
f 00 (x) = 20x3 − 90x = 10x(2x2 − 9). f 00√changes sign at 0, ±3/ 2.
So, inflection points are at x = 0, x = ±3/ 2.

√ √
x −3 −3/ 2 0 3/ 2 3
f0 + 0 − − 0 − − 0 +
f 00 − − − 0 + 0 − 0 + + +
f %_ &_ &^ &_ &^ %^

Thus, f (−3) is a local maximum; f (3) is a local minimum. There are no global maxima or minima.

172

10
x
−3 3

−152
f (x) = x5 − 15x3 + 10
288 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

15. lim f (x) = +∞, and lim f (x) = +∞.

x→+∞ x→0+
Hence, x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.
2 x−2
f 0 (x) = 1 − = , so x = 2 is the only critical point.
x x
2
f 00 (x) = 2 , which can never be zero. So there are no inflection points.
x

f (x) = x − ln x
x 2
f0 − 0 +
f 00 + + +
x
f &^ %^ 2

Thus, f (2) is a local and global minimum.

16. lim f (x) = +∞, lim f (x) = 0.
x→+∞ x→−∞
y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
f 0 (x) = 2xe5x + 5x2 e5x = xe5x (5x + 2).
Thus, x = − 52 and x = 0 are the critical points.

f 00 (x) = 2e5x + 2xe5x · 5 + 10xe5x + 25x2 e5x

= e5x (25x2 + 20x + 2).
√
−2 ± 2
So, x = are inflection points.
5

√ √
−2− 2 −2+ 2
x 5
− 52 5
0
f0 + + + 0 − − − 0 +
f 00 + 0 − − − 0 + + +
f %^ %_ &_ &^ %^

f (x) = x2 e5x

x
−0.4

So, f (− 25 ) is a local maximum; f (0) is a local and global minimum.

17. Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0, y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→−∞ x→+∞
2
f 0 (x) = −2xe−x . So, x = 0 is the only critical point.
2 2 2 2 √ √
f 00 (x) = −2(e−x + x(−2x)e−x ) = 2e−x (2x2 − 1) = 2e−x ( 2x − 1)( 2x + 1).
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 289
√
Thus, x = ±1/ 2 are inflection points.

Table 4.1
√ √
x −1/ 2 0 1/ 2
f0 + + + 0 − − −
f 00 + 0 − − − 0 +
f %^ %_ &_ &^

Thus, f (0) = 1 is a local and global maximum.

2
f (x) = e−x

18. lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1.

x→+∞ x→−∞
Thus, y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Since x2 + 1 is never 0, there are no vertical asymptotes.

2x(x2 + 1) − x2 (2x) 2x
f 0 (x) = = 2 .
(x2 + 1)2 (x + 1)2
So, x = 0 is the only critical point.
2(x2 + 1)2 − 2x · 2(x2 + 1) · 2x
f 00 (x) =
(x2 + 1)4
2(x2 + 1 − 4x2 )
=
(x2 + 1)3
2(1 − 3x2 )
= .
(x2 + 1)3
So, x = ± √13 are inflection points.

Table 4.2
−1 √1
x √ 0
3 3
f0 − − − 0 + + +
f 00 − 0 + + + 0 −
f &_ &^ %^ %_

Thus, f (0) = 0 is a local and global minimum. A graph of f (x) can be found in Figure 4.151.

y=1

x2
f (x) = x2 +1

Figure 4.151
290 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

19. y

5π/4

? x
6
π/4

Letting f (x) = e−x sin x, we have

f 0 (x) = −e−x sin x + e−x cos x.

Solving f 0 (x) = 0, we get sin x = cos x. This means x = arctan(1) = π/4, and π/4 plus multiples of π, are the critical
points of f (x). By evaluating f (x) at the points kπ + π/4, where k is an integer, we can find:

e−5π/4 sin(5π/4) ≤ e−x sin x ≤ e−π/4 sin(π/4),

since f (0) = 0 at the endpoint. So

−0.014 ≤ e−x sin x ≤ 0.322.
20. Let f (x) = x sin x. Then f 0 (x) = x cos x + sin x.
f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 0, x ≈ 2, and x ≈ 5. The latter two estimates we can get from the graph of f 0 (x).
Zooming in (or using some other approximation method), we can find the zeros of f 0 (x) with more precision. They
are (approximately) 0, 2.029, and 4.913. We check the endpoints and critical points for the global maximum and minimum.

f (0) = 0, f (2π) = 0,
f (2.029) ≈ 1.8197, f (4.914) ≈ −4.814.

Thus for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π, −4.81 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1.82.

21. To find the best possible bounds for f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 5 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 5, we find the global maximum and minimum
for the function on the interval. First, we find the critical points. Differentiating yields

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9

Letting f 0 (x) = 0 and factoring yields

3x2 − 12x + 9 = 0
3(x2 − 4x + 3) = 0
3(x − 3)(x − 1) = 0

So x = 1 and x = 3 are critical points for the function on 0 ≤ x ≤ 5. Evaluating the function at the critical points and
endpoints gives us

f (0) = (0)3 − 6(0)2 + 9(0) + 5 = 5

f (1) = (1)3 − 6(1)2 + 9(1) + 5 = 9
f (3) = (3)3 − 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 5 = 5
f (5) = (5)3 − 6(5)2 + 9(5) + 5 = 25

So the global minimum on this interval is f (0) = f (3) = 5 and the global maximum is f (5) = 25. From this we
conclude
5 ≤ x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 5 ≤ 25
are the best possible bounds for the function on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 5.
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 291

Problems

22. (a) f 0 (x)

x1 x3 x4 x5
x
x2

(b) f 0 (x) changes sign at x1 , x3 , and x5 .

(c) f 0 (x) has local extrema at x2 and x4 .
23. The local maxima and minima of f correspond to places where f 0 is zero and changes sign or, possibly, to the endpoints
of intervals in the domain of f . The points at which f changes concavity correspond to local maxima and minima of f 0 .
The change of sign of f 0 , from positive to negative corresponds to a maximum of f and change of sign of f 0 from negative
to positive corresponds to a minimum of f .
24. The function f has critical points at x = 1, x = 3, x = 5.
By the first derivative test, since f 0 is positive to the left of x = 1 and negative to the right, x = 1 is a local maximum.
Since f 0 is negative to the left of x = 3 and positive to the right, x = 3 is a local minimum.
Since f 0 does not change sign at x = 5, this point is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum.
25. The critical points of f occur where f 0 is zero. These two points are indicated in the figure below.

f 0 (x)

f has a f has crit. pt.

