WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION MAKING AND LEADERSHIP

POSITIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF THE GENDER DYNAMICS IN THE NKANGALA

DISTRICT MUNICIPALITY, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA

by

TEBOGO MATOANE

MINI-DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF DEVELOPMENT

in the

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT & LAW

(Turfloop Graduate School of Leadership)

at the

UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO

SUPERVISOR: DR T.MOYO

2015

i
DECLARATION

I declare that the study WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION-MAKING AND

LEADERSHIP POSITIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF GENDER DYNAMICS IN THE
NKANGALA DISTRICT MUNICIPALITY, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA
hereby submitted to the University of Limpopo, for the degree of Master of Development,
has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university; that it
is my work in design and in execution, and that all material contained herein has been duly
acknowledged.

Signature: …………………………
TEBOGO MATOANE

Date: ………………………………..

ii
DEDICATION

To all women grappling with decision-making and leadership positions at the various
government institutions, thus modelling and paving a future for women’s empowerment
and gender equality for the benefit of future generations.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My utmost and sincere gratitude to the Lord Almighty, for the care, guidance, protection,
wisdom and strength throughout the days of my life,

My daughter Rebotile Matoane and son Abongiwe Reabetswe Mkhize, who have made
motherhood an honour and humbling experience, you are the reason I strive to push my
limits, thank you for the motivation

My late father Makgathi Matoane, who relentlessly steered me into the academic path, it
has been a worthwhile journey, many thanks, Moloto. My mother, Nomalanga Gloria
Matoane, my pillar of strength, I am forever indebted to you. To the Matoane family, thank
you for all the support, may the Lord abundantly bless you. My Helper, Nomthandazo
Nkabinde, for taking care of my domestic roles and responsibilities when the study made it
almost impossible for me to do the same. My life partner, my husband, Erald John
Nkabinde, for his encouragement and believe in me, thank you very much.

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. T. Moyo, who I relied upon for
knowledge, expertise, insight and input into this academic work, your passion for women’s
empowerment and gender equality in development shone through your assistance and
guidance. Our interaction has academically and professionally enriched me.

I also wish to sincerely thank the management of the various institutions of local
government (municipalities) that I have engaged and interacted with through this study.
Through respective offices of the municipal managers, I was not only granted me
permission to access the research participants, documents and other related information
but also delegated responsible officials to assist me in this regard. Many thanks to the
research participants that I interacted with through the study’s interviews, who willingly
gave me comprehensive accounts of their daily experiences, allowing me to tap into their
professional, community and family life and spaces. These very rich discussions provided
insightful information I needed for this study, my most humble appreciation and thank you
very much. There are those who deserve a special mention as they were not only
participants but were delegated as my institutional contact and entry points and further
greatly assisted me in planning the interviews, scheduling and other such related
administrative aspects and those are; Linkie Mohlala, (Acting Director for Corporate
Services in NDM) G. Ngobeni (Director for Corporate Services, VKLM), M. Sibanyoni

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(Manager for Labour Relations, Emakhazeni LM), you made the research both an exciting
and enriching academic experience, thank you very much.

Lastly, I wish to acknowledge and thank my volunteer team for their assistance namely;
Ms. N. Zulu, who volunteered her services as a research assistant, the information
gathered would have been impossible to administer without her kind help. Kgaugelo
Kubyana and Jolandie Patterson for the IT assistance provided and lastly, Dr. Mphoto
Mogoboya for the editing services, thank you very much, God bless.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

AGDI: African Gender and Development Index (AGDI, 2011)

ANC: African National Congress

BPFA: Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA, 1995)

CEDAW: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

(CEDAW, 1995)

CGE: Commission on Gender Equality

EEA: Employment Equity Act (1998)

ED: Executive Director

EEPs: Employment Equity Plans

ELM: Emalahleni Local Municipality (Witbank)

EMLM: EMakhazeni Local Municipality (Belfast)

GAD: Gender and Development

IDP: Integrated Development Plans

IEC: Information, Education and Communications

HODs: Head of Departments

JSMLM: Dr JS Moroka Local Municipality

LEDFs: Local Economic Development Forms

LLFs: Local Labour Forums

M-APTF: Mtintso’s Access Participation Transformation Framework

MDGs: Millennium Development Goals

MMCs: Members of the Mayoral Committee

MM: Municipal Manager

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NDM: Nkangala District Municipality

NGM: National Gender Machinery

OECD: Organizations for Economic Cooperation and Development

OSW: Office on the Status of Women

PhD: Pull her Down (syndrome)

PhU: Pull her Up (syndrome)

SADC: Southern African Developing Countries

SALGA: South African Local Government Association

SOEs: State Owned Enterprises

SMMEs: Small Medium Micro Enterprises

STLM: Steve Tshwete Local Municipality

THLM: Thembisile Hani Local Municipality

WC and PD: South African Ministry of Women, Children and People with Disabilities

WEGE: Women Empowerment and Gender Equality (Bill)

WID: Women in Development

WLEM: Women’s Leadership Empowerment Model

WSPs: Workplace Skills Plans

VKLM: Victor Khanye Local Municipality (Delmas)

UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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ABSTRACT

The study aims to gain an in-depth understanding of the gender dynamics which promote
or retard the full participation of women in decision-making and leadership positions in the
Nkangala District Municipality (NDM), Mpumalanga. Local Government, through
municipalities, is the most strategic sphere of government. This is so because
municipalities are the institutions of government that are closest to the people.
Municipalities, through the various services provided, present critical service delivery
institutions for women to actively participate in and influence decisions. Therefore the
study contends that these institutions of local government are gendered. Against this
backdrop, an analysis of gender representation of women and men in decision-making
and leadership positions in the NDM was conducted. The aim was to assess the state of
gender equality in the NDM. Further, the study explored this gender representation in
relation to how it translates to women’s authority and influence in decision-making and
leadership.

This qualitative research study triangulated data collection using questionnaires,

interviews and observation. The study focused on both the administrative and political
components of local government. In the administrative component; interviews were
conducted with Municipal Managers (MMs), Executive Directors (EDs) and Managers. In
the political component, interviews were conducted with Executive Mayors, Speakers,
Chief Whips and Members of the Mayoral Committees (MMCs). These constitute the
decision-making and leadership positions in municipalities as institutions of local
government.

The study revealed that amidst the national and international policy and legislative
provisions on women’s empowerment and gender equality, women continue to be
confronted with institutional gendered challenges. Amongst others, the study revealed that
there are pervasive gender dynamics, stereotypes, attitudes and perceptions towards
women in decision-making and leadership positions in these institutions. Also, that there
are minimum institutional mechanisms and strategies that encourage and support
women’s participation in decision-making and leadership positions. The provincial and
national gender machineries’ roles and responsibilities with regard to municipalities’
monitoring, oversight and overall support is not as vibrant. Drawing from the findings, the
study concludes with a proposal for a Women’s Leadership Empowerment Model

viii
(WLEM). A comprehensive model that will comprise of professional capacity-building and
training, on-the-job coaching and mentorship, regular peer assessment and review fora to
continuously support women in and into decision-making and leadership positions.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

TOPIC PAGE

TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………………… i.

DECLARATION………………………………………………………………… ii.

DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………… iii.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………......... iv.

LIST OF ACRONYMS………………………………………………………… vi.

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………….. viii.

TABLE OF CONTENT………………………………………………………… x

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction…………..………………….……………………… 1
1.2 Background of the study…………………………………….… 3
1.3 Statement of the problem……………………………………… 8
1.4 Aim of the study………………………………………………... 9
1.5 Objectives of the study………………………………………... 9
1.6 Research questions………………….………………………... 10
1.7 Rationale and motivation of the study…………………….…. 10
1.8 Significance of the study…………………………………….… 11
1.9 Research methodology, design and rationale…………….… 12
1.9.1 Research population……………………………………….….. 13
1.9.2 Research sample…………………………………………….… 13
1.9.3 Data Collection methods………………………………….…… 14
1.9.4 Data Analysis…………………………………………………... 16
1.10 Definition of key concepts…………………………………….. 16
1.11 Delimitations………………………………………………..….. 18
1.12 Ethical considerations…………………………..…………….. 19
1.13 Summary…………………………………………..…………… 20
1.14 Outline of chapters………………………………..…………… 20

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………… 22

2.2 An overview: National and International legislative

provisions on women’s empowerment and gender

quality………………………………………………………..……. 24

2.3 A feminist viewpoint: the study in context………………………. 25

2.3.1 An overview of feminist and gender perspectives……………… 25

2.3.2 Feminism and the emergence of the women’s agenda

and voices…………………………………………………….…….. 26

2.3.3 A paradigm shift: Women in Development (WID)

to Gender and Development (GAD)……………………………… 27

2.4 Gender as an institution………………………………………..… 28

2.4.1 Understanding gendered discrimination and

inequalities…………………………………………………….…… 28

2.4.2 Patriarchy and its dominance, values, norms and

influences on women’s position in society……………….…….. 29

2.5 Women’s subordinate position in patriarchal society and

local government services……………………………….………. 30

2.5.1 An overview of women’s participation in politics and

other civic matters in South Africa………………………….……. 31

2.5.2 Women in senior management in local government……….…. 33

2.5.3 Gender discrimination: women’s social and economic

Exclusions……………………………………………………….……. 34

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2.6 Towards women’s empowerment and gender equality…………... 35

2.6.1 Empowerment and its interrelated dimensions:

agency, resources and achievements……………………………... 36

2.7 Factors for women’s participation across the different

spheres of life………………………………………………………… 37

2.7.1 Issues of women’s access and full participation:

Mtintso’s Access, Participation and Transformation

Framework…………………………………………………………… 38

2.7.2 Women’s participation and institutional cultures and practices..... 39

2.7.3 Gendering institutions through planned change implementation... 40

2.7.4 Women’s participation and contesting social roles and

Responsibilities……………………………………………………….. 41

2.8 Gender transformation through gender mainstreaming…………… 42

2.8.1 Gender mainstreaming and men’s active involvement……………. 43

2.9 Perspectives on women’s leadership………………………………… 44

2.10 Women’s progression: the glass-ceiling and the glass-cliff

perspectives…………………………………………………………….. 45

2.11 Conclusion………………………………………………………………. 46

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH, METHODOLOGY, DESIGN AND RATIONALE

3. Research methodology and design……………………………….. 48

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 48

3.2 Research plan and process……………………………………….. 48

3.3 Epistemological framework of the study…………………………. 49

3.4 Research methodology…………………………………………….. 49

3.4.1 A case for feminist-oriented qualitative research………………… 50

3.5 Research design…………………………………………………….. 51

3.5.1 An advocacy, participatory and phenomenological approach….. 52

3.6 Ethical considerations………………………………………………… 53

3.7 Research population………………………………………………….. 53

3.7.1 A synopsis of sampling in qualitative research…………………….. 54

3.7.2 Background and rationale to research population……………….... 54

3.8 Data collection methods……………………………………………... 56

3.8.1 Secondary sources: document analysis…………………………... 56

3.8.2 Primary sources: individual and group interviews and observation. 56

3.8.2.1 Phenomenological interviews……………………………………… 57

3.8.2.2 Observations………………………………………………………… 58

3.9 Data analysis, interpretation and presentation………………….… 59

3.10 Reliability, validity and generalization……………………………… 61

3.11 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….. 61

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CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION

4. Data presentation, analysis and interpretation……………………. 63

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 63

4.2 An overview of participants’ profiles……………………………….. 63

4.3 Analysis of institutional documents………………………………… 64

4.3.1 Gendered shortfalls in municipalities’ IDPs and Budget plans….. 65

4.3.2 Gendered inadequacies in the LEDs and SDFs………………….. 67

4.4 Issues in Mayoral Committee meetings, Council caucus and

Sittings…………………………………………………………………. 68

4.5 Issues of women’s leadership in community forums……………… 70

4.6 Analysis of institutional structures and policies for

women’s empowerment and gender equality………………………. 73

4.6.1 Weaknesses and strengths in municipalities’ organisational

structures……………………………………………………………….. 73

4.6.2 Shortfalls and successes in WSPs, Gender policies and EEPs…… 77

4.7 Increased women’s involvement and participation in municipalities.. 79

4.8 Women managers and leaders’ on improving service delivery……. 81

4.8.1 Challenges for women in decision-making and leadership position

in local government……………………………………………………... 82

4.8.1.1 Daunting gendered expectations and silences…………………….. 83

4.8.1.2 Gender-based violence and silences in local government……….. 84

4.9 Gendered nexus: cultures, tradition and human rights…………….. 85

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4.10 Women in local government decision-making and leadership positions and
hegemonic masculinities………………………………………….. 86

4.11 Women leaders’ struggles with power and power relations in local
government…………………………………………………………. 87

4.12 Gendered institutional cultures and women’s leadership………. 89

4.12.1 High exit rates of women in decision-making and leadership

Positions…………………………………………………………….. 90

4.12.2 Negative gendered attitudes and behaviours towards women in decision-

making and leadership positions in local government…………… 92

4.12.3 Issues for gender representation and quotas in local government 92

4.12.4 Presence and impact: a contested terrain…………………………. 94

4.13 Inefficiencies of the national and provincial gender machineries

and consequences for local government…………………………… 95

4.13.1 The collapse of grassroots women’s movement and structures for

mobilisation…………………………………………………………….. 95

4.14 Women’s leadership and burdens for balancing the triple roles…. 96

4.15 Absence of gender mainstreaming programs……………………… 99

4.15.1 Over-emphasis and reliance on gender calendar events………… 101

4.16 Legitimacy question about women’s decision-making and leadership

positions………………………………………………………………… 102

4.17 Inequalities in the levels of education between women and men… 103

4.18 Informal. Influential networks and consequences for women in decision-

making and leadership in local government………………………….. 105

4.19 Pervasive Pull Her Down syndrome (PhD)…………………………… 106

4.20 Conclusion……………………………………………………………….. 107

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CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5. Recommendations, areas for future research and conclusions…... 109

5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 109

5.2 Summary of key research findings…………………………………… 110

5.2.1 Patriarchal male-dominance in local government’s decision-making

and leadership positions……………………………………………….. 110

5.2.2 Persistent gender power imbalances and the need for women’s

critical mass in local government…………………………………….. 110

5.2.3 Women’s challenges with competing gendered priorities…………. 111

5.2.4 Disjuncture in policy, legislative provisions and actual

Implementation…………………………………………………………. 111

5.2.5 Absence of gender policies and strategies in municipalities……… 112

5.2.6 Women’s neglect of grassroots structures’ involvement and

Participation…………………………………………………………….. 112

5.2.7 Inadequate institutional provisions and resource allocation for

gender and transversal coordination units…………………………… 113

5.2.8 Absence of gender training and education programmes…………… 113

5.2.9 Rapid disruptions and non-completion of women’s tenure in

decision-making and leadership positions………………………….. 114

5.3 Outline of key recommendations…………………………………….. 114

5.3.1 Dismantling the masculine hegemonies and associated power

Dynamics………………………………………………………………. 115

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5.3.2 Increased efforts on breaking the glass-ceiling through breaking

gender orders and regimes………………………………………… 116

5.3.3 Enhancement of critical mass: increased women’s involvement

and participation…………………………………………………….. 117

5.3.4 Establishment of institutional women’s networking and

information-sharing platforms………………………………………. 118

5.3.5 Localising gender machineries’ impact and support………………. 119

5.3.6 Inclusion of women’s empowerment and gender equality in mandatory

documents……………………………………………………………… 120

5.3.7 Gender responsive budgetary allocations………………………….. 121

5.3.8 Women’s strategic forums in municipalities…………………………… 122

5.3.9 Development of gender strategies and policies…………………….. 122

5.3.10 Intensifying community-based IEC strategies………………………. 123

5.3.11 Gendering organisational development, behaviours and cultures... 123

5.3.12 Positions of gender and transversal coordinators and units……….. 124

5.3.13 Gendering organisational structures and their review processes…. 124

5.3.14 Continuous gender training and development programmes………. 125

5.3.15 Creating women-friendly institutions of local governance…………. 125

5.3.16 Feminism of institutions of local government: from women

in politics to gender in politics…………………………………………. 125

5.3.17 Delivering on a women’s mandate: from PhD to PhU……………… 126

5.3.18 Development of a women’s leadership empowerment model …. 127

5.4 Areas for future research………………………………………… 127

xvii
5.5 Concluding Remarks……………………………………….. 128

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………… 129

LIST OF FIGURES (LOCALITY MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS):

Map 1: Mpumalanga Province of South Africa…………………….. 4

Map 2: Nkangala District Municipality (NDM) and Municipalities

under its Jurisdiction………………………………………….. 5

Fig 1: Mtintso’s Access Participation Framework…………………. 38

Fig 2: Real Life Scenario: A day in the life of woman manager… 97

LIST OF TABLES:

Table 1: NDM Feeder Municipalities Decision-making and

leadership Positions by Gender Breakdown……………… 6

Table 2: Research sample by respective Municipalities

decision-making and leadership compositions…………… 14

Table 3: Local Candidate Gender Trends 2000-2011……………… 32

Table 4: Province-specific Gender Candidates lists, May 2011…... 32

ANNEXURES

Annexure 1: Permission Request Letter to NDM: Executive Mayors

Annexure 2: Permission Request Letter to NDM: Municipal Manager

Annexure 3: Permission Granting Letter from NDM

Annexure 4: Email Informing Participants of the Research’s visit for Interviews

(Sample email)

Annexure 5: Interview Consent Form

xviii
Annexure 6: Interview schedule

xix
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT OF STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The subject of women’s participation in decision-making and leadership positions occupies

a central place in debates on the gender dimensions of nation building in South Africa.
Gender Equality is entrenched in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa, 1996. In order to entrench and realise women’s rights to equal treatment, the
government introduced several policies and legislation such as the National Policy
Guidelines on Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equality (2000), the Affirmative Action
Policy, the Employment Equity Act, 55 of (1998). The study focuses specifically on Local
Government and therefore the Local Government Gender Policy Framework (2006) and
the Women and Gender Equality Bill (2011) are directly relevant in this exploration.

The South African government has ratified without reservations, international human rights
instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 1995), the Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA,
1995), the SADC Gender Protocol (1997) amended in (2008) for which South Africa also
deposited its instruments, the African Gender and Development Index (AGDI, 2011).
Against this supposedly progressive policy and legislative framework with regard to
strengthening advocacy interventions for women’s empowerment and gender equality, the
reality is however, that gender inequality persists in different forms and at different levels
in the country and elsewhere. As highlighted in the South Africa SADC Gender Barometer
of 2013 henceforth referred to as the (Barometer, 2013) there seems to be some
contradictions in what this research study would refer to as the “gender gains”. This is so
because albeit the progressive legislative environment, gender inequality persists as
attested to by the recent (Barometer,2013) that discriminatory practices and gender
stereotypes in employment, in schooling, in access to resources and opportunities,
participation in the economy, including decision-making and leadership in both the private
and the public sectors, remain.

The focus of the study is on the perceived gender inequality in decision-making and
leadership positions within local government with a specific focus on the municipalities
under the jurisdiction of the Nkangala District Municipality (NDM) in Mpumalanga. In her
2012 address to the Dialogue on the role of Women in State Owned Enterprises (SOEs)
Leadership, the South African Minister of Women, Children and People with Disabilities

1
(Ministry of WC and PD), Ms Lulu Xingwana reflected and acknowledged the fact that
“…indeed, there is consensus across the board that South Africa has some of the most
progressive policies that are aimed at advancing women empowerment and gender
equality. However, the challenge remains the capacity to translate such policies into
implementation” (Xingwana, 2012). The same view was stated a year earlier, (2011) by
the Chairperson of the Commission on Gender Equality (CGE), Commissioner Beatrice
Ngcobo in Barclay, (2011) that “…there are women in Parliament and good laws to protect
women, but … when it comes to implementation, people at the frontline are mostly men.
They won't give up power so easily”.

The above reflections and acknowledgements by two important institutions of government

whose core existence is that of advancing, driving and institutionalising the women’s
empowerment and gender equality agenda namely; (the Ministry of WC&PD and the CGE)
signals a need for exploration. These institutions are invariably relevant to the focus of this
study. As indicated in the CGE’s Gender Barometer (CGE, 2009), it is worrying that local
municipalities exhibit inadequate representation of women in leadership positions. The
said inadequate representation of women is an issue of interest for this study including a
further exploration of women’s influence and full participation in these positions in the
event that they eventually occupy them.

Underpinning this discussion therefore is the fact that by implication, government is

entrusted as the lead agency in women empowerment and gender equality. It is therefore
imperative that government should be seen to be vigorously driving the agenda at all
levels (political and administrative) within its different institutions, one of which is local
government. This sphere of government is strategic and intimate because of its location as
the sphere of government closest to the people. Through municipalities, local government
becomes the first port of call for communities on various service delivery aspects on a
daily basis and thus, presents critical service delivery institutions. Furthermore, this study
maintains that all services that are at the core of municipalities’ functioning and operations
directly affect women. Among those that are considered critical in the lives of women are
housing beneficiation, basic services such as water, sanitation, sewer, waste management
and roads and other infrastructure development services. These services lie at the very
core of municipalities and thus affirm earlier assertions that the local governments,
through municipalities, are both strategic and intimate institutions of government with daily
direct engagements and interactions with communities. It is therefore against this

2
backdrop that the researcher contends that irrespective of the broader compelling
legislative provisions on women’s empowerment and gender equality, the nature of
services, functions and operations at this sphere directly affects the improvement of the
status and quality of women’s lives and in the main, reasons why women should be in the
forefront and assume decision-making and leadership positions in this sphere of
government. Moreover, the study argues that women’s occupation of these positions
should not only be quantitative but rather be in the form of meaningful impact and
substantive contributions towards gender transformation in these institutions. It is,
therefore, questionable that according to the Southern African Gender Protocol Barometer
on South Africa (2013), henceforth referred to as the Barometer, representation of women
in local government experienced a decline, that is a decrease from 48% to 38% in the
2006 and 2011 South African Local Government Elections respectively (Barometer, 2013).
This decrease will be relevant to the study in that it will seek to critically analyse factors
that directly or indirectly contribute to the decrease, and further delve deeper into the full
participation of women in decision-making and leadership positions in the institutions of
local government, municipalities, in an attempt to build understanding of the gender
dynamics in this sphere of government.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The Mpumalanga Province of South Africa is one of those provinces which are generally
considered as vast and predominantly rural. The province is comprised of three district
municipalities namely; eHlanzeni, Gert Sibande, and Nkangala. The said districts straddle
along the provincial borders of Kwazulu-Natal, Limpopo and Gauteng. Further, the districts
are within close proximity of country borders of Mozambique and Swaziland. The
Nkangala District, henceforth referred to as NDM is centered around the Belfast,
Middleburg, Witbank through to Pretoria as two municipalities in the District are located
within a 60kms radius of Pretoria (refer to Map: 1 in the next page).

3
Map: 1 Mpumalanga Province of South Africa (MP). Source: http://www.rainbow.com, 2014.

The NDM of the Province, which is the focus of this study, is comprised of six (06) local
municipalities, namely; eMalahleni, eMakhazeni, Steve Tshwete, Thembisile Hani, Dr. J.S.
Moroka and Victor Khanye, (refer to Map:2 in the next page) which provides a graphic
illustration of the NDM and the municipalities under study . These geographic
presentations by way of maps are not only meant to provide background information of the
area under study but are also meant to serve as reference points throughout the study. It
is also important to highlight that Witbank is also referred to as Emalahleni, Belfast as
EMakhazeni.

4
Map: 2 Nkangala District Municipality (NDM) and municipalities under its jurisdiction, source:
http://ndm.gov.za.2014.

The NDM is known as South Africa’s energy hub and stands as the largest coal supplier in
the country as the district is a high-capacity mining area, boosting some of the big mines
internationally, for example, BHP Billiton, Anglo-American, Xstrata, and others.
Accordingly, the district’s economy is dominated by electricity, manufacturing and mining.
These sectors are followed by community services, trade, finance, transport, agriculture
and construction. The relatively large economies of Steve Tshwete (Middelburg) and
Emalahleni (Witbank) which are two big municipalities under the jurisdiction of NDM
sustain the economy of the District with a heavy reliance on the mining and steel
manufacturing industries (NDM profile on www.ndm.gov.za, 2011). Furthermore, NDM is
considered one of the largest in the province by geographical demographics and
population.

After the South African local government elections on the18th May 2011, a new political
leadership was ushered into different municipalities. This study looks particularly into the
political and administrative decision-making and leadership positions that were allocated

5
to women at the time. In the context of municipalities, key strategic and influential political
decision-making and leadership positions are that of the Executive Mayors, Speakers,
Chief Whips as well as Members of the Mayoral Committee. Of the six local municipalities
under the NDM, deployment of political leadership in, for example executive mayors’
positions as political heads, can generally be seen as equitable with three women and four
men as executive mayors. This includes the district (NDM) itself as revealed study of the
different documents and websites from the respective municipalities.

The table below shows gender representations with positions and the actual incumbents
and their accompanying gender (Table: 1 below). It is, however, important to note that
there are rapid changes on these positions as some are acting in them (positions) and the
final appointment would, in most instances, change the representation.

Municipality Executive Speaker Chief Municipal Members of Executive

Mayor Whip Manager the Mayoral Managers/
Committee Directors

NDM Male Male Female Male 3males 2males

3females 2females

eMalahleni Female Female Male Male 3males 3Males1Female

3females

eMakhazeni Male Male Female Female 2females 3males

1male 2females

Steve Tshwete Male Male Female Male 3males 1male

3females 3females

Thembisile Male Male Male Male 3females 3males

Hani
3males 1female

Dr JS Moroka Female Male Male Male 3males

2females

Victor Khanye Female Male Male Female 2females 2females

1male 2males

Table 1: NDM and feeder municipalities decision-making and leadership positions by gender breakdown. Sources: NDM
municipalities’ documents and websites, confirmed through researcher’s field visits and interviews.

6
In some municipalities, gender representation appears to be equitable. It however,
remains an area of keen investigation, to find out how this assumedly gender
representation plays itself out in the actual decision-making processes. Thus a closer
scrutiny into gender dynamics, which are in most instances saliently hidden behind and
can only, be revealed through robust research into some of the institutional procedures,
process and other such related aspects. That for instance, exploring whether or not equal
gender representation is not another compliance undertaking, which translates to being
given “responsibility without authority” as (Gasa, 2002) contends. CGE (2009) states that,
whilst institutional mechanisms and strategies for ensuring gender equality have become
stronger and more coordinated over the years, there is a need for rigorous interventions
towards strengthening substantive women’s participation.

Municipal managers were also appointed as heads of administration with the advent of the
local government dispensation of May 2011. They serve as the ultimate accounting officer
as referred to in all the legislative prescripts in local government. The researcher is aware
of the fact that at the beginning of this study (June 2012), out of the six municipalities
under NDM, only one municipality (Victor Khanye) had appointed a female Municipal
Manager (table.1) above. As the study progressed (March 2014), the number of female
Municipal Managers increased as eMakhazeni and the NDM itself appointed female
Municipal Managers after the former male incumbents had completed respective terms of
office. These new appointments change the numbers to three (03) female Municipal
Managers and four (04) male Municipal Managers in all seven (07) municipalities
(including the NDM). This marks an almost equitable number of women at this level of
leadership. In order to demonstrate how this gender representation rapidly changed, one
female municipal manager had resigned at the completion of this study (2014).
Notwithstanding the fact that as mentioned earlier in the study, political offices such as
executive mayors, speakers and chief whips are also strategic and influential with regard
to shaping the development agenda and direction of these institutions. The rapid changes
in gender representation, especially with regard to women, either due to resignation other
reasons, are amongst the gender dynamics this study sort to investigate against the
backdrop of the policy and legislative frameworks and provisions.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This study argues that there is a disjuncture between the policy and legislative
environment, and the real, practical, day-to-day experiences with regard to gender
7
transformation at the local sphere of government. In the case of NDM as the focus in this
study, the research study further contends that in view of the fact that the district is
predominantly rural and has a deep cultural character of majority Ndebele, followed by
Swati, Pedi and Zulu, these cultures could spill over into local government institutions to
shape and inform communally-held, deep-rooted patriarchal gender stereotypes, values
and norms influenced by perceptions of women’s insubordinate position and men’s
superiority in society. Local government, as the sphere of government closest to the
people is inclined, by its location, to filter and entrench these patriarchal values and norms
in the core components of the institutions, those are, as alluded in (Sadler, 1996) the
structure, systems, procedures and processes as well as the culture. More so as (Sadler,
1996) maintains that the workplace is a social institution and a reflection of the
communities and society it operates in. Sadler further states that human beings bring their
whole selves to work. In other words, they shape and inform the workplace life and ethos.
Bekker (1996) believes that cultural values strongly influence the nature of relationships in
organisation and consequent organisational life.

The study interprets the above statements in (Sadler, 1996) and (Bekker, 1996) to mean
that commonly-held gender attitudes, beliefs, and related stereotypes are most likely to be
intrinsically entrenched as part of the workplace life and ethos. This study, therefore,
argues that the above-mentioned patriarchal notions, norms and values could serve as a
barrier for women’s entry into decision-making and leadership positions. Ely and
Meyerson (2000) highlights the fact that because most cultures and traditions are
patriarchal, (created by and for men), practices within organisations tend to reflect and
support men’s experiences and life situations. Rutherford (2001) maintains that these
cultures constitute “closing-off areas” for women managers. As argued in Bekker (1996),
“organisational culture poses one of the most difficult and complex challenges with which
local government managers will have to deal with in managing transformation”. Especially
because organisational cultures breeds and are closely intertwined to organisational
behaviours, confirming the fact that organisations influences and are influenced by
individual within it as (Griffin, 2010) argues. This study therefore explores the extent to
which women’s presence advances the women empowerment ideals. In cases where
women are sufficiently represented at decision-making and leadership positions, attention
has to be put on how they influence decisions and related processes to the benefit of the
broader women’s cadreship. This research attempts to establish the debates on whether
or not women take advantage of the empowerment opportunities presented to them and or
8
those they find themselves in and use those for accelerating their personal and
professional development as well as empower other women.

1.4 AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to gain an in-depth understanding into gender dynamics which
promote or retard full participation of women in decision-making and leadership positions
within the local government level in the NDM.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study, albeit focusing only on the NDM, are thus to:

• analyse the gender representation of women in leadership positions in the NDM

and how that translates to women’s authority and influence in decision-making
platforms and forums at these institutions

• analyse the impact of gender dynamics such as patriarchal values and stereotypes,
attitudes and perceptions influence cultural norms and attitudes as well as
disparities in access to resources between women and men,

• determine gender equality or inequality in the participation of women and men in

decision-making and leadership.

• assess institutional mechanisms and strategies put in place to encourage and

support women’s active participation, that is, the level of institutional readiness with
regard to practices, policies and structures that support women’s access to
decision-making and leadership positions.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study poses some critical questions in order to obtain an in-depth understanding of
the gender dynamics which are at play in the local government workplace (municipalities),
dynamics which shape the extent and nature of women’s participation in decision-making
and leadership positions. Those critical questions that will guide the research are:

• From a gender perspective, what is the nature of women’s participation in local

government at the level of senior and executive management?

9
 • What are the social, cultural, economic and political dimensions of these gender
dynamics? For example, male dominance, patriarchal stereotypes, attitudes and
perceptions that shape and inform the extent and level of women’s participation in
general as stated by (Richardson and Robinson, 2008).

• How are such dynamics changing overtime (if they have been changing) within the
context of the existing institutional and legislative frameworks established to
harness and promote women’s participation? And how do these changes influence
women’s participation?

• What is the nature and attitudes of women in leadership as far as empowering

other women to ensure maturity and sustainability of women’s participation into the
future?

1. 7 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

As stated by Gasa (2002), whatever rights and legal protection, including national and
international conventions and declarations with respect to upholding women’s
empowerment and gender equality, vulnerability of women and their positions in society
makes it difficult for them to make their own choices and decisions including those of
taking leadership roles and responsibilities in institutions such as those of local
government. The researcher contends that the struggle for gender transformation within
these institutions remains a mammoth undertaking because gender stereotypes have
been systematically entrenched and further legitimised by some institutional policies,
procedures and practices.

An important reality is that services offered by this sphere of government mostly affect
majority of women in the majority. Issues of poverty, unemployment, basic services such
as access to water, electricity, roads and related development infrastructure are brought to
reality at this sphere of government. Whilst these, as Gasa (2002), argues, are not a
preserve for women, the burden of these socially, economically is more severe on women
than it is on men because of the social construction of the gender roles and
responsibilities. It is against this backdrop that local government remains the most
important vehicle for service delivery in communities, the custodian of the delivery of basic
services that directly impact on the lives of mainly women. Consequently, local
government presents a critical platform for women to influence and shape these

10
development decisions. One of the strategic ways that this could be achieved is through
women’s active participation in decision-making and leadership positions in this sphere of
government. However, there is a perception that women’s movement into the higher
echelons of decision-making and leadership in local government is marred with a myriad
of gendered challenges such traditionally-held discriminatory attitudes and behaviours
towards women as leaders. Further that the environment is not as receptive as promoted
by available South African and world policy and legislative frameworks as institutions and
organisations are battling to ensure effective implementation of these frameworks.

