JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
JKUAT SODeL

SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

P.O. Box 62000, 00200
©2016

Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: [email protected]

BIT 2324 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

SYSTEMS

JJ II
J I LAST REVISION ON March 1, 2016
J DocDoc I
Back Close
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
This presentation is intended to be covered within one
week. The notes, examples and exercises should be sup-
plemented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises
have solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessi-
JKUAT SODeL

ble by clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to

the same page click the same tag appearing at the end of
the solution/answer.
©2016

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

sponsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
[email protected]
JJ II
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 0
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
LESSON 6
Spatial Data Files

Learning outcomes
JKUAT SODeL

By the end of this topic you should be able to;

• Explain spatial data files
• Describe the presentation of the data files
©2016

JJ II
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 1
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
6.1. Introduction
Spatial data files are like other files you work with on a computer.

6.2. Characteristics of spatial data files

JKUAT SODeL

1. Spatial data files can be:

• stored on a hard drive, memory stick, CD, DVD
• assigned either a user-defined file name, or are given
©2016

default file name by a software application

• organized into folders
• have the ability to be opened, viewed and edited by
one or more GIS software applications that under-
stand their format.
JJ II
J I 2. However, that is where the similarities end. Spatial data
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 2
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
files are unique in that they store “georeferenced” infor-
mation – information that defines location or place. In
addition, descriptive information about the georeferenced
information is stored in each spatial data file.
JKUAT SODeL

3. Thus rather than just text or numbers, an individual spa-

tial data file is a digital representation of a similar group
of geographic features on the surface of the earth.
©2016

4. The geographic features can be actual physical entities or

events, or they can represent conceptual features.
5. Examples of individual spatial data files representing real
geographic features or events are lakes, rivers, wetlands,
elevation contours, roads, forested areas, rare species habi-
JJ II tats, soils, earthquakes, vehicle thefts, electricity distribu-
J I tion lines, and groundwater reservoirs.
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 3
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
6. Examples of individual spatial data files representing con-
ceptual geographic features are census tract boundaries,
zoning boundaries, or parcel boundaries i.e. conceptual
features do not physically exist on the landscape, but are
JKUAT SODeL

imposed by us for various reasons and can be represented

in a geographic context.
7. Each spatial data file is uniquely constructed to work within
©2016

GIS software applications and consists of unique charac-

teristics:
• “shapes” that attempt to reflect / convey the appear-
ance and position of individual geographic features as
accurately as possible
JJ II • records within a related tabular database that contain
J I numeric and/or textual descriptions of each feature
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 4
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
• a coordinate system that defines the true location of
all the features on the earth’s surface (i.e. the lati-
tude/longitude)

6.3. Formats of Spatial Data Files

JKUAT SODeL

Spatial data files come in several different formats. You may

need to use only one, or you may need to use a combination of
©2016

them, depending on your particular application and/or type of

analysis. Each format falls under one of two different categories:
vector or raster.
• Vector spatial data files are ones in which the geographic
features being represented are built by a collection of ver-
JJ II tices and lines.
J I • Raster spatial data files are ones in which the geographic
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 5
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
features across an entire area are represented by a contin-
uous set of “pixels” or “cells”.

6.3.1. The Shapefile spatial data file format

JKUAT SODeL

This is a very common format for spatial data files in the vector
category. In this format, geographic features can be represented
in one of three ways:
©2016

• points
• lines
• polygons
If you utilize an existing shapefile, the point, line or polygon
representation is chosen by the organization responsible for its
JJ II
development. If you create your own shapefile, you will have
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 6
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
to determine which representation is best for your work or ap-
plication. The determination is made based on several factors,
including but not limited to:
• the need to depict features at a specific scale
JKUAT SODeL

• the need to depict features as realistically as possible

• the need to quantify some aspect of geographic features.
©2016

6.3.2. The Coverage spatial data file format

This was the original spatial data file format used in GIS soft-
ware. While this format has taken a “backseat” to the shapefile
format due to the simplicity of shapefiles, coverages are still very
viable and have many advantages. Along with shapefiles, the
JJ II coverage format is being superseded by the new geodatabase for-
J I mat. However, many web sites still offer spatial data for down-
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 7
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
load in the coverage format. Just like shapefiles, geographic
features are represented as points, lines, or polygons and many
factors come into play when deciding which representation is
best. Coverages also fall within the vector category. Unlike
JKUAT SODeL

shapefiles, a single coverage is actually comprised of two folders.