local min. Neither max or min

Note that the point labeled as a local minimum of f is not a critical point of f 0 .
26. (a) The function f is a local maximum where f 0 (x) = 0 and f 0 > 0 to the left, f 0 < 0 to the right. This occurs at the
point x3 .
(b) The function f is a local minimum where f 0 (x) = 0 and f 0 < 0 to the left, f 0 > 0 to the right. This occurs at the
points x1 and x5 .
(c) The graph of f is climbing fastest where f 0 is a maximum, which is at the point x2 .
(d) The graph of f is falling most steeply where f 0 is the most negative, which is at the point 0.
27. (a) Increasing for x > 0, decreasing for x < 0.
(b) f (0) is a local and global minimum, and f has no global maximum.
28. (a) Increasing for all x.
(b) No maxima or minima.
29. (a) Decreasing for x < 0, increasing for 0 < x < 4, and decreasing for x > 4.
(b) f (0) is a local minimum, and f (4) is a local maximum.
30. (a) Decreasing for x < −1, increasing for −1 < x < 0, decreasing for 0 < x < 1, and increasing for x > 1.
(b) f (−1) and f (1) are local minima, f (0) is a local maximum.
31. Differentiating gives
dy
= a(e−bx − bxe−bx ) = ae−bx (1 − bx).
dx
Thus, dy/dx = 0 when x = 1/b. Then
1 a
y = a e−b·1/b = e−1 .
b b
292 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

Differentiating again gives

d2 y
= −abe−bx (1 − bx) − abe−bx
dx2
= −abe−bx (2 − bx)

When x = 1/b,
 
d2 y 1
= −abe−b·1/b 2 − b · = −abe−1 .
dx2 b
Therefore the point ( 1b , ab e−1 ) is a maximum if a and b are positive. We can make (2, 10) a maximum by setting

1 1
= 2 so b =
b 2
and
a −1 a −1
e = e = 2ae−1 = 10 so a = 5e.
b 1/2
Thus a = 5e, b = 1/2.
32. We want the maximum value of r(t) = ate−bt to be 0.3 ml/sec and to occur at t = 0.5 sec. Differentiating gives

r0 (t) = ae−bt − abte−bt ,

so r 0 (t) = 0 when
1
ae−bt (1 − bt) = 0 or t= .
b
Since the maximum occurs at t = 0.5, we have
1
= 0.5 so b = 2.
b
Thus, r(t) = ate−2t . The maximum value of r is given by

r(0.5) = a(0.5)e−2(0.5) = 0.5ae−1 .

Since the maximum value of r is 0.3, we have

0.3e
0.5ae−1 = 0.3 so a= = 1.63.
0.5
Thus, r(t) = 1.63te−2t ml/sec.
33.

r(λ) = a(λ)−5 (eb/λ − 1)−1

 
b b/λ
r0 (λ) = a(−5λ−6 )(eb/λ − 1)−1 + a(λ−5 ) e (eb/λ − 1)−2
λ2
(0.96, 3.13) is a maximum, so r 0 (0.96) = 0 implies that the following holds, with λ = 0.96:

 
b b/λ
5λ−6 (eb/λ − 1)−1 = λ−5 e (eb/λ − 1)−2
λ2
5λ(eb/λ − 1) = beb/λ
5λeb/λ − 5λ = beb/λ
5λeb/λ − beb/λ = 5λ
 
5λ − b b/λ
e =1
5λ
4.8 − b b/0.96
e − 1 = 0.
4.8
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 293

Using Newton’s method, or some other approximation method, we search for a root. The root should be near 4.8. Using
our initial guess, we get b ≈ 4.7665. At λ = 0.96, r = 3.13, so
a
3.13 = or
0.965 (eb/0.96 − 1)
a = 3.13(0.96)5 (eb/0.96 − 1)
≈ 363.23.

As a check, we try r(4) ≈ 0.155, which looks about right on the given graph.
34.
a = −2 -
a=0 -
a=2 -

a=4 -
a=6 -
 y = − 12 x3

dy


To solve for the critical points, we set dx = 0. Since dxd
x3 − ax2 = 3x2 − 2ax, we want 3x2 − 2ax = 0, so
x = 0 or x = 3 a. At x = 0, we have y = 0. This first critical point is independent of a and lies on the curve y = − 12 x3 .
2

3
4 3
At x = 32 a, we calculate y = − 27 a = − 12 2
3
a . Thus the second critical point also lies on the curve y = − 21 x3 .
35. The triangle in Figure 4.152 has area, A, given by
1 x
A= xy = e−x/3 .
2 2
At a critical point,
dA 1 x
= e−x/3 − e−x/3 = 0
dx 2 6
1 −x/3
e (3 − x) = 0
6
x = 3.

Substituting the critical point and the endpoints into the formula for the area gives:
For x = 1, we have A = 21 e−1/3 = 0.358
For x = 3, we have A = 23 e−1 = 0.552
For x = 5, we have A = 25 e−5/3 = 0.472
Thus, the maximum area is 0.552 and the minimum area is 0.358.

(x, e−x/3 )
y6
? x
 x -
Figure 4.152

√
36. The top half of the circle has equation y = 1 − x2 . The rectangle in Figure 4.153 has area, A, given by
p
A = 2xy = 2x 1 − x2 , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
294 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

At a critical point,
p 

−1/2 
dA 1
= 2 1 − x2 + 2x 1 − x2 (−2x) =0
dt 2
p 2x2
2 1 − x2 − √ =0
1 − x2
√
2
2 1 − x2 − 2x2
√ =0
1 − x2
2(1 − x2 − x2 )
√ =0
1 − x2
2(1 − 2x2 ) =0
1
x = ±√ .
2
√
Since A = 0 at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 1, and since A is positive at the only critical point, x = 1/ 2,
in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, the critical point is a local and global maximum. The vertices on the circle have y =
p √
1 − (1/2)2 = 1/ 2. Thus the coordinates of the rectangle with maximum area are
       
1 1 1 1 1 1
√ , 0 ; √ , √ ; −√ , 0 ; −√ , √
2 2 2 2 2 2

and the maximum area is

1 1
A = 2 √ · √ = 1.
2 2

6y = √1 − x2
y

? x
−1  x - 1

Figure 4.153

37. The volume is given by V = x2 y. The surface area is given by

S = 2x2 + 4xy
= 2x2 + 4xV /x2 = 2x2 + 4V /x.

To find the dimensions which minimize the area, find x such that dS/dx = 0:
dS 4V
= 4x − 2 = 0
dx x
x3 = V.
√
Solving for x gives x = 3 V = y. To see that this gives a minimum, note that for small x, S ≈ 4V /x is decreasing. For
large x, S ≈ 2x2 is increasing. Since there is only one critical point, it must give a global minimum. Therefore, when the
width equals the height, the surface area is minimized.
38. (a) The business must reorder often enough to keep pace with sales. If reordering is done every t months, then,

Quantity sold in t months = Quantity reordered in each batch

rt = q
q
t = months.
r
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 295

(b) The amount spent on each order is a + bq, which is spent every q/r months. To find the monthly expenditures, divide
by q/r. Thus, on average,
a + bq ra
Amount spent on ordering per month = = + rb dollars.
q/r q
(c) The monthly cost of storage is kq/2 dollars, so

C = Ordering costs + Storage costs

ra kq
C= + rb + dollars.
q 2
(d) The optimal batch size minimizes C, so
dC −ra k
= 2 + =0
dq q 2
ra k
=
q2 2
2 2ra
q =
k
so r
2ra
q= items per order.
k
39. D (km)
15 knots 3
I
T
2

12 knots
3 km
1
S

45◦
t (hr)
0.05 0.1
Figure 4.154: Position of the tanker Figure 4.155: Distance between the
and ship ship at S and the tanker at T
√
Suppose t is the time, in hours, since the ships were 3 km apart. Then T I = 3 2
2
− (15)(1.85)t and SI =
√
3 2
2
− (12)(1.85)t. So the distance, D(t), in km, between the ships at time t is
s 2  √ 2
√
3 2 3 2
D(t) = − 27.75t + − 22.2t .
2 2