The state of readiness of all institutions and organisations to receive women as equal co-
workers has received attention in the study. The occupation of decision-making and
leadership positions by women in a previously formalised patriarchal set-up
(Kabeer,2003), such as local government, remains and will be amongst the critical areas
of discussion and focus in this study. It is therefore important to understand the underlying
factors with the hope that the findings of the study will positively contribute towards future
solutions.

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study is of significance largely in the context of the constitutionally entrenched and
nationally adopted developmental goal of women’s empowerment and gender equality
(Goal 3 of the Millennium Development Goals), and the subsequent commitment that the
country has made at regional level Southern African Developing Communities (SADC) and
internationally through critical protocols and declarations. Notwithstanding the fact that
women’s empowerment is the third Millennium Development Goal as espoused in the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of 2020 (Kabeer, 2003). In some of these
international commitments, declarations and protocols, the country has committed
percentages of women’s representation. The representation of women in government
decision-making and leadership positions, including local government is one of those
areas that the South African government has pledged commitment to.

The study therefore is significant in that it will contribute (albeit in a localised context)
towards an evaluation of the extent to which the country is achieving its constitutionally
entrenched and nationally adopted development goal of women’s empowerment and
gender equality, with specific reference to local government. Further, the study will assess
the effectiveness of policy and legislation on the actual implementation. Lastly the study

11
will explore the lived experiences and challenges that hinders if any, the full realisation of
gender equality. In a way the study will reveal the strengths and the weakness on the
delivery of the country’s commitments made in terms of international conventions such as
CEDAW and the SADC Gender Protocol as outlined in (1.1 of this study). The study
should be useful to policy makers in terms of identifying existing gaps in terms of policy
design and implementation on matters of women’s empowerment and gender equality.
Whilst it would be significant to investigate gender transformation in government as a
whole, the study will limit itself to local government and more specifically, NDM.

1.9 RESEARCH, METHODOLOGY AND RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

The design of the study is qualitative. Holliday (2007) states that qualitative research
addresses qualitative areas in social life, such as broader social perceptions, (gendered
perceptions for this study) of women in leadership. Qualitative research as Holliday
contends, attempts to investigate uncontrollable social variables instead of reducing their
effect. The study discusses gender issues and would be premised on feminist views.
Alvesson and Billing (2009) and Ribbens and Edwards (1998) argue that there are often
dilemmas confronting feminist qualitative research and those are among others,
researching in an environment where theoretical, conceptual and formal traditions are
predominantly public and male-dominated which is the case with this study. The study is
also based on, to some extent, principles of evolving critical theory and research as
reflected by (Kincheloe and McLaren in Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). They argue that with
evolving criticality entails “…detectives of new theoretical insights, perpetually searching
for new and interconnected ways of understanding power and oppression and the way
they shape everyday life and human experience”. It, therefore, means that an analysis of
such a complex phenomenon as gender dynamics cannot be easily and effectively
achieved through a quantitative study which pre-empts the kind of variables which
constitute gender dynamics. Furthermore, analysing gender dynamics in the context of an
organisation such as local government has its own intricacies and complexities which may
not be readily captured by numerical methods. For instance, gender dynamics are more
salient, usually hidden behind individuals’ attitudes, behaviours and practices in
organisations. Thus, a more qualitative approach which is deeply rooted in induction would
be more appropriate.

12
1.9.1 RESEARCH POPULATION

The population of this study is women in leadership positions within local government thus
make it mainly bias towards women. The inclusion of men would help in the understanding
of the gender dynamics which, by implication, would probe into men’s attitudes, views and
perceptions of women in decision-making and leadership positions. It is also premised on
the notion that “gender “refers to both women and men. The primary population of the
study consists of women and men in decision-making and leadership positions in the
NDM, Mpumalanga. The researcher also believes that women would, in their reflections,
refer to their male counterparts. Engaging men would serve to validate data collected from
the women participants and/or bring a new dimension that would serve to inform future
women’s empowerment and gender equality discourse and to strengthen related
interventions. The population consists of at least between 70-80 research participants
from the administration and political leadership, namely, the Municipal Managers who are
Heads of Administration and the ultimate custodians of administration, their Executive
Directors who are part of the municipalities’ Executive Management on the officials
component and the Mayors and/or MMCs who are the political leadership and custodians
of the political oversight function.

1.9.2 RESEARCH SAMPLE

For the purpose of locating the study’s debate within a broader context of municipal
functioning, the administrative and the political input is vital. The interdependence thereof
goes a long way in informing and shaping key management and operational decisions and
priorities. The research sample comprised of purposive sampling of at least between 70 to
80 women and men in political and administrative decision-making and leadership
positions in municipalities. Those ranged from councilors serving as Executive Mayors,
Speakers, and Chief Whips or as Members of the Mayoral Committees (MMCs) and
Directors and/or Managers in the respective municipalities in NDM to ensure that a much
more comprehensive account of the gendered voices, views and opinions are captured.

Denzin & Lincoln (2000) maintain that in qualitative research where purposive sampling is
used, the researcher must explain the criteria used for selection. To this effect, the
explanation for the selected sample is based on the fact that of the municipalities under
study, some are considered smaller and some bigger. Some of the distinguishing features,
as detailed in the annual reports, are for example in the case of eMalahleni, which has 34

13
wards, 64 councillors, six (06) members of the mayoral committee, five (05) administrative
directorates, five (05) executive directors, and over a thousand (1000) employees. On the
contrary, Victor Khanye has nine (09) wards, eighteen (18) councilors, three members of
the mayoral committee, three administrative directorates, three executive directors and
just over a hundred (100) employees.

The breakdown of the sample, drawn from all the municipalities under the NDM
jurisdiction, is as follows;

Municipality Executive Speaker Chief Members of Municipal Directors Totals

Mayor Whip the Mayoral Manager
Committee

Dr JS 01 01 01 03 01 03 10
Moroka

eMalahleni 01 01 01 06 01 05 15

eMakhazeni 01 01 01 03 01 03 10

Steve 01 01 01 04 01 04 12
Tshwete

Thembisile 01 01 01 03 01 03 10
Hani

Victor 01 01 01 03 01 03 10
Khanye

NDM 01 01 01 05 01 03 12

Table:2 Research sample by respective municipalities’ composition (numbers representation) as

gathered by the researcher during initial field visits to respective municipalities.

1.9.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

The research collected data using the following methods: document analysis, face-to-face
individual and group interviews and observations. The methods combined resulted in
triangulation, which is useful for validation of findings to improve validity, reliability and
authenticity of the study as important ethical considerations. A brief description of each of
the methods is provided herewith:

14
Secondary sources

The researcher will conduct document analysis. The documents that were used are the
municipalities’ IDP document as the main master plan with communities’ inputs, annual
reports, spatial development frameworks, gender policies and related such publications,
most of which are readily available on the various municipalities’ websites as required by
legislation.

Primary sources

• Individual face to face as well as group interviews with the Municipal Managers and
some councilors that serves as Members of the Mayoral Committee in respective
municipalities using interview schedules

• Observations of the crucial municipal proceedings and forums such the Council
sitting, the IDP and Budget Indabas, the Mayoral Imbizos (Outreach Programmes),
and related others

As indicated above, characteristics of these municipalities under study vary especially with
regard to numbers. Some municipalities are small and consequently the constitution of the
Council and councillors is relatively small and that goes to the administrative functions
wherein directorates would be equally small. In contrast, some municipalities are larger
and so is the constitution of the Council and councilors as well as the administrative
component. For this reason, the researcher interviewed as many of the target population
as possible in small municipalities to optimise data collection and as many of the target
population as possible in the larger municipalities so as to make-up for the smaller ones
and for validation purposes. In this case the interviews were qualitative in-depth interviews
(Kvale, 2007).

Another method of data collection was non-participant observation. The researcher visited
several municipalities and observe some critical meetings such as the mayoral community
outreach (imbizos), the Council sittings, the IDP and Budget Indabas. These are meetings
wherein the political and administration interface with the community and other important
stakeholders such as business, churches.

The combination of data collection methods make for triangulation in an attempt to obtain
an in-depth understanding of the phenomena that is under investigation (Denzin and

15
Lincoln, 2000). The advantage of triangulation is mainly that of optimising validity and
reliability of the data collected in the study.

1.9.4 DATA ANALYSIS

As indicated in (Flick, 2007), the researcher applied qualitative data analysis which is as
((Marshall and Rossman, 2006) “a search for general statements about relationships and
underlying themes; it builds grounded theory.” The analysis was done through coding and
categorisation by searching relevant parts of data, analysing and comparing these with
other data and subsequently naming and classifying them to obtain a structure that
assisted in providing “…a comprehensive understanding of the issue” as stated in (Flick,
2007).Furthermore, the study also applied document analysis using extensive literature
comparisons in an effort to avoid over-generalisation. Marshall and Rossman (2006)
emphasises that constant comparative data analysis helps in the development of
grounded theories on particular phenomena. That is what is referred to by (Welman and
Kruger, 2001) as content analysis. Premised on this guidance, the study ensured
preserving data and meanings and combining the transcripts with preliminary analysis for
increased data efficiency (Marshall and Rossman, 2006).

1.10 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS

Culture: the things people in believe in and the way they do them as acquired and
learned from the environment they grow up in. Those include language, beliefs, attitudes,
norms and values (Le Compte and Schensul, 2010)

Commission on Gender Equality (CGE): an established non-aligned constitutional

institution tasked to promote respect for, advance and promote gender equality (RSA
Constitution, 1996 and CGE, 2011 - 2014)

Feminism: challenges, counteracts or changes the status quo which disadvantages or

devalues women (Chafez in Alvesson and Billing, 2009)

Gender: Is about what is socially constructed and considered to be male or masculine and
what is considered to be female or feminine (Emmott in Porter, Smyth and Sweetman,
1999)

Gender Bias: refers to any act that advantages or perpetuates an existing advantage of
one gender over the other (Bennett,2006)

16
Gendered Division of Labour: presumes that social roles are differentiated along the
lines of sex and/or gender. For example, certain roles, responsibilities and tasks are seen
as men’s work and others are seen as women’s work. (Hollows, 2008)

Gender Dynamics: refers to the gender inequalities caused by a myriad of structural and
institutional discriminatory and oppressive attitudes, beliefs, values, norms and practices
resulting in detrimental developmental impact on one sex over the other (MacDonald,
Sprenger and Dubel, 1997)

Gender Discrimination: means treating a person or a group of persons differently or

failing to recognise material differences in a manner that ensures that women and men
benefit equitably from the available resources and opportunities (CGE, 2009)

Gender Equality: refers to the equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms by women and
men including de jure and de facto equality and also equality of outcomes between
women and men. It entails the absence of direct or indirect unfair discrimination on the
basis of gender (Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act –
PEPUDA, 2000)

Gender Identities: refers to understanding people’s experience at work, how their

subjectivities are being shaped and how gender divisions and other gendered phenomena
in organisations are formed (Alvesson and Billing, 2009)

Gender Mainstreaming: is a deliberate action of integrating gender equality

considerations in all policy, laws, plans, programmes, administrative and financial
activities, organisational procedures, processes and decision-making, in order to effect
profound organisational and ultimately, societal transformation (CGE,2009)

Gender responsiveness: is the equal relevance to or ability to address the needs of

women and men (Itzin and Newman, 1995)

Glass-ceiling: An invisible upper limit in organisations above which it is difficult or

impossible for women to rise in the ranks, the informal barrier that keeps women out of the
upper management echelons in organisations (Lewis, 2014)

Glass-cliff: refers to instances where women are more likely to rise to positions of
organizational leadership in times of crisis OR (Ryan, 2005 and Bruckmuller, 2010)

17
Local Government: a decentralised, representative institution with general and specific
devolved upon it and delegated to it by the national or provincial government, in respect of
a restricted geographical area within a nation or state, and in the exercise of which it is
locally responsible and may to a certain degree act autonomously (van der Walt, 2007)

Leadership: is a process used by an individual to influence group members towards the

achievement of group goals in which the group members view the influence as legitimate
(Howell and Cstley, 2006)

Masculinity: understood to be the values, experiences and meanings that are culturally
interpreted as masculine and typical feel natural to or ascribed to men in a particular
cultural context (Alvesson and Billing, 2009)

Municipality(ies): the organisational units of local government (van der Walt, 2007)

National Gender Machinery: is the network of coordinated structures within and outside
government which operate cooperatively in facilitating political, social, economic and other
forms of transformation to dismantle systemic gender inequality and promote equality
between women and men (CGE, 2009)

Women’s Empowerment: are the positive measures that promote equality between
women and men with regard to personal autonomy, access to and control over resources,
participation in decision-making and enjoyment of all human rights and freedoms (National
Policy Guidelines on Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equality, 2000).

1.11 DELIMITATIONS

As (O’Leary, 2004) cautions, all aspects of the research process need to be considered in
light of the assumptions and biases of the researcher. This is indeed true for this study
and should be mentioned as a possible delimitation. The researcher is the Director:
Administration and Resources Management at eMalahleni Local Municipality in the NDM
and was, during the period of research of this study, Acting Municipal Manager at the
same municipality for approximately ten months. This makes her one of those women in
decision-making and leadership positions which is the focus of the study. Her exposure,
knowledge and experience might feature some assumptions (rightly or wrongly) and
biases and would thus be crucial to ensure that her judgments are suspended as best as
possible (O’Leary, 2004). At the same time it is important to acknowledge the fact that this
study is a human and social science research study. O’Leary (2004) further argues that
18
with social science, the society is under the microscope and the researcher is a product, I
add, also a part of that very society. In which case then, the ability to be objective
becomes problematic because the researcher is value-bound and the research involves
analysis of particular value systems (O’Leary, 2004).

1.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Permission for participation of all respondents was secured through the submission of
formal letters of requests to the NDM (see addendum: 1) as the coordinating municipality
so as to ensure informed consent (Gubrium & Holstein, 2002). Further, all respondents
participated voluntarily with the understanding that all information gathered was to be held
in confidence. The identity of respondents was protected throughout the study. As
(O’Leary, 2004) highlights, considerable attention will be given to sensitivity to race, class,
culture and gender (especially because both women and men) were drawn in data
collection. The researcher was also cautious of “hearing the dominant voice” as (O’Leary,
2004) warns. Whilst women in decision-making and leadership positions were the main
focus, the men in the same position were considered as an important variable. The
research had to guard against dichotomisation and double standards as the said focus of
study can easily fall on that trap. Importantly, the researcher aimed at respecting language
as a powerful tool of communicating the required information. Whilst English was used as
the medium of communication, participants were allowed to reflect thoughts or
interpretations in languages they felt best capture their contributions. It was the duty of the
researcher to find appropriate translation if the language used in the data collection
process was outside her comprehension. Lastly, the researcher also objectively drew from
her own views, opinions and experiences emanating from the fact that she serves a
woman in decision-making and leadership in a municipality which will also be studied as a
municipality under the NDM jurisdiction. For this reason, the researcher, for the sake of
not compromising the validity, reliability and authenticity of the study, excluded
observations and relied on information gathered through interviews and documents study
in eMalahleni. This means taking into consideration a caution by (Welman and Kruger,
2001:185) about the “possible dilemma” between the roles of the participant and the
observer and becoming engrossed in one over the other.

19
1.13 SUMMARY

In summary, this study is an attempt to unpack the meaning of the positive and negative
gender dynamics, premising it on a feminist perspective. Feminists’ viewpoint argues that,
positive gender dynamics are be those that advance the empowerment of women and
negative are those that impede such advancement and should be understood as such
throughout this study. The fundamental issue is to explain some of the aspects that
continue to serve as barriers. These are often, salient and hidden but severely hindering
women’s empowerment and gender equality. Gender equality is mentioned in South Africa
as one of the cornerstones of our constitutional democracy (Act 106, 1996). Hence as
argued in (Perrons, 2005), that gender equality broadly forms an integral part of
government priority agenda as opposed to a narrow feminist driven agenda and demand.
The study is therefore conceptually grounded on the broader transformation imperatives,
emphasising women’s empowerment and gender equality for gender transformation, as
expressed through governments’ policies and programmes through to structural
interventions (Beall, 2005).

1.14 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS

Chapter One presents the background and context of the study. The brief background
entails gender in local government as well as some geographical and socio-economic
information of the NDM, the municipal district under study. The chapter further articulates
the problem statement, further detailing the study’s aim, objectives, rationale, significance
and the main questions of the study. The chapter also provides an outline of definition of
key concepts. Chapter Two is the literature review that serves to theoretically ground the
study and some of the eminent arguments that would guide the study. Further, the review
provides a detailed account of gender issues in South Africa in the context of women in
leadership and management. It explains the theoretical framework which guides the study
and describes the evidence from a number of studies on issues of gender dynamics in the
workplace. Finally it identifies gaps in the literature and uses these to locate the study.
Chapter Three deliberates of the research methodology thereby explaining which
methodology has been adopted for this research study and the motivation thereof. The
chapter further outlines the research population and associated methods and instruments
for data collection and analysis as well as ethical considerations. Chapter Four consists of
an in-depth critical analysis and synthesis as revealed by the data collected in the
research and Chapter Five concludes the research with recommendations, key areas for
20
women’s empowerment and gender equality programmes’ implementation and identified
areas for future research studies.

21
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The literature review attempts to locate the current situation with regards to women’s
participation within some gendered theories that help with the unpacking and
understanding of gender dynamics. These gender dynamics are among others, sexuality,
patriarchal domination, gender stereotypes. The review will broadly explore the South
African gender transformation agenda, but more specifically in local government with
regard to legislative framework and the implementation thereof. The study, and
consequently the literature review, is grounded on a feminists’ viewpoint with regard to
women’s inclusion and exclusion from institutions and positions of power. It critically
reflects on what is pointed out in (Lovenduski, 2005), that is, whether the subsequent
inclusion and presence provides for a means of articulating women’s perspective. Perhaps
pointing to the argument in (Haywood and Mac an Ghaill, 2003) that employment is not
neutral but is gendered. This chapter will attempt to unpack the debate on women’s
inclusion and exclusion in positions of power in the workplace. It also reflects on issues of
socio-cultural and economic backgrounds that (pre)determine the roles and
responsibilities of women and men in society. It further taps into the historical background
of local government as traditionally male-dominated environments (Lovenduski, 2005).

Evolving roles of culture, political power, participation, for example, in shaping the nature
and extent of women’s participation in this “man’s world” with particular emphasis on
decision-making and leadership positions in local government institutions is also explored
(Haywood and Mac an Ghaill, 2003). It therefore situates gender inequalities in their
nature, essence and multi-dimensionality by making a point through demonstrating that
gender inequalities cannot be reduced to some single and universally agreed set of
priorities (Percy-Smith, 2000).

Baker and LeTendre (2005) state that, institutions are active creators of cognitive realities
through rules, roles, and meanings and these in turn influences individual and
organisational behaviours. Griffin and Moorhead (2010) argue that organisations influence
and are influenced by the individuals and that these individuals-organisations influences
are in turn relationships that ultimately shape the adoption of a variety of roles and/or
identities. The study argues that by implication, individuals’ socially-inherited gendered
realities are transferred into institutions. That is, institutions mirror the societies within

22
which it operates. These discussions are based on the national, regional and international
policies and legislative frameworks on women’s empowerment and gender equality. It is
the reason for this study to begin with the policy and legislative provisions as they give a
legal backing of all debates and discussions that follow.

2.2 AN OVERVIEW:NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS

ON WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT AND GENDER EQUALITY

In the South African post-democracy era, the government’s efforts towards advancing
women’s empowerment and gender equality has been heralded as a beacon of good
practice across the world (CGE,2011). This is because of the strong political will
demonstrated by the establishment of institutions such as the CGE, the Office on the
Status of Women (OSW) located in the presidency and other institutional components,
referred to as the national gender machinery. These institutions, the national gender
machinery have been established to address the advancement of women’s empowerment
and gender equality. Another step in the advancement of women’s empowerment and
gender equality is that of the adoption and enactment of important policies and legislation.
Among those are, (the National policy guidelines on women’s empowerment and gender
equality, 2000), the (Local Gender Policy Framework, 2006) the (Employment Equity Act,
1996) with the affirmative action policy and most recently the (Women’s Empowerment
and Gender Equality Bill, 2011) which is currently in the public participation phase. In the
event that this Bill is passed into Law as an Act, it would detail punitive sanctions to be
faced by any private or public body failing to comply with prohibitions on gender
discrimination. It would also make affirmative action mandatory for employers as a
strategy to achieve gender equality.

South Africa has acceded to and ratified several other regional and international
conventions and declarations such as the Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA, 1995), the
SADC Declaration on Gender and Development ratified in 1997 and amended in 2008,
referred to as the (SADC Addendum,1997 and 2008 as amended). The SADC Addendum,
as amended, commits all member states to ensuring “the equal representation of women
and men in the decision making of member states and SADC structures at all levels, and
binding the country to attain the adopted “50/50” gender parity principle and thus the
country’s pressure to comply. In the protocol, South Africa and the other SADC countries
have committed to 50 % of the representation of women in management and decision-
making by the year 2012. Coincidentally, the research for this study commenced in the
23
same year (2012).South Africa’s progress on this regional compliance is an area of
interest which should be explored. The said commitment is applicable across all spheres
and sectors including local government.

The South African Local Government is constitutionally bound by and operates under this
richly resourced institutional and legislative framework. However, the reality of women’s
experience in South Africa, especially at local government level, has been much more
complex and casts doubt on the country’s celebrated gender achievements (Gasela,
2007). The said complexities are what are referred in this study as gender dynamics that
exist at this level of government. Haywood and Mac an Ghaill (2003) regard these as
“hidden assumptions” that shape the gendered organisation of reproduction and
production.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) recognises the right to equal access
of men and women to power, decision-making and leadership at all levels as a necessary
precondition for proper functioning of democracy (UDHR,). Since the BPFA was adopted
in 1995, the global average for women’s participation in national politics has gradually
increased from 11.3 per cent to almost 17 per cent in 2006. Nineteen countries, half of
them in developing countries, have met the 30% target set in Beijing (Sharma, 2012). The
study explores the increase in women’s participation, and whether or not it translates into
effective gendered influence over institutional policies, procedures, culture and so forth. It
furthermore attempts to reveal whether or not institutions such as local government have
positively embraced the increase in women’s participation with its successes and
challenges.

2.3 A FEMINIST VIEWPOINT: THE STUDY IN CONTEXT

The study is premised on feminist theoretical views and therefore the analysis of data will
be informed and shaped by this viewpoint. This position has also informed the study’s data
analysis processes. The researcher is black middle-aged female, and is affiliated to the
feminist movement by virtue of her passion and quest for the emancipation of women from
all forms of oppression, including in the workplace. She holds a senior management
position at eMalahleni Local Municipality as the Director: Administration and Resources
Management after an eleven (11) months stint as a Municipal Manager in the same
municipality. The researcher is therefore, not entirely divorced from the issues that the
research focuses on. This includes the study’s frame of reference, namely; women in

24
decision-making and leadership positions within local government. This background
information is important. Bailey, Leo-Rhynie and Morris (2000) argue that the feminist
analysis goes beyond the researcher being an objective, non-aligned voice. It places the
researcher in the same critical plane as the overt subject matter, hereby recovering the
entire research process for scrutiny in the research results. Bailey, et.al(2000) further
contend that the class, race, culture and gender assumptions, beliefs and behaviours of
the researcher must be placed within the frame of the picture the researcher is attempting
to paint. Emphasis with this kind of research is that the researcher should not pretend to
be neutral and “invisible and thus seek to be entirely objective as though that will
compromise the research results. Instead, the researcher should make such an admission
that is, the researcher’s background providing for a critical analysis (Bennett, 2006). The
background assists in the questions that frame the research and should in no way
manipulate both responses and the findings.

2.3.1 AN OVERVIEW FEMINIST AND GENDER PERSPECTIVES

Whilst there are numerous definitions of feminism, the research study aligns more with the
definition provided in (Bennett, 2006) that feminism “ is the political theory and practice to
free all women irrespective of colour, race, class, education, status, …” An important
assertion emanating from this definition is that feminism has the emancipation of women
as a priority on its agenda. Flowing from that is the acknowledgement that women are
different in their diversity. This diversity difference as pointed out is fundamental to
feminism, and important in that as (Bennett, 2006) states, the “…the articulation of
difference leads to a greater understanding, better coalitions, and a more stronger unified
but not unitary category of women.” Feminism should celebrate and embrace women’s
diversity and use that to strengthen its interventions.

There are indeed different types of feminists and feminist theories. For the purpose of this
study, the post-modernist feminists’ theory outlined in (Bailey, et.al, 2000) is adopted. The
post-modernist feminist theory supports the investigation of women’s experiences and
knowledge-base as the basis for creating new feminist-informed knowledge and thus
appreciates and acknowledges women’s multiple experiences and realities (Bailey, et.al,
2000). It is with contextualising the theory in this study that there will be possible to
translate and tap into the experiences and realities of women in decision-making and
leadership positions in local government by documenting those and contribute to building
new feminist-informed knowledge in this area of women’s development. Feminism, as a
25
women’s movement seeks in its way, to advance the agenda for equality between women
and men. The movement is driven by the quest to ensure that women can equally and
equitably benefit from the broader sustainable development agenda, its processes,
opportunities and resources. It is against this background that issues of gender
discrimination and (in) equality surface. That creates a need to dig deeper into
understanding what shapes and/or informs these gender discrimination and (in) -
equalities across the different spheres of life including the workplace for this study.

2.3.2 FEMINISM AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE WOMEN’S AGENDA AND VOICES

Studies such as this one, is an attempt at ensuring that women’s issues are part of the
development agenda and that their voices are heard. It is an effort directed at locating the
gender discourse in the broader development debates and discussions. The study is also
an acknowledgement of the contributions of the feminist movement for successfully laying
a foundation that brought women’s issues to the fore. Feminism focuses on women's
equality and rights within society (Staggenborg in Levitt, 2010) and (Dahlerup, 2010). It
would have been difficult to advance women’s agenda, voices and concerns “…without
the backing of the strong new feminist movement of the 1970s and 1980s, it would not
have been possible to break through the walls of male tradition …” (Dahlerup, 2010). It is
with this understanding that the prominence and focus on women’s empowerment and
gender equality emanates from these earlier feminists’ struggles.

The struggle for gender equality traces its origins from feminism advocacy and has
evolved overtime. Levitt (2010) maintains that from a movement that aims to eradicate
gendered oppression and discrimination into the celebration of women. With development
and the need to align to changes in the environment, the neo-feminism emerged with an
improved approach to feminism which is to ensure continuity and sustainability in the
sense that neo-feminism invented a "watchdog" perspective to women’s issues as Levitt
refers. The focus leaned towards ensuring that emerging generations are granted the
same opportunities as women who have benefited from feminist movements. Neo-
feminists further promote pro-feminist agendas, including the support of women as public
leaders in society and my addition, influential public institutions such as local government
(Levitt, 2010). There should, therefore, be adequate consideration given to the
empowerment of women that would lead to empowerment to participate in the array of
opportunities across all spheres of life.

26
The researcher avers that because this study is more a policy input study. The appropriate
should be decision-makers and the objective should be that of integrating women’s
concerns’ and consideration into the mainstream development agenda (Oxford, 2002).
The quest for women’s empowerment brought about significant changes to the
approaches that were employed at the time. For instance, feminists had advocated for the
Women in Development (WID) which focused narrowly on women’s issues. They moved
onto the Women and Development (WAD) that advocated for women’s development. And
then moved onto the more robust, broader approach informed by transformation
imperatives and that is the Gender and Development (GAD) approach that not only
focuses on women but on both women and men. The emphasis of GAD is the need for a
paradigm shift wherein men also takes part in the quest of gender transformation. A brief
discussion on these approaches would be valuable in order to give background to the
evolution of the struggle for women’s empowerment and gender equality for gender
transformation.

2.3.3 A PARADIGM SHIFT: FROM WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT (WID) TO GENDER

(GAD)

There is truth in the contestation by feminist scholars such as Debusscher & der Vleuten
(2012) is that the narrow focus on women in the WID approach, the “add women and stir”
approach as they refer to it, has proven to be ineffective overtime. That is the reason they
state the need for an improvement in intervention that came with the GAD approach and
promised to fast-track gender transformation. Another credit for the GAD approach is that
the approach also embraced the gender mainstreaming strategy. Further it is considered
innovative as it focused on gender without compromising the centrality of women as the
main subject and instead recognised and affirmed the importance of improving women’s
status through an in-depth analysis of the relations between women and men
(Subrahmanian, 2007). The former approach (WID) as argued in Debusscher and der
Vleuten (2012) ignored underlying societal problems, such as women’s time poverty,
imbalanced and unequal gender relations and the socially ascribed gendered roles and
responsibilities.

Drawing from the preceding discussions the need to change the women’s empowerment
and gender transformation approach to the GAD approach with its inherent gender
mainstreaming strategy. Gender mainstreaming would widen the scope from add-on,
small-scale projects for women. It would extend to the integration of a gender equality
27
perspective into all policies, programmes and interventions (Johnsson-Latham, 2010).
Gender mainstreaming strategy follows below. It is only mentioned here in the context of
GAD as the current preferred approach to women’s empowerment and gender equality.
Up to this point, it is clear that there is some kind of relation between feminism and
gender. Having provided an overview of feminism and some of its perspectives, the
researcher suggests that feminism has built itself overtime to be an institution. It is
opportune to also reflect on gender and the fact that it has occupied a major place in
development debates and discussion, which have made it an institution.

2.4 GENDER AS AN INSTITUTION

Baker and LeTendre(2005) agree that gender is an institution and that the shapes and
forms of the relationships among gender my addition, institutions and society, are not
static. They are ever-changing as determined by broader societal and economic
dynamics. This study draws from the assertion that in essence gender is an evolving
institution and what informs and shapes it evolves with times. Indicating that that gender is
an institution Baker and LeTendre (2005) further argue, gender has always been used as
a major defining characteristic across cultures, my addition, also a source of identity.
Gender remains a rich source of identity (Baker and LeTendre, 2005). It is rare that any
individual across cultures and nations would describe themselves outside their gender
realm. Unfortunately, the fact that the feminist movement has been viewed over time as a
women’s rights movement continuously challenging gender inequality has had a negative
impact on the term “gender”. It has become misconstrued in society that the term “gender”
is synonymous with women. It can only be because the term was used mainly by feminist
women activists and at the top of their agenda was the fight against gender discrimination
and inequality.

2.4.1 UNDERSTANDING GENDERED DISCRIMINATION AND INEQUALITIES

It is true that in most instances, exclusions are because of the traditionally-held patriarchal
dominant views such as those for example, those that perpetuate a view that women do
not belong to the public sphere. This view emanates from the hidden assumptions
between the public and the private sphere that somehow shape and inform the gendered
organisation of reproduction and production. These hidden assumptions are sometimes
not openly pronounced though they inherently allocate roles and responsibilities to women
and men, girls and boys(Haywood & Mac an Ghaill, 2003). It is these traditionally-held

28
stereotypes that has entrenched the unfounded gendered views of “the women’s place is
in the kitchen” thus effectively limiting and reducing women’s abilities and capacities to the
domestic sphere as stated in (Nkwana, 2011). In instances where women get into the
public sphere, they dominate occupations that extend their domestic roles and
responsibilities of caring and nurturing in the main such as teaching, nursing, and so forth.
Even where no written policies or laws exist to specifically exclude women, unwritten rules
operate that achieve the same goal (Justice Unity Dow, 2001).

The foundation of gender discrimination is a socio-economic exclusion, which is the

exclusion from a range of goods, services and activities which are widely considered to be
important for individual and collective fulfillment (Percy-Smith, 2000). Therefore an
argument raised in this instance is that women are first, by virtue of their gender, assigned
the duties of being domestic nurturers and care-givers. These social roles occupy a large
component of their existence in families and extended into the communities. In other
words, women are social principals across these spheres. However, society generally
expects women to perform these duties at no cost but where these duties starts to show
signs of potential income, then women are excluded. For example, the number of female
councilors decreased by 10% between the 2006 and the 2011 municipal elections which
signals considerable inequity (Barometer, 2013). Thus besides the fact that majority
women carry out community caring and nurturing duties on a daily basis. It is therefore
important to briefly discuss patriarchy and its influences on the societal expectations and
perceptions as it dominates discussion in this study, especially in so far as shaping and
informing women’s position in society and consequently, women’s access to decision-
making and leadership positions.

