Production of Polystyrene

Capacity: 100 TPD

Project report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree of
B.E.(Chemical with
MBA) 2020

By
Mridul
Bhawa CM
17214

Dr. S.S. BHATNAGAR UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
PANJAB UNIVERSITY
 Production Of
Polystyrene

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mridul Bhawa, Roll No. CM 17214, a fourth-year

student of Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar University Institute of Chemical Engineering
& Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh has completed her project
titled “Production of Polystyrene” by his own. This project report may be
accepted for the evaluation as a part of the requirement of B.E. (chemical
with MBA) degree.

Signature

PROF. AMIT SOBTI

DR SSBUICET
Panjab University

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 Production Of
Polystyrene

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the Department authorities for giving me the

opportunity to work on this project which helped me in increasing my
knowledge as well as in giving me an opportunity to put my theoretical
knowledge to practical use.
I would also like to offer my sincere thanks to my project mentor
Prof. Amit Sobti for giving inspiration and encouragement throughout my
work. This project would not have been completed without his help and
guidance.
Thanks to all the teachers and staff of University Institute of
Chemical Engineering and Technology for their time to time guidance.

MRIDUL BHAWA

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 Production Of
Polystyrene
Index
Topic Page No.

1. Introduction 5
2. Properties and Uses 6
3. Different processes used 10
4. Selection Of Process 12
5. Process Flow Diagram 14
6. Material Balance 15
7. Energy Balance 21
8. Equipment Design 26
i. Design of Reactor
ii. Design of Rotary Dryer
9. Pollution Control and safety 43
10. Instrumentation 46
11. Plant Layout 48
12. Plant location 51
13. Cost estimation and economics 54
14. Bibliography 60

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 Production Of
Polystyrene

SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
Ostromislensky of the Naugatuck chemical company first introduced polystyrene via a
pioneering parent in 1925. At about the same time, work by I.C. Farbenindustrie began that
resulted in the commercialization of polystyrene in Europe. The Dow Chemical Company also
began development of the polystyrene product and process in 1930.

The commercial production of polystyrene first took place at about the same time in Germany
and the US during the early 1930’s; it was manufactured primarily for its good electrical
properties. The polymer was produced in the UK at about the time of the beginning of the
Second World War, when it was used not only as an electrical insulant but also as a glass
replacement in optical instruments after lenses and prisms were no longer available from
Germany.

The major stimulus to the production of styrene monomer came in 1942 in the US with the
large-scale installation of manufacturing facilities for the styrene-butadiene rubber, which was
required to replace natural rubber after the cessation of suppliers from the Far East. After the
war when natural rubber became available again, there was a large surplus production for
styrene monomer, and polystyrene became available to help meet the demand for materials,
which could be used to satisfy the shortage of consumer goods. The polymer has good
mouldability, high transparency and rigidity, which made it suitable for wide range of
applications.

Crystal polystyrene was the initial polystyrene produced was a homopolymer. It is also known
as general-purpose polystyrene and exhibits exceptional clarity with heat resistance above that
of other commodity thermoplastics. A further development was rubber modified or impact
polystyrene. Impact polystyrene is opaque and exhibits increased toughness and ease of
processing versus other commodity thermoplastics.
Another major type of polystyrene application is expandable polystyrene, which is used
mainly in lightweight insulating applications.

Polystyrene has many advantages, which include:

Lightweight: reduces transport fuel consumption and the cost of distributing products.
Performance: provides insulation and protection from contamination and impact. Economy:
usually less expensive than alternative materials resulting in savings to the consumer.
Energy Savings: polystyrene manufacture requires less energy than alternatives resulting in

5
 Production Of
Polystyrene
lower "greenhouse" emissions. As insulation, polystyrene foam enables enormous energy
savings in commercial installations such as cool stores.
PROPERTIES AND USES.
Properties

A] Processing properties:
Flow properties may be the most important properties of polystyrene processes. There are
two widely accepted industry methods for the measurement of processing properties. These
include the melt flow index and the solution viscosity.
The melt flow index is measured by ASTM method as a measure of the melt viscosity at 2000
C and a 5kg load. The melt flow index of polystyrene is generally controlled by adjustment of
the molecular weight of the material and by the addition of such lubricants as mineral oil.
Polystyrenes are commercially produced with melt flow ranges of less than 1 to greater than
50, although the most widely available grades generally have melt flows between 2.0 and 20g
per 10min.
Solution viscosity is another method for measuring the molecular structure of the polystyrene.
Solution viscosity can be measured as an 8% solution in toluene and increases with
increasing molecular weight.

B] Rheological properties:
Polystyrene is a non-Newtonian fluid with viscoelastic properties. The viscosity of polystyrene
melts or solutions is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear rate. Generally, as the
molecular weight of the polymer is increased or mineral oil is decreased, melt viscosity
increases.

C] Mechanical properties:
Crystal polystyrenes have very low impact strengths of less than 0.5ft-lb. commercially
available impact polystyrene grades can be obtained with values of 1.0 -4.0ft-lb. Generally,
polystyrenes are not produced with greater than 15% total rubber because of polymerization
processing constraints. Nevertheless, impact properties can be increased substantially without
additional rubber by the proper control of rubber particle size, percentage of grafting, cross-
linking, and percentage of gel.
Tensile and flexural properties are also important representation of the strength of
polystyrenes. Increasing the rubber modification of polystyrene generally leads to lower
tensile strength, crystal grades being stiff and brittle. Tensile strength is also decreased by the
addition of lubricants, such as mineral oil. Flexural strengths for polystyrenes can be obtained
from 5000 to 18000psi and are also decreased by the addition of rubber and other additives to
the polystyrene. Elongations can be obtained from 1% for crystal polystyrene to 100% for
some impact polystyrene grades.

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 Production Of
Polystyrene
D] Thermal properties:
Annealed heat distortion is one popular method for measuring he resistance to deformation
under heat for polystyrenes. The heat distortion temperature is decreased by the addition of
rubber, mineral oil, or other additives to polystyrene.
The glass transition temperature for unmodified polystyrene is 373 K, and the glass transition
temperatures for polybutadienes are 161-205 K, subject to the cis, Trans, and vinyl content.

E] Chemical properties:
Solvent crazing of polystyrene is a commercially important phenomenon. High impact
polystyrenes are susceptible to solvent crazing at the interface between the rubber particles
and the polystyrene phase. The resistance of polystyrene to this crazing is referred to as
environmental stress crack resistance (ESCR). For food-packaging applications, such as
butter tubs and deli containers, polystyrenes with high ESCR properties are desirable.
Increasing the percentage of gel, percentage grafting, and rubber particle size can increase
stress crack resistance.
Residual levels of low molecular weight materials are also important to polystyrene
performance. Some of the chemical impurities in the polystyrene are styrene monomer and
ethyl benzene solvent. Residual levels of styrene below 200 ppm and ethyl benzene levels
below 30 ppm are obtainable for very specialized applications.

F] Optical properties:
Crystal polystyrene is a transparent and colorless polymer; high impact polystyrene is generally
opaque as a result of the rubber particles. Developmental grades of translucent impact
polystyrenes have been produced but have not gained wide acceptance. The major optical;
property for high impact polystyrene is gloss. Gloss is a measure of the percentage of light
reflected is generally controlled by the size of the rubber particle. In general, the smaller rubber
particle gives higher gloss. Values from 20 to 95% reflectance are commercially available.
High impact polystyrene is naturally white and crystal polystyrene is naturally clear, but both
can be readily colored.

G] Gas and water permeability of polystyrene:

When styrene polymers are used in packaging applications, the gas and water permeability
characteristics take on an important aspect. Polystyrene itself has its limitations and in
consequence is often used with other polymers so as to achieve different permeability
properties. These properties can change dramatically as other monomers are introduced into
the molecule.

H] Weatherability and ageing:

Polystyrene and the copolymers are susceptible to degradation by the action of sunlight; the
main effect being due to UV radiation in the wavelength band of 300-400nm. The action of the
UV radiation is accompanied by the oxidation so that the overall degradation reaction is one of
7
 Production Of
Polystyrene
photo oxidation. The extent of degradation varies from location to location owing to the
differences in the intensity of the radiation. This is of considerable importance in many
applications because the degradation is reflected, in the case of transparent compositions, in a
yellowing effect and generally in a loss of mechanical properties such as a lower elongation at
break and reduced impact strength.
I] Toxicity:
Polystyrene is a low toxic product. The FDA for the food contact
Applications approve almost all commercially available polystyrenes. The polymer itself is not
digestible and is not normally biodegradable.

Typical properties of the general-purpose polystyrene:

Mechanical Units General purpose

property polystyrene
Tensile strength MN/m2 34.5-48.3
Elongation at break % l20-30
Modulus in tension MN/m2 2700-3450
Impact strength J/m 37-59
Flexural strength MN/m2 48.3-75.8
Deflection In 0.15-0.35
Hardness Rockwell scale M45-M60

Electrical and Units GPPS

allied property
Dielectric strength V/mil 500-700
Volume resistivity -cm 1017-1019
Dielectric constant Cps 2.45-2.65
Power factor of Cps 10-30*10-8
Dissipation
Arc resistance S 60-135
Heat distortion 0F 170-180
Water absorption (in 24 hrs),% 0.03-0.04

Applications

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 Production Of
Polystyrene
1. Extruded foam sheet of polystyrene can be thermoformed into such parts as egg
cartons or carryout food containers. Foam grade polystyrene is generally a high- heat
crystal polystyrene with a high molecular weight.