Differentiating gives    
−55.5 √3 − 27.75 t − 44.4 √3 − 22.2 t
dD 2 2
= r 2  2 .
dt
2 √3 − 27.75 t + √3 − 22.2 t
2 2

Solving dD/dt = 0 gives a critical point at t = 0.0839 hours when the ships will be approximately 331 meters apart. So
the ships do not need to change course. Alternatively, tracing along the curve in Figure 4.155 gives the same result. Note
that this is after the eastbound ship crosses the path of the northbound ship.
40. (a) Consider Figure 4.156. The company wants to truck its potatoes to some point, P , along the coast before transferring
them to a ship. Let x represent the distance between that point and the point C. The distance covered by truck is the
hypotenuse of the right triangle (provided that it is covered by highway)whose sides have lengths of x and 300 (in
miles). This distance is given by
p
Distance in miles covered by truck = x2 + 3002 .
296 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS
√
The cost of transporting by truck is 2 cents per mile, or 2 x2 + 3002 cents while the cost of transporting by ship is
1 cent per mile, or 1(1000 − x) cents. The cost function which we want to minimize, in cents, is therefore
p
C(x) = 2 x2 + 3002 + (1000 − x).

300
C Boise
6 x
P

1000
1000 − x

? San Diego

Figure 4.156

(b) To minimize the cost function C, we compute its derivative,

C 0 (x) = (x2 + 3002 )−1/2 · (2x) + (−1)

2x
= √ − 1.
x + 3002
2

When we set C 0 (x) to 0 to determine the critical point, we get

2x
√ =1
x2 + 3002
p
2x = x2 + 3002
4x = x + 3002
2 2

3x2 = 3002
3002 90000
x2 = = = 30000
3 3
√
x = 30000 = 173.21 miles

Taking the second derivative, we see that

2
C 00 (x) = √ − 2x2 (x2 + 3002 )−3/2 ,
x2 + 3002
which is positive at x = 173.21, so the critical point is a minimum. Since there is only one critical point, this must
be the global minimum.
41. Since the volume is fixed at 200 ml (i.e. 200 cm3 ), we can solve the volume expression for h in terms of r to get (with h
and r in centimeters)
200 · 3
h= .
7πr2
Using this expression in the surface area formula we arrive at
r  2
600
S = 3πr r2 +
7πr2
By plotting S(r) we see that there is a minimum value near r = 2.7 cm.
42. To find the critical points, set dD/dx = 0:
dD
= 2(x − a1 ) + 2(x − a2 ) + 2(x − a3 ) + · · · + 2(x − an ) = 0.
dx
Dividing by 2 and solving for x gives

x + x + x + · · · + x = a 1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + a n .
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 297

Since there are n terms on the left,

nx = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
1X
n
a1 + a 2 + a 3 + · · · + a n
x= = ai .
n n
i=1

The expression on the right is the average of a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an .

Since D is a quadratic with positive leading coefficient, this critical point is a minimum.
43. (a) We have g 0 (t) = t(1/t)−ln
t2
t
= 1−ln
t2
t
, which is zero if t = e, negative if t > e, and positive if t < e, since ln t is
increasing. Thus g(e) = e is a global maximum for g. Since t = e was the only point at which g 0 (t) = 0, there is no
1

minimum.
(b) Now ln t/t is increasing for 0 < t < e, ln 1/1 = 0, and ln 5/5 ≈ 0.322 < ln(e)/e. Thus, for 1 < t < e, ln t/t
increases from 0 to above ln 5/5, so there must be a t between 1 and e such that ln t/t = ln 5/5. For t > e, there
is only one solution to ln t/t = ln 5/5, namely t = 5, since ln t/t is decreasing for t > e. For 0 < t < 1, ln t/t is
negative and so cannot equal ln 5/5. Thus ln x/x = ln t/t has exactly two solutions.
(c) The graph of ln t/t intersects the horizontal line y = ln 5/5, at x = 5 and x ≈ 1.75.
44. (a) x-intercept: (a, 0), y-intercept: (0, 1
a2 +1
)
(b) Area = 12 (a)( a21+1 ) = 2(a2a+1)
(c)
a
A=
2(a2 + 1)
2(a2 + 1) − a(4a)
A0 =
4(a2 + 1)2
2(1 − a2 )
=
4(a2 + 1)2
(1 − a2 )
= .
2(a2 + 1)2

If A0 = 0, then a = ±1. We only consider positive values of a, and we note that A 0 changes sign from positive to
negative at a = 1. Hence a = 1 is a local maximum of A which is a global maximum because A 0 < 0 for all a > 1
and A0 > 0 for 0 < a < 1.
(d) A = 21 (1)( 12 ) = 14
(e) Set 2(a2a+a) = 31 and solve for a:
5a = 2a2 + 2
2a2 − 5a + 2 = 0
(2a − 1)(a − 2) = 0.

45. (a) The length of the piece of wire made into a circle is x cm, so the length of the piece made into a square is (L − x) cm.
See Figure 4.157.

x L−x
Wire

r
Circle: Square:
Perimeter x Perimeter L − x

Figure 4.157

The circumference of the circle is x, so its radius, r cm, is given by

x
r= cm.
2π
298 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

The perimeter of the square is (L − x), so the side length, s cm, is given by
L−x
s= cm.
4
Thus, the sum of areas is given by
 2  2 (L − x)2
x L−x x2
A = πr 2 + s2 = π + = + , for 0 ≤ x ≤ L.
2π 4 4π 16
Setting dA/dx = 0 to find the critical points gives
dA x (L − x)
= − =0
dx 2π 8
8x = 2πL − 2πx
(8 + 2π)x = 2πL
2πL πL
x= = ≈ 0.44L.
8 + 2π 4+π
To find the maxima and minima, we substitute the critical point and the endpoints, x = 0 and x = L, into the area
function.
L2
For x = 0, we have A = .
16
πL πL 4L
For x = , we have L − x = L − = . Then
4+π 4+π 4+π
 2
π 2 L2 1 4L πL2 L2
A= + = +
4π(4 + π)2 16 4+π 4(4 + π) 2 (4 + π)2
πL2 + 4L2 L2 L2
= = = .
4(4 + π)2 4(4 + π) 16 + 4π

L2
For x = L, we have A = .
4π
πL L2
Thus, x = gives the minimum value of A = .
4+π 16 + 4π
L2
Since 4π < 16, we see that x = L gives the maximum value of A = .
4π
This corresponds to the situation in which we do not cut the wire at all and use the single piece to make a circle.
(b) At the maximum, x = L, so
Length of wire in square 0
= = 0.
Length of wire in circle L
Area of square 0
= 2 = 0.
Area of circle L /4π
πL πL 4L
At the minimum, x = , so L − x = L − = .
4+π 4+π 4+π
Length of wire in square 4L/(4 + π) 4
= = .
Length of wire in circle πL/(4 + π) π
Area of square L2 /(4 + π)2 4
= = .
Area of circle πL2 /(4(4 + π)2 ) π
(c) For a general value of x,
Length of wire in square L−x
= .
Length of wire in circle x
Area of square (L − x)2 /16 π (L − x)2
= = · .
Area of circle 2
x /(4π) 4 x2
If the ratios are equal, we have
L−x π (L − x)2
= · .
x 4 x2
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 299