2.4.2 PATRIARCHY AND ITS DOMINANCE, VALUES, NORMS AND INFLUENCES ON

THE WOMEN’S POSITIONS IN SOCIETY

According to Johnson (2001) patriarchy promotes male-centredness, privilege, dominance

and identification with an obsession of control as one of its key components, assumedly,
control over amongst others women, resources, and opportunities. It has a very long
history and is thus deeply entrenched in society and as it has bestowed benefit and
privilege to the male species, from generation to generation. The world is seen only from
the male perspective, what refer to as “patriarchal mirroring”(Johnson, 2001). As the
dominant species, men are spoilt for choice and define almost many aspects of life, the
language, the culture and so forth, they set the cultural standards and all other standards
29
of living. Foucault (1990) and (Sawicki, 1990) states that patriarchal domination is an
ethics for men, an ethics thought, written, and taught by men, and addressed to men and
to free men. In this so-called ethics code, the author further laments that women are
regarded only as objects or, at most, as partners that men had to best train, educate, and
watch over when one had them under one's power, but stay away from when they were
under the power of someone else who can be another man (father, husband, tutor).
Flowing from this view are multiple notions but glaringly, oppression of women and vast
amounts of authority to men, male superiority and female inferiority. Explicitly stated is the
fact that women are expected to be perpetual minors, subordinate and thus the
“dominated and controlled species" with inherent powers vested upon their male
counterparts. This notion of “women being controlled and dominated over” by men is the
origin of unequal power relations that also perpetuates women’s subordinate status and
men’s superior status in community, society and spills over to all other societal institutions
of influence (Foucault, 1990). The said patriarchal dominance as indicated earlier gives
credence to sexism which affirms and emphasises the inferiority status of the female
gender in relation to the superior status of the male gender. The issue of power is central
in this discussion in that it is one which generally revolves around two opposite poles
which are composed of two categories. These categories are the dominant and the-
dominated. And because patriarchy has laid solid grounds the power balance remain
skewed and continues to determine the extent and levels of access to and participation in
decision-making and leadership positions (Foucault, 1990).

2.5 WOMEN’S SUBORDINATE POSITION IN PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY AND

LOCAL GOVERNMENT SERVICES

It is important to understand that patriarchy is centred on women’s oppression and men’s

authority, power and control. The status of women is devalued; they are only viewed as
objects of sexual desire (Johnson, 2001).Societies in general expect of women to care
and the nurture men, the family, and the society with no compensation and sometimes, my
addition no appreciation. Women’s role, therefore, becomes that of perpetual
insubordination. Unfortunately, local politics impact directly on the lives of women as they
carry disproportionate responsibility for social reproduction. Goods and services provided
by local government have a direct bearing on their lives for example, issues of water,
sanitation and so forth. Gasela (2007) contends that women, cast as caregivers and
guardians of household nutrition and health, are the main users of basic municipal

30
services. Pottie and Ford, (2001) concur that in South Africa, women should be in a
position to claim additional interest in the service delivery areas for which local
government is responsible. As workers, caregivers and mothers and as community
leaders, women have long been in the forefront of basic development demands among
South Africa's poor especially in the context of the government's emphasis on building a
vision of developmental local government. They should ideally be in the forefront of local
electoral politics and that their input into municipal decision-making and policy is,
therefore, critical (Pottie, 2000). Local government is obliged to ensure the full presence
and participation of women in various municipal structures from strategic community-
based structures such as ward committees to the most strategic decision-making
structures such as the mayoral committees. However, Gasela (2007) warns against the
assumption that more women in local government will necessarily lead to a stronger voice
for gender equality. That is, it is not guaranteed that getting more women in local
government will ensure that the women’s voices are heard. There might be a need for
more focused intervention to translate what the researcher terms “gender presence to
gender gains”. This argument presents opportunity to on the South African’s state of
affairs with regard to women in local government, both at administrative and political
decision-making and leadership levels.

2.5.1 AN OVERVIEW OF WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS AND CIVIC

MATTERS IN SOUTH AFRICA

A political perspective as explained by Pottie and Ford (2001), women's performance as

elected councillors prior to the 2000 elections did not live up to expectations. Women
comprised only 19% of total councillors, 28% of councillors elected on PR lists, and only
11% of ward councillors. Given the fact that socio-cultural issues are, in most instances,
key to gender dynamics and debates, it is important to have a closer look at the
participation of women in the recent South African Local Government Elections of (May,
2011) and look at how these improvements play out across all provinces. The research
draws attention to the Mpumalanga Province as it is the focus of this study.

There were, however, some drastic improvements in the South African local elections of
2000. There was a fairly strong women’s representation due to a quota system that was
used by some of the mainstream parties, a large proportion of which was the current ruling
party, the ANC. The following diagrammatic presentation adopted from the Independent
Electoral Commission, serves to demonstrate these improvements
31
 2000 2006 2011
Gender
No % No % No %

Women 8 562 28.46 15 718 34.78 19 731 36.81

Men 21 519 71.54 29 471 65.22 33 865 63.19

Total 30 081 100.00 45 189 100.00 53 596 100.00

Table 3 Local candidate gender trends 2000-2011, Source: Independent Electoral

Commission of South Africa, 2011.

Given the fact that socio-cultural stereotypes are, in most instances, key to gender
dynamics and debates, it is important to have a closer look at the participation of women
in the recent local government elections (May, 2011) and look at how these improvements
plays out across all provinces as illustrated in the table below. The researcher would like
to draw attention to the Mpumalanga Province as it is the focus of this study.

Table 4. Province-specific gendered candidates lists, May 2011 adapted from the
Independent Electoral Commission of South Africa

Candidates

Province Total Women Men

Number % Number % Number %

Eastern Cape 7 220 13.47 2 743 37.99 4 477 62.01

Free State 3 282 6.12 1 167 35.56 2 115 64.44

Gauteng 9 054 16.89 3 571 39.44 5 483 60.56

KwaZulu-Natal 10 390 19.39 3 554 34.21 6 836 65.79

Limpopo 6 688 12.48 2 593 38.77 4 095 61.23

32
Mpumalanga 4 368 8.15 1 571 35.97 2 797 64.03

North West 4 036 7.53 1 608 39.84 2 428 60.16

Northern Cape 1 600 2.99 649 40.56 951 59.44

Western Cape 6 958 12.98 2 275 32.70 4 683 67.30

Total 53 596 100.00 19 731 36.81 33 865 63.19

2.5.2 WOMEN IN SENIOR MANAGEMENT IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The gender dynamics underlying women and leadership position in local government
presents an opportunity to ask fundamental questions such as why there is still unequal
and skewed gender representation in senior managerial positions and what are the
differences with respect to managerial abilities and styles between women and men? The
debates and discussions in this study are, to some extent, advancing a feminist agenda
because feminism is intrinsically connected to the struggle for women’s economic, social
and political independence (Alvesson and Billing, 2009). Participation of women in local
government matters and their occupation of leadership positions present their quest for
independence across these critical spheres of life the study argues. However, whilst this
feminist approach prevail, the researcher seeks to expand from what could be perceived
as liberal feminism to include an analysis of other aspects of society that work directly to
negatively influence women and their opportunities( Chafetz in Alvesson and Billing,
2009).

According to (Walker, 1999), organisations are a public domain from which women have
been intentionally excluded from. Their entry alone is bound to arouse mixed reactions
and perceptions. Porter, Smyth and Sweetman (1999) contend that the inclusion of
women is not easy as it suggests a fundamental institutional/organisational rearrangement
that might not be as acceptable and as comfortable with the already existing majority men
as it should be. The continued struggle for gender equality, which advocates for women to
take leadership positions, especially in the male-dominated local government challenges
holistic institutional transformation to include culture, policies, and procedures. Their entry
does not guarantee influence and even recognition in the policy formulations, decision-
making and related influential forums and platforms.
33
This study seeks to reveal the challenges in gendered institutional transformation with
regard to women in senior management in local government. The reality is that the
number of female Executive Directors and Municipal Managers is disturbingly low, only
two (2, 22%) out of a total of 45 municipal managers as stated in (Gasela, 2007). The
study argues that the same dismal performance with regard to gender representation at
senior management level, that is, Directors and Municipal Managers is the case in a
number of other provinces in South Africa including the NDM in Mpumalanga Province
which is the focus of this study.

2.5.3 GENDER DICRIMINATION: WOMEN’S SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EXCLUSIONS

A study that was conducted using selected countries as reference countries with regard to
women’s paid and unpaid labour revealed that women spend more time than men with
domestic tasks and childcare, and they have less spare time than men. This is the
situation in most countries wherein roles and responsibilities of women and men are
socially constructed to relegate domestic and childcare to the women (Minguez, 2012).
This research asserts that South Africa is also a patriarchal-dominant country. According
the study, South Africa, the value of unpaid care work in the economy is higher than the
value of paid care work (Minguez, 2012). This demonstrates gender discrimination which
brings about a case of conflicting ideals. Women have to choose to be professionals and
get recognition and payment at the risk of being “bad and absent mothers” neglecting their
domestic and childcare responsibilities which the researcher views as more cumbersome
and taxing in time, physically, emotionally and financially (Minguez, 2012).

With the contesting ideals brought about by the discriminatory gender division of labour,
women finds themselves in a disadvantaged position. The apparent lack of career
advancement and development is attributed to the lack and/or less relevant education and
qualified work experience (Alvesson and Billing, 2009). This study attempts to draw
attention to what is termed “relevant education” and “qualified experience” and how it
plays itself out in decision-making and leadership positions as some of the distinctions
alluded to in (Alvesson and Billing, 2009).

According to Percy-Smith(2000) key features of poverty and social exclusion are, for
example, lack of opportunities to work, to acquire education and skills, childhood
deprivation, disrupted families, inequalities in health, poor housing, fear of crime and
barriers to older people living active, fulfilling and healthy lives. All these deprivations are

34
women’s daily encounters in their families and communities. An important argument
therefore is that social exclusion cannot be reduced to economic factors as economic
factors are a key aspect of social exclusion. These economic factors are not taken as only
encompassing poverty but include lack of adequate income and exclusion from the labour
market which include as the study contends, the exclusion from decision-making and
leadership positions (Percy-Smith, 2000). Another critical aspect is political exclusion
which is the disempowerment of socially excluded groups and individuals which then
result in them claiming to have their social and economic needs met not being voiced, not
being heard or not being acted upon (Percy-Smith, 2000).

Johnson (2001) states that patriarchy comes with privilege. The definition of privilege
“…as an unearned advantage over another…systematically denying others…placing
credibility to others than the next” (Johnson, 2001). Male privilege is the root cause of
gender discrimination. It only systematically disadvantages and excludes women across
the different spheres such as (in economic activities, wherein earning power would
escalate their status in societies). This economic exclusion as (Johnson, 2001) contends,
has overtime ensured that positions of authority, whether or not in the political, economic,
and all others spheres are a special reserve for male. This exclusion does not only end at
the expectations and standards are set according to the male preferences and
reservations and thus making it almost impossible for women to thrive in those
environments (Johnson, 2001). Local government is a historically male-dominant
environment. Community meetings, mayoral imbizos, council sittings are a major
component of this institutions’ function. It is important to critique the environment and the
accompanying expectations and standards and the extent to which these would
encourage or discourage women’s participation as councilors and managers.

2.6 TOWARDS WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT FOR GENDER EQUALITY

The crux of the feminists’ perspectives is the need to empower women towards gender
equality. First, it is important to clarify what is implied by ‘empowerment’ in the context of
the above-detailed discussions of patriarchal dominance, sexism and feminism. Kabeer
(2005) points out that power should be contextualised and understood in terms of the
ability to make choices. Kabeer further argues that “…to be disempowered means to be
denied choice, while empowerment refers to the processes by which those who have been
denied the ability to make choices acquire such ability” (Kabeer, 2005). People who
exercise a great deal of choice in their lives may be very powerful, but they are not
35
empowered, because they were never disempowered in the first place. Empowered and
disempowered is yet another demonstration of unequal power relations between women
and men as detailed in (2.2.3 of this study) wherein I draw on the dominant and the
dominated.

Kabeer (2005) provides valuable insight into understanding the process of empowerment
with applicable conditions which can help an individual to make choices. Empowerment is
conditional and such conditions (Kabeer, 2005) states are that;

■ There must be alternatives – the ability to have chosen differently. This study attempts to
gain insight into the extent and levels of choice, meaningful choices that is, and the
availability of alternatives with regard to decision-making and leadership positions. This is
so because local government has overtime been a predominantly male environment and
this characterised by deeply-rooted patriarchal dominance (Nkwana, 2011).

■ Alternatives must not only exist, they must also be seen to exist. Power relations are
most effective when they are not perceived as such. Gender issues often operate through
the unquestioned acceptance of power. This is another important area of analysis in this
study as a male dominated environment might inevitably lead to questioned acceptance of
power on the part of women.

2.6.1 EMPOWERMENT AND ITS INTERRELATED DIMENSIONS: AGENCY,

RESOURCES AND ACHIEVEMENTS

Kabeer (2005) explores the following three closely interrelated dimensions of

empowerment which are: agency, resources, and achievements. Kabeer defines agency
as representing the processes by which these choices characterizing empowerment are
made and put into effect. Resources are explained as the medium through which agency
is exercised; and achievements which refer to the outcomes of agency – of the processes.

Kabeer is correct to say that institutional bias can constrain people’s ability to make
strategic and meaningful life choices which include access to participation in decision-
making and leadership positions. This is due to the fact that cultural and ideological norms
may either deny that those inequalities of power exist or that such inequalities are unjust.
The dominated, subordinate groups are likely to accept this status quo is influenced by
fear of being chastised and or isolated. I particularly like Kabeer notion of agency as it puts
emphasis on two distinct features which are, self and process. Kabeer asserts that the

36
process of empowerment often begins from within. It encompasses not only “decision
making” and other forms of observable action but also meaning, motivation, and purpose
that individuals bring to their actions. Notwithstanding that resources and achievements
are equally important features, the agency is the thrust that begins the journey to
empowerment for individuals. The agency is a figurative foundation on which the
empowerment house is erected. Flowing from this figurative illustration would be the fact
that every house is as strong as the foundation it is laid on. One dimension affects the
other and success in one would add as success to the other and could logically lead to
changes in others.

2.7 FACTORS FOR WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION ACROSS THE DIFFERENT

SPHERES OF LIFE

Access to and participation in decision-making and leadership positions is strategic and

meaningful life choices accompanying empowerment. At this point, the research
interrogates participation. A requirement that women are represented at these, I add,
decision-making and leadership positions or consulted is necessary but not sufficient
because it raises questions of whether their voices are actually heard and acted upon
(Moser and Moser in Kabeer, 2005). Debusscher and van der Vleuten (2005) argue that a
prerequisite to transforming the development agenda is to give women who are affected
by development interventions a voice to shape the objectives, priorities and strategies of
development. It is critical that provision is made to ensure that policy changes are
implemented in ways that allow women to actively participate, to monitor, and to hold
policy-makers and relevant actors accountable for their actions as participation of women
in other spheres of life may be hindered. This assertion forms part of the exploration of full
participation of women in local government decision-making and leadership positions.

Representation and consultation of women in local government decision-making and

leadership roles should inform local government policy changes to ensure relevance,
identification of gender transformation objectives, priorities and strategies, monitoring and
future accountability. The possibilities of presence versus representation cannot be
ignored. Presence does not necessarily translate into impact in the same way as numbers
does not necessarily result in influence. For example, the presence of women is drawn
from a narrow elite who have been invited rather than elected and thus have no grassroots
constituency to represent and to account, such presence is in essence tokenism and
would not contribute significantly to the broader women’s empowerment initiatives
37
(Kabeer, 2005) . This brings into the issues of access and full participation in contrast with
presence and representation.

2.7.1 ISSUES OF WOMEN’S ACCESS AND FULL PARTICIPATION: Mtintso’s Access

Participation Transformation Framework (APTF)

With the preceding discussion (2.5 of this study above) the researcher does not downplay
the importance of presence and representation but argues for full and substantive access
and participation for real tangible impact.

Figure 1: Mtintso’s Access Participation Framework adapted from Gender Links Training
Module (2003).

The framework above shows that the entry of women and their stay in the higher echelons
of workplaces has significant spin-offs. Whilst it brings a balanced gender perspective in
the broad boardroom agendas, it also has a potential of breaking the glass-ceiling and
gendering policies, procedures, and related organisational aspects. Thus, women’s
increased managerial representation can shape all workers’ perceptions and beliefs
around women leaders. Women’s access to organisational power structures matters in
organisations. This is because, as a significant source of internal pressure, the
characteristics of leaders can shape organisational adaptation and strongly influence
workplace inequality (Mittman and Newman, 1991; Hultin and Szulkin, 1999; Hirsh, 2009)
in (Huffman, Cohen and Pearlman, 2010). Numbers are important because there is
“strength in-numbers” Mtintso’s Access, Participation and Transformation Framework (M-
APTF). Further, as the Kanter theory argues that increasing women’s representation
improves their organisational standing and reduces inequality. Kanter further maintains
that the presence of top-level female managers facilitates workplace equality by alleviating
negative effects of token status. Kanter’s work highlights the role of “homosocial

38
reproduction which is,” the tendency for individuals to prefer to work alongside similar
individuals (Ely, 1994 & Elliott and Smith, 2004).

2.7.2 WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION, INSTITUTIONAL CULTURES AND PRACTICES

The challenge for women’s access and participation is gendering institutional cultures,
practices, policies, procedures and ethics. These components are at the heart of
institutional functioning. Beginning with institutional culture, it is regarded as the
accumulated shared learning represented by common basic assumptions about how an
organisation solves its problems of coordination, cooperation and adaptation to its
environment (Howell and Costley, 2006). Appreciating that change is a cumbersome
process, gendering the institution could call for a gradual introduction, a multi-phased
approach that would target key institutional aspects such as culture, practices, policies,
procedures and ethics. This continuous and or incremental change would entail ongoing
modifications in these work processes and social interactions, and with small but
continuous adjustments, accumulatively create substantial organisational change (Howell
and Costley, 2006).

Institutional culture is an important aspect and is one of those loaded with the gender
dynamics confronting women in leadership positions across all sectors. It is true that, that
efforts towards gendering organisations and institutions should view “…culture as the
ultimate target for gender interventions”(MacDonald, Sprenger and Dubel, 1997). Carson
in Porter, Smyth & Sweetman (1999) states that efforts towards creating gender aware
and responsive environments wherein women can fully participate should be legitimised
by the change in organisational culture, systems and procedures. The reality is that there
are organisational challenges with regard to creating gender aware and responsive
environments in the workplaces. There are in most organisations, commonly-held
attitudes, perceptions and expectations which are influential features of this organisational
culture. For example, the issue of women’s performance especially those who assume
decision-making and leadership positions, placing insurmountable pressure placed on
them to outperform their male counterparts with sometimes unreasonable and unrealistic
standards.

There is usually high levels of over-expectation and to some extent, to command respect,
it is expected that they (women) drop their feminine selves to join the masculine “boys
club” (Levitt, 2010). Levitt further maintains that these women, are wary of being perceived

39
as having a separatist attitude, tacitly agree to "play the game," whose rules were made by
the men. Moreover, these men typically held the power, and attempt to get ahead
professionally by following the traditionally male-oriented routes to success. Other women
are likely to feel marginalised by this perspective and fear that they will not be able to get
ahead without sacrificing family, relationships, or their personal well-being.

Notwithstanding the fact that many men are faced with an even greater challenge of
upholding the masculine gender role expectations. These masculine gender role
expectations are career-driven and success-oriented. Whilst on the contrary they may
prefer to spend more time with family, friends, and generally nurturing themselves and
their relationships (Staggenborg, 1998) in (Levitt, 2010). Through historical examples, role
models, and traditional mentorship relations, women may receive the message that
assuming leadership means they must sacrifice in other areas of their life (Levitt, 2010).

2.7.3GENDERING INSTITUTIONS THROUGH PLANNED CHANGE IMPLEMENTATION

Another important aspect in gendering organisational culture and broader organisational

development is the planned infusion of change, what I would term as “gendered change”
and the associated “gendered realities”(Schein in Itzin and Newman, 1995). To this end,
the Schein’s planned change theory makes it clear that change involves unlearning deep-
rooted, inherited attitudes, values, self-images and is thus painful and threatening (Schein
in Itzin and Newman, 1995).Schein suggests that consideration should also be given to
the fact that change is a process and that in a case of organisational change and
development, all those involved should take ownership of the process. Itzin and Newman,
1995 indicates the importance of mediating change through an intense focus on individual
changes. An important reflection on this issue is the individual focus to effect
organisational change, in this case gendering organisations should be as White in Itzin
and Newman (1995) reflects whether or not women’s entry into leadership positions will
potentially make them (women) gender change agents that they become champions and
pioneers for gendering these organisations and institutions.

Women’s entry into the workplace brings some issues for change. For example, their
(women) uncertainty with regard to how to behave and what to expect. The said
uncertainty prevails not only to men but even more to women themselves (Alvesson and
Billing, 2009). In principle, the argument by (Walker in Porter, Smyth and Sweetman,
1999) that both the “written and “unwritten” rules in institutions should be thoroughly

40
examined to introduce a gender perspective is necessary. Alternative and progressive
model of implementing change in organisations is that of learning organisations by Peter
Senge. The model is credited due to the unique feature of allowing organisations to be
able to continuously diagnose environmental needs and implement whatever changes are
appropriate (Howell and Costley, 2006).

In the quest for gendering organisation and institutions, critical and strategic decision-
making and participation forums and platforms should be targeted and for the
municipalities they are the organisational strategic planning and reviews, policy
development and reviews, integrated development planning (IDP) with communities as
well as monitoring and evaluation forums.

2.7.4 WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION AND CONTESTING SOCIAL ROLES AND

RESPONSIBILITIES

The fact that this is a South African study makes it be influenced by African values and
norms. Having also stated that the study is informed and shaped by feminists’ viewpoints,
African feminists emphasise the importance of understanding the historical roles of men
and women in traditional African societies to fully understand contemporary gender
relations. Nkomo and Ngambi (2009) maintain that “… if gender is a social construction
then we must examine the various cultural architectural sites where it constructed…”
Flowing from this assertion is the emphasis on uniquely African women’s gendered
experiences though mindful “not to build walls between women” (Bennettt, 2006).

What is particularly insightful for this study is the meso-level approach to understanding
participation and these contesting social roles and responsibilities. The meso - level
approach includes the unique socio – historical, political, economic and cultural content of
Africa, which incorporate the individual, organisational and societal levels (Nkomo and
Ngambi, 2009). Of importance in meso-level approach is the role of the organisation which
is local government in this study, and the role played by the society in shaping gender
roles and responsibilities. Nkomo and Ngambi (2009) aver that attention should be
focused on the unique African socio-historical, political, cultural and economic contexts.
The meso-level approach on the organisational level highlights the importance of
influencing of institutional practices, policies, structures and systems to accommodate and
appreciate the experiences of African female managers and leaders deriving from their

41
upbringing in families and societies which is also very relevant to women in decision-
making and leadership in local government as an institution.

Lastly, the individual level is equally important, according to Nkomo and Ngambi,(2009)
referring to the personal characteristics of women, which is their attitudes, behaviors,
cultures as well as gender identity are critical. Further proclaiming the popular slogan that
“empowerment begins with the self”. There is a need to harmonise the roles and
responsibilities commonly considered to be women-specific and the society’s demands
and expectations. That is empowering women to challenge their oppression and
emancipate themselves whilst also challenging the status quo in broader society and thus
making steady advancement into the institutions.

2.8 GENDER TRANSFORMATION THROUGH GENDER MAINSTREAMING

After the adoption of the GAD approach as a promising approach to women’s

empowerment and gender equality, what followed was the widely used concept of gender
mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming is defined as “… the (re)organisation,
improvement, development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a gender equality
perspective is incorporated in all policies at all levels and at all stages, by the actors
normally involved in policy-making”(Council of Europe, 1998:13) stated in (Debusscher
and van der Vleuten, 2005) and (Verloo, 2005). The study aligns with this definition as it
reflects an “integrationist agenda” as the authors contend. It is comprehensive and all-
encompassing to make up for effective mainstreaming, targeting the policy development
processes as the origins of discriminatory practices and tendencies through to
programmatic interventions (Debusscher and van der Vleuten, 2005).

On the one hand, gender mainstreaming should not be considered as the sole panacea to
the gender discrimination and inequalities attitudes and practices without interrogating its
attributes. Walby (2005) agrees that gender mainstreaming is a contested concept and
strategy because it suggests in its very nature, a total overhaul, which encompasses the
reinvention, restructuring and rebranding a key component of the feminist agenda that
informed, for example, the WID approach to a more integrationist approach adapted by
the GAD approach the researcher argues.

On the other hand, it is essential to take note of some of the gender mainstreaming issues
raised. Squires (2005) that mainstreaming gender in development policies as a
transformative strategy is best placed to respond to the increasing demands of diversity
42
but that it should (gender mainstreaming) be augmented by resources, emphasis is put on
“deliberate mechanisms” to ensure its efficiency and effectiveness. Therefore, a
transformative agenda not only ‘implies transformation and reorientation of existing policy
paradigms’ Walby (2005a), but also ‘requires efforts to create constituencies that demand
change’ (Mukhopadhyay, 2007). This condition is reflected in Kabeer’s idea of
transformative agency which was discussed above (2.3.2). It entails the greater ability on
the part of poor women to question, analyse and act on the structures of patriarchal
constraint in their lives (Kabeer, 2005). These are some of the “deliberate mechanisms”
referred to in (Squires,2005).

The concept of gender mainstreaming, as a transformative strategy, involves the naming

and challenging the existing gender and power relations through policy interventions. In
these policy interventions deliberate mechanisms of citizens’ forums are constituted for
example, by formerly disempowered women and their organisations participate in
questioning, analysing and acting upon the gendered world (Debusscher and van der
Vleuten 2012 and Squires, 2005).

2.8.1 GENDER MAINSTREAMING AND MEN’S ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT

With GAD approach, emphasis on gender mainstreaming for fast-tracking gender

transformation suggested an active involvement of men as partners. Debusscher and van
der Vleuten (2012) states that the participation and commitment of men was thus
recognised as fundamental to changing the position of women. The inequality patterns
between girls and boys, women and men are learnt and starts early on in life, in schools,
family and communities, are further nurtured throughout childhood into adulthood, making
it difficult to undo or unlearn these deeply entrenched attitudes and behaviour patterns
(Seidler, 2006). It is true that men’s participation demands drastic and gradual changes to
the social, economic and political patterns of gender inequality that has portrayed
women’s participation in these spheres as a threat. This is so because as masculine
cultures created in the workplace haven’t taken women into consideration (Haywood and
Mac an Ghaill, 2003). These include policies, procedures, institutional language and
related such other institutional aspects.

Fundamentally challenging would also be changing men’s mind-set in acknowledging and

accepting women in what used to be regarded as their space, the workplace. The entry of
women brings changes with it. For instance, changes in women’s roles and responsibilities

43
in these spaces would differ from traditionally-held stereotypes. In these spaces (the
workplaces), women might be entrusted with authority in the case that they occupy
decision-making and leadership positions. Drawing from the discussion on men’s
participation, gender mainstreaming would be a best-placed intervention strategy to drive
and effect changes in the critical areas such as institutional policies, procedures,
programmes and so forth that are in essence at the core of the strategy.

2.9 PERSPECTIVES ON WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP

Eagly (2007) asserts that in the United States, women compared to men are increasingly
considered as having excellent skills for leadership which contribute to enhanced
performance. On the contrary, an observation is that irrespective of women’s excellent
skills as leaders, (Eagly, 2007) states that most employees continue to prefer male to
female bosses. A qualitative study on women’s leadership conducted on eight female
leaders suggested that women's leadership attributes and behaviors are actually an
interaction between personal, interpersonal, and professional domains (Black and
Magnuson, 2005). They further highlight the authenticity, compassion, and vision,
respectively, with the three domains they identified as inherently women attributes. It might
even be suggested that the traditional hierarchical model of leadership, challenged by
feminist efforts to equalise runs counter to the actual lived experience of women's
leadership power (Humble et al., 2006). An individual's leadership style reflects a unique
combination of personality traits and professional goals and vision (Black and Magnuson,
2005).

Levitt (2010) further argues that leadership is a social process that is dependent on social
networks of influence. Furthermore Levitt (2010) argues, that the concepts associated
with leadership are not gender, power, or sex neutral but instead are rooted in a set of
social interactions in which “doing gender,” “doing power,” and “doing leadership” are
linked. This is amongst the critical issues that this research focuses on: “doing gender,
power and leadership” for women in decision-making and leadership positions in local
government. The purpose is to explore these dynamics in the context of theories of
leadership that fail to consider gender and/or power implications of social interactions and
networks of influence. Moreover because this may lead to the cooptation of the leadership
models, resulting in their being brought into the mainstream discourse in a way that
silences their radical challenge to current work practices, structures, and norms (Levitt,
2010).
44
Leadership is a process used by an individual to influence group members towards the
achievement of group goals in which the group members view the influence as legitimate
(Howell and Costley, 2006). The authors’ further states that stepping into a leadership role
can be a means of exerting power over traditionally oppressed groups. This may
conversely be a means of reacting to one's own history of oppression and thereby exerting
one's first experience with power (Howell & Costley, 2006). Leadership, by implication,
suggests power. Yet, power comes in many different forms and, historically, addresses
issues of oppression. Dimensions of race, gender, and class have been conduits of
oppression. Gender has not been fully explored within the context of oppression and may
have a place in discussions of hierarchy and power (Murray, 2006).

Alvesson and Billing (2009) argue that most work is not “gender neutral” and therefore
women’s occupation of leadership positions in general, and specifically in local
government is attributed to and boxed in the forms of gendered identities. These gender
identities take form of femininities – that which is attributed and generally accepted to
“being female and a woman” and masculinities – that attributed to and generally accepted
as “being male and a man” as society has boxed these gender identities. It is somewhat
difficult to behave in contrast to the commonly-held boxed identities.

Most gender inequalities emanate from these boxed identities, which portray men as
superior and women as inferior beings across all sphered of communal life. With the
evolutions brought by policy and legislative frameworks, this space is now a contested
terrain with those benefitting vigorously defending the status quo (Woodward, Hayes and
Minkley, 2002).There are important social institutions that have and continue to entrench
these oppressive notions of gender identities such as educational institutions (schools,
and others). The argument is, therefore, that these oppressive gender identities are used
to shape and inform areas of women’s participation. The research further argues that in
view of the inferior status given to women by society, it is unfortunate that decision-making
and leadership remain far-fetched and indeed a “contested terrain” as articulated by
(Woodward, Hayes and Minkley, 2002).

2.10 WOMEN PROGRESSION: THE GLASS-CEILING AND GLASS-CLIFF

PERSPECTIVE

Research into gender and leadership has tended to focus on the inequalities that women
encounter while trying to climb the corporate ladder, with particular emphasis on the role

45
played by the so-called glass ceiling. However, recent archival evidence has identified an
additional hurdle that women must often overcome once they are in leadership positions,
namely; the glass cliff (Ryan and Haslam, 2005). There is evidence that women are over-
represented in precarious leadership positions. It is therefore important to explore the
dynamics surrounding women's appointment to these precarious leadership positions
(Ryan and Haslam, 2005). This refers to the phenomenon whereby women are more likely
than men to be appointed to leadership positions associated with increased risk of failure
and criticism than men because these positions usually involve management of
organisational units that are in crisis.

Taking this glass cliff phenomenon to test, three experimental studies on the notion were
undertaken. In these, management graduates (Study 1), high-school students (Study 2) or
business leaders (Study 3) selected a leader for a hypothetical organisation whose
performance was either improving or declining. Consistent with predictions, results
indicate that the likelihood of a female candidate being selected ahead of an equally
qualified male candidate increased when the organisation's performance was declining
rather than improving. Study 3 also provided evidence that glass cliff appointments are
associated with beliefs that they (a) suit the distinctive leadership abilities of women, (b)
provide women with good leadership opportunities and (c) are particularly stressful for
women (Ryan and Haslam, 2007). These findings define an important agenda for future
research and will be interesting to explore in local government.

With the rise of service delivery protests countrywide, which has seen the reprioritisation
of development issues in local government, the study seeks to explore how this change in
focus has affected women’s empowerment and gender equality in the NDM. Could it be
that women will be deployed in decision-making and leadership positions in municipalities
that has challenges or in a crisis as entailed in the glass cliff phenomenon? This remains
an area of keen interest in the study. Furthermore the researcher thinks that where women
are deservedly holding powerful positions, the institutional policies, procedures, culture are
usually unfriendly and non-responsive to ensure that these women function optimally.
There are usually pockets of resistance by both women and men that when not attended
to will undermine and sabotage these deserving women in decision-making and
leadership positions.

46
2.11 CONCLUSION

The literature review illustrates a long history of debates and discussions on a range of
gendered issues such as gender inequality, patriarchy, societal expectations determined
by culture and tradition, and gender discrimination broadly. It therefore provides a solid
theoretical foundation and context for which to premise gender dynamics with regard to
women in leadership positions in institutions.

Dahlerup (2010) points out that, consideration of how both domestic responsibilities and
current organisational cultures differentially impact on women and men in their journey to
top leadership positions is critical in understanding the obstacles faced by women in
powerful positions. The focus then should shift to examining how stereotypes, prejudice,
and discrimination contribute to women’s under-representation and perceived failure in
leadership roles. It should further focus on how these serve to discourage other women
from aspiring to move into these positions whilst at the same time discouraging those that
are in these positions to pursue their stay.