2. Another type of polystyrene foam is that produced from expandable polystyrene

beads. These beads can be molded to produce hot drink cups, ice chests, or foam
packaging. Also, the expandable beads can be molded in very large blocks that can
then be cut into sheets for thermal insulation. Densities of as low as 1lb/ft3 on foamed
products are commercially obtainable.

3. Extruded crystal polystyrene sheet can be biaxially oriented by mechanically pulling

the extruded melt in multiple directions. The stretched sheets is then cooled and
allowed to set with the biaxially orientation frozen into the sheet. This process
produces crystal polystyrene sheet of thin gauge with very high strength.

Typical applications include envelope windows, cap layers for glossy sheet, or
thermoforming into food packaging applications.

1. Optical property of polystyrene is used in manufacture of unbreakable glasses for

gauges, windows and lenses, as well as in countless specialties and novelties and also
for edge lighting for the edge lighting of indicators and dials

2. Solid or liquid pigments and dies color high impact and crystal polystyrenes. This can
be accomplished in both extrusion and injection molding processes. These colorants
are added and mixed during the melting stage of both the processes. Also, polystyrene
parts are amenable to high quality printing. Labels can be printed directly on the
polystyrene part to produce attractive containers.

3. Polystyrenes are also used in furniture, packaging, appliances, automobiles,

construction, radios, televisions, toys, house ware items, and luggage.

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 Production Of
Polystyrene

Different Processes Used for Production

The different methods available for styrene polymerization are:

1. Solution (bulk) polymerization.
2. Emulsion polymerization.
3. Suspension polymerization.

Solution (bulk) polymerization

Solution (bulk) polymerization is commonly referred to as mass polymerization in the industry.

The vast majority of all polystyrene produced today is produced via this technology. The
common solvents used in this process are the styrene monomer itself and ethyl benzene. The
two types of mass polymerization are batch and continuous, of which continuous mass is by
far the most popular.
Batch mass polymerization consists of a polymerization section containing agitated vessels
polymerizing up to 80% conversion in a batch method. The polymerized solution is then
pumped to a batch finishing section for either de-volatisation or plate and frame final
polymerization and grinding.
The most widely used process for polymerization of polystyrene today is the continuous mass
process. This solution is continuously prepared in a holding vessel and will then be injected
into the reactor system.
Typical feed to the first reactor would consist of 50 weight percent styrene monomer,
100 ppm water (based on styrene weight), 2000 ppm boron trifluoride (based on styrene
weight), with the balance being organic solvent. The polymerization reaction gives off heat
that is carried away from the reactors by jacketing them with a heat transfer fluid. The
temperature of the reactants should not vary by more than 15 0C throughout the reactor
series. Temperature control is very important in this reaction because as the reaction
temperature increases, the average molecular weight of the polystyrene decreases. The
reaction temperature range is 40-70 0C. Temperature can also be controlled by intermediate
shell and tube heat exchangers. Monomer conversions of up to 85wt% polystyrene is
obtainable in these reactors.

Emulsion polymerization: Emulsion polymerization is generally used for

polymerization of styrene with other monomers or polymers. It is not a generally commercially
accepted method of producing crystal polystyrene or high impact polystyrene. Emulsion

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 Production Of
Polystyrene
polymerization is carried out similarly to suspension polymerization except that the monomer
droplets are microscopic in size.

Suspension polymerization:

This is also called pearl polymerization. It has proved highly efficient for large- scale
production of polymers of high average molecular weight. By variation of the polymerization
condition it is possible to produce a range of polymers with different properties and
processing characteristics so that a number of grades are offered by the manufacturers to
meet the differing requirements of the conversion process and the final product.
There are many different ways of making polystyrene using suspension process. Most
producers use a batch process, although there are no technical reasons why a continuous
process could not work. In the suspension process a number of small styrene drops 0.15-
0.50mm in diameter are suspended in water. The reaction occurs within these drops. To aid
in the formation of proper size drops a suspending agent is used, and to keep them at that size
a stabilizing agent is added. A catalyst is used to control the reaction rate.
Suspension polymerization offers considerable advantages over the single-phase
techniques in so far that heat removal control is no longer a problem but there are
disadvantages such as the need to use a dispersing agent.

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 Production Of
Polystyrene

Selection Of Process

I have selected suspension polymerisation process due to its wide usage in the
industry for the production of polystyrene. This is due to the fact that it has the
highest efficiency of conversion (between 90-95%).

Process Description
Suspension polymerization is a batch system popular for specialty grades of
polystyrene. It can be used to produce either crystal or high impact grades. In impact
production, the styrene and rubber solution are bulk polymerized beyond phase inversion and
is then suspended in water to create oil in water suspension utilizing soaps and suspending
agents. The suspended droplets are then polymerized to completion, utilizing initiator and a
staged heating profile. The water phase is used as a heat sink and heat transfer medium to a
temperature-controlled jacket. For the production of crystal polystyrene, the styrene monomer
itself is suspended and polymerized via the same mechanism.

The requirements of polymerization are:

a] Initiator.
b] Suspending agent.
c] Stabilizing agent.
d] Catalyst

Initiators: The initiators generally used are benzoyl peroxide and t-butyl hydroperoxide.
Suspending agent: To aid in the formation of the proper size drops a suspending agent is added.
Some typical suspending agents are methylcellulose, ethyl cellulose and polyacrylic acids. Their
concentration in the suspension is between 0.01-0.5% of monomer charged.
Stabilizing agent: To keep the drops at proper size, a stabilizing agent is added. The
stabilizing agents are often insoluble inorganic such as calcium carbonate, calcium phosphates
or bentonite clay. They are present in small amount than the suspending agents.
Catalyst: A catalyst is used to control the reaction rate. The catalysts are usually peroxides.
The most common ones are benzoyl, diacetyl, lauroyl, caproyl and tert-butyl. Their
concentration varies from 0.1-0.5% of the monomer charged. The ratio of
monomer to dispersing medium is between 10 and 40%. Polymerization temperature:
Polymerization of styrene occurs at temperature range of 90- 950C.

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 Production Of
Polystyrene
Process description: The suspension method is carried out in large reactors equipped with
agitators, the styrene monomer being maintained in the aqueous phase as droplets with a
diameter varying between 0.4-1mm by use of a dispersing agent such as partially hydrolyzed
polyvinyl acetate, inorganic phosphates or magnesium silicates. To reduce the cycle time of
the reactors, the entering water and styrene will be preheated. The temperatures of the input
streams will be sent so as to obtain the desired reaction temperature. The water entering the
reactor will be heated to 950C. The bulk of the styrene is to be heated to 850C before being
charged. This is done in a vertical double pipe heat exchanger, which is directly above the
reactor. To prevent the polymerization from occurring in the heat exchanger or piping system,
there are to be no obstructions between this heat exchanger and the reactor. The catalyst,
rubber stabilizer, and suspending agent are premixed in styrene and discharged by gravity into
the reactor. This mixture will not be preheated, since it might polymerize. Typical water to
monomer ratios is 1:1 to 3:1. A combination of two or more initiators is used with a
programmed reaction temperature to reduce the polymerization time to a minimum for a
given amount of residual styrene.

Purification steps and Extrusion: If the water can be removed using physical separation
processes, then the styrene and the other impurities dissolved in it will also be discharged
A centrifuge with a washing step will be used to do this. The material leaving the centrifuge
has 1-5% water.

The final purification step is drying. The polystyrene leaving this unit must meet the
specifications set. (0.03% water). Then it is passed through a devolatisation extruder to
remove the volatile residues and to convert the polymer into pellets.

It was assumed that 3% of polystyrene would be removed from the process in drying,
centrifuging, transferring, or as bad as bad product. At least 95% of that which is lost in
processing must be intercepted before it leaves the plant. Most of it can be removed and sold
as off-grade material. This waste is split among the various streams leaving the processing
area.

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 Production Of
Polystyrene

Process Flow Diagram

14
 Production Of
Polystyrene

Section II

Material Balance

Amount of polystyrene produced per day = 100 TPD

100*103/24
= 4,166.67Kg/hr
The key to successful production of polystyrene is the reaction. The ratio of materials to
be used is a compromise of literature values. All the authors discussing suspension
polymerization say the reaction should be allowed to go to completion (removing and
recycling the unreacted styrene would be expensive).
It will be assumed that 99.8% of the styrene is reacted and this can be accomplished by
using an average of the temperatures and cycle time given.
Temperature of reaction = 90-95C
Cycle time of reactor=5.5hrs.

Reactor:
Input to the reactor:( unit ratios are obtained from literature):
Styrene = 1.032 kg styrene/kg polystyrene = 1.032*4166.67
= 4300 kg.
Water = 2.0 kg water/kg polystyrene = 2.0*4166.67
= 8333.34 kg.
Tricalcium phosphate = 0.005 kg tricalcium phosphate/kg polystyrene
= 0.005*4166.67
= 20.83 kg.
Dodecylbenzene sulphonate= 0.00006 kg dodecylbenzene sulphonate/kg polystyrene
= 0.00006*4166.67
= .25 kg.
Benzoyl peroxide = 0.0025 kg benzoyl peroxide/kg polystyrene
= 0.0025*4166.67
= 10.41 kg.
Miscellaneous = 0.004(styrene 99.6% pure)(unit ratio) = 0.004*4166.67
= 16.67 kg.
Total input to reactor = 12,681.50 kg.