So either L − x = 0, giving x = L, or we can cancel (L − x) and multiply through by 4x 2 , giving

4x = π(L − x)
πL
x= .
4+π
Thus, the two values of x found in part (a) are the only values of x in 0 ≤ x ≤ L making the ratios in part (b) equal.
(The ratios are not defined if x = 0.)
46. (a) The concavity changes at t1 and t3 , as shown in Figure 4.158.
(b) f (t) grows most quickly where the vase is skinniest (at y3 ) and most slowly where the vase is widest (at y1 ). The
diameter of the widest part of the vase looks to be about 4 times as large as the diameter at the skinniest part. Since
the area of a cross section is given by πr 2 , where r is the radius, the ratio between areas of cross sections at these
two places is about 42 , so the growth rates are in a ratio of about 1 to 16 (the wide part being 16 times slower).

y
10

y3 f (t)

y2
5

y1

t x
t1 t2 t3 5 10

Figure 4.158 Figure 4.159

47. (a) For x > 0 

the graphs
 inFigure4.159 are almost indistinguishable.
x π
(b) Since lim arctan − = 0 and lim a = 0 we can use l’Hopital’s rule. The variable is a, so we differentiate
a→0 a 2 a→1
with respect to a.
x

π

d x

π

1 d x 1 −x
arctan a
− 2 da
arctan a
− 2
( )
1+(x/a)2 da a 1+(x/a)2 a2 1
lim = lim d
= lim = lim =− .
a→0+ a a→0+
da
(a) a→0+ 1 a→0+ 1 x
   
1 x π
(c) Part (b) tells us that as a gets closer and closer to 0 through positive values of a, the function arctan −
a a 2
1
gets closer and closer to − , which is what part (a) is saying graphically.
x
48. If f (x) = 1 − cosh(5x) and g(x) = x2 , then f (0) = g(0) = 0, so we use l’Hopital’s Rule:
1 − cosh 5x −5 sinh 5x −25 cosh 5x 25
lim = lim = lim =− .
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2

49. If f (x) = x − sinh x and g(x) = x3 , then f (0) = g(0) = 0. However, f 0 (0) = g 0 (0) = f 00 (0) = g 00 (0) = 0 also, so
we use l’Hopital’s Rule three times. Since f 000 (x) = − cosh x and g 000 (x) = 6:
x − sinh x 1 − cosh x − sinh x − cosh x 1
lim = lim = lim = lim =− .
x→0 x3 x→0 3x2 x→0 6x x→0 6 6

50. (a) The population is increasing if dP/dt > 0, that is, if

kP (L − P ) > 0.
Since P ≥ 0 and k, L > 0, we must have P > 0 and L − P > 0 for this to be true. Thus, the population is increasing
if 0 < P < L.
The population is decreasing if dP/dt < 0, that is, if P > L.
The population remains constant if dP/dt = 0, so P = 0 or P = L.
300 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

(b) Differentiating with respect to t using the chain rule gives

d2 P d d dP
= (kP (L − P )) = (kLP − kP 2 ) · = (kL − 2kP )(kP (L − P ))
dt2 dt dP dt
= k 2 P (L − 2P )(L − P ).

51. Let r be the radius of the balloon. Then its volume, V , is

4 3
V = πr .
3
We need to find the rate of change of V with respect to time, that is dV /dt. Since V = V (r),
dV
= 4πr 2
dr
so that by the chain rule,
dV dV dr
= = 4πr 2 · 1.
dt dr dt
When r = 5, dV /dt = 100π cm3 /sec.
52. The radius r is related to the volume by the formula V = 43 πr3 . By implicit differentiation, we have

dV 4 dr dr
= π3r2 = 4πr 2 .
dt 3 dt dt
The surface area of a sphere is 4πr 2 , so we have
dV dr
=s· ,
dt dt
dV 1
but since = s was given, we have
dt 3
dr 1
= .
dt 3

53. (a) Since dθ/dt represents the rate of change of θ with time, dθ/dt represents the angular velocity of the disk.
(b) Suppose P is the point on the rim shown in Figure 4.160.

a I
s
θ
K x

Figure 4.160

Any other point on the rim is moving at the same speed, though in a different direction. We know that since θ is
in radians,
s = aθ.
Since a is a constant, we know
ds dθ
=a .
dt dt
But ds/dt = v, the speed of the point on the rim, so
dθ
v=a .
dt
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 301

54. The volume, V, of a cone of radius r and height h is

1 2
V = πr h.
3
However, Figure 4.161 shows that h/r = 12/5, thus r = 5h/12, so
 2
1 5 25
V = π h h= πh3 .
3 12 432
Differentiating with respect to time, t, gives
dV 25 dh
= πh2 .
dt 144 dt
When the depth of chemical in the tank is 1 meter, the level is falling at 0.1 meter/min so h = 1 and dh/dt = −0.1. Thus

dV 25
=− · π · 12 · 0.1 = −0.0545 m3 /min.
dt 144

5m-
6

r
-
12 m
6
h

? ?

Figure 4.161

55. The rate at which the voltage, V, is changing is obtained by differentiating V = IR to get
dV dR dI
=I +R .
dt dt dt
Since the voltage remains constant, dV /dt = 0. Thus

dR R dI
=− ,
dt I dt
and the rate at which the resistance is changing is
dR 1000
=− (0.001) = −10 ohms/min.
dt 0.1
We conclude that the resistance is falling by 10 ohms/min.
56. Using Pythagoras’ theorem, we see that the distance x between the aircraft’s current position and the point 2 miles directly
above the ground station are related to s by the formula x = (s2 −22 )1/2 . See Figure 4.162. The speed along the aircraft’s
constant altitude flight path is    
dx 1 ds s ds
= (s2 − 4)−1/2 (2s) = .
dt 2 dt x dt
When s = 4.6 and ds/dt = 210,

dx 4.6
= p 210
dt (4.6)2 − 4
966
= √
21.16 − 4
966
= ≈ 233.2 miles/hour.
4.14
302 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

x A (Aircraft)

2 s

G (Ground station)

Figure 4.162

57. We want to find dP/dV . Solving P V = k for P gives

P = k/V

so,
dP k
= − 2.
dV V

58. (a) Since V = k/P , the volume decreases.