47
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, DESIGN AND RATIONALE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is an account of the research methodology and design applied in the study. It
provides the rationale that informs the chosen research approach. It further unpacks all
the steps undertaken in data collection, the important issues of research validity and
reliability as well as the critical ethical considerations. The chapter concludes by
highlighting some of the limitations experienced in the data collection process as well as
the research study’s intended use and value.

3.2 THE RESEARCH PLAN AND PROCESS

Marshall and Rossman (2011) state that one of the fundamental challenges in conducting
research is, amongst others planning a design that is systematic, flexible and
manageable. Accordingly, as stated in Marshall and Rossman, it is important to consider
the fact that in conducting research, planning and related processes such as the choice of
the design of the study and the applicable methods should be among the fundamental first
steps. Research studies are, in the main, sparked by an interest of some kind in a
particular phenomenon. That area of interest would thus shape and inform the research
question which would in turn give guidance to the plan that the researcher should embark
upon to satisfy the identified knowledge gap and processes that should unfold. O’Leary
(2004) research is both a creative and strategic process that involves assessment and
making decisions about the best possible means of obtaining data, processing it,
analysing it so as to draw credible conclusions. It acknowledges that research is a process
is indeed important especially in this study wherein the emphasis is on a phenomenon that
is mostly met with resistance “gender dynamics”.

Resistance emanates from the inherent patriarchal dominance of male superiority and
female subordination that has in most societies, been a normality for decades. This
research process would, therefore entail engaging with some of those traditionally
engrained gender stereotypes held by both women and men, and the notions of women in
decision-making and leadership positions as well as self-reflections of women themselves
on decision-making and leadership. To that effect, there is a need to thoroughly think
through the appropriate methods that are suitable for that phenomenon under study, and
further that those are “open enough to allow an understanding of a process”, in planning
the research process (Flick, 2007). The researcher also adds that the issue of basing the
48
said plan and processes on a particular knowledge framework is pertinent right at the
beginning. This is done so that the research study can, upfront, assert its basis and
appropriately choose requisite methodology and design. Research studies consists of two
major sections; the conceptual framework as well as the design and research methods
and further that for purposes of the research credibility, both sections requires a solid
rationale(Marshall and Rossman, 2011).

3.3 EPISTEMOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

The study is a cross-breed with regard to conceptual knowledge framework in that it

affiliates to both constructivism and interpretivism paradigms in its nature. First it is
constructivist in that it claims that meaning (those gendered meanings in this case) do
not exist in their own right but are constructed by human beings as they interact and
engage in interpretation (O’Leary,2004). Second, it is interpretivist in nature because it
acknowledges and explores the (gendered) cultural and historical interpretations of the
social world (O’Leary, 2004). Further, its ethical inclination is that of a critical feminist
perspective pointed to by (Ackerly and True, 2010). The said feminist ethic is as the
authors argue, “ …a methodological commitment to any set of research practices that
reflect on the power of epistemology, boundaries, relationships, and the multiple
dimensions of the researcher’s location throughout the entirety of the research process
and to a normative commitment to transforming the social order to promote gender
justice.” The thrust of this study bears relevance to the referred “normative commitment to
transforming gender justice through an exploration of the gender dynamics as will be
reflected by women in decision-making and leadership positions. It is essential that
through the conceptual framework, the linkage between the research questions, the larger
theoretical constructs and/or policy issues and illumination of larger issues connects to
demonstrate significance and relevance of the research study (Marshall and Rossman,
2011).

3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This is a qualitative research study. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) define qualitative research
as “a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of
interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform the
world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including field notes,
interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. In this study,

49
qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This
means that qualitative researchers study things in the natural setting, attempting to make
sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them”(Denzin
and Lincoln, 2005). This definition best captures key elements entailed in this study and
hence the choice of a qualitative methodology. Further qualitative research addresses
qualitative areas in social life such as for example broader social perceptions (as
gendered perceptions) of women in leadership which is the focus in this study (Holliday,
2007).

Qualitative research attempts to investigate uncontrollable social variables instead of

reducing their effect. In the case of this study, these uncontrollable variables that were
investigated, without altering them, were gender dynamics. This study states at this point
that whenever gender issues are discussed, it is often difficult if not totally impossible to
silence feminism and feminists views on gender. It is the same for this study. Having
consulted feminism theories through literature review in (Chapter two) of this study, the
researcher was inclined to align and base some discussions on feminism. This is done
because qualitative research is to a greater extent premised on a moral discourse, it
should continuously pursue and have a “moral commission to take the side of the under-
privileged, of minorities…”(Flick, 2007). Qualitative research is that it “is explicitly political
and intends to transform the world with its practices”, an inherent transformation agenda
(Flick, 2007). This is important for the as it explores a complex phenomenon such as
gender dynamics, and gender transformation is considered amongst South Africa’s
national development priority.

3.4.1 A CASE FOR FEMINIST-ORIENTED QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Alvesson and Billing (2009) and Ribbens and Edwards (1998), there are often dilemmas
confronting feminist- oriented qualitative research and those are, among others,
researching in an environment wherein the theoretical, conceptual and formal traditions
are predominantly public and male-dominated, which is the case with this study. The study
also uses to some extent, principles of evolving critical theory and research (Kincheloe
and McLaren). The authors argue that the evolving criticality entails ”…detectives of new
theoretical insights, perpetually searching for new and interconnected ways of
understanding power and oppression and the way they shape everyday life and human
experience”(Kincheloe and McLaren ). This study makes a case for a feminist-oriented
qualitative study because an analysis of such a complex phenomenon as gender
50
dynamics cannot be easily and effectively achieved through a quantitative study which
pre-empts the kind of variables that should constitute gender dynamics. Analysis of
gender dynamics in the context of an organisation such as local government has its own
intricacies and complexities which may not be readily captured by numerical methods.
Thus, a more qualitative approach which is deeply rooted in induction would be
appropriate in an attempt to reveal perspectives of participants, in everyday practices and
everyday knowledge(Flick, 2007).

Having discussed the feminist research ethic that underlie the study, it is important to
capture and study what (Ackerly and True, 2010) refer to as “the silences and absences in
familiar institutions and of studying marginalised and excluded peoples’ experiences…” for
an in-depth and clearer understanding of these oppressions and gaining insight into the
conditions, processes and institutions that cause and sustain them. The researcher has
blended qualitative research methodology with a feminist ethic that enable the researcher
to consider and pay attention to the power of knowledge, and more profoundly, of
epistemology, boundaries, marginalisation, silences, and intersections; relationships and
their power differentials; and the researcher’s own sociopolitical location for
“situatedness”(Ackerly and True, 2010). These factors are fundamental in understanding a
complex phenomenon such as the one being studied, gender dynamics.

3.5 RESEARCH DESIGN

De Vos, Strydom, Fouche, and Delport, (2011) argues that research design encompasses
some of the decisions that the researcher makes when planning for the study. The one
such decision that the researcher made is that the study is inherently feminist-oriented.
The design is intended to ensure that the research study is “self-reflective, critical, political,
and versed in multiple theoretical frameworks in order to enable the researcher to “see”
those people and processes lost in gaps, silences, margins and peripheries” (Ackerly and
True, 2010). As feminist-informed study, it “centres and makes problematic women’s
diverse situations as well as in the institutions that frame those situations” (Denzin and
Lincoln, 2000).

This is in acknowledgement of what (De Vos,et.al., 2011) maintains, that qualitative

research paradigm requires the design to be more than a set of “worked-out formulas”.
The researcher is concerned with developing a much in-depth and clearer understanding
of the gender dynamics rather than providing a mere explanation. Also important in the

51
qualitative research design is the researcher’s personal interest and curiosity which is the
case in this research study (De Vos,et.al., 2011).The researcher serves as a woman in
decision-making and leadership position in local government who is interested in gaining
more in-depth understanding the gender dynamics confronting women in decision-making
and leadership positions and diversify her knowledge on gendered issues and situations
confronting other women in similar positions and environments elsewhere, thus attempting
to also satisfy her curiosity in the area of study.

3.5.1 AN ADVOCACY, PARTICIPATORY AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH.

This research design is advocacy-oriented, participatory and phenomenological. Cresswell

(2009) maintains that gender dynamics are largely political, change and empowerment-
oriented. An additional characteristic of this worldview is that whilst the inquiry is
intertwined with political agenda for reform, specific issues of social importance such as
inequality, oppression, domination, suppression and alienation are dealt with (Cresswell,
2009). Cresswell, (2007; 2009) regards phenomenological study as that which describes
the meaning of the lived experiences of a phenomenon or concept for several individuals.
Gender dynamics as a complex phenomenon fits well into this description. De Vos, et.al.,
(2011) further explains that at the root of phenomenology is the intent to understand the
phenomena under study (gender dynamics in relation to women in decision-making and
leadership positions in local government) on their own terms and therefore to provide a
thick description of human experience as it is experienced by the subjects. The product of
the research is a careful description of the conscious everyday experiences and social
action of subjects (De Vos,et.al., 2011). The warning that researchers must be able to
distance themselves from their judgments and preconceptions about the nature and
essence of experiences and events in the everyday world is important (De Vos,et.al.,
2011). The researcher, therefore, excluded observation in eMalahleni local municipality
where she is employed in an executive position as Director: Administration and Resources
Management. She has relied on interviews only in this municipality. This is intentionally
done to ensure that as best as possible, the researcher distances herself from judgments
and preconceptions that would be difficult to isolate based on pre-knowledge but would be
better handled through interviews as that would be captured as gathered from the
participants themselves. Observation would be easily misinterpreted if there is prior
knowledge but interviews cannot be misrepresented as they are entirely data provided by
the participants themselves. In all other municipalities in NDM, the researcher has no prior

52
knowledge or information and thus, the observations have objectively captured what has
been observed with no judgments and preconceptions.

3.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ENTRY AND ACCESS IN QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH

De Vos,et.al., (2011) warns that qualitative research is not as linear a process as

quantitative research and thus provides no definite plan, fixed design or recipe to follow.
Qualitative researchers are therefore urged to device research strategy (ies) best suited
for the chosen research. De Vos,et.al (2011) further maintains that qualitative researchers
should early in the process, prepare themselves emotionally and intellectually to
undertake fieldwork.

Permission to enter should be obtained from the gatekeepers with clear plans of data
management. In this study, the Nkangala District Municipality (NDM) which serves as the
gatekeeper was approached for permission (Addendum 1). Permission granted through
the NDM as the District coordinating municipality would translate into permission for entry
into all the local municipalities under its jurisdiction. A meeting with the District Executive
Mayor took place to explain the research study, what it seeks to achieve, and all related
processes. It was well received. A subsequent letter to consolidate the discussions was
sent to the Executive Mayor’s Office (Addendum1). Parallel to this process was that a
meeting with the Municipal Manager at the District took place, facilitated through the
Executive Mayor’s office. In the same way, a subsequent letter to this effect was sent
through to confirm the granted access and entry (Addendum 2). The permission letter was
forwarded to all municipalities under NDM, and thus facilitated easy entry (Addendum 3). It
serves as a sample of an internal communique stating the researcher’s visit and purpose.
Gaining access through these identified gatekeepers is as important as positive
relationships, agreements and cooperation from the research participants, which the
researcher successfully strived at.

3.7 RESEARCH POPULATION

The population of this study is women in leadership positions within local government. The
inclusion of men would, however, give substance to understanding the gender dynamics
which, by implication, would probe into men’s attitudes, views and perceptions of women
in decision-making and leadership and also premised on the notion that “gender “refers to
both women and men. The primary population of the study consist of women in decision-
53
making and leadership positions in NDM local government, though does not entirely
exclude men in decision-making and leadership positions in the NDM because inevitably
women would in their reflections, refer to their male counterparts. Engaging men serve to
validate the data collected from the women participants and/or bring a new dimension that
serve to inform future women’s empowerment and gender equality discourse and to
strengthen related interventions into the future.

The research population consists of at least between 70 -80 research participants from
the administration and political leadership components, namely, the Municipal Managers
and Executive Directors who are in the administrative decision-making and leadership and
the ultimate custodians with regard to administration. Also the Mayors and/or MMCs who
are the political decision-making and leadership anchors and custodians of the political
oversight function.

3.7.1 A SYNOPSIS OF SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Unlike in the case of quantitative research where sampling is used to pursue the logic of
statistical generalisation sampling in qualitative research is a way of managing diversity so
that the variation and variety on the phenomenon under study captures as much as
possible of the empirical material (Flick, 2007). In qualitative studies, sampling can also
follow different logics, some formalised, some purposive and flexible. Marshall and
Rossman (2011) reiterate the fact that in justifying a sample, the researcher should “know
the universe of the possible population and its variability and then sample according to all
of the relevant variables”. The authors also highlight that from the sample population the
size depends on a variety of complex factors. This is perceived as a way of setting up a
collection of deliberately selected cases, materials or events; women in decision-making
and leadership positions in local government in this instance, for constructing a corpus of
empirical examples for studying the phenomenon of interest (Flick, 2007).

3.7.2 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE OF THE RESEARCH POPULATION

For the purpose of locating the study’s debate within a broader context of municipal
functioning, both the administrative and the political inputs are vital. The interdependence
thereof goes a long way in informing and shaping key management and operational
decisions and priorities, hence focus on ensuring that the population is as representative
as possible of the administrative and the political components. The process was carefully
thought-out by being mindful of the complexities associated with the phenomenon under
54
study, the target population and the prevailing political environment. Issues of funding and
time constraints have a direct impact on the sampling and were considered (Marshall and
Rossman, 2011). This study was undertaken at the same time as the ANC’s, which the
ruling party in South Africa and thus the majority in national parliament, provincial
legislatures and local municipalities were preparing itself for their 53rd Congress.
Nominations for ANC’s national leadership were underway and thus local government, as
the sphere closest to the people, where the party branches that nominate this national
leadership are located. The main focus was on this process and the accompanying
contestations which were disruptive with regard to the availability of women in decision-
making and leadership in the political component of local government.

Mixed sampling as referred to by (Flick, 2007) as putting multiple interests and needs into
concrete terms in one sample proves viable for this study. For instance, understanding
gender dynamics for women in decision-making and leadership positions features multiple
interests and needs. These gender dynamics are as reflected by women of themselves
and their roles, by men, institutional policies and procedures. The researcher was however
mindful of the caution raised in (Marshall and Rossman, 2011) that with the required
flexibility from the researcher (3.5.1 above), it is important to consider the fact that “the
sample plans are often subject to change, given the realities of the field research”. That
would be a mix between stratified purposeful and to a lesser extent, snowball sampling
(Welman and Kruger, 2001). The researcher chose stratified purposeful as the study
comprise of purposive sampling of women and men councilors serving as Mayors or as
Members of the Mayoral Committees (MMCs), Executive Managers (Directors) in the
respective municipalities in NDM to ensure that the gendered voices, views and opinions
are captured. Denzin and Lincoln (2000) maintain that, in qualitative research where
purposive sampling is used, the researcher must clearly explain the criteria used for the
selection.

The sample size is based on the size of the municipalities. Some of the municipalities
under study are comparatively small in terms of population. This is according to the
municipality demarcation board. Some are thus bigger on the same basis. For example, in
NDM, eMalahleni and Steve Tshwete Local Municipalities are considered big and
commonly referred to as nodal municipalities whereas Victor Khanye and Emakhazeni are
the smallest. The size of the municipality is also derived from the number of wards and
consequently the number of councilors that constitutes the respective municipality’s

55
council as well as the number of administrative operations’ directorates and executive
directors and officials. Thus, those municipalities that are smaller in size would have a
small number of the research population and the bigger ones have a bigger representation
of the sample population. The researcher has opted to interview all in both. The
breakdown of the sample, drawn from all the municipalities under the NDM jurisdiction is
as presented in (Chapter 1, table: 1) of this study.

3.8 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

In the data collection process, the study has adopted triangulation, that is, collected data
using different methods because this approach is useful for the validation of findings.
These are:

3.8.1 SECONDARY RESOURCES: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

The secondary sources comprised of the municipalities’ official and archival documents
such as, the respective municipalities’ IDP documents as the main master plans with
communities’ inputs, annual reports, spatial development frameworks, gender policies and
related such publications.

3.8.2 PRIMARY RESOURCES:INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP INTERVIEWS AND

OBSERVATIONS

Marshall and Rossman (2011) states that interviews as a method of data collection have
significant benefits in that they yield data in quantity quicker. Immediate follow-ups and
clarifications are possible and when paired with observation and questionnaires (which the
researcher details below), they allow the researcher to gain insight and understanding of
the meanings that everyday activities hold for the participants. The researcher is mindful of
and also acknowledges the limitations of interviews in that they are dependent on trust.
The researcher has trust relationships with participants, based on guidance that these
trust relationships are time-bound and at their worst, the participants’ might be unwilling or
uncomfortable to share all of what the interviewer intends to explore(Marshall and
Rossman, 2011).

3.8.2.1 PHENOMENOLOGICAL INTERVIEWS

The researcher employed individual face to face phenomenological interviews with the
Municipal Managers, Executive Directors, Executive Mayors, Speakers and Chief Whips in

56
the respective municipalities. Explained by (Marshall and Rossman, 2011),
phenomenological interviews are three-pronged, namely; first focus on past experience
with the phenomenon of interest, second focus on the present experience, and the third
linking the first two to describe the individual’s essential experience on the phenomenon.

The selection of in-depth individual interviews with prospective participants is based on the
seniority of these individuals’ in a municipality. It is not appropriate to interview the
Executive Mayor in front of her/his Mayoral Committee Members (MMCs), or the Municipal
Manager in front of her/his Executive Directors. This is, in respect of municipalities’
protocol. Therefore, separating them provides a rather conducive environment with some
level of honesty and openness whilst at the same time respecting the positions these
individuals hold in these institutions. By implication, interviewing this group of participants
constitute what (Marshall and Rossman, 2011) refers to as “interviewing elites –individuals
in positions of power and influence”. The advantage of this type of interviews is that
valuable information can be attained from these participants because of the positions they
hold in social, political, financial or organisational realms (Marshall and Rossman, 2011).

Marshall and Rossman (2011) indicates that these individuals are able to discuss
organisational policies, histories, plans and are familiar with the legal and related
provisions. An interview protocol (Cresswell,2009) or an interview guide (Marshall and
Rossman,2011) was used and the engagement and/or interaction was recorded both by
means of taking written notes and audio-tapes’ recording as part of data management for
transcription. These interviews were based on semi-structured, open-ended questions.
According to (Cresswell, 2009) they should be few in number intended to elicit views and
opinions from the participants. Marshall and Rossman (2011) advise that with guided
interviews the researcher should explore general topics, in this case, on gender dynamics
with regard to women in decision-making and leadership positions in local government.
Further that she should respect the way the participants frame and structure their
responses. Emphasis should be on the fundamental qualitative research assumption that
the participant’s perspective on the phenomena under study should be allowed to unfold
as the participant views, what is termed the emic perspective (Marshall and Rossman,
2011).

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3.8.2.2 OBSERVATIONS

Observations are fundamental and highly important method of data collection in qualitative
inquiries (Marshall and Rossman, 2011). Observations are used to discover complex
interactions in natural settings even in instances wherein in-depth interviews are
conducted. They continue to play an important role. With observation, the researcher is
able to capture those silent gestures that are loaded with useful data that is highly relevant
to the issue discussed. Marshall and Ross (2011) explains, “…the interview partners’ body
language and affect, tone of voice, and other paralinguistic messages”. According to
(Cresswell, 2009) observation is that which the researcher takes field notes of, on the
behavior and activities of individuals at the research site. Cresswell further states that
qualitative researchers may also engage in roles varying from a non-participant to
complete participant using qualitative observations.

In this study, the qualitative observations were conducted in important forums such as the
mayoral imbizos on the IDP and Budget which are consultative forums with all members of
the community wherein the Executive Mayor gives a report back on service delivery
progress and receives further feedback from the community and council sittings wherein
the matters of community and service delivery importance are discussed and decisions
are taken. The researcher was a non-participant observer using observation protocol for
recording information while observing (Cresswell, 2009). The observation protocol was in
the form of a recording sheet separating descriptive notes that are portraits of the
participants, reconstruction of dialogue, descriptions of the physical setting, accounts of
particular events or activities) from reflective notes which are the (researcher’s personal
thoughts, such as speculation, feelings, problems, ideas, impressions and so forth)
(Cresswell,2009).

The researcher used focused observations at these forums. These were considered as
“planful and reflective” observations that will be compiled as full field notes for analysis
(Marshall and Rossman, 2011). Municipal characteristics vary with regard to numbers.
Some municipalities are small and consequently the constitution of the Council and
councilors is relatively small. The same applies to the administrative functions wherein
directorates are small as well. In contrast, some municipalities are larger and so is the
constitution of the Council and councilors as well as the administrative component. For
this reason, the researcher interviewed as many of the target population as possible in
small municipalities to optimise data collection as well as many of the target population as
58
possible in the larger municipalities so as to make up for the smaller ones and for
validation purposes. In this case, interviews were qualitative in-depth interviews (Kvale,
2007).

Another method used for data collection was participant observation. The researcher
visited several municipalities and observed some critical meetings such as the mayoral
community outreach (imbizos), the Council sittings, the IDP and Budget Indabas. These
are meetings wherein the political and administration interface with the community and
other important stakeholders such as business, churches. A combination of data collection
methods make for triangulation in an attempt to obtain an in-depth understanding of the
phenomena that is under investigation (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000).

3.9 DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION

According to (De Vos,et.al., 2011) entails “bringing order, structure and meaning to the
mass of collected data”. The research study used qualitative data analysis as a process of
“inductive reasoning, thinking and theorising” (De Vos,et.al., 2011). Further, (Flick, 2007),
agrees with (Marshall and Rossman, 2006) a search for general statements about
relationships and underlying themes builds grounded theory. An analysis will be done
through coding and categorisation by searching relevant parts of data, analysing and
comparing these with other data and subsequently naming and classifying them to obtain
a structure that will assist in providing “…a comprehensive understanding of the
issue”(Flick, 2007).The study applied document analysis using extensive literature
comparisons in an effort to avoid over-generalisation. Marshall and Rossman (2006)
emphasises that constant comparative data analysis helps in the development of
grounded theories on particular phenomena. That is what is referred to by (Welman and
Kruger, 2001) as content analysis. Premised on this guidance, are preserving data and
meanings and combining the transcripts with preliminary analysis for increased data
efficiency (Marshall and Rossman, 2006).

De Vos, et.al. (2011) advises on the need for testing emergent understanding and
searching for alternative explanations which is a process that entails evaluating how things
that are not in the data could be important. Such a process is meant to evaluate the data
for its usefulness and centrality (De Vos, et.al., 2011), and further reveal negative
evidence that might be worth exploring. Some of those might be events that the research

59
population intentionally seeks to hide such as effects of the researchers preconceived
notions and conscious non-reporting to mention a few (De Vos, et.al., 2011).

According to (De Vos, et.al., 2011), interpretation entails making sense of collected data
and further developing typologies. De Vos, et.al., further mentions two approaches of
interpretation: the emic, first-order and the etic, second-order approach to interpretation.
Both these approaches were used in this study. With regard to the emic, first-order
approach, the researcher interprets the data by finding out how people being studied see
the world, how they define the situation, or what it means to them. Indeed this
interpretation is relevant to gender dynamics with regards to women in decision-making
and leadership positions in local government. It also looks into how they define their
situation or what their situation means to them. The second-order typology is as useful in
that it allows the researcher to elicit the underlying sense of meaning of the data at hand
(De Vos, et.al., 2011). The researcher wishes to acknowledge the possible emergence of
“indigenous typology” referred to in (De Vos, et.al., 2011) in that gender dynamics are a
complex phenomenon and thus susceptible to such emergence.

The researcher presented data by emphasising quality of the end product. The key factors
for consideration were those alluded to by (De Vos, et.al., 2011) namely; credibility or
authenticity, for which case, the study adopted triangulation of different methods.
Transferability is another factor which means that the study can be transferred from a
specific case to another. The researcher referred back to the original theoretical
framework to show how data collection and analysis was guided by concepts and models
(De Vos, et.al., 2011). Another factor is dependability and conformability which was
adequately integrated in the final presentation. The study was guided by the analytical
procedure with the suggested seven phases detailed in (Marshall and Rossman, 2011)
namely; organising data, immersion in the data, generating categories and themes, coding
the data, offering interpretations through analytic memos, searching for alternative
understandings and lastly presenting the report. Of importance is that each of these
phases entailed data reduction at which the reams of collected data are compacted into
manageable chunks and data interpretation wherein the researcher brings meaning and
insight into the words and acts of participants (Marshall and Rossman,2011).

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3.10 RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND GENERALISATION

The researcher has applied validity procedures suggested by (Cresswell, 2009) and those
are; ensuring that transcripts do not contain obvious mistakes, cross-checking the codes
for consistency and thus ensuring that a different coder would arrive at the same codes
used for the same passage “intercoder agreement” as Cresswell refers to this reliability
aspect.

Creswell (2009) further identifies validity as one of the strengths of qualitative research,
the accuracy of the findings is central. This means that the participant, the researcher and
an external reader of the account must be convinced about the accuracy of the findings.
To this effect, the researcher has triangulated different data sources and used that data to
build a coherent justification of the themes (Cresswell, 2009). The use of rich, thick
descriptions to convey the findings were employed to attempt to give readers a glimpse
into the real setting.

At the beginning of the study and at various points in the study, the researcher provides
an honest and open account of her inherent views and opinions (her biases) owing to the
position she holds at the municipality. It is as a result of this that she recuses herself from
observations at the municipality she is employed in. This is in an effort to, as
(Cresswell,2011) encourages, make for a good qualitative research wherein the
researcher can comment on the interpretation of the findings and how they are shaped
and influenced by the researchers’ gender, culture, history and so forth. Furthermore, to
ensure validity the researcher gave a comprehensive account of the research which

includes the negative, contrary information that might emerge. Last, because the
researcher, by virtue of her employment at a municipality is exposed to prolonged time at
the research setting, she spent extended period of time at different municipalities in order
adequately reflect and ensure added advantage to the validity of the study.

3.11 CONCLUSION

Cresswell (2009) states thatgeneralisability is the hallmark of qualitative research. The

researcher argues that gendered experiences of women in decision-making and
leadership positions are not homogenous. That they are defined by a number of varying
socio-economic and political factors such the geographical location of urban and rural, the
levels of education and experience, among others. These factors are not static but evolve

61
over time. As Cresswell states, qualitative research occurs in natural settings where
human behaviour and events take place where occur focus is the participants’ perceptions
and experiences. The researcher therefore, used this background to argue that qualitative
research cannot be generalised as the natural settings, the human behaviour and events
as well as the perceptions and experiences are amenable to change and difference. This
study is, therefore, more particular given the specificity of the target population, the
geographical location, and other related factors such as the political environment within
which local government operate in.

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CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Presentation, analysis and interpretation of findings have adopted a narrative approach

that detail data collected and triangulated through desktop research, interviews and
observations. This is done due to the fact that this study is a qualitative investigation. The
focus of the study was gender dynamics in the context of women in decision-making and
leadership positions within local government. It is perhaps important to state that whilst the
study aimed to limit its data gathering to women in decision-making and leadership within
local government, it became almost natural to include interviews with other women and
men in the system based on referrals and observations. For example, in the observation of
a mayoral Imbizo, an announcement of the researcher’s presence and purpose was
made. Some ordinary community women and men became keen to meet the researcher
and comment on their views of women in leadership, proceedings of the meeting, and
related matters. The task was for the researcher to sift through these information-sharing
encounters and draw important aspects of relevance to the study.

Another example, the researcher would have requested an interview with a female
director, but she would recommend a group interview with other women in middle
management. The benefit of such a recommendation is that it brought more information,
time-saving and the easy and enhanced flow of information as a result of comfort brought
by women sharing same experiences. The gender dynamics that have been revealed
through the data gathering processes proved to be of both positive and negative nature
and impact.

4.2 OVERVIEW OF THE PARTICIPANTS’ PROFILES

In Chapter 1 (table 2) a detailed breakdown of the research participants has been

provided. However, an important addition is first, that women in middle management were
drawn in by their respective seniors. For example, in cases where the positions of
decision-making and leadership were held by men, they recommended that the researcher
at least interact with their female junior managers. In some cases, female managers would
equally recommend that women in middle management should be included. Second, the
inclusion of union shop stewards was another factor. The reason was that according to
labour relations, any matters affecting employees should be communicated with the union
as the employees’ representatives and permission granted. These positions constitute
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decision-making and leadership in the municipalities. Third, the educational and work
experience of those interviewed.

Local government and municipalities were used interchangeably in the study as

municipalities are institutions of local government. There are two components in these
institutions namely; political and administrative. Women and men in decision-making and
leadership positions who were interviewed were from both components. The political
component’s decision-making and leadership positions comprises of Executive Mayors,
Speakers, Chief Whips and Councillors who are appointed to serve as full-time and thus
Members of the Mayoral Committee (MMCs). There are no minimum educational
requirements as these are political deployment positions. The requirements are that one
should belong to and actively serve in the structures of that political party. As a result, the
educational qualifications vary from not having acquired matric to having acquired some
formal qualifications. In essence there are those councillors that are holding senior
decision-making and leadership positions with little or no formal education whilst others
are qualified professionals who are politically active and thus deployed to these positions.

The administrative component is constituted of the Municipal Manager and the Executive
Managers or Directors. These people constituted the research participants in this study
together with middle managers and shop stewards. The minimum requirement for middle
managers in most municipalities is at least a formal higher education qualification and in
the case of Executive Managers a formal higher education qualification and an added
demand for a post-graduate qualification. For shop stewards, it depends on the position
and levels that respective individual holds in the organisation. These union officials are
elected by employees and the requirement is that they are members of the union and
willing to assume leadership. It would have been useful to also interview members of the
South African National Civic Association (SANCO) because they are important
stakeholder as well. Future research should fill this research gap.

4.3 ANALYSIS OF INSTITUTIONAL DOCUMENTS

All the documents stated in (Chapter 3 of this study) about the six municipalities were
readily available on request and therefore documents from all the municipalities were
studied. Most of the municipalities visited were cooperative enough to provide electronic
versions of all the required documents to the researcher which made analysis efficient.
Because these documents are mandatory, the format and outline (provided by the

64
provincial department) is the same across all municipalities, differing only in detail of the
actual information which made the analysis easier. The critique is also relevant in that
whilst it is limited to the NDM municipalities, all documents derive from provincial, national
and international priorities thus providing reasonable insight into those levels as well. For
instance, all municipalities’ IDPs and Budget Plans are premised on the constitution, the
municipal legislations, Provincial Growth and Development Strategies (PGDS), MDGs with
the Vision 2014.

4.3.1. GENDERED SHORTFALLS IN MUNICIPALITIES’ IDPs AND BUDGET PLANS

According to legislation, IDPs and Budget Plans are mandatory planning and budgeting
tools in municipalities as detailed in the (Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000) flowing from
the objects of local government as outlined in the Constitution of the Republic of South
Africa (Act 106 of 1996). These documents are considered amongst the most important
documents of local government in that they are legislatively binding. They are important
documents because with and through them, communities have a direct input into key
institutional priority development areas. They also provide for an interface between
communities and institutions (municipalities) which is done through mandatory
consultative forums. The documents are also important in that it is legislatively mandatory
that they are paired (the IDP accompanied by the budget). They provide financial
accountability of the institutions to the communities they serve in that the budget should
reflect the same priority/ies (as if the key priority areas are for example infrastructure
development, then there should adequate budget allocation in that direction). At the same
time they encourage revenue collections (services’ payments) as communities are able to
see anticipated collections rates which are tied to service delivery. The said documents
are valuable as monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. This is so because as they are
five-year plans which are reviewed annually, they make it possible for the communities to
trace progress with regard to the state of progress on the agreed priority/areas juxtaposed
with budget collections and expenditures.

The study revealed that there are serious deficiencies with regard to the inclusion of
issues pertaining to women’s empowerment and gender equality in the IDPs and Budget
Plans. In view of the fact that most of the municipalities in South Africa are generally
marred by community service delivery protests, Mpumalanga included, priority areas in
most municipalities in NDM is more skewed, leaning more towards infrastructure
development (the provision of water and sanitation, roads, electricity and such related
65
aspects). By implication, the women’s empowerment and gender equality agenda is
viewed in generic terms that majority of women benefit from the provision of these
infrastructure services. This assertion is premised on the fact that women are primary
users of services rendered by municipalities. In a failed attempt to locate the glaringly
absent issues of women in decision-making and leadership in these documents, the
research sought clarity through interviews with some of the participants. There were no
programmes specifically targeted at empowering these women in one way or another as
they are considered as “soft issues”, not directly affecting service delivery in communities
and can thus afford to take a backseat.