Output from the rector:(unit ratios are obtained from literature: Baasel)

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 Production Of
Polystyrene
Polystyrene =1.030 kg polystyrene / kg of polystyrene = 1.030*4166.67
= 4291.67 kg.
Styrene = 0.002 kg styrene/kg polystyrene = 0.002*4166.67
= 8.334 kg
Water = 2.0 kg water/kg polystyrene = 2.0*4166.67
= 8333.34 kg.
Miscellaneous = 0.0116 kg /kg polystyrene = 0.0116*4166.67
=48.337 kg.
Total output from reactor = 12,681.68 kg.

Wash tank:
Output from reactor

2.0 kg water/kg olystyrene

WASH TANK
PS

0.004 kg HCl/kg
1.030 polystyrene (unit ratio)
0.002 styrene (unit ratio)
4.0 water, 0.0156 miscellaneous

Input to wash tank:

Output from reactor = (1.030+0.002+2.0+0.0116)*4166.67

= 12,681.676 kg.

Water =2.0 kg water/ kg polystyrene

=2.0*4166.67
=8333.34 kg.
Hydrochloric acid = 0.004 kg HCl/ kg polystyrene
= 0.004*4166.67
= 16.668 kg.
Total input to wash tank = 21,031.68 kg.

Output from wash tank:

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 Production Of
Polystyrene

Polystyrene = 1.030 kg polystyrene/ kg polystyrene desired

=1.030*4166.67 = 4,291.67 kg
Styrene = 0.002 kg styrene/kg polystyrene
= 0.002*4166.67
= 8.34 kg.

Water = 4.0 kg water/ kg polystyrene

= 4.0*4166.67
= 16,666.68 kg.

Miscellaneous = 0.0156 kg/kg of polystyrene

= 0.0156*4166.67
= 65.00kg

Total output from wash tank = 21,031.39 kg

Centrifuge:
Output from wash tank

kg PS/kg PS
kg styrene/kg
PS
CENTRIFUGE
1.0 kg water/k g PS
4.95 kg water/kg PS
0.0155 misc.

1.02 kg PS/kg PS desired

0.05 kg water/kg PS
0.0001 kg styrene/kg PS
0.0001 kg misc./kg PS

Input to the centrifuge:

Output from wash tank = 21,031.39 kg

Water =1.0 kg water/kg polystyrene
=4166.67 kg water.

17
Output from centrifuge:
The output from centrifuge comprises of two layers. One is the desired and
the other is bad product.

Desired product composition:

Polystyrene = 1.02 kg polystyrene/kg of desired polystyrene
= 1.02*4166.67
= 4250.0034 kg
Styrene = 0.0001 kg styrene/kg polystyrene
= 0.0001*4166.67
= 0.416667 kg.

Water = 0.05 kg water/ kg polystyrene

= 0.05*4166.67
= 208.33 kg

Miscellaneous = 0.0001 kg/ kg polystyrene

= 0.0001*4166.67
=0.416667 kg

Bad product composition:

Polystyrene = 0.01kg polystyrene/kg polystyrene

= 0.01*4166.67
=41.67 kg

Styrene = 0.002 kg styrene /kg polystyrene

= 0.002*4166.67
=8.34 kg

Water = 4.95 kg water / kg polystyrene

= 4.95*4166.67 = 20,625.02 kg

Miscellaneous = 0.0155 kg/ kg polystyrene

=0.0155*4166.67
=64.58 kg.
 Production Of Polystyrene

Dryer:

Output from Reactor

0.015 Kg PS/ Kg PS Drye 0.005 Kg Ps/Kg PS

r

0.0499 Kg Water/kg PS
1 kg PS/Ks PS
kg water /kg polystyrene
Input to the dryer:
Output from the centrifuge = 4,459.16 kg

Output from the dryer:

Output from dryer comprises of three parts;
1. Desired polystyrene with composition:
Polystyrene =1.0 kg/kgpolystyrene
= 4166.67 kg of polystyrene.
Water = 0.0003 kg/kg polystyrene
= 0.0003*4166.67
= 1.25 kg

2. Product with;
Polystyrene = 0.005 kg/kg polystyrene
= 0.005*4166.67
= 20.835kg
Water = 0.0499kg/kg polystyrene
= 0.0499*4166.67
= 207.92 kg
3. Bad product obtained has a composition;
Polystyrene = 0.015 kg/kg polystyrene
= 0.015*4166.67
= 62.50 kg

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 Production Of Polystyrene

Extruder:
Output from dryer

EXTRUDER

1.0 Polystyrene (unit ratio)

0.0003 kg water/kg polystyrene
Input to extruder = output from dryer
= 4167.92kg
Output from extruder = 4167.92 kg

Energy Balance
HEAT BALANCE

Styrene heat exchanger:

The additive feed tank must be large enough to handle all additive plus a carrier
solution of styrene. The amount of dodecylbenzene sulfonate, tricalcium phosphate and

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 Production Of Polystyrene

benzoyl peroxide used per batch are:

= (0.005+0.00006+2*0.0025)*4166.67*5.5/4 = 52.39 kg.

Assume 2kg of styrene are to be used to carry each kg of additive into the reactor.
i.e. 52.39*2 = 104.79kg.

When GPPS is made, all but 104.79kg of styrene are heated to 93C. For the other
products less is used. The time to charge the reactor is set as 5min. Steam at 150psi will be
used as heating medium.
Qs = msCpsTs. = Us.A. Tss
(1)
Where,
Qs = rate of heat transfer.
ms = flow rate of styrene through exchanger.

= (1.032)*4166.67*5.5/4 – 104.79
(5/60)
= 69692.57 kg/hr.

Cps = heat capacity of styrene = 0.43BTU/lb F. = 1.799 kJ/kgC.

Ts = temperature difference of styrene entering and leaving exchanger = 93 – 30 = 63C.

Qs = 69692.57*1.799*63 = 7898.75*103kJ/hr.

A = area of heat exchanger, m2.

Us= overall heat transfer co-efficient =150BTU/hr.ft2.F. = 851.7 W/m2K.

At 150 psi Ts=182C.

Tss = (182-30)-(182-93) = 117.7C.

ln(182-30)/(182-93)
Therefore from equation (1),

7898.75*103 = 851.7*117.7*A

A = 78.80 m2.

One of the heat exchanger is needed for each reactor, because they must be positioned
vertically above the reactor. This is to prevent any hot styrene from remaining in the
exchanger or the piping where it might polymerize.
The average steam rate = msCpsTs/
= 4191.86*1.799*63 = 238.02 kg/hr.
1995.98
21
 Production Of Polystyrene

Where,

 = latent heat of vaporization = 1995.98kJ/hr.

ms= average flow rate of styrene through exchanger.
= 1.032*(4166.67 – 104.79) = 4191.86 kg/hr.
Therefore maximum steam rate = 238.02*5.5/4
(5/60)

= 3927.33 kg/hr.

Air heat exchanger:

The air is to be heated to 150C using 150psi steam (182C) The

amount of energy required = Qa = maCpT.

Where,
ma = flow rate of air.
= 5611 kg/hr.

Cp = heat capacity of air entering and leaving the exchanger

= 1.0468 kJ/kgC.

T = temperature difference of air entering and leaving the exchanger.

= 150 – 30 = 120C. Qa = 5611*1.0468*120
6
= 0.7048*10 kJ/hr.
This assumes a 10% heat loss.
The area of heat exchanger A = Qa /(Ua. Tm)

Ua = overall heat transfer co-efficient.

Tm = L.M.T.D across exchanger.
= (182-30)-(182-150) =72.015C.
ln(182-30)/(182-150)

Ua = 1 .
1/ho+1/hi

ho= h.t. co-efficient of condensing steam = 2000BTU/hr.ft2.F = 3461.5 kW/m2.C.

hi = h.t. co-efficient of air = 5BTU/hr.ft2.F. = 8.654 kW/ m2.C.
Therefore,
Ua = 1 . = 8.632 kW/ m2.C.
1/3461.5+1/8.654

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 Production Of Polystyrene

A= 0.7048*106 = 1060.17m2 of surface area.

8.632*77.015

Amount of steam required = 0.7048*106 = 353.109kg/hr.

1995.98

Reactor cooling system:

From reactor design,
Average energy removed per hour = 77.674*103 D3 kJ/hr.
= 77.674*103*(2.486)3.
= 119.338*104 kJ/hr = 331.49kJ/s.

Inlet temperature of cooling water = 30C.

Outlet temperature of cooling water = 68C.

Let mw be the amount of cooling water required: Q

= mw.Cp. T.

mw .4.187*103*(68-30) = 331.494 kJ/s

Therefore,
mw= 2.085 kg/s in each reactor
Therefore amount of water required in total for 4 reactors= 2.085*4 = 8.34 kg/s.

Dryer:
Inlet Outlet
Temperatures:
Polystyrene 30C 80C.
.
Air 150 85C.
C.

Heat required raising product to discharge temperature,

= 4250.003*1.3398*(80-30) + 1.25*4.187*(80-30).
= 2.849*105W.