(b) Since P V = k and P = 2 when V = 10, we have k = 20, so
20
V = .
P
We think of both P and V as functions of time, so by the chain rule
dV dV dP
= ,
dt dP dt
dV 20 dP
=− 2 .
dt P dt
We know that dP/dt = 0.05 atm/min when P = 2 atm, so
dV 20
= − 2 · (0.05) = −0.25 cm3 /min.
dt 2

CAS Challenge Problems

59. (a) Since k > 0, we have lim e−kt = 0. Thus

t→∞

L L
lim P = lim = = L.
t→∞ t→∞ 1 + Ce−kt 1+C ·0
The constant L is called the carrying capacity of the environment because it represents the long-run population in the
environment.
(b) Using a CAS, we find
d2 P LCk 2 e−kt (1 − Ce−kt )
=− .
dt2 (1 + Ce−kt )3
Thus, d2 P/dt2 = 0 when

1 − Ce−kt = 0
ln(1/C)
t=− .
k
Since e−kt and (1 + Ce−kt ) are both always positive, the sign of d2 P/dt2 is negative when (1 − Ce−kt ) > 0,
that is, for t > − ln(1/C)/k. Similarly, the sign of d2 P/dt2 is positive when (1 − Ce−kt ) < 0, that is, for
t < − ln(1/C)/k. Thus, there is an inflection point at t = − ln(1/C)/k.
For t = − ln(1/C)/k,
L L L
P = = = .
1 + Celn(1/C) 1 + C(1/C) 2
Thus, the inflection point occurs where P = L/2.
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 303

60. (a) The graph has a jump discontinuity whose position depends on a. The function is increasing, and the slope at a given
x-value seems to be the same for all values of a. See Figure 4.163.
y y y
2 2 2

x x x
1/a 1/a 1/a

−2 −2 −2
a = 0.5 a=1 a=2

Figure 4.163

(b) Most computer algebra systems will give a fairly complicated answer for the derivative. Here is one example; others
may be different. √ √ √
dy x + a ax
= √ √ √
.
dx 2x 1 + a + 2 a x + x + ax − 2 ax
When we graph the derivative, it appears that we get the same graph for all values of a. See Figure 4.164.

dy/dx

Figure 4.164
√ √ √
(c) Since a and x are positive, we have ax = a x. We can use this to simplify the expression we found for the
derivative:
√ √ √
dy x + a ax
= √ √ √

dx 2x 1 + a + 2 a x + x + ax − 2 ax
√ √ √ √
x+ a a x
= √ √ √ √

2x 1 + a + 2 a x + x + ax − 2 a x
√ √ √ √
x+a x (1 + a) x x
= = =
2x (1 + a + x + ax) 2x(1 + a)(1 + x) 2x(1 + x)
Since a has canceled out, the derivative is independent of a. This explains why all the graphs look the same in part
(b). (In fact they are not exactly the same, because f 0 (x) is undefined where f (x) has its jump discontinuity. The
point at which this happens changes with a.)
61. (a) A CAS gives
d 1
arcsinh x = √
dx 1 + x2
(b) Differentiating both sides of sinh(arcsinh x) = x, we get
d
cosh(arcsinh x) (arcsinh x) = 1
dx
d 1
(arcsinh x) = .
dx cosh(arcsinh x)
304 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS
p
Since cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1, cosh xp= ± 1 + sinh2 x. Furthermore, since cosh x > 0 for all x, we take
p
the positive square root, so cosh x = 1 + sinh2 x. Therefore, cosh(arcsinh x) = 1 + (sinh(arcsinh x))2 =
√
1 + x2 . Thus
d 1
arcsinh x = √ .
dx 1 + x2
62. (a) A CAS gives
d 1
arccosh x = √ , x ≥ 1.
dx x2 − 1
(b) Differentiating both sides of cosh(arccosh x) = x, we get

d
sinh(arccosh x) (arccosh x) = 1
dx
d 1
(arccosh x) = .
dx sinh(arccosh x)
p
Since cosh2 x − sinh 2
p x = 1, sinh x = ± cosh x − 1. If x ≥ 0, thenp
2
sinh x ≥ 0, so we take the positive square
√
root. So sinh x = cosh x − 1, x ≥ 0. Therefore, sinh(arccosh x) = (cosh(arccosh x))2 − 1 = x2 − 1, for
2

x ≥ 1. Thus
d 1
arccosh x = √ .
dx x2 − 1
63. (a) Using a computer algebra system or differentiating by hand, we get
√
1 a+x
f 0 (x) = √ √ √ − √ √ √ .
2 a + x( a + x) 2 x( a + x)2

Simplifying gives √ √
−a + a x
f 0 (x) = √ √
2 √ √ .
2 a+ x x a+x
The denominator of the derivative is always positive if x > 0, and the numerator is zero when x = a. Writing the
√ √ √
numerator as a( x − a), we see that the derivative changes from negative to positive at x = a. Thus, by the first
derivative test, the function has a local minimum at x = a.
(b) As a increases, the local minimum moves to the right. See Figure 4.165. This is consistent with what we found in
part (a), since the local minimum is at x = a.

y
1

a=1
a=3
a=5

x
10

Figure 4.165

(c) Using a computer algebra system to find the second derivative when a = 2, we get
√ √ √
00 4 2 + 12 x + 6 x3/2 − 3 2 x2
f (x) = √ √
3 .
4 2 + x x3/2 (2 + x)3/2

Using the computer algebra system again to solve f 00 (x) = 0, we find that it has one zero at x = 4.6477. Graphing
the second derivative, we see that it goes from positive to negative at x = 4.6477, so this is an inflection point.
 SOLUTIONS to Review Problems for Chapter Four 305

64. (a) Different CASs give different answers. (In fact, their answers could be more complicated than what you get by hand.)
One possible answer is

dy tan x
= q 2 .
dx
2 1−cos
1+cos x
x

(b) The graph in Figure 4.166 is a step function:


1/2 2nπ < x < (2n + 1)π
f (x) =
−1/2 (2n + 1)π < x < (2n + 2)π.

0.5

x
−4π −2π 2π 4π

−0.5

Figure 4.166

Figure 4.166, which shows the graph in disconnected line segments, is correct. However, unless you select certain
graphing options in your CAS, it may join up the segments. Use the double angle formula cos(x) = cos 2 (x/2) −
sin2 (x/2) to simplify the answer in part (a). We find

dy tan(x/2) tan(x/2) tan(x/2)

= q = q = q
dx 1−cos x 1−cos(2·(x/2)) 1−cos2 (x/2)+sin2 (x/2)
2 1+cos x 2 1+cos(2·(x/2)) 2 1+cos2 (x/2)−sin2 (x/2)
tan(x/2) tan(x/2) tan(x/2)
= q = p =
2 sin2 (x/2) 2 tan 2
(x/2) 2 |tan(x/2)|
2 2 cos2 (x/2)

Thus, dy/dx = 1/2 when tan(x/2) > 0, i.e. when 0 < x < π (more generally, when 2nπ < x < (2n + 1)π), and
dy/dx = −1/2 when tan(x/2) < 0, i.e., when π < x < 2π (more generally, when (2n + 1)π < x < (2n + 2)π,
where n is any integer).
65. (a) A E B
 x - √
3−x -
K

1m

U
C

Figure 4.167
306 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

We want to maximize the sum of the lengths EC and CD in Figure 4.167. Let x be the distance AE. Then x
can be between 0 and 1, the length of the left rope. By the Pythagorean theorem,
p
EC = 1 − x2 .

The length of the rope from B to C can also be found by the Pythagorean theorem:
p q √ p √
BC = EC 2 + EB 2 = 1 − x2 + ( 3 − x)2 = 4 − 2 3x.

Since the entire rope from B to D has length 3 m, the length from C to D is
p √
CD = 3 − 4 − 2 3x.