The approach that prioritises service delivery issues is disturbing and sabotaging to the
broader gender transformation agenda. If there are no concrete mechanisms to empower
and support women in decision-making and leadership positions (included and budgeted
for in the documents mentioned herein), they (women) will be adversely affected, which is
a gender dynamic on its own. The research could conclude that the absence of such
programmes is used as a disadvantage and as barrier for women’s access to decision-
making and leadership positions. By implication, women will remain disadvantaged,
disempowered and therefore, rendered incapable to make meaningful impact in these
positions. It is however useful to mention the absence in line with a discussion on the two
documents, the IDPs and the Budget. That is particularly so because the rules of the IDP
and the Budget is that what is not included should not be entertained until the review
period. To this end, the research studied archived IDPs and Budget Plans of these
municipalities to see if at any annual review forum, programmes for women in decision-
making and leadership were included and perhaps reprioritised and the result was
negative. The conclusion is that women who are in decision-making and leadership
positions are not considered as an integral part of institutional functioning and operations
and therefore have only themselves to rely on. As local government is predominantly male
environment, the absence of gender transformation programmes in these important
documents entrenches the status quo. The study argues that in order to ensure access to
and the sustainability of women in decision-making and leadership positions, institutions
should decisively include gender transformation as a key priority area coupled with
systems, mechanisms and budgets for implementation. The IDPs and Budget Plans are
such critical mechanisms.

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4.3.2 GENDERED INADEQUACIES IN THE LEDs AND SDFs

Documents such as the LED and the SDF are of a strategic nature in the quest for
advancing and sustaining women into decision-making and leadership positions in the
local government. The LED strategy for example, requires the establishment of a multi-
stakeholder LED forum wherein all local businesses, small to medium and large
companies engage with the respective local municipalities. That is a strategic point for
women in decision-making and leadership positions in local municipalities because LED is
among the core functions of the municipality.

The LED forums are strategic grooming forums for women in decision-making and
leadership positions in local government as they provide knowledge and skills sharing,
and transfer platform with great potential for career progression. However, lack of
adequate institutional support for these forums in municipalities and the identified
stakeholders’ presents a gender dynamic. As revealed in the interviews, LED like
Infrastructure development portfolios are from both the municipalities’ and the
stakeholders mostly headed by male officials. The gender dynamic is the subtle
institutional negligence of making sure that these forums, that are core to the
municipalities’ functioning, have in their ranks women managers and leaders. Further, that
they (LED forums) are used as platform to drive the empowerment of women in decision-
making and leadership positions. Gendered questions that should be posed to these
institutions are for example; would an increased attention to the LED strategies and
forums reveal the hidden aspects of male-dominance and its consequences for women in
decision-making and leadership positions?

It important emphasise that NDM is considered as the economic hub of the Mpumalanga
province. The NDM is home to large mining houses such as Anglo-Coal, BHP Billington,
Extrata Coal, Exxaro. Future gender and development research studies should detail the
number of these mining houses by breaking down exactly how many collieries each have
in NDM, and their contributions to the women’s development agenda. More especially with
regard to advancing women into decision-making and leadership positions. Whilst not
confirmed, a LED coordinator in one municipality indicated that one mining house has
more than (22) collieries, all of them in NDM. Using this information, it is therefore
distressing that LED forums in NDM are not as vibrant as the economy itself. Furthermore,
that women in decision-making and leadership are denied strategic decision-making and
leadership platform.
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From a gendered perspective, the absence of large entities in these forums means the
absence of critical human resources which women (who are already in the employ of the
municipality and those that are from different community structures) would tap into with
regard to human capital that serve as building block for skills, knowledge and expertise –
sharing thus a capacity-building opportunity for decision-making and leadership. The
salient gender dynamic is that of women in decision-making positions in local government
are disadvantaged and denied of a critical platform of input and growth. The platform is
very important in the bigger scheme of development-oriented issues affecting women in
local government.

Last on this aspect, the research revealed another policy and implementation lag. Most
municipalities have comprehensive LED strategies, well-written and packaged documents
but the issue of building a cadre of women in decision-making and leadership is often
overlooked at the expense of SMME development. Focus is limited to making sure that
women enter the fray as entrepreneurs, and thus issues such as fast-tracking business
registrations, access to business financing, and related business support services occupy
prominence in these documents. Whilst this is an important focus and contribution to
women’s empowerment, it is limited. The fact that the LED forums are in the main, male-
driven explains why the LED strategies have the above-mentioned short-comings with
regard to women’s programmes. The research found out that in four of the six
municipalities in NDM, the LED coordinators were male. A future study is recommended to
interrogate processes of input into the LED strategies and the levels of women’s
participation in these.

4.4 ISSUES IN MAYORAL COMMITTEE MEETINGS, COUNCIL CAUCUS AND

SITTINGS

Municipalities are made up of two components, namely; the administration component that
is the implementation thrust of service delivery and the political wing which is in the main
the legislative oversight component. In some municipalities, the researcher was granted
permission to attend institutional forums for observation, with strict confidentiality
instructions. These forums are on the political component, the highest decision-making
forums. In the Mayoral Committee meetings, all operational items are included in the
agenda for discussion and decision by the committee and subsequently passed through to
council for approval.

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The researcher further observed that gender dynamics were definitely at play at these
forums. It was at these meetings that issues of power and power relations, boys’ network,
male superiority could be seen in action. Depending on which item was of interest to which
gender group, notable gender power played out. Because of the inherent patriarchal
notions of male superiority at these settings, instead of the Executive Mayor, Speaker as
the decision-makers and leaders on the political component should command influence
and power, male superiority took over. According to the researcher, men had power and
influence in these settings. They would have lobbied their “boys networks” to ensure
presence at these settings, and from other various factors such as influencing even
women colleagues to take their side, thus presenting a women to women opposition and
strategically siding with the one of these women, who takes up their course, who supports
their agenda and thus disempowering the others.

In one municipality for example, there was an issue (an agenda item as referred to in the
institutions’ terms) that dealt with the resignation of a Municipal Manager and the
subsequent appointment of an Acting Municipal Manager. The outgoing Municipal
Manager was a female who would be replaced, amidst on an acting capacity by a male.
The male colleagues would overpower the female Executive Mayor who would be against
that replacement. Her insistence in this case was that a female candidate should be
replaced by another female candidate. Unfortunately, the boys network coupled with other
women were lobbied to support the male candidate and they won. In such instances,
which were observed in a number of municipalities, women would sell-out fellow women
colleagues in a quest for gaining male approval for future career prospects. The bigger
picture of unity amongst women, which is to forge what the researcher would refer to as a
“strong womanhood bond” which is aimed at supporting one another is heartbreakingly
invisible.

On the contrary, when the item interests women, they still rely on men’s buy-in for the item
to get favourable approval. Salient aspects such as body postures, language - mostly
male authoritative and overall articulation somewhat affirms male authority and superiority.
As one participant mentioned “men are not shy…they argue their point home…actually
they force it home plus they have the support of other men…if even they are wrong they
are still supported…women with their powerful positions follow as lame ducks…they know
they will need the same men sometime”. Another participant added that “…on items
especially…women would know that a male, so and so…has interest on this item…even

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intentions…and they will not even care to stand together and oppose the men…even if in
numbers if they were to vote the women are many…the men would have already
influenced other women to sway the vote into their direction…women are sell-outs…they
don’t like each other…that is why they are always fighting among each…imagine…at such
high levels”.

At the caucus level, the situation is made worse by the fact that the ruling majority political
party is directly involved. It plays a briefing role, a “mandate” to all its councilors, including
the Executive Mayor, Speaker and MMCs. The mandate might be working against other
women, for instance, recalling a mayor or a speaker, such a mandate is not questioned
and most instances it is carried out by men. It is important to highlight that perhaps future
research should deliberate on the composition of office-bearers in political parties and how
those translates into municipal functions. This is precisely because eventually those have
direct bearing on these caucuses at the municipalities. For example, in an attempt to gain
insight into this area, the researcher conducted a brief enquiry that revealed that out of the
five top positions of the Regional Executive Committee (REC) of the ANC as the majority
party in all the municipalities under study, there is only one female who serves as a deputy
secretary. Whilst this is a key position, it comes after the Chairperson, Deputy
Chairperson, Secretary and the Treasurer all of whom are male. This is where the power
to brief caucuses is located. This can be a subject for a national and provincial enquiry as
the status quo is the same at both these levels that are under the ANC majority.

The study concludes therefore that these forums are hostile and could potentially
discourage and dissuade women from occupying positions of decision-making and
leadership as those would inevitably put them in these forums. The researcher is also of
the view that it is not sufficient to have women in decision-making and leadership positions
in local government if the inherent gender dynamics impedes power and influence that
come with occupying these positions. As indicated in the preceding paragraph, the study
could not delve deeper into some of these aspects as they qualify for an in-depth study in
the future.

4.5 ISSUES OF WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP IN COMMUNITY MEETINGS AND

MAYORAL IMBIZOS

In the data collection phase of the study, the researcher attended several community
meetings, especially IDP and Budget consultative forums as well as Mayoral Imbizos in

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the municipalities under study. The aim was to observe the women in decision-making and
leadership positions in action, at work. It is indeed encouraging to note that women are
taking these forums seriously and thus attend in their numbers. In the interviews, the issue
of women’s active involvement and participation came out strongly. At this point, the
research study would limit the analysis only to the observations at the said public
participation forums. It is important to also highlight that both the administrative and
political wings of municipalities interfaced in giving feedback on implementation progress
and gathering community further input and feedback. Both the political and administrative
decision-makers and leaders were directly involved; they actually were at the forefront of
these forums in planning, convening and facilitating them. The Mayors, Speakers, Chief
Whips with the MMCs and the Municipal Manager and all the Directors joined forces at
these forums. It was indeed an advantageous and insightful platform as it brought to
surface live interactions between the women themselves, between them and their male
counterparts, between them and the community.

The research study limited observations only to as far observing gender dynamics with
respect to women in decision-making and leadership positions is concerned. On a general
scale though, there were fascinating observations with regard to public participation in
local government, development broadly as perceived by communities, that should be
taken up for future research.

Despite the fact that women were in the majority in all the public forums the researcher
attended, the male superiority and female insubordination patterns continued to show. For
example, there were different ways in which community members would address the
female leaders (both political and administrative) and their male counterparts. When
addressing female leaders, there would be undertones of disrespect, fuelled by the lack of
service delivery as a common challenge in most communities. However, with the same
challenges, when addressing men, there would be a sense of respect and understanding.
In actual fact, male councilors and managers were the ones that would call for order and
respected whereas women counterparts would be howled at or regularly disrupted.

The distinction was clear that in one meeting, feeling severe pressure of disrespect, the
mayor walked out of the community meeting and threatened immediate resignation. In
another meeting, a group of disruptive, mostly male community members would render the
meetings ungovernable with threats of violence only when the female mayor was
scheduled to address the community. The group would go as far as influencing the
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community to stay away from such meetings or to join in the disruption against the female
mayor.These forums took place under heavy police presence. When the mayor decided
not to attend those meetings and deployed a male colleague, the meetings ran as
planned. That is if by luck, that deployed male colleague decides not to disregard the
deployment usually stating valid but convenient reasons (for example sickness, family
funeral). Such observations revealed the amount of challenges and frustrations that
women in leadership endure as well as the stress and hostility of the environment they
operate in.

The same gendered hostility was brewed between women to women, wherein if they both
occupy decision-making position, they are pitted against each other. These meetings are
therefore used to illustrate the other women’s inefficiencies. For example, between the
Mayor and the Speaker, the Mayor accounts mainly for service delivery and the speaker
for public participation. Issues of service delivery are therefore emphasised to show the
mayor’s failures outside the fact that as a council, all councilors are accountable to
oversee service delivery. The female Mayor would have to bear the brunt of community
attack and ridicule and if the Municipal Manager is female, she would offload the blame on
administration and direct it to the Municipal Manager which meant opening her up for
criticism. This is sad because in the case where it is a male in the same situation, they
protect him, they would stand with one another and cover-up for one another at all costs.
There were salient gendered messages that were communicated by these forums, that
decision-making and leadership positions in local government is not a female terrain, and
on a larger perspective, that local government is not a field of occupation for women. In
essence, this hostility silently kill ambitions and aspirations of young women who attend
these meetings who would otherwise wish to enter local government in the future. This is
not an expression that women in decision-making and leadership positions should be
treated differently or as other participants stated with kids’ gloves. The point made is that
the attitudes, the behaviours and the general reception are hostile to women as opposed
to men. The hostility carries with it a message that women must unfortunately conform to
the masculine-oriented character and nature, “develop a thick skin” and be “as rude as
they are” as exclaimed by one participant in the community meeting (a young woman from
the community) who sat next to the researcher during an aggressive exchange.
Furthermore, because local government has been a predominantly male entrenched
environment, the feminine characteristics and qualities are seen as not fitting, hence the
expectation that women should conform.
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4.6 ANALYSIS OF INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND POLICIES FOR WOMEN’S
EMPOWERMENT AND GENDER EQUALITY.

In the above critique (4.2), the research in-depthly studied institutional documents that are
public in nature, most of which are mandatory according to relevant local government
legislation. In this part of the study, the research looks at the internal structures that have
a direct bearing on women’s empowerment and gender equality and thus consequently for
women in decision-making and leadership positions in these institutions. Those that the
research considered vital in understanding internal programmes with regard to women that
are in decision-making and leadership are; organisational structures, workplace skills
plans (WSPs), employment equity plans (EEPs) and gender policies and/or strategies.

4.6.1 WEAKNESSES AND STRENGTHS IN ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES OF

THE DIFFERENT MUNICIPALITIES

It is important to highlight the fact that because these municipalities are in the same district
(NDM) and the same Province, their functional operations are the same as they are
centrally coordinated by the NDM. The researcher would like to credit the said
coordination, and note that it demonstrated the need for district municipalities as
coordinating institutions. As was the case with NDM, it played an effective role that
promotes uniformity whilst taking cognisance of the differences especially those brought
about mostly by the rurality of other municipalities. Coordination was so effective that in all
the municipalities that were visited, they had more or less the same priority, depending on
the community needs, and with regard to the organisational structures, all municipalities
attested to the fact that they were convened by the district to present respective
organisational structures (old and reviewed versions) and collectively (with input from
sister municipalities) corrected. All these municipalities were given a mandate to include
the revised structures in the respective IDPs, budget and implement changes in phases by
setting priorities according to respective growth and human capital needs. The manner in
which coordination took place, the knowledge and expertise shared among the
municipalities and contributed to the coherence in the district.

Weaknesses are the inequities between women and men across all levels in the
organisational structures. Analysis was done in a way that looks at the positions, the
levels, and the incumbents (in female and male distinction). A closer look at most
municipalities’ organisational structures revealed that women were in their majority at the

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lower levels of the structures (as cleaners, waste removal officers, litter pickers, street
sweepers, general assistants, administration clerks, secretaries and receptionists). Men
were in the majority (refuse removal tipper and water-tank truck drivers, law enforcement
officers, tractor drivers, sewer plant operators, mechanics) which are also considered
lower levels in the municipalities. Technically therefore, at first glance, if lower levels are
studied the general agreement would be that women and men are equally placed.
However, from a gender lenses, there were gender disparities and inequalities especially
those that entrench stereotypes about women and men’s occupations.

The study further, maintains that strategically, there are inequalities of privilege; men’s
lower positions are prestigious and skills-based. For example, a driver must possess a
driver’s license and internally in all municipalities, there are advanced driver tests and
trainings conducted regularly in compliance with occupational health and safety legislation.
These tests and trainings relate to skills development that advances one’s career progress
and prospects. On the contrary, women are concentrated in the positions of cleaning
which is an extension of their home chores. This perpetuates gender stereotypes. As
cleaners, street sweepers, litter pickers and there are no skills required. In actual fact the
gender stereotypes referred to earlier serves as a requirement (women clean better). The
same can be said about receptionist, secretaries, and administration clerks. Their career
progression and prospects are through to the very next junior position. For example, in
one municipality, the secretary of the Head of Department (HOD) was a receptionist and
promoted to being a secretary and another woman who fortunately studied whilst she was
a street sweeper and managed to get her matric is now promoted to being the
receptionist.

Women’s promotions rotate in the same levels whereas with male drivers, the next level is
supervisor which signals an entry into middle management. For this research a key issue
to ponder on in this regard is how organisational structures are used to reinforce
organisational gender stereotypes between men and women’s occupations which
strategically hinder and or block women’s entry into decision-making and leadership.
Those organisational structures have also been neglected as a powerful advocacy and
lobbying tool for effecting institutional gendered changes to benefit and sustain women
into decision-making and leadership positions. For example, in the case where an
organisational structure depicts glaring gender under-representation, there are no plans or

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programmes at recruitment and selection levels to correct the situation as the research
gathered.

In order for women to improve their promotional prospects they must put in an extra effort
mostly through studying, which is on its own an added burden to balancing child-rearing,
caring for the family, other community roles and work. In hindsight, whilst the study
acknowledges that the lower level occupations for both women and men mentioned carry
significant health hazards, namely; heavy trucks, stop-and start-driving in the case of
refuse collection through the day, the same can be said with litter picking and street
sweeping which means standing the whole working day. However, a close comparison
would reveal that women, and in this example, litter pickers and street sweepers, bear the
harshest working conditions exacerbated by for example the weather. In winter, the
weather is cold and in summer it is hot, heavy rains and harsh winds. Another worrying
factor is that from the observations, the researcher could not readily access restrooms.

At the levels of Sectional Managers, Heads of Departments (HODs), Directors (sometimes

referred to as Senior Managers), gender inequalities are equally blurred. Supervisors and
Sectional Managers constitute middle managers and the HODs and Directors together
with the Municipal Managers constitute senior (executive) management of the respective
municipalities. Again, analysis was conducted in the same manner as with lower levels
above, that is, studying the positions, levels of the incumbent (female or male distinction)
on the organisational structures. At a glance, organisational structures could be
misleading with regard to gender equality. Because all these levels are at management, at
face value it appears as though females and males are equally placed.

It is with a gender lens synthesis that it was noted that supervisors and sectional heads
are middle managers which is where females are in majority. The HODs, Directors and
Municipal Managers, are in the majority, males. Furthermore, there is a direct political
influence and a decision is taken by the (majority political party) on who is “deployed” into
these positions of senior management that are said to be strategic positions. This is one
reason why there are majority males than females in these positions which case
qualifications, experience, expertise and knowledge unfortunately do not matter. The
suggestion is that the incumbents in the senior management positions should somehow
have connections and affiliations to the majority political party in order to be able to garner
the necessary support for incumbency into these positions. As one participant whispered
for fear of being heard “…they mustn’t lie…we don’t even bother to apply for this positions
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as before as they are advertised no matter how qualified one is, we already know who will
be appointed so why waste your time…” There was an agreement from other participants
that “…most of those deployees get her at we have to teach them work…they are political
heavyweights…are friends with so…and so but fact is they do not have a clue of their
position and what is expected of them”.

Of relevance to this study drawing from these responses is that again mostly male (REC
as stated in 4.2) which is key in deployments is likely (and has in most instances)
deployed other men. This is done without regard for the national gender transformation
agenda. That is ensuring women’s access to decision-making and leadership is given
effect and that it should cascade down to local government levels.

There are salient gender dynamics in these deployments because in cases where women
have been deployed, they were not put there on merit. If this was the case, then and that
those women were equally incompetent as their male counterparts. As one participant
boldly stated “…the women that come to these positions are as clueless…they slept their
way here…or are related to so and so who is a friend to so…and so…in their political
circles”. In addition “…unfortunately if you don’t want to pay in kind, through sex and
relationships and you also don’t have connected friends, brothers or sisters…you will
remain in this position until you retire or die”. The researcher thought that issues pertaining
to sexual advances, favours and harassment deserve to be discussed separately and
have been detailed below. For this part of the study however, it is important to highlight
that the organisational structures analysis confirmed that women managers are relatively
low in numbers. There is however one municipality in the NDM that has a female
Municipal Manager, Mayor and two Directors with only one male director (the CFO) which
is impressive. Unfortunately, at the time of completing this study, the researcher went back
to the same municipality and was informed that the Municipal Manager abruptly resigned.

Organisational structures are an important tool of advancing women into decision-making

and leadership positions within local government institutions and should not be
overlooked, especially the salient gender dynamics contained therein that makes them
appear gender-sensitive and responsive at face value but falling short of a gendered
analysis. To this end, the research study has gathered some recommendations drawn
from participants that would be outlined in the next (Chapter 5).

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4.6.2 SHORTFALLS AND SUCCESSES IN WSPs, GENDER POLICIES AND EEP

The WSP and the EEPs are mandatory as required by the Department of Labour. Gender
policies in local, provincial and national government are set out in the (National Policy
Guidelines on Women’s Empowerment and Gender Equality, 2000) which are not are not
mandatory. Some of the challenges stem from the lack of mandatory enforcement by the
policy guidelines.

In the all municipalities in South Africa, including those in NDM, the WSP and the EEPs
are vital documents to addressing some of the gender dynamics facing women in
decision-making and leadership positions across all spheres of government and in the
private sector. The internal processes governing the submissions of these documents are
of significance. This is so because before submissions, these documents undergo
rigorous internal consultation processes that are; departmental management, union-
employer working groups, local labour forum (LLFs) prior to their approval and
submission. Active involvement of the unions in these documents is laudable because in
all municipalities, the researcher noted that the unions were vibrant.

There were however, challenges with regard to the regularity of the sittings of the LLFs
which would, on their own, require focused studies on women’s active involvement and
participation. This is so because like LED forums, the LLFs provide an even more strategic
platform for women to influence key decisions that cuts across the whole municipality
functioning and operations. It could also very well serve as a training platform for women
into decision-making and leadership as this is a decision-making forum wherein the
employer and employees, through representation by the various active unions in
respective municipalities regularly meet (once a month). Critical issues such as
organisational structures, conditions of work, employment and transfer policies are
discussed and agreed upon in these meetings for processing through council.
Unfortunately, in the LLF only members of Senior Management (HODs and Directors)
represent the employer and shop stewards represents their respective unions.

Having argued above in (4.6.1) on women’s absence in senior management and the
consequences, those majority women who are in middle management will not get
exposure and experience gained at these strategic forums by virtue of their levels and
location in the organisational structures. The same can be said about senior management
meetings which are the core administrative decision-making forums in municipalities. If

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women are not well represented as senior managers, key strategic organisational
decisions are taken by men, to the detriment of women. More especially those women that
would be otherwise prepared in these forums for future decision-making and leadership
positions. Furthermore, the absence of women as shop stewards in unions is also a sore
point.

It is important to reinstate the fact that this is a feminist research where the researcher is
able to reflect on his/her experiences. Having mentioned earlier in the research that the
researcher is herself a Director (see chapter 1), she found it interesting that at her very
first meeting of the LLF in her municipality, there were only two women (one Director and
one shop steward) surrounded by a group of more than twenty male colleagues among
them were, shop stewards, HODs and Directors. The LLF is a direct competency of the
Director (Administration – Corporate Services as usually referred to). In this meeting, there
was an item for discussion on grey areas, which was people who were promoted but their
salaries and levels not adjusted. This became which a highly contested area on the
union’s side. The issue was that the budget for those adjustments could only be included
in the IDP reviews of the next year. This was the point of dissatisfaction.

As a new employee in the institution, and a woman in the midst of so many men, yet the
main player with such a sensitive matter on the agenda, demonstrated for the purpose of
the study, the need to for women to participate in these forums. This is so to facilitate skills
acquisition, education and experience but also ensure the critical mass to make the
environment receptive. The study doesn’t imply that women would support her, but should
rather provide at least, the sense of belonging. Of importance were the gender dynamics,
the word was out that there was a new female. Director and the forum would be used to
assess and test her strengths, knowledge and expertise and thus gauge future
engagements and interactions. Drawing from the researcher’s experience, the question is,
would it be the same with a male director? The researcher argues that most likely not.
Instead there would be some understanding among the men that he is new and should be
given a briefing. Men would have already formed alliances to support him.

The study intentionally chose to illustrate and highlight gender dynamics inherent in these
strategic forums, decision-making and leadership building and capacitation potential as
well as the future career progression and prospects they present prior to focusing on the
WSPs and the EEPs. The said intention is motivated by the fact that the processes are the

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ones loaded with gender dynamics. Processes for adopting decisions would, in the same
manner be in management meetings that are predominantly male.

Women and men’s experiences in life in the home, family and community which includes
the workplace are different. These experiences shape and inform how and what they bring
in formal places such as the workplace and other settings. The underlying gender
dynamics, for example power relations, language and postures in these meetings, could
largely be intimidating to women more than the issues (the documents and in this case the
WSPs and EEPs) that are supposed to be discussed at these forums. The fact that the
unions are active with inputs from employees makes most of the WSPs and EEPs appear
as women’s empowerment and gender equality driven. The popularly expressed challenge
is with the implementation as echoed by most participants was the view that “…the
documents have good intentions but year in year out we see the same things…due to lack
of implementation on the part of the employer and …we suggest that Labour must now put
penalties on non-implementation”. There is, therefore, a disjuncture in what is outlined in
the documents and that which is the state of affairs. A future study could attempt to
explore the link between the WSPs, EEPs and how they shape and inform the reviews of
Organisational Structures from a gendered perspective. Gender dynamics are embedded
in the processes than in the actual documents.

All municipalities did not have a council adopted gender strategies and/or policies. In
municipalities where there was an attempt, the documents were still at drafts, and had
been so for a number of years. This is extremely distressing, considering that all women’s
empowerment and gender equality programmes, including the renowned gender
mainstreaming programme would soon receive endorsement and consequent budget
allocations.

4.7 INCREASED WOMEN’S INVOLVEMENT AND PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL

GOVERNMENT

Contrary to the claim that women have neglected active participation in local government
(Van Donk, 2000), women have heeded the call to make local government an area of high
interest. Women continue intensify advocacy and lobbying for women’s active involvement
and participation in local government, with specific gendered objectives of course. The
participants logically pointed out that active involvement and participation strategically
facilitates entry. Participants further stated that it was with entry that progression into

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decision-making and leadership positions follows. Generally, there is an agreement
among participants that women’s involvement and participation in local government has
visibly increased at both community and institutional levels. First, participants’ cited the
increase in the number of women in ward committees, community development workers
who operate on a provincial mandate (Department of Social Development) but operate on
a day-to-day basis directly with and from the municipalities. The insistence on pushing for
women to occupy these positions was because these positions are considered important
in facilitating entry in municipalities. That is breaking past male-dominance in the local
government sector. In their view, regular interactions with the municipalities as required by
these positions provide relevant experience and insight that could be useful for future
career prospects. Second, participants also pointed out to an increase in women
managers, women councilors and that in some instances women occupy important
decision-making and leadership positions both politically as Executive Mayors, Speakers
and administratively as Managers, Directors and Municipal Managers.

The researcher also conducted interviews with most of the Gender and Transversal
Coordinators in all the six municipalities under NDM. These coordinators are what the
researcher would refer to as operational custodians and gate-keepers of all women’s
empowerment and gender equality related matters in these institutions. The Gender and
Transversal Coordinators, in all the municipalities the researcher interacted with, held a
common view that women’s involvement and participation in local government affairs was
at an all-time high. According to the participants, “…women are very active in the
municipalities…as entrepreneurs they tender from catering for official functions by the
municipality and visiting provincial departments through to sub-contracting under big
companies for roads and buildings constructions and other infrastructure development
that are relatively large scale…” The sentiments were the same in both rural and peri-
urban municipalities, but in the rural municipalities, participants added the fact that
“…women take active interest in the municipalities’ affairs because most of the men here
are not around, they work in distance places and only come home month –end”. There
was however, caution about challenges that come with women’s active involvement and
participation in municipalities’ affairs some of which are covered below as important data
categories in the analysis. Women’s involvement and participation is contextualised to
present a strategic foundation for women’s entry and subsequent progression into
decision-making and leadership positions as it is the focus of this study.

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The general consensus among participants, however, is that it is of critical importance that
women take an active interest in local government as it provides them with an entry point
into a territory where, decisions directly affected women were naturally taken by male.
Such involvement and participation also provides an opportunity to input and influence the
development direction the municipalities’ should take, thus influencing decisions on the
institutions’ priorities.

Impressive elements of collectively-shared advocacy and lobbying strategy that seemed to

be common in most of the municipalities were revealed during the study. The strategy is to
encourage women’s active involvement and participation at elementary levels of
municipalities in order to facilitate entry as stepping stones towards decision-making and
leadership. Also indicated by the participants, decision-making and leadership were not
stereotypically limited to holding the positions as suggested by the study. Decision-making
and leadership were rather viewed in the context of influencing decisions, through active
involvement and participation in any of the municipalities’ forums through ensuring that
their interests and input are registered. One participant said that “…most women
councillors started off with active participation at community meetings…it improved their
status in the community…they started being regarded as potential councillors as they
seemed to voice out community issues better and their candidacy was then supported…”
A more synthetic analysis of this statement is that participation in the lower structures is
fundamentally important to grooming women leaders.

4.8 WOMEN MANAGERS AND LEADERS’ CONTRIBUTIONS TO IMPROVING

SERVICE DELIVERY

Participants highlighted the fact that women’s entry into decision-making and leadership
positions would significantly contribute to a large extent on improving service delivery
albeit with challenges. Aspects that stood out in this category were those that linked
women’s traditional roles and responsibilities with the municipalities’ core services and
directly affected women in the majority. Women in decision-making and leadership
positions in the municipalities is not an issue viewed in the narrow sense of making sure
that women are represented in the higher echelons. Rather, women’s entry into these
positions is viewed in the broader beneficial perspective of ensuring that service delivery is
improved as women would better understand service delivery priorities that would
subsequently improve the quality of life of women in communities. One participant retorted
“…we have water problems here, we go for days without water and there is no
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communication from the municipalities as to when water will be cut and when it will be
reconnected…as women we have school children uniform to wash…we have to cook…we
must clean…only women understands our work with water is huge and that women must
be councillors…to tell this to the municipality…” This is a good example ensuring women’s
active involvement in matters directly affecting them. That is acknowledging that women
have important and unique contributions to make in the development and appropriate
management of the services rendered by municipalities (IULA).

Women’s into decision-making leadership positions (especially councillors as community

representative and leaders) within local government is viewed as potentially putting
women’s service delivery priorities on the agenda. There is also an acknowledgement that
some women gets into these positions and sabotage the good intentions. Such women
use the platform to pursue their own selfish interest. One participant stated that “some
women councillors fail us…they get there and misuse their status, they enrich themselves
and forget completely about women in the communities that have put them there…they
sell stands illegally, demand bribe for giving jobs and these stands, they do all sorts of
illegal things to enrich themselves…”.

4.8.1 CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES FOR WOMEN IN DECISION-MAKING

AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

According to Evertzen in (Krook,2010) women must fully take part in the local democratic
system and have full access to decision-making structures. The researcher encourages
them that eligibility criteria for the local level are less stringent and can serve as the first
level. The researcher adds that local government is an orientation level, for women to
serve in and acquaint themselves with formal legislative environments that can help them
build capacities and gain valuable experiences. The researcher further states that this
exposure will help springboard women through to national politics. Participants, however,
held the view that women’s access to decision-making and leadership positions is marred
with serious challenges that compromises the women’s empowerment and broader
gender transformation agenda. An interesting aspect is that both the women in political
and administrative decision-making and leadership positions agreed that there were
challenges, and some hard choices that they were confronted with daily in their work
situations that could discourage women’s access into these positions. For instance as one
participant stated that “…honestly it is challenging to occupy these positions…it is a good
thing that they are contractual…one hopes to only serve her five year term and never
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return…the challenges are daunting and what is even more difficult is that one has to be
quiet …you don’t ask some of the things that are obviously wrong but you are silenced as
you will face undesirable consequences…” The same sentiments were repeated albeit
with a different emphasis” that it is a political environment so women are expected to
behave in a certain way, be quiet…like Barbie dolls…we are silenced…” These
statements signals high levels of discontentment and deeper probing led to the following;

4.8.1.1 DAUNTING GENDERED EXPECTATIONS AND SILENCES

Kronsell (2005) argues that studying silences remains a difficult methodological challenge
in that analysis of what is not said is a crucial part of feminist research. Also described in
(Youngs, 2004) describes these silences as going “behind the appearance [to] examine
how differentiated and gendered power constructs the social relations that form reality”.
Challenges might be daunting but a lot about the said challenges goes unsaid. According
to the researcher’s observation, fear of being isolated, or rather of facing consequences is
so intense that even when presented with an opportunity to express these challenges,
women in these positions remain vulnerable and overwhelmed. In attempt to read through
these silences by using simple probing questions such as “what are these expectations of
women that participants kept repeating”, the researcher could only conclude that it is
“behaving like a woman and being quiet, not challenging anything and leaving it for the
men to decide”. Which then points to the fact that presence doesn’t necessary translate to
influence. The said gendered expectation has tokenism connotations to it. It is almost as
though women were done a favour by occupying the positions that they are in and
therefore, should be somewhat grateful by keeping quiet. One male participant said
“…had it not been for the demands of 50/50 gender balance women wouldn’t be here, we
expect them to toe the line or just shut up” which indicated stereotypical views of women.
In instances where women are the decision-makers and leaders, for instance wherein they
are the Executive Mayors, Speakers, Directors and Municipal Managers gender dynamics
rear their ugly heads. The said gendered expectations continue to play a big role in that, it
is expected of these women to extensively consult and source buy-in from male
colleagues if they are to be supported.