Heat required removing water,

= 208.33*4.187*(80-30) + 550 + 0.45*(85-80).
= 0.44186*105W.

Therefore total heat required,

23
 Production Of Polystyrene

= 2.849*105 + 0.44186*105W.
= 3.29*105W.
Tm = (150-30)-(85-80) =36.186C.
Ln(150-30)/(85-80)

The minimum air velocity is set by the particle size. A flow rate of 1000lb/hr.ft2 is
adequate for 420-micron particle. This will be used. The minimum velocity is used since it
gives the smaller dryer.
The amount of air required is determined by amount of energy the 150C. air
must supply to remove the moisture from the polystyrene.

m = Qt /( Cp.T)
Where,
Cp = heat capacity of air = 0.237 BTU/lb.C.
T = difference in air temperature entering and leaving dryer,C. Qt = heat
transferred in dryer =3.29*105W.
m = mass flow rate of air.

m= 3.29*105 = 5100.81kg/hr.
(0.9923*(150-85))
The amount of air is adequate. Add 10% to account for possible heat losses.

Therefore mass flow rate = 1.1* 5100.81

= 3570.57 kg/hr.

24
 Production Of Polystyrene

Design Of Equipments:
Process Design:
Reactor

The polymerization of styrene is an exothermic reaction. The amount of energy

released at any time is dependent on the volume of the reactor, and the rate of removal
of that heat is dependent on the surface area. Unless the heat is removed, the
temperature will rise and the reaction rate will increase. The result will be an
uncontrolled reaction that not only may ruin the batch but could also damage the reactor
and might cause fire or explosion to occur.
Therefore there is a maximum size reactor for each set of reaction condition.
This size will be calculated. The maximum rate of heat production will be first
calculated.

The heat of polymerization = 300 Btu/Pb (from literature)

=300*1.055/0.4536
= 697.79 kJ/kg.

The weight of styrene in the reactor = *V* 1.032 --------------- (1)

3.044
Where,
 = Density of mixture
( 1/3rd of the way between density of water and styrene)
= 929.086 kg/m3
V = volume of reactor

25
 Production Of Polystyrene

= D 2L (2)
4
Where D = diameter of reactor L
= length of reactor.

It will be assumed that the reactor is generally 90% full and the height is twice
the diameter.
i.e. L = 2D
Therefore equation (1) becomes,
Weight of styrene in the reactor = 0.9*929.086*0.3390**2*D3
4
3
= 445.26D kg.

Therefore the energy released by polymerization

= Weight of styrene in reactor*heat of polymerization
= 445.26D3 * 697.79
= 310.698*103D3 kJ

All this energy must be removed as it is formed.

The cycle time for GPPS = 5.5 hrs

If the time taken for charge and discharge = 1 hr
And time taken to initiate the reaction = 0.5hr
Then all the energy released must be removed in 5.5-1.5
=4.0hr.

Therefore average energy produced per hour = 310.698*103D3

4
= 77.674*103D3 kJ/hr.

However, the reaction rate is not uniform. The maximum reaction rate must be known
to calculate the area needed for heat exchange. It will be assumed that maximum
conversion rate is assumed twice the average rate.
i.e. The maximum heat produced per hour = 2* average energy produced/hr.

= 2*77.674*103*D3 kJ/hr
= 155*106D3 J/s
3600
= 42152.778D3 J/s ------------- (3)

From literature, for cycle time of 5hrs, the overall heat transfer co-efficient between
reaction mixture and the cooling water in jacket is equal to 50 Btu/hr.ft2.K.=
283.9w/m2K

26
 Production Of Polystyrene

The rate of heat removed,

Q = U.A.T(4)
Where,
U = overall heat transfer coefficient.
A = area of heat transfer.
T= average temperature driving force between coolant and suspension.

Since 95% of the time, the air temperature is below 30C. It will be assumed that inlet
cooling water temperature never exceeds 30C.
The reaction temperature = 93C.
It is assumed the maximum cooling water temperature rise is 5C. Therefore outlet
temperature of cooling water =35 C.
Therefore the average temperature of cooling water =(30+35)/2= 32.5C.

Therefore,
T= 93-32.5 = 60.5C.

The area of heat transfer is the area covered by the suspension. This can be estimated
to be the bottom plus 90% of the sides. ( because the reactor is 90% filled).
A = 0.9DL + D2
4
= 6.44D2
Substituting values of A, T and U in equation (4), we get,

Q = 283.9*6.44D2 *60.5 ------------------------ (5)

Comparing equation (3) and equation (5), we get,

43152.778D3 = 283.9*6.44D2 *60.5

Therefore,
D = 283.9*6.44*60.5
43152.778

= 2.563m.
Also,
L = 2D
= 2*2.563 = 5.127m.
And,
V = D2L
4
= 26.45m3
= 6987.35 gal.

27
 Production Of Polystyrene

In ‘encyclopedia of polymer technology and science’, the following statement appears:

” In a suspension polymerization of styrene in a 5000 gal reactor, the lowest
coolant temperature required is 120F (49 C)”.
Hence now the average coolant temperature is taken as 49C instead of 32.5C.
Therefore,
Outlet temperature of cooling water = 68C.
And,
Average temperature = 68 + 30 = 49C.
2

T= 93 – 49 = 44C.

Also a ‘U’ of 60 BTU/ hr.ft2.F or a maximum reaction rate of 1.8 times the average
would be better estimates.
Taking maximum heat released per hour = 1.8 times average value.
= 1.8*77.674D3*106
3600
= 38837D3 J/s
Then,
And , 38837D3 = 60*5.687*6.44D2*44

=> D = 340*6.44*44 = 2.486m.

38837

L = 2*2.486 = 4.97m

V = 24.124m3

The amount of styrene produced per reactor per hour is:

= 0.9*24.124*929.086*1.032
5.5*3.044

= 1243.43 kg/hr.
Number of GPPS reactors required is:
= 4166.67*1.032
1243.43

= 3.458 rectors.

An 5th reactor will be installed as a spare. This will allow full production to continue if
cleaning out the reactors becomes more of a problem than expected.

28
 Production Of Polystyrene

Mechanical design:
Data from literature:
Design pressure for the reactor = 220psi = 16.47 kg/cm2.
Design pressure for jacket = 75psi = 6.27 kg/cm2.
Permissible stress of reactor = 950kg/cm2.
Shell internal diameter = 2.486m.
Agitator horse power for 5000gal = 50hp
Diameter of agitator = 1035mm.
Speed = 200rpm.
Agitator blades (flat) =6
Width of blade =75mm.
Thickness of blades =8mm. Shaft
material – commercial cold rolled steel.
Permissible shear stress in shaft = 550kg/cm2.
Elastic limit in tension = 2460kg/cm2.
Modulus of elasticity =19.5*105kg/cm2.
Permissible stresses for key (carbon steel)
Shear = 650kg/cm2.
Crushing = 1300kg/cm2.
Stuffing box (carbon steel)
Permissible stress = 950kg/cm2.
Studs and bolts (hot rolled carbon steel)
Permissible stress = 587kg/cm2.
Joint efficiency = 0.85.
Poisons ratio = 0.3.

1. Shell thickness:
a) Internal pressure:
t= pi*Di + C
2ft*J-pi
Where, pi =16.47kg/cm2.
Di = diameter of reactor = 2486mm. ft
= permissible stress = 950kg/cm2. J =
joint efficiency = 0.85.
C = corrosion allowance =3mm.

Therefore,
t= 16.47*2486 +3
(2*950*0.85)-16.47
=28.0mm.

b) External pressure:
Let t =22mm.

L / Do= 3506.9 = 1.3758

(2486 + 44)

Do/t = (2486 + 44)/22 = 115.8

29
 Production Of Polystyrene

From IS2825, B = 11200.

P a= 11200 = 6.85kg/cm2. > 6.27 kg/cm2.

14.22*(2486+44)/22

Therefore thickness of shell = 24.0mm.

2. Jacket thickness:
Jacket diameter = 1.04 – 1.05 times shell outer diameter.
= 1.045 * (2486+48) = 2623mm.
Therefore
t= pi*di +C
2ft*J-p

= 6.27 * 2623 + 2
2*950*.85 – 6.27
=11.7mm
Take 12mm as thickness of jacket.

3. Stiffening ring:
Required moment of inertia of stiffening ring is as per equation:
I=pcDo3L
24Epc= 4pe = 4*6.27 = 25.08kg/cm2.
I = 25.08 * (2486)2 4.97 = 4.619*104 mm4.
24 * 1900*103
Value of I is reduced by 30% to take into account the resistance of the steel.
I = 4.916*104 – 0.3*4.916*104 = 3.441*104mm4.
Use equal angle IS 2020 (size 20*20mm thickness = 3mm).
Ixx=Iyy = 0.4cm4.

4. Head thickness:
(a) Internal pressure:
t b = pRcW
2fJ

W = 1 * ( 3 + (Rc/Rl)0.5) 4
= 1 * (3 + (2486/128)0.5)
4
= 1.85
t b = 16.47 * 2486 *1.85 = 46.90mm.
2*950*0.85

Use 48mm thickness including corrosion allowance.

(b)External pressure:
t b = 4.4*2486*(3(1-0.32)0.25*(6.27/(2*1900*103))0.5) = 43.179mm.

Therefore head thickness = 48mm.