The distance we want to maximize is

p p √
f (x) = EC + CD = 1 − x2 + 3 − 4 − 2 3x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Differentiating gives √
−2x −2 3
f 0 (x) = √ − p √ .
2 1 − x2 2 4 − 2 3x
Setting f 0 (x) = 0 gives the cubic equation
√
2 3x3 − 7x2 + 3 = 0.
√ √ √
Using a computer algebra system to solve the equation gives three roots: x = −1/ 3, x = 3/2, x = 3. We
discard the negative
√ root. Since x cannot be larger than 1 meter (the length of the left rope), the only critical point of
interest is x = 3/2, that is, halfway between A and B.
To find the global maximum, we calculate the distance of the weight from the ceiling at the critical point and at
the endpoints:
√ √
f (0) = 1 + 3 − 4 = 2
√  r r √
3 3 √ 3
f = 1− +3− 4−2 3· = 2.5
2 4 2
√ p √ √
f (1) = 0 + 3 − 4 − 2 3 = 4 − 3 = 2.27.
√
Thus, the weight is at the maximum distance from the ceiling when x = 3/2; that is, the weight comes to rest at a
point halfway between points A and B.
(b) No, the equilibrium position depends on the length of the rope. For example, suppose that the left-hand rope was 1
cm long. Then there is no way for the pulley at its end to move to a point halfway between the anchor points.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. True. Since the domain of f is all real numbers, all local minima occur at critical points.
2. True. Since the domain of f is all real numbers, all local maxima occur at critical points. Thus, if x = p is a local
maximum, x = p must be a critical point.
3. False. A local maximum of f might occur at a point where f 0 does not exist. For example, f (x) = −|x| has a local
maximum at x = 0, but the derivative is not 0 (or defined) there.
4. False, because x = p could be a local minimum of f . For example, if f (x) = x 2 , then f 0 (0) = 0, so x = 0 is a critical
point, but x = 0 is not a local maximum of f .
5. False. For example, if f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (0) = 0, but f (x) does not have either a local maximum or a local minimum at
x = 0.
6. True. Suppose f is increasing at some points and decreasing at others. Then f 0 (x) takes both positive and negative values.
Since f 0 (x) is continuous, by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there would be some point where f 0 (x) is zero, so that
there would be a critical point. Since we are told there are no critical points, f must be increasing everywhere or decreasing
everywhere.
 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 307

7. False. For example, if f (x) = x4 , then f 00 (x) = 12x2 , and hence f 00 (0) = 0. But f does not have an inflection point at
x = 0 because the second derivative does not change sign at 0.
8. True. Since f 00 changes sign at the inflection point x = p, by the Intermediate Value Theorem, f 00 (p) = 0.
9. Let f (x) = ax2 , with a 6= 0. Then f 0 (x) = 2ax, so f has a critical point only at x = 0.
10. Let g(x) = ax3 + bx2 , where neither a nor b are allowed to be zero. Then
g 0 (x) = 3ax2 + 2bx = x(3ax + 2b).
Then g(x) has two distinct critical points, at x = 0 and at x = −2b/3a. Since
g 00 (x) = 6ax + 2b,
there is exactly one point of inflection, x = −2b/6a = −b/3a.
11. (a) True, f (x) ≤ 4 on the interval (0, 2)
(b) False. The values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to 4, but f (x) < 4 for all x in the interval (0, 2).
(c) True. The values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to 0, but f (x) > 0 for all x in the interval (0, 2).
(d) False. On the interval (−1, 1), the global minimum is 0.
(e) True, by the Extreme Value Theorem, Theorem 4.2.
12. (a) This is not implied; just because a function satisfies the conclusions of the statement, that does not mean it has to
satisfy the conditions.
(b) This is not implied; if a function fails to satisfy the conditions of the statement, then the statement does not tell us
anything about it.
(c) This is implied; if a function fails to satisfy the conclusions of the statement, then it could not satisfy the conditions
of the statement, because if it did the statement would imply it also satisfied the conclusions.
13. True. If the maximum is not at an endpoint, then it must be at critical point of f . But x = 0 is the only critical point of
f (x) = x2 and it gives a minimum, not a maximum.
14. True. For example, A = 1 and A = 2 are both upper bounds for f (x) = sin x.
15. True. If f 0 (0) > 0, then f would be increasing at 0 and so f (0) < f (x) for x just to the right of 0. Then f (0) would not
be a maximum for f on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 10.
16. True. The circumference C and radius r are related by C = 2πr, so dC/dt = 2πdr/dt. Thus if dr/dt is constant, so is
dC/dt.
17. False. The circumference A and radius r are related by A = πr 2 , so dA/dt = 2πrdr/dt. Thus dA/dt depends on r and
since r is not constant, neither is dA/dt.
18. False. If the particle tracing out the curve comes to a complete stop, it can then head off in a completely new direction.
For example, the curve given parametrically by x = t3 and y = t2 is the same as the graph of y = x2/3 which has a cusp
at x = 0.
19. False. The slope is given by
dy dy/dt 2t cos(t2 ) cos(t2 )
= = 2
=− .
dx dx/dt −2t sin(t ) sin(t2 )
20. False. To use l’Hopital’s rule, we need f (a) = g(a) = 0. For example, if f (x) = 3 and g(x) = x, then g(1) = 1 and
f 0 (1)/g 0 (1) = 0/1 = 0, but limx→1 (f (x)/g(x)) = 3/1 = 3.
21. f (x) = x2 + 1 is positive for all x and concave up.
22. This is impossible. If f (a) > 0, then the downward concavity forces the graph of f to cross the x-axis to the right or left
of x = a, which means f (x) cannot be positive for all values of x. More precisely, suppose that f (x) is positive for all
x and f is concave down. Thus there must be some value x = a where f (a) > 0 and f 0 (a) is not zero, since a constant
function is not concave down. The tangent line at x = a has nonzero slope and hence must cross the x-axis somewhere to
the right or left of x = a. Since the graph of f must lie below this tangent line, it must also cross the x-axis, contradicting
the assumption that f (x) is positive for all x.
23. f (x) = −x2 − 1 is negative for all x and concave down.
24. This is impossible. If f (a) < 0, then the upward concavity forces the graph of f to cross the x-axis to the right or left
of x = a, which means f (x) cannot be negative for all values of x. More precisely, suppose that f (x) is negative for all
x and f is concave up. Thus there must be some value x = a where f (a) < 0 and f 0 (a) is not zero, since a constant
function is not concave up. The tangent line at x = a has nonzero slope and hence must cross the x-axis somewhere to
the right or left of x = a. Since the graph of f must lie above this tangent line, it must also cross the x-axis, contradicting
the assumption that f (x) is negative for all x.
308 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

25. This is impossible. Since f 00 exists, so must f 0 , which means that f is differentiable and hence continuous. If f (x) were
positive for some values of x and negative for other values, then by the Intermediate Value Theorem, f (x) would have
to be zero somewhere, but this is impossible since f (x)f 00 (x) < 0 for all x. Thus either f (x) > 0 for all values of x,
in which case f 00 (x) < 0 for all values of x, that is f is concave down. But this is impossible by Problem 22. Or else
f (x) < 0 for all x, in which case f 00 (x) > 0 for all x, that is f is concave up. But this is impossible by Problem 24.
26. This is impossible. Since f 000 exists, f 00 must be continuous. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f 00 (x) cannot change
sign, since f 00 (x) cannot be zero. In the same way, we can show that f 0 (x) and f (x) cannot change sign. Since the
product of these three with f 000 (x) cannot change sign, f 000 (x) cannot change sign. Thus f (x)f 00 (x) and f 0 (x)f 000 (x)
cannot change sign. Since their product is negative for all x, one or the other must be negative for all x. By Problem 25,
this is impossible.