On the contrary, males occupying the same positions feel that they should be supported
by the other male and expect women to naturally support them as they do not have a
choice. This is also an unfortunate connotation that the workplace is an extension of the
family and the community and that in those spaces; males are the heads who are
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entrusted with decision-making powers. For the researcher, this is very sad that despite
the hype of gender transformation advocacy, education and training activities,
programmes and related interventions, such skewed gender expectations persist in
institutions such as local government. It also brings forth the importance of thoroughly
engaging with the nexus brought about by the broader societies’ culture, tradition and the
human rights culture that drives the gender transformation agenda.

4.8.1.2 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND SILENCES IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Municipalities are political institutions in which it is believed that both women and men who
enter decision-making and leadership positions do so because of the political party they
represent and not in their personal capacities. This therefore means that the individual is
forever indebted to that political party that can “recall” or “redeploy” them as and when the
need arises. Individuals who are in these positions, therefore, tend to be silent for fear of
being labelled as “anti-revolutionary” and suffer the consequences. These silences are
highly prevalent and a disturbing phenomenon in these institutions. The argument is that
these silences are loaded with potentially damaging examples for the future generations
who aspire to enter local government at both political and administrative levels. For
example, if tokenism is allowed to entrench itself, it blurs the line for revealing women’s
capabilities, expertise and experiences acquired in their terms of office as they are
expected to keep quiet whilst men display the same and gain recognition which leads to
career advancement. Moreover, the said silences are loaded with fear of victimisation
such as sexual harassment. Some participants revealed that there are numerous
incidences of both sexual advancement and harassment in some municipalities in the
NDM. The researcher intentionally mentions advancement and harassment to denote the
differentiation that participants pointed out. With regard to sexual advancement, the
participant alludes to the fact that there might be mutual agreement where the male
employees advances and is accepted. In the words of one participant “…there are many
such relationships…some are genuine, whilst some are meant for protection and favours”
On sexual harassment, it is when intimidation, threats, and force are used when the
advancement is not welcomed but the recipient is forced to be silent for fear of further
victimisation. Whilst these were said to be minimal, they exist and because of fear of
humiliation, they go unreported. One senior manager adds “one senior politician told me to
my face that I will not last so long I think I am better…I refuse his advance…he tries very

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hard to negatively influence everyone to find fault in my work…how do I tell everyone that
it is because I refuse his advances…” These are the daunting gendered silences.

4.9 GENDERED NEXUS: CULTURE, TRADITION AND HUMAN RIGHTS

There was emphasis on the related yet at times opposing link between culture, tradition
and human rights from the responses by participants. When the researcher compared this
emphasis from both the rural and the peri-urban municipalities that the research took
place in, there were similar expressions centred on this nexus. McEwan (2000) and the
Women’s Charter for Effective Equality (WCEE, 1992) indicate that some of the
challenges present today in institutions such as local government are that democracy and
human rights have been defined and interpreted in terms of men’s experiences. One may
contend that perhaps democracy and human rights came at the time wherein men
commanded authority and thus manipulated these to reflect their own masculine agendas.
Unfortunately though is that for democracy and human rights to be meaningful for women,
space must be created for women to participate in, and shape the nature and form of the
country’s democracy (McEwan, 2000).

There was emphasis on the rural municipalities which was attributed to the fact that
culture and tradition are highly regarded in these in the responses by participants. In these
settings, gender transformation is, mentioned by one participant “…taken with a pinch of
salt…issues of gender equality is at the backseat…” This is so in most of these rural
areas where traditional authorities highly respected institutions.

The views of participants were that in these areas culture and tradition define how women
should behave, their roles and responsibilities in the community and that most of the
development decisions are made by men. Gouws (2008) argues that the conflict among
culture, tradition, and universal human rights as embodied in the South African
Constitution (Act 106, 1996) is such that customary law protects the positions of men in
traditional communities to the detriment of women. There are still significant levels of
gender discrimination and oppression in these areas which result in disadvantaging
women when it comes to into decision-making positions in local government. Ndashe
(2005) and (Gouws, 2008) states that women experience multilayered forms of oppression
in the home, the community, the workplace. That which is referred to as the triple
oppression (Ndashe, 2005). These realities would if understood in the context of the
participants above, not be entertained in the mainstream institutional discourses because

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they are the salient gender dynamics. These are the expectations and silences that are
intentionally left out of gender transformation discourses. The challenges therefore, are in
reforming customary law and aligning it with institutional human rights discourse that
would serve to advance gender transformation as an institutional priority area (Gouws,
2008),.

4.10 WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION-MAKING AND LEADERSHIP

POSITIONS AND CHALLENGING HEGEMONIC MASCULINITIES.

Kronsell (2005) mentions hegemonic masculinity which refers to a particular set of

masculine norms and practices that have become dominant in specific institutions of social
control. To become hegemonic, cultural norms must be supported by institutional power
Kronsell maintains. With the research, there was affirmation that it is true as (Kronsell,
2005) maintains that when a woman, whether feminist or not, becomes part of an all-male
organisation, her presence challenges masculine-defined and determined norms and
values. As pointed out by most participants, local government has been and continues to
be a predominantly male environment. Therefore, women’s entry into it is continuously
viewed as a “mission”, a continuous and daunting task of undoing and challenging this
male dominance and the accompanying masculine norms and values.

The researcher found it useful to use this unit of analysis and draw similarities with those
used in (Kronsell, 2005) which deal with the military and defense organisations as male
and masculine organisations. Participants contended that despite women’s entry and
subsequent progression into decision-making and leadership positions, the male
dominance is perceived as the ultimate norm. Kronsell (2005) says that the military and
defense institutions which are the hegemonic masculinity tend to represent and validate
specific notions of masculinity in ways that make it the norm. Kronsell advises that such
institutions could best be approached through a feminist methodology. With Kronsell’s
advice in mind the researcher used critical analysis to delve deeper into what appears to
be ‘normal’ in institutional practice and by “listening to the voices of women” and
developing a “feminist standpoint perspective” in daily institutional practices (Kronsell,
2005).

Reflecting on women’s daily lived experiences in relation to their experiences in their

positions of influence and power, participants revealed that male dominance in local
government remains the status quo and that it would remain so for a very long time. They

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attributed this to the lack of whole commitment. When probed further, the participants
stated “partial commitment”. One participant said “…women are a good to have as
everybody talks about women…just so we are seen to be addressing gender equality as a
country…in the institution itself…the men rule…we can’t do much”. This highlights the fact
that gender equality and gender transformation are superficial in the sense that the
institutions (municipalities in local government) remain male-oriented, masculine in nature
and form where women have to conform if they are to survive in them. With further
probing, participants referred to the fact that at different levels of government, starting from
national, provincial through to local government, the reality was that men continue to be in
the forefront as far as taking up influential decision-making positions is concerned. That,
according to the participants, has a “trickle down” effect and, reiterates the fact that
women’s entry into these institutions struggles with freeing themselves from the masculine
shackles that have a strong grip in these male-dominant institutions.

The researcher acknowledges that women’s experiences are different from men in that as
women managers and leaders they have to “change modes in a flash…at home I take
instructions…I submit to my husband and at work somehow these men must submit to
me…” She chooses to refer to this challenge as “double gender jeopardy” in that; on one
hand women have to affirm their position, and still not lose their femininity while on the
other hand they breakdown the hegemonic masculinities which men are so over-protective
of. Kronsell (2005) agrees that “…institutions largely governed by men have produced and
recreated norms and practices associated with masculinity and heterosexuality… not
explicitly expressed, in some of these institutions hegemonic masculinity has become the
norm”.

4.11 WOMEN LEADERS’ STRUGGLES WITH INSTITUTIONAL GENDERED POWER

AND POWER RELATIONS IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

It is true that not only are gender relations seen to be ‘institutional’, but they are
‘institutionalised’ (Kenney, 1996 and Connell, 2002). These authors further state that
gender relations are embedded in particular political institutions, (local government), and
thus constrain and shape social interactions in these institutions.

Male dominance in these institutions of government translates to a tussle of power and

power relations as well as male-oriented institutional cultures between females and males
at both political and administrative levels. Male colleagues are considered to be powerful

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and that power usually has connotations of a command for respect. That is drawn from
statements such as the one by a woman leader who said “…so and so, referring to a male
colleague, is powerful and well respected…even by the executive mayor…what he says
goes…no doubt”. And the fact that “if as you are to be respected as a woman in
leadership…you must identify powerful males as your sidekicks…so that they can protect
you”. These statements affirm what (Mackay, Kenny and Chappell, 2010, Hawkesworth,
2005) say that gender should be understood as a constitutive element of social relations
based upon perceived (socially constructed and culturally variable) differences between
women and men, and as a primary way of signifying (and naturalising) relationships of
power and hierarchy. Gender, therefore, operates at the interpersonal subjective level
through which individuals identify themselves and organise their relations with others.

Flowing from participants’ responses is that first ,women in leadership positions still feel
the need for male approval or alliance to be recognised because men’s presence and
input are considered meaningful. Second, women still over-rely on male colleagues than
female ones. It is astonishing to realise that, as the researcher observed, that women
continue not to rely upon one another in an environment where such a reliance “women to
women” should serve as a buffer for the said “male power”. The research argues that
women could be united to make themselves one another’s support structure and
overpower the male power. Furthermore, the study points that with this male reliance,
women are themselves legitimising male power and thus give credence to male-oriented
power relations. One male participant mentioned that “unfortunately women like to accept
things they can’t stand for… they are not ready for leadership so they are irritating in this
positions…they want to be baby sited throughout”. The issue of networks and support
structure came out strongly and thus deserved a detailed discussion of its own below.

The study validates the view held by (Collinson, 2003) that a closer scrutiny of subjectivity
and its insecurities (women’s male reliance is perceived as but one aspect of these
insecurities) can be of assistance in enhancing the understanding of the ways that
organisational power relations are reproduced, rationalised, resisted and sometimes even
transformed within the workplace. The researcher believes that future research studies in
this area would add value to feminist studies of women in decision-making positions.

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4.12 GENDERED INSTITUTIONAL CULTURES AS DETERRENTS FOR WOMEN’S
LEADERSHIP

Participants referred to a number of other aspects that have a negative influence on

institutional culture in local government. Those aspects are among others, male-
dominance, institutional power and power relations which build towards a gendered
institutional culture though favouring, owing to the history, masculine-defined cultures.
Daly (2005) argues that there is a need to delve deeper into understanding the
relationship between issues of gender and societal change. The author implies that the
challenge is more in the societal cultures and traditions within which these institutions are
located in. This provides a framework of reference which translates into these institutions.
The researcher considered it valuable to have some discussions on gendered institutional
cultures, and how the build-up aspects mentioned above contributes to deterring women’s
decision-making and leadership positions. It is fundamentally important to take note of the
fact that in a diverse workforce such local government, inevitably people from different
cultural or social groups would constantly interact, bringing with own cultural identities,
assumptions, perceptions of each other to such workplace settings (Ayman and Korabik,
2010).

Whilst most women participants felt strongly that there are evil, unwelcoming and male-
bias institutional cultures in municipalities, male participants felt that “women want to
change institutions and that “…unfortunately this is local government…dog eats dog…if
you don’t hit first they will hit you hard…kill you”. On the contrary, women participants
were of the view that for one to survive in decision-making and leadership in this institution
“you have to be evil…that is a culture of not caring…always on the lookout as your
position is forever under threat…so the institution’s culture is horrible to say the least,
would not advice any women to aspire for this position…no peace”. These hostile
institutional cultures that are built upon and defined in masculine terms of not caring, not
nurturing and so forth is an immediate hindrances to women’s leadership.

Eagly (2007) notes that leadership has historically been depicted primarily in masculine
terms, and many theories of leadership have focused on stereotypically masculine
qualities. As highlighted by participants, feminine-defined workplace culture would or
should be receptive and welcoming. It must “encourage us as women to not change who
we are as caring, loving and warm…human beings”. Hostility continues to rob women of
an important part of their existence which is an extension of their family and community
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character of caring and nurturing. This serves as an immediate hindrance for women to
occupy or stay in decision-making and leadership positions.

Eagly, 2007 further observes that, situational theorists of leadership contend that the
appropriateness of leadership behaviours depends on the contextual factors such as
societal values, the culture of organisations. In this case societal values which are built on
patriarchal dominance collude with long-standing masculine-oriented organisational
cultures to make the organisational culture unbearable for women. These values demand
from them that they should “…change who you are, feminine leadership behaviours and
style and portray that of a “tough cookie” to earn respect and recognition, participants
indicated. Eagly (2007) argues, moreover, that women still suffer, first, disadvantage in
access to leadership positions and second, prejudice and resistance when they occupy
these roles. As gathered in this study, some meetings were intentionally shifted to coincide
with women leaders’ absence one participant retorted, “… so that they are intentionally
some decisions are taken without your input”.

4.12.1 HIGH EXIT RATES OF WOMEN IN DECISION-MAKING AND LEADERSHIP

POSITIONS IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

A study of Italian municipalities, conducted between the years 1993 – 2003, found that in
municipalities headed by female mayors, the probability of early termination of their tenure
is higher. Furthermore, the study revealed that the likelihood of a female mayor to survive
until the end of her term is lowest when the council is entirely male and in regions with less
favourable attitudes towards working women (Gagliarducci and Paserman, 2011). It is
interesting to observe that the Italian situation is also reflected in the South African
context.

Female participants pointed out that eight out of ten women who were in the interview on
the day, would definitely not return to the positions they held and even to the institutions.
On the contrary, male participants were almost certain to return to the same or higher
positions. They (participants) further enumerated terms of office, aligned to women
leaders. In this countdown, no woman leader, especially the Mayor, Speaker, Chief Whip,
Municipal Managers and Directors in these municipalities served two terms in the same
positions. There was some stay amongst only MMCs politically and HODs
administratively, though they were shifted around in different portfolios. Thus, the lower
the level in management the better chances of retention and the higher the level, the less

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likely the chances of retention. That is so the higher the level in management the more
decision-making and influencing powers and hence the tussle. Another aspect expressed
in this enumeration was that of the high number of women in these positions that did not
finish their term of office due to different reasons. The point made was that “…you can be
how good but if the powers that be have decided…they will find a way to dismiss you,
recall you, force you to resign…whatever the case might be”.

The situation is that it is common that women Mayors, Speakers and Chief Whips as the
leadership positions on the political component are most unlikely to finish their term of
office. The term used is “recalled” as one participant indicated that “men refuse to be led
by a woman…they do it so saliently but so effective…that women are always targets for
being recalled”. Another one said that “even when they deploy you as a woman in this
positions you should not be excited…we know they will make your life a living hell…you
will resign on your own or will be forced out…”The other participant counted up to three
former Mayors and Speakers that were ousted before the end of their terms and added
that if they had completed their term, it would usually be under seriously difficult
circumstances but unlike men, it would be made sure that they don’t get elected for the
second term. The names and municipalities have been withheld for confidentiality and
related ethical issues. The same situation prevails in the administrative wing of
municipalities.

The bottom-line from the responses clearly is that women prematurely exit the positions
and in some instances the local government system. That is a greater threat to the
broader local government gender transformation agenda because of the following
reasons: women’s exit from these positions and the local government system sends a very
strong and negative message to other women which discourage them from wishing to
work in local government. The human capital invested in these women, through exposure,
experience, trainings and overall knowledge built overtime is also lost. Institutions of local
government remain the same male-dominated, masculine-defined with regard to gender
discriminatory cultures, practices. Furthermore the state of affairs accounts for why issues
of women in decision-making and leadership positions will always have challenges:
basically they lack continuity and sustainability as a result of these high exit rates.
Gagliarducci and Paserman (2011) note that on one level the underrepresentation of
women in leadership positions is, amongst other reasons, because they leave their
positions and the institutions prematurely due to the intolerable prejudice, resistance and

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discriminatory practices. On another level, that those that leave prematurely, take with
them this bitter experiences and lessons learnt and shares them with other women who
then decide (even if capable) not to enter leadership positions.

4.12.2 NEGATIVE GENDERED ATTTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS TOWARDS WOMEN

IN DECISION-MAKING AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The results of a survey done by the CGE (CGE, 2005)in South Africa indicate that more
than 30 percent of the respondents stated that women are too emotional to handle high-
level leadership positions (Hunt, 2007 and Gouws, 2008). Whilst acknowledging that there
are exceptions, the general attitude are that women in leadership positions should
downplay their femininity. The “stereotypical feminine qualities” of nurturing, compromising
are negatively construed to mean that women cannot lead effectively. The research study
agrees with (Hunt, 2007) that those feminine traits are vital in the workplace, especially
when engaging with issues of maximising performance. They should not be downplayed
as there is good brought about in employees’ performances emanating from feeling cared
and valued.

4.12.3 ISSUES FOR GENDER REPRESENTATION AND QUOTAS OF WOMEN IN

DECISION-MAKING AND LEADERSHIP IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Hunt (2007) argues that in most countries, South Africa included, male political party
gatekeepers determine candidate lists, because the order of candidates on the lists is a
fundamental factor in determining who goes to parliament (national), legislature
(provincial) or council (local government) in the case of South African government
structures. The researcher gathered that these male political gatekeepers are, in most
instances themselves not neutral; they equally have an interest in making it into these
institutions of power. This means that they will advance their own interest and agenda
prior attending issues of gender representation. Participants highlighted the fact that whilst
most parties have clear gender policies, there are usually tussles at implementation
especially where gender representation and or quota favours women to occupy decision-
making and leadership positions. One particular example cited by participants is that of
senior members of the political deployment committee who also hold the decision-making
and leadership positions in local government. The situation is t of “a referee and a player
at the same time” which consequently make impartiality almost impossible. The recent
post-election political developments reinforced this situation but also demonstrated that it

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is a common phenomenon in government. The ANC’s appointment of seven male and
one female premier after the national elections 2014 presents a case in point to this
respect. A closer study of these reveals that almost all of them hold senior positions in
their respective political parties and where directly involved in lists compilation. For
example, the Premier of the Free State is also the Provincial Chairperson, the same with
Limpopo and the North West. The same scenarios are prevalent in the local government.
For example, the Chairperson of the ANC in the NDM region is the Executive Mayor of the
NDM. One participant attested that “…a whole lot of negotiations, compromises takes
place…it is not cast in stone that because the party’s gender policy says this therefore it
will be like that…in most cases women concede to a lower position just to be safe and
maintain male support”.

The African National Congress (ANC) is the only party that has committed itself in its
gender policy on a 50/50 gender representation albeit challenges. Whilst there is a
satisfactory move towards effective implementation of this policy, there are issues on a
broader scale from a gendered perspective. For instance, the NDM REC had one female
representation in the top five positions. Then to cover that, at additional members’
positions, women would be equally represented or even allowed to slightly outnumber
men in those positions to camouflage policy provisions. The truth, however, remains that
power and influence is with the top five positions and those can easily divide the majority
women additional members in times of voting.

There are municipalities in the NDM, where only the Mayor is female and all other
positions are dominated by men. Furthermore, there are municipalities wherein strategic
positions are held by men and women are given “insignificant but leadership positions”
(Researcher’s own findings during interviews). For example, in two or three municipalities
in the NDM, the Mayor and the Speaker are male, and the Chief Whip is a woman. The
constitution of mayoral committees also experiences the same challenges where strategic
portfolios of local economic development, land, infrastructure development are usually
held by men. The same situation prevails at the administrative wing; if the Municipal
Manager is female with the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) and majority Directors being
male. There is, however, a good showing of good practice model municipalities, one or
two wherein women are satisfactorily represented. For example, there is one municipality
in NDM where the Municipal Manager, the Mayor, the two Directors are women. However,

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mindful of point made in (Eagly, 2007) that there is a mixed reaction on the issues of
women in decision-making and leadership.

4.12.4 PRESENCE AND IMPACT: A CONTESTED TERRAIN

It is not an obvious case that women’s presence in decision-making and leadership

positions would translate into impact and gender transformation. Access does not
guarantee participation and transformation as the key components of the Mtintso’s APT
framework. Hunt (2007) contends that greater female participation could bring significant
rewards for the women’s empowerment and gender equality agenda. That is the “the
critical mass” as referred to in the (Mtintso’s APT framework).

Whilst the study revealed the fact that there are still hindrances and challenges, women
are, however, represented in decision-making and leadership positions in local
government. There are issues with regard of impact that women make in these
institutions. Put forth in (Lovenduski and Karam, 2002), women are now looking beyond
the numbers to focus on what they can actually do while in parliament (local government)
that is, how they can make an impact.

Lovenduski and Karam(2002) agrees that the critical mass is important in that it upsets
gender boundaries, linking women presence with changing gender attitudes and
behaviours (4.5.2). The authors’ states that the presence of even one woman alters male
behaviour and the presence of several women will alter it even further(Lovenduski and
Karam, 2002). The study argues that with regard to altering men’s attitudes and
behaviours, progress is on an unequal scale especially in the NDM given the some of the
stated differences between peri-urban and rural municipalities. There has been a
significant progress even though it is not as satisfactory as it should be and there is still a
reasonable amount of deep-rooted challenges that would require focused attention. For
example, if the deep-rooted culture and traditions premised on patriarchal dominance are
deeply-entrenched and embedded in the rural municipalities as most participants affirmed,
the need for a critical mass. The challenge is that in rural municipalities, the quotas system
and any effort that advances increased gender representation in decision-making and
leadership positions will not take effect. Taking into consideration that the rejection would
come from women themselves, for fear of community isolation.

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4.13 THE INEFFICIENCIES OF THE NATIONAL AND PROVINCIAL GENDER
MACHINERIES AND THE IMPACT ON LOCAL GOVERNMENT’S GENDER
TRANSFORMATION AGENDA

The gender coordination desk at SALGA, which is the municipalities’ coordination body,
has been disbanded. The non-existence of the gender desk, which presented a more
direct coordination and facilitative platform, has serious repercussions for the overall
gender programme within municipalities, including those in the NDM. Some of the issues
raised in this study, such as the implementation of the local government women’s
empowerment and gender equality framework, the development of gender policies and
strategies have been compromised. Motivation for the disbandment was the result of the
establishment of the WC and PD Ministry as it was anticipated that it would play the same
role for municipalities. The Ministry also, to some extent, absorbed the Provincial OSWs
which had the same functions. There is also the Provincial Offices of the CGE for
monitoring and oversight functions which would also include local municipalities.
Unfortunately, with the specific and elaborate institutional framework (the national
machinery) that has been created to ensure the inclusion of gender equality concerns in
policy formulation across all public and private institutions, the challenges espoused in this
study remains. Hassim (2003) observes, that these benevolent institutions and national
machineries have revealed themselves as "historically constructed frameworks" that
create bureaucratic representation for elite groups of women but fail to act as institutional
openings for addressing inequalities in power. The collapse of the machinery therefore
translates to the fact that municipalities have to rely on their own creativity as to how to
incorporate gender concerns across its functions and operations. The result is the
disjuncture in implementation is to the disadvantage of women.

4.13.1 THE COLLAPSE OF GRASSROOTS WOMEN’S STRUCTURES AND

MOBILISATION

Participants pointed out that grassroots women’s movement as well as the mobilisation for
the movement has virtually collapsed. The result is lack of appropriate support structures
for women in decision-making and leadership positions from fellow women in the
communities they serve. Most women managers and leaders served and/or are products
of these grassroots mobilisation structures. Hassim (2003) states that , there was a large-
scale movement of women leaders from the women's organisations into the different
spheres of government and that had a negative impact on the women’s movement and the
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broader women’s emancipation agenda. Participants mentioned that they are so pre-
occupied with making a mark in the positions they hold that they will not have time to
resuscitate these valuable structures that were, according to them “each one teach one”
forums. What was revealed is that advocacy for women’s empowerment and gender
equality in the workplace is largely influenced by what transpires within the society. The
collapse of women’s movement in South Africa has silenced the once loud voices of
gender injustice and inequality. The results are visible in the workplace such as local
government which is more society-inclined.

4.14 WOMEN LEADERS’ BURDENS OF BALANCING THE TRIPLE ROLES

Irrespective of the positions women occupy in their workplace, they in local government
decision-making and leadership positions, find the balancing the work, family and
community commitments, triple roles as other authors states, are not only challenging but
also burdensome, complicated and at times conflictual. This applies to those serving in
both administrative and political wings of the municipalities. For example, by virtue of
being in the positions that they hold, they are employees who have mandatory service
provision roles and responsibilities. They politically have mandatory community leadership
roles in the same communities that they live in, which are the same communities that are
in turn constituted by the same families they are members of (own and extended families).
At each point of interaction, it is expected that these women should change their attitudes
and behaviours not only to suit that particular interaction but to also satisfy expectations.
These expectations are similar, differing only in intensity based on rural and peri-urban
locations. Participants stated that balancing duties/roles is burdensome in that it is
physically tiring to have to juggle one’s roles and responsibilities across these three areas.

The following real life scenario is an attempt at demonstrating the burdens, complications
and conflicts that women must negotiate pursuant to balancing the triple roles. The case
study derives from several different but similar emphasis narrations, utterances and
statements by participants. These were then consolidated in order those to present a
scenario of “a day in the life of women in decision-making and leadership positions in local
government”.

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Figure: 2 A day in the life of a woman manager or leader in a municipality (Real life
scenario drawn from research participants)

Mrs YZ is a mayor or director at XX municipality. Her day starts at 4, so that she can able
to have everyone in the household ready for work and school by 6h30. At 4, she prays,
this is important for her as that is the only time she gets to be alone and that is how she
draws strength to pull through the day, then irons her husband’s clothes for the day (this is
a strict order from the husband after the helper made several mistakes like burning with
iron one of his favourite shirts). Thanks to the services of the helper who will at the time be
busy with the children’s uniforms. Whilst she prepares her husband’s lunchbox, the helper
is also doing the same for the children at which point it is now time to wake everyone up
and the morning rush begins. She runs the bath for her husband whilst preparing
breakfast for, the helper doing the same for the children. Initially she would have to drive
the kids to school as the husband works at a different direction to the children’s schools
but has since found a scholar transport. At 6h30, the scholar transport hoods for the
children, they go off, then her husband starts the car and is off for work as he reports at 7.
She reports at the municipality at 7h30 which means it is immediately time for her to
prepare for work, 45minutes to be exact. She hardly gets time to have breakfast herself
and will take a lunchbox and some fruits to snack in her 20minutes drive to work.

Whilst her day is usually crammed, she tries to schedule her first appointment for 8 to give
herself time to prepare for the day’s commitments. The day’s commitments run through
with hardly any break as at the municipality there is always one crisis after another or one
priority after another. The province wants this report, premier wants that other report,
community representatives have water issues, and the list goes on. This means the day
planned as it may be, unforeseen emergencies and priorities largely disrupt the plans. The
last commitment will be at 20h00 as the political party that deployed her has called on all
its deployees in municipalities.

After her meeting at 18h00, she rushes home to prepare supper (again it is a strict order
after a divorce threat where her family was summoned as the husband had laid a
complained that she neglects her family). The family sits for supper at 19h30 and after
seeking permission from the husband to attend the 20h00 meeting, and that he helps
children with homework, she drives out to the meeting for which she is 20minutes late and
apologises. The meeting runs until 22h00 which is normal as others during conferences

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last up to the early hours. She is home at 22h30 to her husband who is angry as usual.
There are the realities of conjugal rights between married couples which are legal grounds
for a marriage breakdown. She has brought some important work documents that she
must read in preparation for the first meeting the next day which means extending her
night and can only get to bed at 1, three hours before she wakes up again and the routine
starts. She wants to further her studies but realises it will not be possible as long as she
holds the position in which she is. Sadly, when compared to male counterparts, there are
drastic differences. They are taken care of by their spouses/partners and sometimes
ridicule us, they boost about it. As one male commented that “…I will not allow my wife to
be in these positions…they are demanding and before you know it you will have married
your domestic helper not your wife…”, cynically referring to that the domestic helper would
be doing for the husband that which should be done by the wife as she is unable to due to
the work of the position she holds.

There are important lessons to be learnt from the above scenario. The life of women in
decision-making and leadership positions in local government is first, these women are
burdened by the socially determined traditional roles of women in families and
communities. The absence of continued and intensified gender equality advocacy and
lobbying at community levels continues to entrench acceptable gender stereotypes that
prove difficult to break thus creating a circle of gender oppression.

Second, decision-making and leadership for women is made complicated in a manner that
is different from their male counterparts. This is because of the hard choices women have
to make that somehow affect their very own identity and esteem. For women to balance
the need to be what the family and community regard as a “good mother, a good wife, a
good daughter-in-law” and “a competent employee, a powerful manager or leader” without
compromising one aspect over the other is a complicated matter. It challenges the core of
womanhood with respect to self-appreciation, identity and esteem.

Last the scenario highlights in more practical ways, the time poverty issues that confront
women in their quest for making a mark in a predominantly male environment. It is with
time poverty issues that eventually women, in these positions, are considered incapable
and incompetent. For example, a woman will occasionally arrive late or request a briefing
on matters as she could not find time to read the documents provided. That presents an
opportunity for her male counterparts to demonstrate how in control they are by being on

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time and having thorough knowledge of the documents. Unfortunately, what that means is
that these environments remain shaped and informed by masculine terms and
preferences, the insistence of late meetings as just but one example which if it were
taking gender concerns into account , it would have been rearranged to suit both women
and men.

Participants reiterated that in rural areas, culture and tradition reign supreme. The
attitudes and behaviours towards women in decision-making and leadership positions in
local government are said to be negative and that they draw strength from the families and
the communities. Women who hold decision-making and leadership positions are, at times
ridiculed or (their partners, spouses) would bear the ridicule. To illustrate this point, one
participant shared a personal experience with the researcher that even led to a divorce,
where she had to choose between her career and her family. In her words “…at work
when I gave instructions to male counterparts I was said to be disrespectful and somehow
my husband would know and hold me accountable…that I make him a laughing stock
amongst men…he would use that against me in the home…remind me all the time that
unlike my workplace…he wears pants and won’t be told what to do by a woman…in the
community during funerals I would be an outcast amongst other women…the disrespectful
woman…”. These attitudes are multi-pronged, coming from both women and men in the
workplace, the family and the community. The interviews confirmed the persistent power
of gender hierarchies in the home and community, which makes it difficult for women to
share ideas with their husbands (Mills, 2003). Krook (2010) observes that women’s triple
roles balancing stresses’ are compounded by social norms that frame ‘women’s public
activism as a ‘transgression’ such that women who spend too much time away from their
families are considered to be acting selfishly by pursuing their individual interests over
those of their families. Krook states furthermore, that these gendered norms and
judgments drastically reduce the available supply of both female aspirants, and
experienced ones.

4.15 ABSENCE OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING PROGRAMMES

A convincing and distinct feature of gender mainstreaming is that it seeks to institutionalise

gender equalilty by embedding gender-sensitive practices, norms, in the structures,
processes and environments (Daly, 2005). However, in the municipalities under study, the
absence of gender policies and or strategies imply the absence of a gender
mainstreaming programme which has an adverse impact on both women in decision-
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making and leadership positions in these institutions as well as for the broader gender
transformation agenda at local government level.

The gender policies and or strategies would have included gender mainstreaming
programme as one of the key policy strategy objectives and further outlined key
deliverables with anticipated outcomes. Such an objective would have made it compulsory
that a dedicated budget is allocated to effect implementation. One of the deliverables,
would have been to address institutional gender insensitive practices and norms which
would in turn address issues of late meetings that not only make it difficult for women to
fulfil their other roles but also expose women to potential gender-based violence. Women
that are not married for example, usually fall prey to unwanted admirers who target these
meetings in order sexually harass by them, married women included. In which case as
one participant retorted “…men use these late night meetings to sideline women…they
know it is difficult to get permission from husbands then they will use your absence to
exclude you even in future deployments”. Another one agreed that “…if they make sexual
advances or even harass you…you cannot tell your husband or boyfriend…they are
against you holding the position at any rate for fear of such, so the best is to keep quiet
and fight for yourself”. These gender-insensitive norms and practices increase women’s
vulnerability to intentional career sabotages and gender-based violence. Irrespective of
the fact that gender mainstreaming is renowned as the best strategy that could fast-track
the attainment of gender equality, Perrons (2005) states that gender equality remains
elusive due to institutional barriers and resistance.

Other important benefits of a gender mainstreaming programme that majority women and
women in decision-making and leadership positions are denied are the objectives in the
line of training and education. These would be included as policy objectives and would
significantly contribute to women’s capacity-building and enhance their management and
leadership skills and expertise, thus building a future corps of competent and experienced
women managers and leaders. There are salient gender dynamics hidden behind the
absence of gender policies and strategies as well as the absence of gender
mainstreaming programmes. Majority beneficiaries in these programmes are usually
women. It is, therefore, not surprising that these programmes are not prioritised as they
will empower and advance women. This is a threat to the male-dominated and defined
institutions.