30
 Production Of Polystyrene

5. Shaft design:

From equation 14.8(M.V. Joshi) Tc

= 50 * 75 * 60
2**200

= 179.049kgm.

Tm = 1.5 * 179.049 = 269.57 kgm.

From equation 14.9 (M.V. Joshi)

Zp = 1.5Tc
fs

= 269.57*100 = 49.013 cm3.

550

d 3 = 49.013.
16
d = 6.296cm.

From equation 14.11(M.V.Joshi)

Fm = 1.5Tc = 269.57*100 = 1437.7kgm.
0.75*25 0.75*25

M = Fm * l = 1437.3 *1.3 = 1869kgm.

From equation 14.10(M.V.Joshi)

Ml = 1*(1869 + (18692 + 269.572)0.5) 2
= 1878.7kgm

From equation 14.3: (M.V.Joshi)

f = 1878.7*100 = 7667.67kg/cm2.
(*6.2963)
32
Stress f is greater than permissible elastic limit(2460 kg/cm2). Therefore use 10 cm
diameter shaft for which stress will be,
f = 1913.63kg/cm2.
6. Blade design:

From equation 14.6 and 14.7,

f = maximum bending moment
(b b 2/6)
t w
= 269.57 = 346.09kg/cm2.
2
(0.8*7.5 /6)
Which is well within the endurance limit for carbon steel.

31
 Production Of Polystyrene

7,Hub and key design:

Hub diameter of agitator = 2*shaft diameter.
=2*10 =20cm.

Length of hub = 2.5*shaft diameter.

= 2.5*10 = 25cm.

Length of key = 1.5*shaft diameter.

= 1.5*10 = 15cm.

From equation 5.6(M.V.Joshi),

Tmax = l*t*fs = l*t*fc
(d/2) 2

269.57*100 = 15*b*650 = 15*t*1300

(20/2) 2

b = 5.53mm and t = 5.53mm.

use 6mm*6mm*15cm key.

8. Nozzle for shell:

Volumetric flow rate = 24.124 = 0.0134m3/s.
30*60
Because filling time = 30 minutes.

Q = V*A Take V = 2m/s.

A = D2
4
0.0134 = D2 *2
4
 D = 0.0134*4/2
= 0.0924m
= 92.4mm From
IS 803,

Nozzle for shell = 100mm

Thickness = 10mm.

Distance from shell to flange = 200mm

9. Nozzle for jacket:

m = A*V* where m = 2.085 kg/s.
V = 1m/s.
 = 1000kg/m3.

32
 Production Of Polystyrene

A = 2.085*10-3m2. D =51.5mm.
From IS 803,

Nozzle diameter = 75mm.

Thickness = 7.5mm.
Distance from shell to flange = 175mm.
10. Stuffing box and
gland:
Internal design pressure = 16.47kg/cm2.
From equations 5.36(M.V.Joshi),

b = d + d

Where d = shaft diameter.

b = 10 +10
= 13.16 cm.

t = Pb*b + c
2f
= 16.47*13.16*10 + 3
2*950
= 4.14mm.
a = b + 2t
= 13.16 + 2* 4.14
= 13.988cm. 14.cm.
Load on gland:
F =  * 16.47*(13.162 – 102) = 946.69kg.
4
Size of stud:
d 2 = 946.69*4 = 0.5137
*4*587
 do = 7.16mm.

Minimum stud diameter =15mm.

Flange thickness = 1.75*15 = 26.25mm  30mm.

11. Coupling:
A clamp coupling is suggested. It is made of cast iron.

Force per bolt = 2*Tmax

d + n/2

= 2*269.57*100
*0.25*10*4
= 1716.14kg.

33
 Production Of Polystyrene

Area of bolt = 1716.14

587

= 2.824cm2.

Diameter of bolt = (2.924*4/)0.5 = 1.929 cm = 19.29mm.

Use 20M size bolts.

Overall diameter of coupling = 2*10 = 20cm.

Design of rotary dryer:

Process design:

An air drier removes the excess water remaining in the polystyrene. A rotary drier will
be specified. Care must be taken that polymer does not exceed 85C, or its heat
distortion properties will be affected. Therefore this will be chosen as the exit
temperature of the air and the airflow will be parallel with the polymer flow. The air
will enter at 150C. It will be assumed that the solids will enter at room temperature
i.e. 30C and leave at 80C.
To estimate the size the following equations will be used,

V = Qt ------(1) Ua = 20G0.16 -------------- (2)

(Ua*Tm) D

Where,
Qt = Total energy transferred, kJ/hr.
Ua = Volumetric heat transfer coefficient, kJ/hr.m2. C.

Temperatures: Inlet Outlet

Polystyrene 30C. 80C.
Air 150C. 85C.

Heat required raising product to discharge temperature,

= 4250.003*1.3398*(80-30) + 1.25*4.187*(80-30).
= 2.849*105W.

Heat required removing water,

= 208.33 *4.187*(80-30) + 550 + 0.45*(85-80).
= 0.44186*105W.

Therefore total heat required,

34
 Production Of Polystyrene

= 2.849*105 + 0.44186*105W.
= 3.29*105W.

Tm = (150-30)-(85-80) = 36.186C.

Ln (150-30)/(85-80)

The minimum air velocity is set by the particle size. A flow rate of 1000lb/hr.ft2 is
adequate for 420-micron particle. This will be used. The minimum velocity is used
since it gives the smaller dryer.
The amount of air required is determined by amount of energy the 150C. air
must supply to remove the moisture from the polystyrene.

m = Qt /( Cp.T).

Where,
Cp = heat capacity of air = 0.237 BTU/lb.C.
T = difference in air temperature entering and leaving dryer,C.
Qt = heat transferred in dryer =3.29*105W.
m = mass flow rate of air.
m= 3.29*105 = 5100.81kg/hr.
(0.9923*(150-85))

Maximum amount of water that can be in air = 5100.814(kg/hr)* 0.7(kg water/kg dry
air)

= 3570.57kg water/hr.
Amount of water to be removed = 4166.67* 0.0497
= 207.083 kg water/hr.

The amount of air is adequate. Add 10% to account for possible heat losses.

Therefore mass flow rate = 1.1* 5100.81

= 5610.89 kg/hr.

If the mass velocity = 1000lb/hr.ft2

= 4880 kg/hr.m2.

Then,

Area of dryer = 5610.89

4880
= 1.149m2.
Therefore
Diameter of dryer =(1.149*4/)

35
 Production Of Polystyrene

= 1.20m.
From equation (2),
Ua = 20*(1000)0.16
(3.93)

= 15.36BTU/(hr.ft3.F).

V= 7.80778*105
15.36*97.1348

= 523.31ft3
= 14.81m3
Therefore,

L = V*4
D2

= 14.81*4
*(1.202)

= 13.10m.
Mechanical design:
1. Flight design:
Number of flights = 3*D.
= 3*3.93
=11.79  12 flights are required using lip angle of 45.
Radial height is taken as 1/8 of diameter, Radial
height =1.2 /8 = 0.15m.

2. Thickness of dryer:
Let x be the thickness of drier.
Mild steel can be used since it can withstand temperature up to 200C.
Density = 7688.86kg/m3.

D2 – D1 = 2x.
Volume of mild steel =(D22/4 - D12/4)*L

=((D1+2x)2/4 - D12/4)*L

= DLx.

Weight of dryer = *13.10*1.20*x*7688.86

= 565.89*103x kg.

Assume holdup = 0.2

36
 Production Of Polystyrene

Volume of drier filled with material = D2L*0.2

4
= *1.202*13.10*0.2 4
= 7.04m3.

Weight of material at any time = 7.04 * 1049.2

= 7389.98kg.
The dryer is supported over two-trunsion roll assemblies, 20ft apart. It is
uniformly distributed load.

Maximum bending moment = WL/8 = M.

M = (565.89x/8 + 7389.98/9)*12.24
= 865.81*103x + 11306.7

We know that,
M = f*Z. (1a).

Z = *(D24 – D 14) / 32D2.

= 0.785x3 + 12.59x2 + 67.31x.

f = 1800psi.
Take factor of safety = 5.
f = 3.6*105lb/ft3.
= 1.75767*104kg/m2.

3. Thickness of insulation:
Insulation material = asbestos.
Density of asbestos = 36lb/ft3.
Thermal conductivity of asbestos = 0.12BTU/hr.ft2.oF.
= 0.2077w/mK.
Material of dryer = mild steel.
Thermal conductivity = k = 26BTU/hr.ft2.oF.
Convective heat transfer coefficient from dryer surface = 56.78W/m2K.
Heat loss from the dryer = 3.31*105 BTU/hr = 3.492*105kJ.

D1 = 1.20m t = 6mm D2= 2.034m L = 13.10m

Let X be the thickness of insulation .
Q = (T1 – T2) / ( t1/ kA1+ t2 /kA2+ 1/AcA3) -------- (A)

A1 = (D1 + D2)L/2

= 75.83m2

A2 = (D2 + D3)L/2

37
 Production Of Polystyrene

= 78.2 + 38.45X

A3 = D3L
= 78.2 + 76.9X
T1 = 150C
T2 = 85C

Substituting in Equation A, we get,

3.492x105 = (150 – 85)/ (0.01/(44.99*75.83) + X/(78.2 + 38.45X) + (
1/(78.2+76.9X)
X = 6mm.