PROJECTS FOR CHAPTER FOUR

1.
 Remaining wall
A
 Glass

6
Removed - D
wall
h


? θ
x- y -

Figure 4.168: A Cross-section of the Projected Greenhouse

Suppose that the glass is at an angle θ (as shown in Figure 4.168), that the length of the wall is l, and that
the glass has dimensions D ft by l ft. Since your parents will spend a fixed amount, the area of the glass, say
k ft2 , is fixed:
Dl = k.
The width of the extension is D cos θ. If h is the height of your tallest parent, he or she can walk in a distance
of x, and
h h
= tan θ, so y = .
y tan θ
Thus,
h π
x = D cos θ − y = D cos θ − for 0 < θ < .
tan θ 2
We maximize x since doing so maximizes the usable area:

dx h 1
= −D sin θ + · =0
dθ (tan θ) (cos θ)2
2

h
sin3 θ =
D
 1/3 !
h
θ = arcsin .
D

This is the only critical point, and x → 0 when θ → 0 and when θ → π/2. Thus, the critical point is a global
maximum. Since s
p  2/3
2 h
cos θ = 1 − sin θ = 1 − ,
D
 PROJECTS FOR CHAPTER FOUR 309

the maximum value of x is

h h cos θ
x = D cos θ − = D cos θ −
tan θ sin θ
     2/3 !1/2
h h h
= D− cos θ = D − · 1−
sin θ (h/D)1/3 D
 1/2
h2/3
= (D − h2/3 D1/3 ) · 1 − 2/3
D
   1/2  3/2
h2/3 h2/3 h2/3
= D 1 − 2/3 · 1 − 2/3 = D 1 − 2/3 .
D D D
This means

Maximum Usable Area = lx

 3/2
h2/3
= lD 1 − 2/3
D
 2/3 !3/2
hl
=k 1−
k

2. (a) The point on the line y = mx corresponding to the point (2, 3.5) has y-coordinate given by y = m(2) =
2m. Thus, for the point (2, 3.5)

Vertical distance to the line = |2m − 3.5|.

We calculate the distance similarly for the other two points. We want to minimize the sum, S, of the
squares of these vertical distances

S = (2m − 3.5)2 + (3m − 6.8)2 + (5m − 9.1)2 .

Differentiating with respect to m gives

dS
= 2(2m − 3.5) · 2 + 2(3m − 6.8) · 3 + 2(5m − 9.1) · 5.
dm
Setting dS/dm = 0 gives

2 · 2(2m − 3.5) + 2 · 3(3m − 6.8) + 2 · 5(5m − 9.1) = 0.

Canceling a 2 and multiplying out gives

4m − 7 + 9m − 20.4 + 25m − 45.5 = 0

38m = 72.9
m = 1.92.

Thus, the best fitting line has equation y = 1.92x.

(b) To fit a line of the form y = mx to the data, we take y = V and x = r 3 . Then k will be the slope m. So
we make the following table of data:

r 2 5 7 8
3
x=r 8 125 343 512
y=V 8.7 140.3 355.8 539.2
310 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

To find the best fitting line of the form y = mx, we minimize the sums of the squares of the vertical
distances from the line. For the point (8, 8.7) the corresponding point on the line has y = 8m, so

Vertical distance = |8m − 8.7|.

We find distances from the other points similarly. Thus we want to minimize

S = (8m − 8.7)2 + (125m − 140.3)2 + (343m − 355.8)2 + (512m − 539.2)2 .

Differentiating with respect to m, which is the variable, and setting the derivative to zero:
dS
= 2(8m − 8.7) · 8 + 2(125m − 140.3) · 125 + 2(343m − 355.8) · 343 + 2(512m − 539.2) · 512 = 0.
dm
After canceling a 2, solving for m leads to the equation

82 m + 1252 m + 3432 m + 5122 m = 8 · 8.7 + 125 · 140.3 + 343 · 355.8 + 512 · 539.2
m = 1.051.

Thus, k = 1.051 and the relationship between V and r is

V = 1.051r 3 .

(In fact, the correct relationship is V = πr 3 /3, so the exact value of k is π/3 = 1.047.)
(c) The best fitting line minimizes the sum of the squares of the vertical distances from points to the line.
Since the point on the line y = mx corresponding to (x1 , y1 ) is the point with y = mx1 ; for this point we
have
Vertical distance = |mx1 − y1 |.
We calculate the distance from the other points similarly. Thus we want to minimize

S = (mx1 − y1 )2 + (mx2 − y2 )2 · · · + (mxn − yn )2 .

The variable is m (the xi s and yi s are all constants), so

dS
= 2(mx1 − y1 )x1 + 2(mx2 − y2 )x2 + · · · + 2(mxn − yn )xn = 0
dm
2(m(x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n ) − (x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn )) = 0.

Solving for m gives

P
n
x i yi
x 1 y1 + x 2 y2 + · · · + x n yn i=1
m= = Pn .
x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n
x2i
i=1

3. The optimization problem in part (d) is unusual in that the optimum value is known (55 mph), and the problem
is to find the conditions which lead to this optimum. A variant of this project is to ask what group of people
in the real world might be interested in each of the questions asked. A possible answer is owners of trucking
companies for parts (b) and (c), traffic police for part (d), and Interstate Commerce Commission for parts (e)
and (f).
(a) The total cost per mile is the cost of the driver plus the cost of fuel. We let
w be the driver’s hourly wage in dollars/hour,
v be the average speed in miles/hour,
m be the weight of the truck in thousands of pounds,
f the cost of fuel in dollars/gallon.
The cost per mile of the driver’s wages is w/v. The cost of fuel per mile will be one over the ”mileage per
 PROJECTS FOR CHAPTER FOUR 311

gallon” times the cost of fuel per gallon—i.e. f /mpg. The mileage per gallon is 6 − (m − 25)(0.02) −
(v − 45)(0.1) for velocities over 45 and 6 − (m − 25)(0.02) for velocities under 45. So the total cost per
mile, c, is 
w+


f
0 < v ≤ 45
v 6 − (m − 25)(0.02)
c= w f


 + 45 < v.
v 6 − (m − 25)(0.02) − (v − 45)(0.1)
Note that there is an upper limit to the velocity in this last expression given when

6 − (m − 25)(0.02) − (v − 45)(0.1) = 0.

(b) We are now given the values

w = 15.00 dollars/hour
m = 75 thousand pounds
f = 1.25 dollars/gallon.