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It is a general practice that if a programme is a priority in the municipality, it will be
included in the IDP and consequently allocated a budget. The research noted that in most
municipalities’ IDPs and Budget Plans, comprehensive gender programmes are not
included. Where mention of women is made, it is women in the communities. Such
exclusion is detrimental to internal interventions that would address some of the issues
affecting women in decision-making and leadership positions in these institutions. Gender
mainstreaming applicable across the core functions of municipalities in that it ensures a
gendered analysis and critique. It seeks to induce gender considerations at all planning
and implementation phases of municipal functions and operations for enhanced gendered
impact. Important issues such as leave (study, maternity and paternity leaves) for women
in decision-making would be detailed in the gender mainstreaming programme.

4.15.1 OVER-EMPHASIS AND RELIANCE ON GENDER CALENDER EVENTS

The study also found out that in most municipalities, there is an over-emphasis and over-
reliance on the gender calendar of events as the main programme of intervention. This is
because of the absence of comprehensive gender programmes that would be detailed
through extensive consultations (with women and men in these institutions, including
those that are in decision-making and leadership positions). Gender mainstreaming was
supposed to have been included in the programmes. The gender calendar events are, for
instance activities centred on, to mention a few; sixteen days of no violence against
women and children, world aids day, disability and women’s month, international women’s
day, and child protection week. During these calendar events, municipalities embark upon
a hype of awareness-raising, training and education events. These events serve to
insufficiently fill the comprehensive gender programmes’ void. Further, the flaws in such
activities are first, their limited scope with respect to intensity and sustainability. In the
case of the sixteen days of no violence against women and children, limited focus is on
gender-based violence and the duration of that activity is usually sixteen days because
during this period there are all different kinds of media advertisements talks, and
community outreach events.

When men were asked about gender programmes in the interviews, they always refer to
these calendar events with an attitude that “…why are there no such days for men…and
after sixteen days we are allowed to abuse them more as it lasts just for sixteen days” .
This is a confirmation of the researcher’s contention that these events are fire-fighting
activities with no lasting impact. The same can be said of all these events. They are
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limited in their attempt to be all-encompassing, such that HIV/AIDS events try to include
gender-based violence for all women. Not taking into consideration the fact that for
example, issues of HIV/AIDS and gender-based violence take a different form and shape
for women in decision-making and leadership positions in local government specifically.
The study is by no means discouraging integration. However, it wishes to point out the fact
that more focused, intense and well-timed programmes would pitch the same programme
to different target groups with differentiated scope and relevance rather than a “one-size
fits all approach” which is currently practised in these calendar events.

Over-emphasis and reliance on these programmes, therefore serves to further alienate the
inclusion of issues of women in decision-making and leadership position into the
mainstream institutional processes. The researcher was particularly touched by one
woman leader who said “these events do not help us…sometimes I am even asked to
motivate women at these internal events…I must say to these women don’t allow abuse
when in my own home my husband doesn’t talk to me that day as arrived home
unacceptably late from a work meeting at which one male counterpart made sexual
advances that I didn’t even report but say to the women …report sexual harassment in the
workplace and insight I am personally breaking apart”.

4.16 LEGITIMACY QUESTIONS OF AND ABOUT WOMEN’S DECISION-MAKING

AND LEADERSHIP

It is unfortunate that years into the South African democracy, women’s legitimacy as
decision-makers and leaders continues to be questioned in local government, and in other
spheres of government. Women in these positions of influence and power are constantly
put to test, having to prove themselves whether or not they are able and capable of
delivering on their positions. These tests range from not being briefed on matters that one
is expected to make decisions on, or given minimal information to expose one’s
incompetency through to intentional sabotages. For instance, as one Mayor narrated that
there was high contestation and dissatisfaction on her appointment as the Mayor as other
long-serving counterparts who held the view that they were more deserving than her. In
retaliation, she got no handover briefing from the outgoing male mayor. But unfortunately
the same person was included as an (MMC) together with the other begrudged councilors.
She narrated that in her early days in office, they would have “valid reasons” not to report
for duty so as to spite her.

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Another Director shared her experience with the researcher that upon resumption of duties
as Director, there was an issue with employees from a predominantly male section
(electrical). These employees overtime wasn’t paid. The former acting male director knew
that the said employees are prone to violence especially when it is issues pertaining to
money. He provided no briefing and but left new female director to deal with the matter. In
that meeting with the angry employees, the new female Director was almost assaulted.
Police were called in to calm the situation. The underlying purpose is to test the woman
incumbent and assess her abilities and capabilities. The test is as the woman decision-
maker or leader in that position can and how do you handle pressure? Do you have
enough knowledge and experience in relation to position? And how do you articulate
yourself? Unfortunately, no male participants had the same test experiences because they
are considered as legitimate decision-makers and leaders with high level of confidence.
Rowley, Hossain and Barry, (2010) notes that male subordinates are less respectful
towards female leadership and male senior managers are prone to place female leaders,
intentionally in high risk posts.

4.17 INEQUALITIES IN THE LEVELS OF EDUCATION BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN

Though it is now considered a cliché, the historical gendered educational disparities

between women and men continues to breed gender inequalities in the workplace.
Participants attested to the fact that having to complete their studies through
correspondence and multi-tasking as mentioned earlier, made it even more difficult. Some
indicated that it took them longer than expected to complete and some are still pursuing
their studies. Their academic endeavours are made difficult by the positions they now
hold. The researcher is impressed with the importance most of the women in decision-
making and leadership attached to furthering their studies. As one participant indicated
“…it is a struggle each one of us as women must fight and win, to be educated is very
important…it empowers you...and it opens your eyes”. It is unfortunate that even with the
enthusiasm and courage to empower themselves educationally, absence of important
policies such as the gender policy means there are no gender and other considerations
regulating leave days for these women. Their empowerment and educational
advancement is not receiving any support from the institutions. It is self-driven amidst the
pressures that come with the positions they hold.

Women’s struggle for advancing themselves educationally was, however, not voluntary for
many. It was through experience and exposure, wherein they could see that lack of
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education puts them at a disadvantage as compared to men. Knowing that majority of
women do not have higher levels of education, decision-making and leadership positions
would be pitched at minimum requirements of higher education. In the case of
administration, experience would not stand in their favour, except if it is coupled with
education. In view of the fact that women have identified this gap and have gone to study
through correspondence and acquired the qualifications, the bar has been set much
higher. In fact, there are more dynamics introduced. The said dynamics, that the
researcher argues are gendered, are that the minimum requirements are factored in line
with those of the candidate that is earmarked, male in most instances. The minimum
requirements are inconsistently increased or decreased to suit the earmarked incumbent.
For instance, the position’s minimum requirement will be raised from a bachelor’s degree
to also include a post-graduate diploma or equivalent in order to advantage a male
candidate.

A mandatory treasury programme for all managers and leaders at local government
(CPMD/MFMA) was introduced. The content of the programme focused on the
municipalities’ functions and operations. What stood out for the researcher was that
participants felt that the said programmes were unfortunately not incorporating issues of
gender transformation in the context of women empowerment and gender equality in local
government. This is, for the researcher, a missed opportunity for both women and men in
these positions and the institutions they serve. This happens mainly because issues of
gender transformation are not viewed in the same serious light as those of for example,
supply chain management which is extensively covered in these programmes.

The other issue is that these programmes are offered on block release basis, that is, a
week’s attendance each month. Further, that they are centrally facilitated in distant
universities (prominent ones being Universities of Pretoria, Witwatersrand and Limpopo)
all of which are geographically far from NDM. The challenges they have raised in
balancing the triple roles above once more surfaced. In order to attend these mandatory
programmes, participants have to stay away from both work and home for a week in a
month. That is beside the point that there are other forums convened by the province for
which attendance is compulsory, in that they also demand them to stay away from work
and home for a number of days. This continued absence creates unbearable pressures
both in the work and home fronts. On the home front, the pressure of an ever-absent
mother leads to divorces and separations. Some participants attested that they either

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divorced or separated out of the frustrations of having to choose between work and home,
because of these long periods of absence. For some, especially single parents, children
took advantage of their absence and engaged in the misuse of drugs, alcohol, and
premature sexual encounters. The study argues it that these are serious gender dynamics
confronting women in decision-making and leadership positions. The study also highlights
the fact that these dynamics are cross-cutting and interconnected. Whist they bring with
the burdens of choice, they also affect personal career development and progression.
Lack of mentorship and coaching programmes for these women makes matters worse.

4.18 INFORMAL BUT INFLUENTIAL NETWORKS AND CONSEQUENCES FOR

WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

From the participants, both women and men agreed that there are informal networks,
which most are predominantly male and take place after hours over some drinks. They
also agreed that these informal networks are highly regarded amongst the male managers
and decision-makers as they have proved overtime that informal as they are, they are the
most influential in all spheres of municipalities’ functions and operations. These networks
determine many issues which range from who should be employed, who should be
sidelined and ultimately ousted, through to who should get which tender and the plans of
carrying out those determinations.

Unfortunately for women participants, these networks takes place at the time that they are
expected to be fulfilling their other family roles and responsibilities. Women bear a
disproportionate share of responsibility of unpaid care work within the household and the
community. This is explained by the unequal power relations between women and men
within the household and society in general. This bias in the gender division of labour in
the household also disadvantages those women who happen to be employed and even
more, those in decision-making and leadership positions. As one participant angrily stated,
“it is the fate of women that is decided in these chauvinist malicious networks”.

The research also gathered that in order for women to survive in these conditions, they
must have allies and boyfriends who should somehow serve to protect them or even
source useful information. Some of these allies and boyfriends are genuine, with genuine
interest but others have demands in sexual and other favours in the future. The analysis
reveals the need for women to also have the same networks, albeit taking into
considerations their ever-competing priorities and balancing roles. For instance, some

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women managers indicated that “…it is interesting to realise that we all go through the
same things, same experiences, in the same space but we never share, we actually never
sit and meet like in this group interview…” Another participant added that “…even worse
we share the same as women in local government but debriefing and empowerment
forums such as women’s summits died a natural death…we are on our own…men
decided that those were the first in cost-curtailment measures.” In such interactions, it
would be proper to interview middle management women because they are the next in line
to assume decision-making and leadership positions. Their views and opinions on
institutional preparedness serve to confirm some of the gender dynamics revealed by
those that are already in leadership.

4.19 PERVASIVE PULL HER DOWN SYNDROME (PhD)

On the other aspect raised by majority of women in decision-making and leadership

positions, in both the political and the administrative wings in local government is that of
“PhD”. The study has shown that women are opposing one another on matters of
leadership. This scenario is orchestrated by external forces with the intention of breaking
the “womanhood or sisterhood” chain and maintain it that way for a very long time whilst
using that to advance personal agendas. What is surprising is that participants can see the
strategy which is mainly used by men. Nevertheless the still fall prey to it. It is women who
will help men to pull the other women down. Even in instances where they (other women)
see that there is unreasonable and undue pressure, they will not move in to protect and
support one of their. Instead they will keep a distance because of fear of association.

The said situation is so bad that there are women in decision-making and leadership
positions within the municipalities, either in the same municipality or in another, who have
deep hatred for one another. The cause of the problem is petty squabbles such for
example between a political head and a director one did not support a particular
submission that would have given the other’s work some credit and recognition. Instead of
talking to each other in order to clear the air and find common ground, they would ignore
each other and allow that incident to slowly drift them apart. Some of the serious fights are
caused by competitions for positions and status. There would be sharp criticism critique of
conduct, such as having dated the same man in the same circle, or having been preferred
for decision-making and leadership position at the expense of the other who sees herself
as more deserving. Hatred of this nature serves as a fertile ground for male counterparts
to further divide women. These internal fights and politics deter focus on the broader and
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bigger issues for women in decision-making and leadership. The “PhD” syndrome is an
indication that while the gender agenda tends to view women as victims rather than
perpetrators of gender-based oppression, women are not a homogenous group and have
differences in personalities, status, position, wealth which may lead to inequality within
themselves. It demonstrates the multidimensionality of the gender discourse and its
related complexities (Hollows, 2008).

4.20 CONCLUSION

This study indicated that gender dynamics for women in decision-making and leadership
in local government remains a huge challenge. The common thread in the findings, is that
most of the gender dynamics are subtle and yet deep-rooted in these institutions. These
institutions appear to be embracing women’s empowerment and gender equality and thus
advancing the issues of women in decision-making and leadership positions only at face
value. On the contrary, the realities and the actual lived experiences of women in decision-
making and leadership positions in these institutions suggest the need for intensified
interventions in this regard. Kenny (2007) recommends that the analysis of these
institutions should be conducted through a ‘gendered’ lens. Kenny further states that the
application of a gendered lens perspective provides important insights into how gender
norms operate within institutions, and, therefore, offers a greater understanding of the
interaction between institutions and institutional actors. Kenny(2007) furthermore states
that a gendered approach to the study of institutions should make power a central
analytical focus. While power is generally underplayed in the new institutionalist literature,
feminist research should be concerned with gendered power dynamics.

This study recommends that municipalities must adopt the Gender Responsive
Governance (GRG) processes and programmes as suggested in (Kar, 2013). The GRG is
a comprehensive framework, with measures that draws together women and men at the
different levels of governance as stakeholders. The purpose is to foster attitudes and
practices that promote women’s empowerment and gender equality for socio-economic
justice. The GRG purposefully seek to promote and sustain women’s abilities to fully
participate in the governance and development processes, through an emphasis on their
ability to raise critical questions about inequity and collectivise without fear and pressure
(Kar, 2013). This paves way for incorporating changes needed to transform municipalities
into spaces that are gender responsive. Added to this would be a tailored capacity-building
for women in decision-making and leadership positions. Such capacity-building would
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incrementally draw on men in decision-making and leadership position in order to build a
common cause of promoting women’s empowerment and gender equality. It provides a
building block for gender mainstreaming which will be discussed as a recommendation in
the next chapter (Chapter 5). The GRG calls for a systematic review of the local
government women’s empowerment and gender equality mandate which is derived from
international, national and provincial policy and legislative prescripts and cascades that to
the level of local government institutions thus, providing the basis for gender
mainstreaming.

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CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The data gathering process indicates that it is difficult to isolate gender dynamics with
regard to women in decision-making and leadership in local government from foundational
issues such as women’s active involvement and participation through the ranks in this
historically male-dominant environment. Research findings reveal inherent gender biases
in these local government institutions. The research study emphasises on women’s active
involvement and participation across all ranks because if this is not given adequate focus,
feminists run the risk of experiencing serious backtracks on the feminists-driven women’s
empowerment and gender equality gains. Women’s active involvement and participation is
significant in building the understanding of the manifestations of these gender biases
across the ranks and thus helping to point out critical areas of intervention early. Houge
and Lord (2007) caution that one of the issues that complicates the understanding of
gender bias in leadership is that this phenomenon involves processes which occur at
multiple levels. It is worsened by the nature of interdependent relationships in these
complex systems of governance.

The main umbrella recommendation of this study is that future feminist studies should
focus on filtrating the broader political framework that local government operates in. This
would be agreeing with Bauer (2012) that the broader political framework should be the
focus on quieting dissent which is whether women’s presence in decision-making and
leadership positions is “symbolic or substantive” and consequently that women’s ability to
participate effectively in the key institutions of governance, such as municipalities, is
constrained or facilitated in these frameworks.

The research has, through various engagements and interactions with the institutions of
local government, interrogated possible remedial actions as suggested by the research
participants. Those engagements and interactions have thus been largely used to arrive at
the recommendations detailed here and to map out possible way-forward.
Recommendations are, therefore, tailored from the participants, confident that if
implemented, they will be supported and would constitute the beginning of real and
tangible gender transformation that will benefit women in decision-making and leadership
positions in local government.

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5.2 SUMMARY OF KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS

A gendered approach to the study of institutions such as this study should explore in more
detail the gendered power dynamic is necessary (Kenny, 2007). The key findings in this
study suggests that women’s occupations, especially those in decision-making and
leadership positions in local government continue to be difficult and sidelined as a result of
persistent gendered power dynamics and gender discrimination. Patriarchal dominance
and stereotypes features significantly in local government amidst the camouflage by way
of gender representation in a quest for legislative compliance. There is a cosmetic value at
face value which is misleading when compared to the actual dynamics in these institutions
of local government.

5.2.1 PATRIARCHY AND MALE DOMINANCE IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT’S

DECISION-MAKING AND LEADERSHIP POSITIONS

The local government environment remains largely masculine, as the study revealed. It is
with this masculine-centredness that power and control are in the hands of the majority
male. There is a need to break this unevenly gendered power-base. This study has
revealed that women in decision-making and leadership positions are powerless
irrespective of the seniority of the positions they hold as they, from time to time, have to
rope in male support for endorsement of their decisions. On the contrary the power over
(chapter 4) is the most recognisable power in local government institutions that the
research has interacted with which explains women’s positions of power as tokens of
influence and power.

5.2.2 PERSISTENT GENDER POWER IMBALANCES AND THE NEED FOR

WOMEN’S CRITICAL MASS IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The power imbalances which are skewed towards male superiority in local government
decision-making and leadership positions constitute gender orders and regimes that are,
according to Connell (2006), developed patterns of gendered relations among women and
men separately, and between women and men. The underlying factors in these relations
are issues of power, culture, patriarchal dominance, societal expectations of women and
men’s roles and responsibilities and related such aspects. These aspects have
significantly contributed to the glass ceiling in many institutions. One critical disadvantage
to the gender power biases is brought about by gender imbalances especially with regard
to gender representation in decision-making and leadership positions within local
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government. Whilst there appears to be an adequate gender representation in local
government, the reality is that the higher the positions the lesser the gender
representation. For example, in this study, there are municipalities wherein there is only
one woman in the higher echelons of the institutions both at administration and political
levels (refer to table: 2 of gender representations of the municipalities in this study). In
such cases, the issue of a critical mass as detailed in the (Mtintso’s APTF in chapter 2)
becomes important in that it ensures that women ascend to decision-making and
leadership positions within local government in large numbers. Whilst that does not
guarantee influence, it definitely will articulate women’s voices and somehow begin to
shape the respective institutions’ environment towards gender responsiveness.

5.2.3 WOMEN’S CHALLENGES AND COMPETING GENDERED PRIORITIES

Through this study, the triple roles that women have to fulfil have proved that the
balancing act brings with it more domestic and professional challenges for women in
decision-making and leadership positions in local government. In (chapter 4 of this study),
a case study titled “the day in the life of a woman manager/leader in local government” is
used to outline women’s struggles with balancing the domestic, workplace and the
community’s demands. All these three competing priorities are fundamentally important for
women irrespective of their level of seniority in the workplace. The study has outlined (5.3
below) some of the critical interventions recommended in an effort to address this
challenge which limits or totally discourages women’s active involvement and participation
in decision-making and leadership positions.

5.2.4 DISJUNCTURE IN POLICY, LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS AND ACTUAL

IMPLEMENTATION

Whilst the study appreciates that as a country, South Africa has a good and progressive
policy and legislative environment in support of women’s empowerment and gender
equality, there are flaws that hinder the desired progress in this regard. One of those
hindrances is the state of functionality of the South African gender machineries. The non-
functionality of some components of the national and provincial machineries, together with
the lack of coordinated efforts to cascade some of the policy and legislative provisions
through to local government had severe implications for gender transformation in this
sphere of government.

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5.2.5 ABSENCE OF GENDER POLICIES AND STRATEGIES IN MUNICIPALITIES

The absence of endorsed gender policies and strategies cripples all efforts towards, first
ensuring that women’s access to decision-making and leadership positions and second,
institutional mechanisms on capacity-building and empowerment for those women that are
in these positions and those that have such future aspirations. Last, on a broader
institutional level the absence of gender policies and strategies silences gender advocacy
and lobbying and thereby reduce issues of women’s empowerment and gender equality to
non-significance as there is no framework for reference that would have otherwise been
provided for by these documents. Absence of gender policies and gender strategies within
municipalities has had an adverse impact on several other related programmes which
affect women’s empowerment and gender equality in municipalities. For example, the
absence of these gender policies and strategies has resulted in the uncoordinated
institutional mechanisms of implementing gender programmes. That is the reason there is
over-reliance on the calendar of events as the main gender programmatic interventions
which lack detail and intensity in all municipalities interviewed.

5.2.6 WOMEN’S NEGLECT OF GRASSROOTS STRUCTURES’ PARTICIPATION

The study revealed that the fundamental mistake that women’s empowerment and gender
equality sector has committed is of neglecting active involvement and participation in the
lower structures of relevance. It is acknowledged from the research participants that most
women in decision-making and leadership owe their emergence from lower structures. It is
a fact that these structures provide a breeding ground for women in decision-making and
leadership positions. Negligence is, however on ensuring continuity with regard to
women’s active involvement and participation. After a number of women passes through
and are elevated to higher positions through involvement and participation in these
structures, what follows is a lull on the part of women’s involvement and participation
follows. This creates serious challenges for the critical mass mentioned above in (5.2.2 of
this study), given the fact that local government for example is a highly politicised
environment where numbers and influence play an important role. For example, these
structures play a critical role and are an influential lobbying ground for the adoption of the
IDP, the budget, and so forth. Most members of these structures are also active in political
parties’ branch levels, a point which gives an added advantage.

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5.2.7 INADEQUATE INSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION
FOR GENDER AND TRANSVERSAL COORDINATION UNITS

Gender and Transversal Services units are in most of the municipalities studied are
running on only one official. Worse still, in some municipalities the one official is at a junior
level and under-qualified. These units are, in most municipalities, located in the Mayor’s
office, which as indicated earlier, is a political office. The advice, as gathered from the
participants’ responses, is that these units should undergo organisational work-study
processes in order to properly align functions and the needed capacity. Further, that their
location should be at the administrative level as sub-units or units, or departments or
sections as the terms used in other municipalities (depending on the size of the
municipality). That will ensure that they are regarded as amongst the core organisational
components rather than as political functionaries as it is the case presently. Mayors’ terms
of office are political and therefore, not permanent. They can be recalled or redeployed at
any time. For example, there is a municipality for example that had three different mayors
in one term of office (five-year term). Such rapid changes have a negative impact on
continuity and sustainability of gender and transversal issues in these institutions.

5.2.8 ABSENCE OF GENDER TRAINING AND EDUCATION PROGRAMMES

Theon-going gender training and education programmes as majority participants

highlighted, have faded away in almost of these institutions without any concrete reason.
The only reason that most participants indicated is that perhaps the focus had shifted to
service delivery in view of the heightened countrywide service delivery protests. It is
however unfortunate that the diverted focus, which maybe the reason for gender training
and education to be suspended in these institutions of local government, caused a
setback. Gender training and education is an on-going mechanism of building institutional
gender awareness and expertise. As stated in the Organizations for Cooperative
Economic and Development (OECD), continuous gender training and education in
institutions would facilitate implementation of intensive gender mainstreaming programme
for example. The OECD states that such intense gender programmes require sound
knowledge, which is gender expertise in the way in which differences between men and
women’s power positions manifest themselves in society. Gender expertise further
enhances knowledge of these differences, which are not only caused by cultural and
historical factors, but may also be affected temporarily by current events such as
patriarchal dominance in local government.
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5.2.9 RAPID DISRUPTIONS AND NON-COMPLETION OF WOMEN’S TENURE IN
DECISION-MAKING AND LDEADRSHIP POSITIONS

The study revealed that it is highly unlikely that women in decision-making and leadership
positions complete their office tenure. The situation applies to both political and
administrative components of the municipalities in this study. Whilst competing gendered
priorities stated in (5.2.3 above) account for some of the disruptions, particularly
resignations, there are some concerning challenges in the broader political framework
within which local government operates. In some cases, there would be two changes in
decision-making and leadership positions in one term of office. The reason is usually that
the completion of term of office, for women is highly unlikely as compared to their male
counterparts.

It is a common trend that a woman will be replaced by a man, though a man is usually
replaced by another man. The so-called recalling and redeployment, officiated through the
respective political parties in these positions of power is usually to the benefit of men. The
same issues are applicable in the administrative component with respect to Executive
Managers or Directors and Municipal Managers’ positions. In one municipality, there were
four changes to the Municipal Manager position in a period of two-years. In those
changes, there was an acting female Municipal Manager who took over the reins from a
male but was subsequently replaced by two males. These rapid changes are
notwithstanding the fact that these are five-year performance-based contracts. The
changes, mostly influenced by power struggles, are so rapid that there would be
interesting changes of note should the same municipalities be revisited after a short period
of time.

5.3 AN OUTLINE OF KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

The UN Women (2007) pointed out that in promoting women in political leadership, and
any other decision-making and leadership positions calls for a two-pronged approach
First, the focus should be on making institutions of governance, planning and related such
services sensitive too issues that concern women including; domestic, violence, sexual
harassment and other forms of abuse. Second, the training and enhancement of women’s
capacities whilst also reaching out to male leaders in these institutions (Kar, 2013). This
two-pronged approach is relevant to the local government sphere and would go a long

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way in driving empowerment of women in decision-making and leadership positions in
these governance institutions.

5.3.1 DISMANTLING THE MASCULINE HEGEMONIES AND ASSOCIATED POWER

DYNAMICS

The research recommends that it is important to understand the types of power as one of
the main gender dynamics. The said understanding would subsequently point to the
direction that the said dismantling should target. Fennell (1999) in (Grisoni and Beeby
(2007) mentions that there are three types of power: power over, power through and
‘power with. The authors’ states that power over is conservative and masculine with
traditional views of power as domination, command, control, individualism and hierarchy.
Then, power through which is facilitative power that involves enabling, negotiating and
empowering and supports the creativity and autonomy of team members when addressing
complex problems. Power with, which involves forming close relationships to create the
energy needed to exercise leadership. It embodies the notions of power together, power in
connection, relational power and mutual power. Fennell (1999) in (Grisoni and Beeby
(2007) suggests that women identify more with and actively exercise all these different
forms of power. In the local government environment, the “power through and with” do not
necessarily exist other than as a façade when confronted with legislative compliance and
public accountability.

The research study indicates that it is high time that women should learn to combine and
exercise all these types of powers when circumstances call for such an approach. In
essence, they should employ “power over” when and where necessary and deface its
conservative and masculine characteristic. This is called “feminisation of power”. The
recommendation does not suggest that women must be masculine or that they must
abandon their transformational, negotiated power strategies in their leadership. But they
should reassert their power through command, control “power over” characteristics when
confronted with situations that call for such an approach.

The study is premised on the belief that such an attitude and approach amongst women in
decision-making and leadership positions would break stereotypes of expectations. The
reason is that it seems as if “power over” amongst men has found acceptance in these
environments. Women fear to be unpopular and to be labelled as “bitches” which is
common in the event where a woman leader is decisive and in control. It is unfortunate

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that if these women are not willing to risk exploring the “power over” territory, the “cycle of
expectations” will continue to entrench themselves in these institutions Fennell (1999) in
(Grisoni and Beeby (2007). This research argues for an attitudinal and behavioural
change amongst women in decision-making and leadership positions in ways that would
assert their power and influence and entrench recognition of the power and influence in
the positions they hold. This is putting their positions to both work and test as that will
either contribute to an overall change and breaking down of the masculinities or
unravelling even further gendered resistance that could have otherwise been hidden by
the masculine acceptance.

5.3.2 INCREASED EFFORTS AT BREAKING THE GLASS-CEILING: DISMANTLING

GENDER ORDERS AND REGIMES

The challengefor women in decision-making and leadership positions in local government

to change attitudes and behaviours. Emphasis should be focused on how they apply and
use power and influence that comes with the positions they hold. They should be
motivated by the need to break down gender orders and regimes (Connell, 2006).
Traditional stereotypes and prejudices against women in authoritative positions persist.
Breaking the glass-ceiling, that is, gendered unequal access to the top, influenced by
gender discrimination should be challenged (Connell, 2006). The recommendation is that
there should be increased effort at breaking these traditional stereotypes and prejudices
that make women’s ascension and stay at the positions of authority difficult. Accordingly,
breaking down the patriarchal and post-structuralist conceptions of power through an
embodiment of a gendered perspective would not only add to and enrich new
institutionalism, but could also transform it thereby challenging the gendered foundations
of mainstream institutional theory (Kenny, 2007). Breaking down these gender orders and
regimes would inevitably lead to the breaking down of institutional cultures that perpetuate
the glass ceiling through the masculine-defined orders and the regimes. An important
phenomenon that the research recommends for local government is that of gender
neutrality in environments (Connell, 2006). There is a commonly used terminology that
entrenches these orders and regimes which serves as the best platform to infuse
neutrality. For example, a common practice in most municipalities is “Chief” when
referring to male leaders and “Madam” when it’s a female leader. Perhaps the safest
would be to refer to the title of the position they hold, for example, (Executive Mayor,

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Speaker, and Director). It is in this way that gender neutrality can be promoted with no
hidden connotations of power and recognition.

The study is aware that there might be criticism of gender neutrality as it is increasingly
becoming important to acknowledge women in these roles and perhaps, “madam” in this
example could serve as one way of changing stereotypes. Society has, against its
patriarchal dominance, created more respectful titles for men which are usually used to
the disadvantage of women. The insistence on gender neutrality would put the spotlight on
the position irrespective of who holds it. The research argues that it is important for
institutions to start afresh by tackling small but meaningful institutional aspects on the
gender neutrality and incrementally broadening the scope.

5.3.3 ENHANCEMENT OF THE CRITICAL MASS: INCREASED WOMEN’S

INCREASED INVOLVEMENT AND PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Emphasis of building women’s power-base through active involvement and participation of

women through all the ranks and structures of local government is valid and important to
note. The research recommends that women should take advantage opportunity of public
participation forums in communities and elsewhere, and use those to serve as women’s
entry into local government in order to enhance the critical mass. The role numbers play
with regard to gender representation cannot be downplayed. Local government is a highly
politicised environment where voting for decisions is the order of the day. The therefore
argues that the unequal number of women and men in decision-making and leadership
positions in local government works against the women’s empowerment and gender
equality agenda.

However, the study acknowledges the fact that the critical mass is but a stepping stone, a
beneficial passage of women’s entry in previously male-dominated spheres (Childs and
Krook, 2008).Critical mass is riddled with its own set of challenges which are, among
others, the fact that increased women’s representation does not necessarily assure
increased influence and that those that are already in the system will prepare the ground
for other women to enter. Critical mass does not automatically accelerate women’s active
involvement and participation, instead, it is the beginning of the hard work, that of creating
an enabling, conducive and receptive environment for women(Studlar and McAllister,
2002).This research maintains that it should be a conscious strategy employed, that
women are encouraged to actively participate in all forums and structures of local

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government. The government through its policies should ensure that with women’s active
involvement and participation in all the programmes, they become critical actors as
opposed to bulging numbers of critical mass (Childs and Krook, 2009).This caters for both
the strategic and practical gender needs; that is the everyday service delivery-oriented
issues affecting women whilst strategically also advancing women by engaging and
influencing the transformation agenda of these institutions from those levels.

The research raises issues pertaining to the practical and strategic gender needs in the
context of the emphasis from participants on the critical mass. Participants perceived
critical mass as beneficial for women in that first, it is viewed more in the context that if
more women ascend to decision-making and leadership positions in local government,
they will be able to better push for and influence favourable decisions on service delivery
issues that directly affect such as water, electricity and sanitation. Second, that women’s
critical mass serves to dispel notions of gender stereotypes that entrench male superiority
in these institutions. Third, that critical mass would ensure that there is sufficient number
of women to support each other which is not always the case. It is against this
background that active involvement and participation of women across all ranks is vital.
This will motivate women to appreciate those in decision-making and leadership positions
as they themselves in different participation forums and structures will experience the
discrimination, resistance and biases. That will also encourage them to want to enter local
government in large numbers in with the aim of helping those who are already in.

5.3.4 ESTABLISHMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL WOMEN’S NETWORKING AND

INFORMATION-SHARING PLATFORMS

The recommendation for the above-mentioned sub-heading is that PhD negative energies
should be converted into positive chains of encouragement and support. In all the
municipalities in which the research was conducted, there was none with a formal
networking and information-sharing platform for women in decision-making and leadership
positions. It was raised by a number of participants that they experience the same
challenges, some in the same building, and others in the same District but do not have a
platform to share and develop best-practices amongst themselves. The above-mentioned
platforms are recommended in line with offering women in decision-making and leadership
positions an opportunity in (Brass, Galaskiewicz, Greve, and Tsai, 2004) to explore and
build upon their interconnected social relationships. In order to address this common gap,
the research recommends that outside of the formal gender mainstreaming processes and
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programmes, there needs to be a formal platform convened by and for women in decision-
making and leadership positions in local government. These platforms should be sacred
spaces for these women to share experiences and information on the daily challenges in
their line of duty and strategise on possible interventions.

Mehra, Kilduff and Brass (1998), point out that those under-represented groups such as
women in decision-making and leadership positions in local government use their
distinctiveness to form groups with shared identity and social interaction. The study
asserts that such platforms would not take away the fact that there might be challenges in
the groups but that the existence of the platform would, from a feminists-perspective,
present a platform for reflection on women’s shared identity and affirm the need to use
that to advance women empowerment.