4. BHP to drive the drier:

BHP = Nx(4.75dw + 0.1925DW + 0.33W)----------------------------- (B)
100000
where,
N = revolutions per minute = 3rpm. d
= 1.914m = 6.27ft.
D = d + 2 =6.27 + 2 = 8.27ft. w
= 11148.6 kg = 24578lb.
W = weight of drier+ weight of material + weight of insulation.
= *12.24*1.914*0.01*7688.86 + 11148.6 +  ((2.6222 -2.612)*12.24*576.665)
4

= 18199.7kg
= 40123.47lb.

BHP = 3x(4.75*6.27* 24578 + 0.1925*8.27*40123 + 0.33*40123)

100000
= 24.273BHP.
5. To find diameter of feed pipe:

Feed rate = 10612.14 +536.46 = 11148.6096kg/hr.

Density of feed =1012kg/m3.

Volumetric feed rate = 11148.6096 = 11.06m3/hr.

1012
Assuming a velocity of 150m/hr for feed chute inclination of 60o. Cross

38
 Production Of Polystyrene

section area of feed chute = 11.06/150 =0.0736m2.

Therefore diameter of feed chute = (0.0736*4/)0.5

= 0.306m.

6. Horse power of blower:

Atmospheric air = 30C.

Humidity = 0.002kg/kg dry air.

Quantity of air handled = 12771.65kg/hr.

= 212.8kg/min.

Total quantity of air = 1.02*212.8

= 217.12kg/min.

Volume of the air = 217.12*22.4*303 = 170.52m3/min.=6021.8ft3/min

29*298
Air horse power of blower = 0.000157*Q*(developed head of

=0.000157*6021.8*10
= 9.45hp.
7. Horse power of exhaust fan:
Outlet temperature of air from dryer = 85C.
Humidity of outlet air = 0.00726
 Total quantity of air going out = 212.8kg/min.
Volume of this air = 212.8*22.4*368.62
29*298
= 203.09m3/min.
= 7172.06ft3/min.
Air horsepower of exhaust fan for developed head of 10” water,
= 0.000157*7172.06*10
= 11.26 HP.
8. To find diameter of inlet and outlet:
At inlet conditions of 150C and humidity of 0.002,
Volume of air handled = 170.52*423/303
= 238.02m3/min.
= 3.967m3/s.
Assume an air velocity = 10m/s.

39
 Production Of Polystyrene

Cross sectional area of inlet pipe = 3.967/10

= 0.3967m2.
Diameter of pipe = (0.3967*4/)0.5
= 0.711m.

At outlet conditions,
Volume of air = 170.5*(273+85)/303
= 201.45m3/min.
= 3.357m3/s.
Cross section area of outlet pipe = 0.3357m2.
Diameter of outlet pipe = (0.3357*4/)0.5
= 0.6538m.

40
 Production Of Polystyrene

POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY

Waste products that are produced during the manufacture of Polystyrene:
Polystyrene manufacture is a relatively clean process. Small volumes of liquid and
gaseous wastes are generated and these are treated within the plants. Waste polystyrene
generated during production is reprocessed or sent to a recycler. This is a Most Energy-
Efficient Packaging Material. Polystyrene is Safe, Hygienic Polystyrene and the Enemy of
Bacteria.

Ease of disposal:
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the 1999 update of the
"Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the U.S." report, less than one percent
(about 0.6 percent) of solid waste disposed of in the U.S. is polystyrene packaging -
including both food service packaging (cups, plates, bowls, trays, clamshells, meat trays,
egg cartons, yogurt and cottage cheese containers, and cutlery) and protective packaging
(shaped end pieces used to ship electronic goods and loose fill "peanuts").

The disposal of polystyrene is managed safely and effectively through the integrated system
advocated by the U.S. EPA, which includes: Source Reduction, Reuse, Recycling, Waste-to-
Energy Recovery, and Landfilling.

Polystyrene safe to use in contact with food:

For more than 40 years, polystyrene has been in widespread use as a hygienic
material for protecting and preserving food. In fact, one-reason polystyrene single use food
containers are so widely used in hospitals and another sensitive environment is that
they are significantly more hygienic than the alternatives. Polystyrene does not harbour
bacteria, which is a major concern among health specialists.

A recent American study shows that 1 in 7 reusable dishes harbour a level of bacteria
which exceeds US health standards. In contrast, no disposable food service items exceeded
the standard.

Foam Polystyrene – Presence of CFC’s:

Extruded foam polystyrene produced in for meat, chicken and vegetable trays and
takeaway food containers, does not use CFC blowing agents. Producers converted away
from CFC's in 1989 and now operate on recycled carbon dioxide or hydrocarbon gases.
Expandable or bead polystyrene (EPS) such as in produce boxes has always used a
hydrocarbon blowing agent.

Reuse:

41
 Production Of Polystyrene

Reuse, the practice of utilizing polystyrene products in the same form, is important not only
because it delays the final disposal of a product, but also because it reduces the manufacture
and purchase of new products. As a result, reuse prevents waste. Nearly 30 percent of
polystyrene loose fill (sometimes called "peanuts" because of its shape) is used again,
making it one of the most commonly reused packaging materials in some retail locations.
For mailing services, the reuse rate of loose fill is as high as 50 percent. The successful
application of reused loose fill polystyrene reduced the demand for virgin polystyrene by 25
percent in 1997 alone and, to this day, continues to directly reduce waste.

Other packaging and disposables commonly reused by the polystyrene industry include:
pallets, insulated shipping boxes, test tube trays, auto part trays, ice chests and coolers.

Recycling:

The recycling of polystyrene protective packaging and non-packaging polystyrene materials,

(such as audio/visual cassettes and agricultural nursery trays/containers) has
increased dramatically during the last decade and there has been a decrease in the amount of
polystyrene food service packaging recycled during this period. Non-food service packaging
is not contaminated with food and other wastes as is food service polystyrene packaging, and
therefore is more cost-effective to recycle. Presently, food service polystyrene packaging is
generally not recycled because it is not economically sustainable. It is important to note that
because of unfavorable economics, no other post- consumer foodservice disposable material,
including paper and paperboard, is recycled in a measurable way.

Before 1988, there was essentially no recovery of post-consumer polystyrene for

recycling, but as of 2000, just twelve years later, more than 397 million pounds of
polystyrene packaging were recycled. A portion of this material came from durable
polystyrene products such as coat hangers, compact disc “jewel cases,” single-use cameras
and agricultural nursery trays.

Some companies that make protective packaging are collecting it back for recycling
through the Alliance of Foam Packaging Recyclers. In addition, some makers of loose fill
"peanuts" have set up a network of collection sites for reuse and recycling of their
polystyrene products.

Products that have incorporated recycled-content polystyrene include: foam egg

cartons, lunch trays, transport packaging, audio and videocassette cases, office supplies,
and building materials.

Waste-to-Energy Recovery:
In many overseas country’s polystyrene is recycled through incineration of municipal
waste for energy recovery. The burning of polystyrene is no more hazardous than
combustion of many natural organic materials. Polystyrene consists solely of carbon and
hydrogen. When combustion is complete, water and carbon dioxide are given off, leaving
trace levels of ash, the same combustion products as from paper or wood. While some
polystyrene in medical a municipal wastes is currently incinerated in Australia, the energy

42
 Production Of Polystyrene

recovery option has not yet been implemented.

When incinerated, polystyrene produces energy, which compares favorably with
coal and oil. Because of its high fuel value, polystyrene in properly designed incinerators
helps to burn wet garbage more efficiently, and maintain the high burning temperatures
necessary for safe combustion.
The incineration of plastics can also generate energy and this potential is already
being harnessed in some overseas countries, particularly in Western Europe, The United
Stated and Japan.

Land filling:
While recycling and reuse continue to grow in popularity, most of the waste in this country
still goes to landfills. People assume the waste inside a landfill biodegrades. But the fact is
that very little - not paper, not polystyrene, not even food waste - degrades in a meaningful
way.

Polystyrene is effectively and safely disposed of in landfills. Modern landfills are designed
to protect the environment from the liquids and gases produced during the very slow
breakdown by reducing the exposure of garbage to air, water and sunlight - conditions
needed for degradation. Therefore, by design, modern landfills greatly retard the
degradation process to reduce the by-products that might otherwise contaminate
groundwater and the air.

Preventing Litter:

The polystyrene industry cares about the environment. A widely held misconception is that
litter is a problem caused by specific materials themselves rather than aberrant consumer
behavior. The reality is that some people improperly dispose of materials by littering.
Littering is a matter of behavior; people who discard materials into the environment usually
do so because they don't think or don't care. Attributing the litter issue to one particular
packaging material does not solve the problem because another type of packaging will take
its place as litter unless behavior changes. To address concerns effectively, the polystyrene
industry supports organizations such as Keep America Beautiful, that work to prevent litter
across the country.

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 Production Of Polystyrene

Instrumentation and Process Control

Instrumentation is the most important factor is ensuring safety and smooth

working of the plant. A separate control room is provided in the modern plants
where panels, indicators and recorders are present.
Instruments are used in the industry to measure process variables such as
temperature, pressure, density, level, conductivity, humidity, chemical
composition etc.