We have
 15 1.25

 + 0 < v ≤ 45
v 6 − (75 − 25)(0.02)
c = 15 1

 + 45 < v,
v 6 − (75 − 25)(0.02) − (v − 45)(0.1)
which simplifies to 
 15 1
 + 0 < v ≤ 45
v
c = 15 4
 1.25
 + 45 < v < 95.
v 5 − (v − 45)(0.1)
The upper limit for v occurs when 5 − (v − 45)(0.1) = 0, that is, v = 95.
To initiate our search for a minimum, note that the function c = 15/v + 1/4 is strictly decreasing. So
we only need find the minimum of the function
15 1.25
c= +
v 5 − (v − 45)(0.1)

on the interval 45 ≤ v < 95. Rearranging this slightly, we get

15 1.25
c= + .
v 9.5 − 0.1v
Then differentiating gives
dc 15 (1.25)(0.1)
=− 2 + .
dv v (9.5 − 0.1v)2
Setting this to zero and solving, we get

15 (1.25)(0.1)
0 = − 2
+
v (9.5 − 0.1v)2
15(9.5 − 0.1v)2 = 0.125v 2
3.87(9.5 − 0.1v) ≈ ±0.354v
36.8 − 0.387v ≈ ±0.354v
36.8 ≈ 0.741v or 36.8 ≈ 0.033v
v ≈ 49.7 or v ≈ 1100.
312 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

This last value is not in the domain, so we only consider the critical point v = 49.7 and the endpoints of
v = 45 and v = 95. We evaluate the cost function:

c(45) = 0.333 + 0.25 = 58.3c//mile

c(49.7) = 0.302 + 0.276 = 57.8c//mile
c(95) = ∞.

So v = 49.7 is a minimum; the cheapest speed is 49.7 mph.

(c) Evaluating the cost at v = 55 mph, v = 60 mph, and the minimum v = 49.7 mph gives

c(49.7) = 57.8c/
c(55) = 58.5c/
c(60) = 60.7c/.

Notice that the cost per mile does not rise very quickly. A produce hauler often gets extra revenue for
getting there fast. Increasing speed from 50 to 60 mph decreases the transit time by over 15% but increases
the costs by only 5%. Thus, many produce haulers will choose a speed above 49.7 mph.
(d) Now we are not given the price of fuel, but we want the minimum to be at v = 55 mph. We find the value
of f making v = 55 the minimum. The function we want to minimize is
15 f
c= + .
v 9.5 − 0.1v
Differentiating gives
dc 15 0.1f
=− 2 +
dv v (9.5 − 0.1v)2
Setting this equal to 0, we have
15 0.1f
0=− +
v2 (9.5 − 0.1v)2
0 = −15(9.5 − 0.1v)2 + 0.1f v 2 .

Substituting v = 55 and solving for f gives

0 = −15(4)2 + 0.1(55)2 f
f ≈ 80c//gallon.

(e) Now we are not told the driver’s wages, w, or the fuel cost, f . We want to find the relationship between w
and f making the minimum cost occur at v = 55 mph. We have
w f
c= +
v 9.5 − 0.1v
dc w 0.1f
=− 2 + .
dv v (9.5 − 0.1v)2
We need this to equal 0 when v = 55, so
w 0.1f
0=− + .
3025 16
This means
w (3025)(0.1)
= = 18.9,
f 16
that is, the fuel cost per gallon should be 1/18.9 that of the driver’s hourly wage. If the Interstate Commerce
Commission wants truck drivers to keep to a speed of 55 mph, they should consider taxing fuel or driver’s
wages so that they remain in the relation w = 18.9f .
 PROJECTS FOR CHAPTER FOUR 313

(f) Now we assume w = 18.9f and that m is variable. We want to minimize cost, getting a relationship
between m and the optimal v. The function we want to minimize is
18.9f f
c= +
v 6 − (m − 25)(0.02) − (v − 45)(0.1)
18.9f f
= + .
v 11 − 0.02m − 0.1v
Differentiating gives
dc −18.9f 0.1f
= + .
dv v2 (11 − 0.02m − 0.1v)2
We are interested in when dc/dv = 0:

18.9f 0.1f
− + = 0.
v2 (11 − 0.02m − 0.1v)2
Solving gives
v = 63.7 − 0.116m or v = 403.5 − 0.734m.
Only the first gives plausible speeds (and gives v = 55 when m = 75), so we conclude the optimal speed
varies linearly with weight according to the equation v = 63.7 − 0.116m. This means that every 10,000
increase in weight reduces the optimal speed by just over 1 mph.
4. (a) (i) We want to minimize A, the total area lost to the forest, which is made up of n firebreaks and 1 stand
of trees lying between firebreaks. The area of each firebreak is (50 km)(0.01 km) = 0.5 km 2 , so
the total area lost to the firebreaks is 0.5n km2 . There are n total stands of trees between firebreaks.
The area of a single stand of trees can be found by subtracting the firebreak area from the forest and
dividing by n, so
2500 − 0.5n
Area of one stand of trees = .
n
Thus, the total area lost is

A = Area of one stand + Area lost to firebreaks

2500 − 0.5n 2500
= + 0.5n = − 0.5 + 0.5n.
n n
We assume that A is a differentiable function of a continuous variable, n. Differentiating this function
yields
dA 2500
= − 2 + 0.5.
dn n
p
At critical points, dA/dn = 0, so 0.5 = 2500/n or n = 2500/0.5 ≈ 70.7. Since n must be an
2

integer, we check that when n = 71, A = 70.211 and when n = 70, A = 70.214. Thus, n = 71 gives
a smaller area lost.
We can check that this is a local minimum since the second derivative is positive everywhere

d2 A 5000
= 3 > 0.
dn2 n
Finally, we check the endpoints: n = 1 yields the entire forest lost after a fire, since there is only
one stand of trees in this case and it all burns. The largest n is 5000, and in this case the firebreaks
remove the entire forest. Both of these cases maximize the area of forest lost. Thus, n = 71 is a global
minimum. So 71 firebreaks minimizes the area of forest lost.
(ii) Repeating the calculation using b for the width gives
2500
A= − 50b + 50bn,
n
314 Chapter Four /SOLUTIONS

and
dA −2500
= + 50b,
dn n2
p
with a critical point when b = 50/n2 so n = 50/b. So, for example, if we make the width b four
times as large we need half as many firebreaks.
(b) We want to minimize A, the total area lost to the forest, which is made up of n firebreaks in one direction,
n firebreaks in the other, and one square of trees surrounded by firebreaks. The area of each firebreak is
0.5 km2 , and there are 2n of them, giving a total of 0.5 · 2n. But this is larger than the total area covered
by the firebreaks, since it counts the small intersection squares, of size (0.01) 2 , twice. Since there are n2
intersections, we must subtract (0.01)2 n2 from the total area of the 2n firebreaks. Thus,

Area covered by the firebreaks = 0.5 · 2n − (0.01)2 n2 .

To this we must add the area of one square patch of trees lost in a fire. These are squares of side (50 −
0.01n)/n = 50/n − 0.01. Thus the total area lost is

A = n − 0.0001n2 + (50/n − 0.01)2

Treating n as a continuous variable and differentiating this function yields

  
dA 50 −50
= 1 − 0.0002n + 2 − 0.01 .
dn n n2

Using a computer algebra system to find critical points we find that dA/dn = 0 when n ≈ 17 and
n = 5000. Thus n = 17 gives a minimum lost area, since the endpoints of n = 1 and n = 5000 both yield
A = 2500 or the entire forest lost. So we use 17 firebreaks in each direction.