It is these interventions that would be incorporated into the institutional gender

mainstreaming programme. As expressed through various interactions with women in
decision-making and leadership positions, there is a need for a collective private space,
collective in that they wish to be together in such a platform, but private in that it would
only be them in that space. This normally creates a safe haven for their engagement and
interactions. It is a space in which they can share professional and personal challenges,
and successes whilst letting their hair down and escaping the trappings of being expected
to behave in a particular way owing to the positions they hold which is not the same
expectations as their male counterparts. The researcher further recommends that it would
be best when such platforms are convened and facilitated by these women. The reason is
that they would best know and understand their time pressures and conflicting priorities
and can thus make appropriate and suitable arrangements.

5.3.5 LOCALISING PROVINCIAL AND NATIONAL GENDER MACHINERIES’ IMPACT

AND SUPPORT

The resuscitation of the Gender Desk at SALGA, the municipalities’ coordinating body in
South Africa is extremely urgent. The gender desk was an important port of reference for
women’s empowerment and gender equality, and provided the much needed structural
support and guidance with regard to interventions. Resuscitation of gender desk at
SALGA would revive broader local government’s gender programmes. Municipalities
which have these desks as mentioned (gender and transversal coordination desk) but
have fallen flat on functioning due to the absence of a more coordinated, uniform

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approach to programmes. The researcher further recommends that other machinery
institutions such as the Commission on Gender Equality (CGE), the Office on the Status of
Women (OSW) and the Department of Women, Children and People with Disabilities
should firstly have a local government (municipalities) specific focus programmes and
projects and use those to intensify their respective oversight functions with regard to
implementation, monitoring, evaluation and enforcement. It is important that these
machinery institutions overcome their structural problems and personalised politics, and
focus on ensuring that they are effective and can deliver on their mandate. There are
serious repercussions that the women’s sector would suffer from at the rate at which these
machineries dysfunctionality is going (Gouws, 2006).

At the time of compiling this research for example, South Africa had just emerged from its
fifth national democratic elections (SA national elections, 2013) which saw the election of
seven male premiers out of nine, with only two women. This is a setback for the hard-
fought 50/50 feminist-driven women’s empowerment and gender equality agenda.
Unfortunately, with weak machinery at local government level, the same might be
experienced as the country gears itself up for the upcoming 2016 local government
elections. The role of the national and provincial gender machinery should be to ensure
that the neglected role of ensuring that gender machinery acts as an effective point of
access for women across all sectors(Hassim, 2003).An important aspect in localised
gender machinery is that it serves as a platform for civil society participation thereby
ensuring those civil rights groups’ voices are included in the mainstream agenda of these
institutions of governance, thereby providing a vital and valuable interface between public
and private spheres (Walby, 2006).

5.3.6 INCLUSION OF WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT AND GENDER EQUALITY IN KEY

MANDATORY DOCUMENTS

In the event that the national and provincial gender machineries are vibrant, they will be
able to assist the local machinery, the SALGA gender together with the Gender and
Transversal Coordination Units in their interventions. One key area of these interventions
would be the inclusion of women’s empowerment and gender programmes in key
mandatory documents of local government institutions such as the IDP. The said inclusion
would add accountability component in that during report back sessions, these institutions
will be obliged to report back on women’s empowerment and gender equality
programmes. Furthermore, this inclusion makes the programme a nodal area, a key
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deliverable that will be guaranteed some consideration in the mainstream institutional
functions and operations.

It remains important to hold those in power accountable for policy and legislative
provisions on women’s empowerment and gender equality. This is so because too often,
policy reforms to promote women’s empowerment and gender equality result in very little
impact in public service institutions due to poor implementation and ineffective monitoring
and accountability systems (UN, 2007) states. It is, therefore, important to develop more
effective and transparent tools and instruments. The research proposes a mandatory
inclusion of a key priority area on women’s empowerment and gender equality in the IDP
and budget in the municipalities that have been studied and more broadly in all
municipalities. This will address the lip-service and camouflage of women’s empowerment
and gender equality as it will constitute part of what the institutions would have to report
back on to the public in line with legislative compliance.

5.3.7 GENDER RESPONSIVE BUDGETORY ALLOCATIONS

Klatzer, Schratzenstaller, Buchinger and Schaffer (2010) state that budgets constitutes a
central element of any political action. This is so because budgets reflect social and
political power relations which are inherently gendered. The political action in this study is
centred on gender transformation. Preceding discussions reveal that efforts that seeks to
drive the attainment of gender equality in the municipalities studied are, to a large extent
thwarted, by the lack of financial resources that would have been included in the
institution’s comprehensive budgets.

UN (2007) maintains that gender responsive budgeting measures have positive impact on
gender responsive governance. The researcher, therefore, recommends that
municipalities embark on an intensive gender budgeting processes that would eventually
see to the inclusion of gender programmes in the institutions’ IDPs. This should be so
because IDPs present an important public accountability platform that could ensure that
these institutions are held accountable by their constituencies.

On municipalities’ gender budgeting, the researcher recommends that gender budgeting

processes should detail spending patterns on women (internal and external) and a further
breakdown on spending on each of the levels of governance. This is done in order see the
expenditure patterns in relation to women in decision-making and leadership positions in
local government. It is unfortunate that Gender and Transversal Coordination Units within
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municipalities are under-resourced to lead gender budgeting processes through a
comprehensive gender mainstreaming process. That would cut out the common calendar-
driven interventions as is the case in most municipalities. The study considers the
inclusion of gender programmes in the municipalities’ IDPs important. Moreover, as this
would also ensure that these programmes are mandatory as compared to the current lip-
service. The inclusion of the gender programmes in IDPs and budgets will ensure that
gender is not viewed as a “nice-to-have” but that it demands commitments across all
levels of governance.

Klatzer, Schratzenstaller, Buchinger and Schaffer (2010) affirms that the integration of
gender budgets in public budgets will improve gender equality in institutions, advance the
country’s compliance and obligations with regard to its commitments on the national and
international conventions and declarations on gender equality, promote good governance.
The study recommends municipalities’ benchmarking exercises on both gender
mainstreaming and gender budgeting with countries that have since implemented these
programmes for best-practice sharing and enhancement institutional implementation.

5.3.8 WOMEN’S STRATEGIC FORUMS IN THE MUNICIPALITIES

There are strategic forums and documents such as the municipalities’ LED forums and
strategies that are important in the quest to advance women into decision-making and
leadership positions in municipalities. The study argues that women should be drawn in to
participate in these forums and that issues of women empowerment and gender equality,
especially on the aspect of decision-making and leadership should be are included in
these forums. An approach of this nature will provide a strategic integration platform, in
which women are empowered on the institutional aspects of LED through engagements
and interactions with other stakeholders such as big mining houses in the NDM. This will
also help them gain broader experience and expertise in the economic development
sector. It is with these strategic initiatives and interventions that women will be able to
navigate the previously male-dominated sectors in most municipalities such as LED.

5.3.9 DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER POLICIES AND STRATEGIES

The study recommends that the municipalities embark on consultative forums amongst
women and men through the Gender and Transversal Coordination units. These should
be according to the researcher parallel processes, perhaps coordinated from the District,
to inform relevant gender programmes and gender budgeting as suggested above. It
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should also include issues pertaining to women in decision-making and leadership
positions in these institutions of governance. Moser and Moser (2005) indicate is that the
incorporation of gender awareness and gender sensitivity in all gender mainstreaming
policies and strategies is beneficial and the fact that not all the institutions have these
results in implementation challenges. The study further emphasise the need for vigilance
in both the policy development processes as well as policy implementation processes as
these policies would constitute a solid base for gender programmes. The policies are likely
to be met with resistance at both development and implementation phases. Further, after
the policies are developed and adopted, the Gender and Transversal Coordinators should
ensure that they should not “evaporate from the patriarchal cooking pot” (Longwe, 1997)
as they threaten the internal patriarchal traditions within institutions.

5.3.10 INTENSIFICATION OF COMMUNITY-BASED GENDER INFORMATION,

EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATIONS (IEC) STRATEGIES

The pernicious assumptions that are prevalent in the post-feminist and post-racial world
are untrue as there are continued ideological and structural barriers, and continuing
struggles for gender equality and social justice worldwide (Hawkesworth, 2014). The
findings of this study are sufficient evidence which indicates that the feminists continue to
struggle for total emancipation of. In order to counter these assumptions, the old-times
advocacy and lobbying should be resuscitated. The best way to do this is through robust
IEC campaigns among women and men in communities. The research further agrees with
(Kar, 2013) that they need to intensify focus on IEC campaigns. The researcher would
also importantly recommend that in view of the fact that local government is a highly
political and patriarchal environment, advocacy and lobbying should start at the branch
levels of political parties. In essence, those women should begin through IEC campaigns
to transform power and gender relations at these levels prior entering institutions. Kar,
(2013) maintain that bringing about substantive political change requires building more
effective grassroots constituencies focused on women’s issues, to influence legislative
agendas in advance.

5.3.11 GENDERING ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, BEHAVIOURS AND

CULTURES

The recommendation in this respect is to effect continuous and incremental change which
entails ongoing modifications in work processes or social interactions as those will create

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substantial organisational change in behaviours and cultures and ultimately lead to
gendered organisational development (Howell and Costley, 2006).

There is truth in the fact that critical mass enhance fundamental gender acceptance and
change (Kramer, Konrad, Erkut and Hooper, 2006). However, this critical mass alone is
not sufficient and will not be sustained if internal structural issues are not adequately
addressed. The range of internal structural issues that should receive priority would entail
not be limited to: the ranks, location and composition of gender transversal coordinators
and units in municipalities’ organograms for effective gender mainstreaming and
resources’ allocation, gendering organisational structures, gendering organisational
recruitment and selection processes as well continuous gender training and development
to enhance awareness and organisational behaviours and development. These internal
structural issues have a potential of entrenching gender considerations amongst
competing interests that remain clustered around power and resources at the local
government level in ways that exclude women (Beall, 2005).

5.3.12 POSITIONS OF GENDER AND TRANSVERSAL COORDINATORS AND UNITS

As champions and custodians of gender programmes in these institutions, the

coordinators’ ranks, qualifications and levels in the in the organisations should be
elevated. The Gender and Transversal Coordinators should be in the management
echelons within these institutions so as to infuse gender at critical organisational
programmes at the level of decision-making and leadership. It is not proper that a junior
official, as most of them are, who does not sit in any of the management structures, to be
expected to articulate issues for women who are her/his bosses. The research has shown
that the experiences of women in decision-making and leadership positions at both
administration and political wings of local government are the same. The advice is to
elevate the gender and transversal coordinators to provide a strategic platform for
elevating the gender transversal issues. If the coordinators are at higher levels of
management, gender issues would make it into the mainstream decision-making and
management level of the institutions and would consequently be considered amongst the
priority areas. The composition of these units and their location within these institutions is
an important area that requires careful consideration.

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5.3.13 GENDERING ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES AND THEIR REVIEW
PROCESSES

Development and reviews of organisational structures in municipalities should be viewed

as critical instruments towards addressing some of the internal structural deficits that have
been revealed by the research. Organisational structures in municipalities and other
government entities should be able to identify, from the onset, positions and levels that
should be filled by women and men as would be revealed by their respective current state.
For instance, if the majority of the refuse removal truck drivers are male, the consequence
is that on promotions to decision-making and leadership positions (middle management in
this case) women will not be represented. Organisational structure, internal recruitment
and selection processes should be used as instruments to drive gender transformation
through fair discrimination which is permitted by all labour and equity related legislation.

5.3.14 CONTINUOUS GENDER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

The recommendation is that there should be an urgent re-focus and intensification of

gender training and development, which could be driven by properly located and
resourced gender and transversal coordinators. This type of training and development
would significantly enhance gender awareness, address resistance and facilitate
organisational behaviours and development changes and impact positively on gendered
cultures. Thus, both gender and culture matter because they can affect a leader’s style,
behaviour, emergence, and effectiveness in many complex ways. For example, gender
and culture matter because leaders’ gender role, identities and cultural values can affect
the choices they make about the manner in which they will lead (Ayman and Korabik,
2010). The categorisation of these gender training and development programmes should
allow those that focus on women in decision-making and leadership positions as they
need them.

5.3.15 CREATING WOMEN-FRIENDLY INSTITUTIONS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The need to balance the triple roles unfortunately constitutes one amongst the many
strong forces that seek to exclude women from political leadership, and broader decision-
making and leadership positions and hence the need to make comprehensive efforts that
could bring about change (Hunt, 2007). At the most basic level, the research proposes
that governments, and in this instance local government, should implement initiatives such
family-friendly policies, facilities and plans, which include straight-forward measures such
125
as easy access to daycare, flexible office hours, and limits to evening meetings(Hunt,
2007). Metcalfe (2011) avers that the purpose of initiatives of this nature is to create
cultures in organisations which encourage and support the realisation of human potential
by valuing contributions of their employees. The study maintains that when employees are
provided with adequate support irrespective of gender, background, or any individual
difference, their commitment to the institution is enhanced. Such facilities would equally
benefit men but will importantly serve as motivation for women aspiring to be future
decision-makers and leaders.

5.3.16 FEMINISATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT: CHANGE FROM WOMEN IN

POLITICS TO GENDER IN POLITICS

In view of the inherent political environment in local government, the research proposes
that together with all the above-mentioned interventions, there is a need to entrench the
move from women in politics to gender in politics (Kenny, 2007). This is so because the
narrow focus on women, important as it is, conceals men’s attitudes and behaviours
towards women in general and more specifically towards women in decision-making and
leadership positions. A gendered focus shifts the emphasis from women to gendering of
political institutions, highlighting the ways in which political institutions reflect, structure
and reinforce gendered patterns of power (Kenney, 1996) in (Kenny, 2007). This change
in focus would be beneficial to gender transformation in institutions. This recommendation
for shifting focus does not suggest the neglect for intensified focus on women as a
previously disadvantaged and marginalised group. It is, however, premised on the need to
zoom into gender relations in these institutions as most of the other issues emanate from
them. The said shift would actively engage and interact with men in these institutions. This
is a sound and sustainable base for infusing gender change management. Kenny (2007)
maintains, that gender relations are inevitably power relations, and are, therefore, political.
That they extend beyond formal public structures such as institutions of local government
in the form of municipalities and paid work to include private’ structures such as the family
which falls under the ambit of women’s triple roles.

5.3.17 ACCOUNTABILITY FOR DELIVERING ON A WOMEN’S MANDATE: FROM PhD

TO PhU

The extent of women's impact in decision-making and leadership positions in local

government will depend on their activism and passion for the feminist cause of women

126
empowerment and gender equality. It is this feminist activism that will motivate them to
represent women's issues and concerns. It is, however, crucial that through the women’s
movement, women’s activism is revived from grassroots community structures through to
the highest echelons of institutions. This, together with creating women’s accountability
forums and networks, would ensure that women in decision-making and leadership
positions are continuously held accountable by their counterparts. The researcher further
recommends that the same forums and networks should be used to deal with issues of the
PhD syndrome by exploring PhU alternatives. These robust engagements should seek to
answer some of the questions such as; how can women maximise their impact on the
political processes in local government? What strategies are most useful in increasing
their effectiveness? What lessons can women in local government decision-making and
leadership positions share with those aspiring to enter the field? (Burnet, 2011).

These PhU alternatives should be informed by sustainable strategies of ensuring

representation through women’s critical mass in these decision-making and leadership
positions whilst also pushing for substantive participation in order to promote and put
women’s issues and concerns on the mainstream institutional agendas and discussions.
Burnet (2011) points out that the PhU approach would not only increase women’s chances
of their own success, but they will also pave the way for a new generation of women to
enter into decision-making and leadership positions. The researcher believes that an
intense exploration of the PhU alternatives will further sharpen and strengthen women’s
mandate in these positions of influence and power, which will somewhat merge the
strength of the women’s critical mass and the dire need for women’s substantive
participation.

5.3.18 DEVELOPMENT OF A WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT MODEL

(WLEM): A PROPOSAL

Gender dynamics that still persist in decision-making and leadership positions in local
government as revealed through this study point to a need for an all-encompassing
women’s leadership empowerment model. The proposed model should focus on decision-
making and leadership positions within local government at both administrative and
political levels. The model’s beneficiaries should strictly be women in these positions or
those that aspire for them. The researcher recommends that it should be a thoroughly
researched model. Drawing from the participants’ responses, it should take form of an
intense education and training programme over a set period of time and must have all the
127
relevant components. It must not be structured in the same way as the CPMD/MFMP
programmes whose main focus is on municipalities’ core functions. The model should
instead encompass life skills, decision-making, emotional intelligence, municipalities’ core
functions, diversity training which should include issues of resistance and effective use of
networks. Such a programme should attempt to balance the theory and practice.

5.4 AREAS OF FUTURE RESEARCH

Rapid changes and/or disruptions of the term of office of women in decision-making and
leadership positions in local government at both administrative and political components
presents an important areas of future research. A further suggestion in this regard is that
the future study should be a comparative analysis between female and male counterparts
and broaden the focus to include concluding term of office, serving second terms,
premature terminations.

Another important area for future studies is the extent to which women’s access to
positions of power and influence facilitates participation and consequently transformation.
Hassim (2003) indicates that there has been little research into the extent to which
increased representation has translated into real gains in reducing gender inequalities.
Furthermore, a critique of women’s critical mass in institutions, specifically in positions of
influence and power, and how it sharpens or strengthens the women’s empowerment
mandate.

How does women’s physical and biological make-up, for example, child-bearing impact on
their prospects of ascending to decision-making and leadership positions in local
government and perhaps across all spheres of government as the custodian for women’s
empowerment and gender equality. In addition to this question should also be an inquiry
into the working conditions of women in lower levels, aligned to interrogation of
organisational interventions and contingency plans.

Another are of research would be the study of networks, their impact on organisational
functioning in the context of women in the workplace, and how these can be used to assist
their rapid entry into the mainstream. The research encourages future feminist research in
the development of a comprehensive framework that should include women’s coaching
and mentorship in effort to address the PhD in ways that will benefit future generations of
women in decision-making and leadership positions.

128
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The study has exposed the interlinkages between gender, development and governance.
This is a relatively under-studied interlink, the gendered component of governance in
developmental issues. A more poignant question that should be asked is for the
development community, what types of development policies and strategies can be
introduced to promote gender equality and foster more development(Mason and Kim,
2001) Such a question points to the need for exploring possibilities of more sharpened,
more strengthened public-private partnerships. For instance, government and academic
institutions’ partnership projects on the development of centres of excellence for women in
decision-making and leadership can be established. These will be of help to mainly
women who are in decision-making and leadership positions in local government and
other critical institutions of government. The suggested partnerships would bring together
academic research capacities which will enhance government implementation capacities.

129
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144
ANNEXURE: 1

PERMISSION REQUEST LETTER TO NDM: EXECUTIVE MAYORS

P.O. Box 834

Sundra

2200

Mpumalanga

The Executive Mayor,

Cc: Acting Municipal Manager

Nkangala District Municipality

Middelburg

Request for permission: scholarly research (Tebogo Matoane, Student number: 009332427)

Sirs,

I hereby request permission to conduct a scholarly research in partial fulfillment of the Degree,
Masters in Development Studies, for which I have been registered with the University of Limpopo
(Turfloop Graduate School of Leadership) since the academic year 2012. The title of my research
study, supervised by Dr T. Moyo, is “WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION-MAKING AND
LEADERSHIP POSITIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF THE GENDER DYNAMICS IN THE NKANGALA DISTRICT
MUNICIPALITY, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE”. I am a final year student, having successfully
completed my coursework which is the first component of these studies and expected to
complete the second and final component which is the said research at the end of the 2013
academic year.

This being a mixed methodology study of both qualitative and quantitative nature, the requested
permission is for access to all six (06) municipalities that constitute Nkangala District Municipality.
The process will entail interviews, both one on one and group interviews of councilors and officials
in decision-making and leadership positions in respective municipalities, observations of various
mayoral and council sittings, the distribution of questionnaires for completion by participants, as
145
well as an analysis of key documents such as the IDP, Budget, Spatial Development Framework,
Annual Reports and Plans, Mayoral State of the Municipalities and the District Addresses, as well
any other useful resources.

The student researcher, Tebogo Matoane will personally conduct the research and is bound by
mandatory ethical standards of first and foremost, voluntary participation, confidentiality in all
aspects, maintaining high levels of integrity, respect and sensitivity for participants, accurate and
meaningful reporting, non-biasness, no harm in any manner to participants, open and frank
communication, availing the complete research report to participants, the respective participant
municipalities, and the NDM.

In order to ensure that all required information is collected and timeously analyzed and packaged
for presentation and submission of the mini-dissertation, it is anticipated that the data collection
process should commence from the 27th May until the 27th August 2013 (03months), and the
analysis, September and October 2013 (two months) and the final submission in November 2013. I
therefore sincerely appeal for your cooperation in assisting me with regard to obtaining maximum
data and meeting the timeframes as it is my believe that the anticipated research report will be of
great value to future policy and programmes interventions pursuant to the national development
priority of gender transformation.

146
ANNEXURE: 2

PERMISSION REQUEST LETTER TO NDM: MUNICPAL MANAGER

P.O. Box 834

Sundra

2200

Mpumalanga

The Acting Municipal Manager,

Cc: Executive Mayor

Nkangala District Municipality

Middelburg

Request for permission: scholarly research (Tebogo Matoane, Student number: 009332427)

Sirs,

I hereby request permission to conduct a scholarly research in partial fulfillment of the Degree,
Masters in Development Studies, for which I have been registered with the University of Limpopo
(Turfloop Graduate School of Leadership) since the academic year 2012. The title of my research
study, supervised by Dr T. Moyo, is “WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION-MAKING AND
LEADERSHIP POSITIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF THE GENDER DYNAMICS IN THE NKANGALA DISTRICT
MUNICIPALITY, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE”. I am a final year student, having successfully
completed my coursework which is the first component of these studies and expected to
complete the second and final component which is the said research at the end of the 2013
academic year.

This being a mixed methodology study of both qualitative and quantitative nature, the requested
permission is for access to all six (06) municipalities that constitute Nkangala District Municipality.
The process will entail interviews, both one on one and group interviews of councilors and officials
in decision-making and leadership positions in respective municipalities, observations of various
mayoral and council sittings, the distribution of questionnaires for completion by participants, as

147
well as an analysis of key documents such as the IDP, Budget, Spatial Development Framework,
Annual Reports and Plans, Mayoral State of the Municipalities and the District Addresses, as well
any other useful resources.

The student researcher, Tebogo Matoane will personally conduct the research and is bound by
mandatory ethical standards of first and foremost, voluntary participation, confidentiality in all
aspects, maintaining high levels of integrity, respect and sensitivity for participants, accurate and
meaningful reporting, non-biasness, no harm in any manner to participants, open and frank
communication, availing the complete research report to participants, the respective participant
municipalities, and the NDM.

In order to ensure that all required information is collected and timeously analyzed and packaged
for presentation and submission of the mini-dissertation, it is anticipated that the data collection
process should commence from the 27th May until the 27th August 2013 (03months), and the
analysis, September and October 2013 (two months) and the final submission in November 2013. I
therefore sincerely appeal for your cooperation in assisting me with regard to obtaining maximum
data and meeting the timeframes as it is my believe that the anticipated research report will be of
great value to future policy and programmes interventions pursuant to the national development
priority of gender transformation.

148
ANNEXURE: 3

PERMISSION GRANTING LETTER FROM NDM

PLEASE REFER TO NEXT PAGE

149
ANNEXURE: 4

(SAMPLE) EMAIL INFORMING PARTICIPANTS OF`RESEARCHER’S VISIT

PLEASE REFER TO NEXT PAGE

150
(2245 unread) - tmatoane - Yahoo Mail Page 1 of 1

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Good Morning Colleagues,
Starred
People Please note that Ms Tebogo Matoane would appreciate your commitment to meet with her for not
more than 15 Minutes for an interview in pursuit of her Masters Degree in Public Administrations’
Social
Dissertation.
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Hope you find all in order.

Kind Regards.

Gift Ngobeni
Executive Director Corporate Services
Victor Khanye Local Municipality
Tel: (013) 665 6004
Fax: (013) 665 2913
Cell: (083) 286 1372

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https://us-mg6.mail.yahoo.com/neo/launch?.rand=67lsg00nt4iie 31/03/2015
ANNEXURE: 5

INTERVIEW CONSCENT FORM

INTERVIEW CONSENT FORM

Note: All participants are requested to sign the consent form before the interview.

TITLE OF STUDY: WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION-MAKING AND

LEADERSHIP POSITIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF GENDER DYNAMICS IN THE
NKANGALA DISTRICT MUNICIPALITY, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE.

STUDY INVESTIGATOR(S): TEBOGO MATOANE (MS)

STUDENT NUMBER: 009332427 DEGREE: MASTERS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

INSTITUTION: UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO, TURFLOOP GRADUATE SCHOOL OF

LEADERSHIP.

Invitation to Participate & Study Description

You are hereby invited to participate in the above-mentioned research study. The study
focusses on women in decision-making and leadership positions in local government
(municipalities as institutions of local government). Drawing from the fact that local
government is historically a male-dominated environment; the study seeks to investigate
the gender dynamics in this sphere of government especially with regard to women in
decision-making and leadership positions.

It is anticipated that the study will help in building a much more in-depth understanding of
gender transformation in the local government sector, the challenges, successes and
lessons. These lessons should establish a fundamental basis that will be valuable for
future policy directives and programmatic interventions in an effort to concretize gender
transformation in public institutions.

The interview will take place at a venue and time jointly agreed upon by (yourself/ves) the
participant/s and the researcher. Each interview will take about an hour to complete and
will be recorded both in audio (tape recorder) and manually (notes-taking) for thorough
analysis.

This study does not involve any harm or risk; you will be asked to answer questions in
relation to your career, workplace and community. The complete report emanating from
151
the study will be made available to participants and participating institutions
(municipalities), as well as other relevant stakeholders of interest such as the Commission
on Gender Equality, Provincial Office on the Status of Women for example, as key
institutions in policy and programmes development.

The researcher is bound by ethical conduct and to this effect, among others, the
following aspects will be considered;

Confidentiality: information provided will be kept strictly confidential. To protect your

privacy, you will be allocated a number, and your responses to the interview questions will
only be identified with a code number, and at no point your name will be mentioned in the
responses.

Use of information obtained: the researcher might use some information flowing from
this study for article (s) that might be published in scientific journals and presented at
seminars, summits, and other professional meetings. However your identity will not be
revealed.

Right to Refuse or Withdraw: The decision to participate in this research project is

entirely at your own free will. You are also at liberty to not answer some questions or parts
thereof.

Right to Ask Questions: You have the right to ask questions about this study and to
have those questions answered by the student researcher before, during or after the
research.

Your signature below indicates that you have decided to participate voluntarily in this study and
that you have read and understood the information provided above. You will be given a copy of
this form to keep.

Participant Full Names: ______________________________ Date : ___________________

Participant Signatures: _______________________________

152
ANNEXURE: 6 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

STUDENT RESEARCHER: TEBOGO MATOANE STUDENT NUMBER:

9332427

UNIVERSITY OF THE NORTH, TURFLOOP GRADUATE SCHOOL OF LEADERSHIP

TOPIC

WOMEN IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT DECISION-MAKING AND LEADERSHIP

POSITIONS: AN ANALYSIS OF GENDER DYNAMICS IN THE NKANGALA DISTRICT
MUNICIPALITY, MPUMALANGA PROVINCE.

Preamble: The research is a scholarly research, a mini-dissertation in partial fulfillment of

the Degree, Masters in Development Studies. With this process of data collection through
interviews, the researcher is bound by the following ethical conduct; Permission to record
will be sort from participants and all participants will be duly acknowledged.

PART 1: STANDARD PARTICIPANTS’ BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

GENDER:………………………….

AGE:………………………………..

PLACEOF
ORIGIN:………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………

CULTURE:………………………………………………………………………………………

HOME LANGUAGE:………………………………………….

HIGHESTEDUCATIONAL
ATTAINMENT:…………………………………………………………………………………

CURRENT
STUDIES:…………………………………………………………………………………………

FUTURE CAREER DEVELOPMENT ASPIRATIONS/PLANS:………….....

……………………………………………………………………………………………

ANY OTHER ASPECT OF YOURSELF YOU WISH TO

SHARE:………………………………………………………

PART 2: PREVIOUS JOB/OCCUPATION BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCES

• What was your previous occupation/job?

153
• For how long were you occupied with the above?

• What are some of the most useful and valuable lessons that you have learnt from
you previous job/occupation?

• What are some of the least useful and valuable lessons you have learnt from your
previous job/occupation?

• What are some of those unique issues that stood out for you in your pervious
job/occupation?

• How would you say these will or have influenced your career progression?

• Any other aspect of your previous job/occupation would you wish to share?

PART 3: CURRENT JOB/OCCUPATION

• What is the name of your municipality?

• What is your job title?

• How long have you been with the municipality?

• Which positions have you held over the period?

• What have been your main job roles and responsibilities over the period?

• What are your current job roles and responsibilities?

• How long have you been in your current job/position?

• What are some of the most useful and valuable lessons that you have learnt and
continue to learn in your current position?

• What are some of the least useful and valuable lessons you have learnt from your
current position?

• What are some of those unique issues that stood out for you in your current
position?

• How would you say these will or have influenced your career progression?

• Any other aspect of your current position would you wish to share?

PART 4: COMMUNITY ACTIVISM, INVOLVEMENT AND PARTICIPATION

• In which structures, if any, were you active in prior your entry into local
government?

• What position/s, if any, did you hold within those structures?

• What were your main roles and responsibilities in those structures?

154
• What are some of the useful and valuable lessons that you have learnt from your
involvement in these structures?

• What are some of the least useful and valuable lessons that you have learnt from
your involvement in these structures?

• How would you say these lessons, experiences and participation will/have shaped
your future community activism?

• Any other aspect of your community involvement you would want to share?

PART 4: ISSUES AND IDEOLOGIES

• What is your own broad understanding of Gender?

• What is your own understanding of the difference between women’s empowerment

and gender equality?

• What is overall reflection of both women’s empowerment and gender equality in

South Africa currently?

• What would you say about overall women’s empowerment and gender equality
policy and legislative frameworks in South Africa currently?

• Would you say there is a coherent and progressive women’s movement in South
Africa currently?

• If yes, what would you say (views and opinions) about the women’s movement in
South Africa today?

• Would you say there is a coherent and progressive men’s movement in South
Africa today?

• If yes, what would you say (views and opinions) about the men’s movement in
South Africa today?

• In what ways do you think the women’s movement would or have positively or
negatively contributed to the gender transformation agenda in South Africa today?

• In what ways do you think the men’s movement would or have contributed
positively or negatively to the gender transformation agenda in South Africa today?

• What are your ideas of the role of women and men respectively in the women’s
empowerment and gender equality agenda – the gender transformation agenda perhaps?

• Any other aspect you wish to share on overall women’s empowerment and gender
equality in South Africa today?

155
PART 5: WORKPLACE ISSUES & IDEOLOGIES (LOCAL GOVERNMENT SPECIFIC)

In view of your broad understanding, views and opinions above, focusing on your
workplace, local government;

• What do you believe are the main, glaring gender issues affecting women
specifically?

• What do you think are the main, glaring gender issues affecting men specifically?

• Would you be able to select at least one case in point, demonstrate and explain in
details some of the said gender issues?

• What is your view/opinion of women in decision-making and leadership positions in

your workplace

• What is your view/opinion of women in decision-making and leadership positions in

local government in general?

• What is your view/opinion of men in decision-making and leadership positions in

local government in general?

• Explain your observation and experiences of the (i) women-to-women relations ,

(ii) women –to-men relations, (iii) and men-to-women relations (iv) men – to -men
relations in your workplace

• What is your view/opinion of men in decision-making and leadership positions in

your workplace?

PART 6: INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS FOR GENDER MAINSTREAMING

• How would you describe your organizational culture in relation to gender?

• Is there a gender unit/department in your workplace?

• What is the staff complement at this unit/department in your workplace?

• What is the post level of the head of the unit/department in the workplace (middle or
senior management)?

• What is her/his main job functions?

• What is the budget allocated to this unit/department in your workplace?

• Is there a workplace women’s forum at your workplace?

• Is there a workplace men’s forum at your workplace?

• Is there any coaching and mentorship programme at your workplace?

• Is there a workplace gender policy in your workplace?

156
• What are any other gender transformation related programmes at your workplace?

PART 7: CONCLUDING CONFIRMATORY QUESTIONS

• Would you say there exist barriers for achieving women’s empowerment and
gender equality in your workplace?

• If yes, what would you point to as the main barriers to achieving gender
transformation in your workplace?

• What are some of the suggestions you think should be implemented and would
contribute towards the attainment of women’s empowerment and gender equality in your
workplace?

• Which roles and responsibilities would you wish to assume as your own personal
contribution towards gender transformation in your workplace?

• Do you think entrenching women’s empowerment and gender equality in

community structures and forums is important? If yes, why”

• Any suggestions of how community structures and forums could drive gender
transformation through to municipalities/local government?

Thank you very much for taking part in this interview, your time and input is highly
appreciated,

Tebogo Matoane

9332427

157