The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and

control schemes are: -
1) Safe plant operation
2) Production rate
3) Quality
4) Cost

Temperature Control
Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and
temperature must be maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable
operation of process equipment.
1. Thermo couple
2. Resistance Thermometers
3. Thermistors
4. Mercury in glass Thermometer

Controllers are used to maintain temperature within specified limits. Thermal

element is usually placed in a well to protect it and allow servicing of the
element without interrupting the process. Temperature bulb should always be
located at a point where the coefficient of heat transfer would be large.

Flow Measurement
Flows throughout the process should the regulated near their desired values with
small variability; in these applications, good reproducibility is usually
sufficient. Flowing systems require energy, typically provided by pumps and
compressors, to produce a pressure difference as the driving force, and flow
sensors should introduce a small flow resistance, increasing the process energy
consumption as little as possible.
Commonly used devices are
1. Orifice
2. Venturi meter
3. Elbow meter

44
 Production Of Polystyrene

4. Pitot tube

Pressure Measurement
Most liquid and all gaseous materials in the process industries are contained
within closed vessels. For the safety of plant personnel and protection of the
vessel, pressure in the vessel is controlled. In addition, pressured is controlled
because it influences key process operations like vapor-liquid equilibrium,
chemical reaction rate, and fluid flow.
Commonly used devices are
1. Bourdon Gauges
2. Bellows
3. Diaphragm
4. Resistive/Strain Gauges

Level Measurement
Level of liquid in a vessel should be maintained above the exit pipe because if
the vessel empties the exit flow will become zero, a situation that would upset
downstream processes and could damage pumping equipment that requires
liquid. In addition, level can influence the performance of a process; the most
common example is a liquid phase chemical reactor.
Commonly used devices are
1. Float
2. Displacer level sensors
3. Manometers

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 Production Of Polystyrene

PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT

The Location Of The Plant Can Have A Crucial Effect On The Profitability Of A
Project, And The Scope For Future Expansion. Many Factors Must Be Considered When
Selecting A Suitable Site, And only A Brief review Of The Principal Factors Will Be Given In
This Section. The Principal Factors To Be Considered Are:
• Location, With Respect to the Marketing Area.
• Raw Material Supply.
• Transport Facilities.
• Availability Of Labour.
• Availability of Utilities: Water, Fuel, Power.
• Availability of Suitable Land.
• Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal.
• Local Community Considerations.
• Climate.
• Political Strategic Considerations.
Marketing Area
For Materials That Are Produced In Bulk Quantities: Such As Cement, Mineral Acids And
Transport A Significant Fraction Of The Sales Price, The Plant Should Be Located Close To
The Primary Market. This Consideration Will Be Less Important For Low Volume
Production, High-Priced Products; Such As Pharmaceuticals. In An International Market,
There May Be An Advantage To Be Gained By Locating The Plant Within An Area With
Preferential Tariff.
.
Raw Materials
The Availability And Price Of Suitable Raw Materials Will Often Determine The Site
Location. Plants Producing Bulk Chemicals Are Best Located Close To The Source Of The
Major Raw Material; Where This Is Also Close To The Marketing Area.
Soda Ash Plant Should Be Located Near The Salt Lakes Or Near Sea, Where Sodium
Chloride Is Available Abundantly. Transport
The Transport Of Materials And Products To And From Plant Will Be An Overriding
Consideration In Site Selection.
If Practicable, A Site Should Be Selected That Is Close At Least Two Major Forms Of
Transport: Road, Rail, Waterway Or A Seaport. Road Transport Is Being Increasingly Used,
And Is Suitable For Local Distribution From A Central Warehouse. Rail Transport Will Be
Cheaper For The Long-Distance Transport Of Bulk Chemicals.
Air Transport Is Convenient And Efficient For The Movement Of Personnel And Essential
Equipment And Supplies, And The Proximity Of The Site To A Major Airport Should Be
Considered.

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 Production Of Polystyrene

Availability Of Labour
Labour Will Be Needed For Construction Of The Plant And Its Operation. Skilled
Construction Workers Will Usually Be Brought In From Outside The Site, But There Should
Be An Adequate Pool Of Unskilled Labour Available Locally; And Labour Suitable For
Training To Operate The Plant. Skilled Tradesmen Will Be Needed For Plant Maintenance.
Local Trade Union Customs And Restrictive Practices Will Have To Be Considered When
Assessing The Availability And Suitability Of The Labour For Recruitment And Training.

Utilities (Services)
The Word “Utilities” Is Now Generally Used For The Ancillary Services Needed In The
Operation Of Any Production Process. These Services Will Normally Be Supplied From A
Central Facility; And Will Include:
• Electricity: - Power Required For Electrochemical Processes, Motors,
Lightings, And General Use
• Steam For Process Heating: - The Steams Required For The Process Are
Generated In The Tube Boilers Using Most Economic Fuel.
• Cooling Water: - Natural And Forced Draft Cooling Towers Are Generally
Used To Provide The Cooling Water Required On Site.
• Water For General Use: - The Water Required For The General Purpose Will
Be Taken From Local Water Supplies Like Rivers, Lakes And Seas. Because
Of This Reason All The Plants Located On The Banks OfRiver.
• Dematerialized Water: - Dematerialized Water, From Which All The Minerals
Have Been Removed By Ion-Exchange Is Used Where Pure Water Is
Needed For The Process Use, In Boiler Feed Water.
• Refrigeration: - Refrigeration Is Needed For The Processes, Which Require
Temperatures Below That Are Provided By The Cooling Water.
• Inert-Gas Supplies.

• Compressed Air: - In An Ethylene Oxide Plant Compressed Air Is One Of The

Raw Materials. It Is Also Needed For Pneumatic Controllers Etc.
• Effluent Disposal Facilities: - Facilities Must Be Provided For The Effective
Disposal Of The Effluent Without Any Public Nuisance.

Environmental Impact, And Effluent Disposal

All Industrial Processes Produce Waste Products, And Full Consideration Must Be Given
To The Difficulties And Coat Of Their Disposal. The Disposal Of Toxic And Harmful
Effluents Will Be Covered By Local Regulations, And The Appropriate Authorities Must
Be Consulted During The Initial Site Survey To Determine The Standards That Must Be
Met.

Local Community Considerations

The Proposed Plant Must Fit In With And Be Acceptable To The Local Community. Full
Consideration Must Be Given To The Safe Location Of The Plant So That It Does Not
Impose A Significant Additional Risk To The Community.
Land (Site Considerations)

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 Production Of Polystyrene

Sufficient Suitable Land Must Be Available For The Proposed Plant And Future
Expansion. The Land Should Be Ideally Flat, Well Drained And Have Load-Bearing
Characteristics. A Full Site Evaluation Should Be Made To Determine The Need For Piling
Or Other Foundations.

Climate
Adverse Climatic Conditions At Site Will Increase Costs. Abnormally Low Temperatures
Will Require The Provision Of Additional Insulation And Special Heating For Equipment
And Piping. Stronger Locations Will Be Needed At Locations Subject To High Wind Loads
Or Earthquakes.

Political And Strategic Considerations

Capital Grants, Tax Concessions, And Other Inducements Are Often Given By Governments
To Direct New Investment To Preferred Locations; Such As Areas Of High Unemployment.
The Availability Of Such Grants Can Be The Overriding Consideration In Site Selection.

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 Production Of Polystyrene

PLANT LAY OUT

The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well
the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal factors
are considered are:
• Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.
• The processrequirements.
• Convenience of operation.
• Convenience of maintenance.
• Safety.
• Future expansion.
• Modular construction.
Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of
connecting pipe between equipment, and at least amount of structural steel work. However,
this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
Process requirements
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate the
base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or the
operating head for a thermosyphon reboiler.
Operations
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the control
room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions and
heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access to
equipment.
Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling
for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places under cover.
Safety
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects
of an explosion.
At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process
buildings.
Plant expansion
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion
of the process.
Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow for

49
 Production Of Polystyrene

future requirements.
Modular construction
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and
instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea. The
advantages of modular construction are:
• Improved quality control.
• Reduced construction cost.
• Less need for skilled labour on site.

Some of the disadvantages are;

Higher design costs & more structural steel work.

More flanged constructions & Possible problems with assembly, on site.

The Plant Layout KEYWORDS

1. Raw material Storage

2. Product Storage
3. Process Site
4. Laboratories
5. Workshop
6. Canteen & Change house
7. Fire Brigade
8. Central Control Room
9. Security office
10. Administrative Building
11. Site for Expansion Project.
12. Effluent treatment plant
13. Power house
14. Emergency water storage
15. Plant utilities
A detailed plant layout is drawn and submitted with this thesis report.
Some points to be considered in plant layout are,

• Effluent plant is located at the end of the premises

50
 Production Of Polystyrene

• Administration buildings, canteens are located near the entrance of the industry
where they will not interfere with production and it is convenient to contact the people
outside the industry.

• Laboratory and workshops are placed in the position form where it is

easy to communicate with all other departments.

• Location of services like power plant, cooling water, pump house, and switch

house is done such that their usage is not hindered and they are easily accessible in
case of fire.

• Pipelines laid are minimal and human safety is taken into account.

• Availability of suitable land: Sufficient suitable land be available for the

proposed plant and for future expansion.

• Climate: Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs.

Abnormally low temperatures will require the provision of additional

insulation & special heating for equipment & pipe runs. Stronger

structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds or

earthquakes.

• Storage layout:

storage facilities for raw materials and products may be located in isolated areas or
in adjoining areas.

Hazardous materials become a decided menace to life and should be isolated when
stored. Storage tanks must be separated to facilitate suitable quantity. Process water
may be drawn from river, wells or purchased from local authority. Electrical power
will be needed at all sites. So plant should be located close to a cheap source of
power.

• Effluent disposal:

Effluent disposal should be according to the Indian standards. The appropriate authorities
must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.

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 Production Of Polystyrene

COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS

Calculation of fixed capital cost:

The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPI):
In 2002 = 402.0
In 2019 = 603.0
Let us assume that the plant is running for 325 days a year.
From literature, the capital cost for the proposed plant should range between 8680 Rs and
17710 Rs per annual ton.
Let’s take value of 1$ = Rs 70.
Let’s take capital cost = 140000 Rs per annual ton.
= Rs 140000 per annual ton.
Total tones of polystyrene produced every year = 325 * 100
= 32500tones/year.
Therefore, the capital cost for proposed plant in 1969 is = 32500*140000
= Rs.41.375*108
The fixed capital cost for the proposed plant in 2019 = 41.375*108*603
402
= Rs 576.39*107
= Rs 576.39crores.

Estimation of Capital Investment Cost:

I. Direct Costs: material and labour involved in actual installation of complete
facility (70-90% of fixed-capital investment)

a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation + painting

(50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)
1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (15-40% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider purchased equipment cost = 30% of Fixed-capital investment i.e.,
PEC = 30% of 576.39×107 = 0.30 × 576.39×107 = Rs. 172.91×107

2. Installation, including insulation and painting: (25-55% of

purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the Installation cost = 35% of Purchased equipment cost
= 35% of 172.91×107
= 0.35 ×172.91×107
=Rs.60.52×107

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 Production Of Polystyrene

3. Instrumentation and controls, installed: (6-30% of

Purchased equipment cost.)
Consider the installation cost = 15% of Purchased equipment cost
= 15% of ×172.91×107
= 0.15 ×172.91×107
= Rs.25.93x107

4. Piping installed: (10-80% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the piping cost = 35% Purchased equipment cost
= 35% of Purchased equipment cost
= 0.35 ×172.91×107
= Rs. 60.52x107

5. Electrical, installed: (10-40% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipmentcost
= 25% of 172.91×107
= 0.25 ×172.91×107
= Rs.43.227x107

B. Buildings, process and Auxiliary: (10-70% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Buildings, process and auxiliary cost
= 30% of PEC
= 30% of 172.91×107
= 0.30 ×172.91×107
= Rs.51.873x107

C. Service facilities and yard improvements: (40-100% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of service facilities and yard improvement = 50% of PEC
= 50% of 172.91×107
= 0.50 ×172.91×107
= Rs 86.45x107

D. Land: (1-2% of fixed capital investment or 4-8% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of land = 1.5% FCI
= 1.5% of 576.39×107
= 0.015×576.39×107
= Rs. 8.64x107

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 Production Of Polystyrene

Thus, Direct cost =(A+B+C+D)= Rs.510.07x107 ----- (88.5% of FCI)

6. Indirect costs: expenses which are not directly involved with material and
labour of actual installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital
investment)

A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)

Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs
i.e., cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of 510.07×107
= 0.1×510.07 ×107 = Rs 51.00 x107
B. Construction Expense and Contractor’s fee: (6-30% of direct costs)
Consider the construction expense and contractor’s fee = 10% of Direct costs
i.e., construction expense and contractor’s fee = 10% of 510.07x107
= 0.1× 510.07 ×107 = Rs 51.00 x107
C. Contingency: (5-15% of Fixed-capital investment)
Consider the contingency cost = 10% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Contingency cost = 10% of 576.39 ×107 =Rs 57.639 x107
Thus, Indirect Costs = (A+B+C) = Rs. 159.639x107 (27.69% of FCI)

7. Fixed Capital Investment:

Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= (510.07 ×107) + (159.639x107)
i.e., Fixed capital investment = Rs. 669.709x107

IV. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)

Consider the Working Capital = 15% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Working capital = 15% of 669.709x107
= 0.15 × 669.709x107
= Rs. 100.45x107

V. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
= (669.709x107) + (100.45x107)
i.e., Total capital investment = Rs. 770.165x107.

Estimation of Total Product cost:

I. Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant
overhead cost.
A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)

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 Production Of Polystyrene

i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of

calculation-about 13% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3%
for Building Value for Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 12%of FCI for machinery and equipment and 4%for
Building Value for Buildings)
i.e., Depreciation = (0.12×172.91x107) + (0.04×51.873×107)
= Rs. 22.824x107
i. . Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the local taxes = 3% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Local Taxes = 0.03×669.709x107= Rs. 20.091x107

i. . Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = 0.006×669.709x107= Rs. 4.01x107

iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)

Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings
= 10% of ((51.873×107) + (8.64×107))
= 0.10× ((51.873×107) + (8.64×107))
Rent = Rs. 6.0513x107
Thus, Fixed Charges = (1+2+3+4) = Rs. 52.9763×107

B. Direct Production Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)

Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges – (given)
Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost
Ö Total product charge= fixed charges/15%

Ö Total product charge= 52.97×107/15%

Ö Total product charge (TPC) = Rs. 353.175x107

i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of raw materials = 25% of total product cost
Raw materialcost = 25% of 353.175x107 = 0.25×353.175x107
Raw material cost = Rs.88.293x107
i. . Operating Labor (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of operating labor = 15% of total product cost
operating labor cost = 15% of 353.175x107= 0.15×353.175x107
Operating labor cost = Rs.52.976x107
i. . Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL): (10-25% of
OL) Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 12%
of OL
Ö Direct supervisory and clericallabourcost = 12% of 25.2375x107

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 Production Of Polystyrene

= 0.12×25.2375x107
= Rs. 6.357x107

iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 12% of total product cost
Ö Utilities cost= 12% of 353.175x107=0.12×353.175x107
Ö Utilities cost = Rs. 42.381x107

v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05×669.709x107= Rs. 33.48×107

vi. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 15% of 33.48×107 = 0.15 ×33.48×107
Operating supplies cost = Rs. 5.02x107

vi. . Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL)

Consider the Laboratory charges = 15% of OL
Ö Laboratory charges = 15% of 52.976x107
= 0.15×52.976x107
Laboratory charges = Rs. 7.946x107

vi. . Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 4% of total product cost
Ö Patent and Royalties = 4% of 353.175x107
Ö = 0.04×353.175x107
Patent and Royalties cost = Rs 14.127x107
Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 250.58x107 ----- (70.9% of TPC)

C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and maintenance or

5-15% of total product cost); includes for the following: general plant upkeep and
overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical services, safety and protection, restaurants,
recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.
Consider the plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R
Plant overhead cost = 60% of ((52.976x107) + (6.357x107) + (33.48×107)) Plant
overhead cost = 0.60 × ((52.976x107) + (6.357x107) + (33.48×107))

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 Production Of Polystyrene

Plant overhead cost = Rs 55.687x107

Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.
Manufacture cost = (52.976x107) + (250.58×107) + (55.687x107)
Manufacture cost = Rs 359.244x107

II. General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs +

research and development costs
Administrative costs:(2-6% of total product cost)

Consider the Administrative costs = 5% of total product cost

Ö Administrative costs = 0.05 × 353.175x107
Ö Administrative costs = Rs 17.65x107

A. Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for
sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
ÖDistribution and sellingcosts = 15% of 353.17x107 Ö
Distribution and selling costs = 0.15 × 353.17x107 Ö
Distribution and Selling costs = Rs 52.976x107
B. Research and Development costs: (about 5% of total product cost)
Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 5% of 353.175x107
Ö Research and development costs = 0.05 × 353.175x107
Ö Research and Development costs = Rs. 17.65x107

C. Financing (interest): (0-10% of total capital investment)

Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment
i.e. interest = 5% of 770.165x107.
= 0.05×770.165x107.
Interest = Rs. 38.50x107

Thus,

General Expenses = Rs. 126.776x107

IV. Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses

Total product cost = Rs. 486x107

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 Production Of Polystyrene

V. Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of Polystyrene per ton = $ 1400 (USD)
Let 1 USD = Rs. 70.00
Hence Wholesale Selling Price of Polystyrene per ton. = 1400 ×70 = Rs 98000
Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product manufactured
= 98000 × (100 T/day) × (325days/year)
Total Income = Rs.7.962x109
Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost
= (7.962x109) – (486.00x107)
Gross Income = Rs. 310.25×107
Let the Tax rate be 45% (common)
Taxes = 40% of Gross income
= 40% of 310.25×107= 0.40×310.25×107
Taxes = Rs. 124.10 x107
Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income× (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = (310.25×107) – (124.10x107) = Rs. 186.15×106
Rate of Return:
Rate of return = Net profit×100/Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return = 186.15×107×100/ (770.165x107)
Rate of Return = 24.178%

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Production Of Polystyrene

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 Production Of Polystyrene

REFERENCES

1. Perry RH, Green Don W (1997)Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Hand Book, 7th Edition (Mc-
Graw Hill International), 14.23–14.38, 2.91–2.94, 2.313–2.329.
2. Kaye GWC, LabyTH(1986) Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants,
15thEdition,Longman, NY, 219.
3. Smith JC, Van Ness HC, Abbott MM(2003)Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Thermodynamics, 6th Edition, Mc-Graw Hill International, 636–636.
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