Each folder contains a multitude of other files that the GIS soft-
ware “puts together” in order to represent geographic features
©2016

and associated tabular information when it is opened. If either

folder is missing, or if files from within either folder are missing,
the coverage will be “corrupt” and not useable.

6.3.3. The Grid spatial data file format

JJ II In most respects, grids are very different from either shapefiles

J I or coverages. Grids fall into the raster category; they are con-
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 8
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
structed of rows and columns of pixels instead of vertices and
arcs. Like coverages however, grids are comprised of two folders,
each containing files that the software “puts together” for display
and manipulation. Grids can be either:
JKUAT SODeL

• Integer Grids: The pixel values are integers and each in-
teger may also be associated with one or more textual de-
scriptions.
©2016

• Floating Point Grids: The pixel values will be expressed

as decimals. Floating point grids can not have textual
descriptions.

6.3.4. Images as Spatial Data Files

JJ II Many different image formats can be used in GIS. Some of these
J I may be more familiar than others: .jpg, .tif, .bil, .png, .img,
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 9
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
.sid. All image formats fall within the raster category of spatial
data. In some cases, images are not used specifically as “spatial
data”, but are used to enhance spatial data by providing a digital
photograph of a place or object.
JKUAT SODeL

In other cases, the images themselves are spatial data. Data

provided from the Landsat satellite is an example of imagery
that is spatial. If you have ever used Google Earth, the images
©2016

that appear when you zoom in are spatial data. When an im-
age is “georeferenced” - meaning that information is embedded
within the image that describes its position on the surface of
the earth in real world coordinates (latitude/longitude), it be-
comes spatial data. In addition to being “georeferenced”, many
JJ II images may also be “orthorectified”. This term refers to a com-
J I plex process wherein distortions caused by differences in terrain
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 10
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
elevation, camera tilt, and edge effects are removed from the im-
age. Images that are both georeferenced and orthorectified are
frequently called “orthophotographs” or just “orthos” in short.

6.3.5. Computer-Aided Drafting (CAD) files

JKUAT SODeL

CAD software applications such as AutoCAD and MicroStation

produce vector data in .dwg or .dxf format. ArcGIS software
©2016

can read these files directly, they do not need to be imported or

changed in any way. In most instances, but not all, these .dwg
or .dxf files will include georeferencing information and thus,
the data are spatial. For those files that are not georeferenced,
there are methods and / or separate software programs that
JJ II allow them to become georeferenced. CAD files often provide
J I very detailed information such as the floor plan of a building
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 11
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
which can be useful for certain GIS applications.

6.3.6. The GeoDataBase (GDB)

The GDB is the newest spatial data file format developed by
JKUAT SODeL

ESRI. It is a replacement file format for all of the above. GDBs

have very specific advantages over the other file types:
1. All spatial data resides within a single file. This eliminates
©2016

having several different file formats residing in several dif-

ferent folders across a disk. The file has an .mdb extension
i.e. a GDB containing all spatial data for Nairobi might
be named nairobi.mdb
2. GDBs have greater “intelligence”
JJ II
3. Industry specific data models can be applied to a GDB
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 12
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
6.4. Naming conventions for Spatial Data Files & Fold-
ers containing Spatial Data Files
Since spatial data files have a complex structure, it is extremely
important that you follow some basic rules for assigning names
JKUAT SODeL

to these files as well as to the folders that contain these files.

Thus, to avoid these problems from ever happening to you, fol-
low these simple rules:
©2016

• Keep the names short

– Between 8 and 15 characters
– If you work with spatial data that are in the “cover-
age” vector format, or the “grid” raster format, only
8 characters are allowed.
JJ II
J I • Do Not Use Spaces
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 13
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
– town boundaries is a bad name for a file; use town boundari
instead
– my gis data is a bad name for a folder that will contain
spatial data files
JKUAT SODeL

• Do Not Use Special Characters (the only exception is the

underscore)
– e.g. town#boundaries is a bad name for a file
©2016

– e.g. my!gis!data is a bad name for a folder

• Never Put A Number As The First Character
– e.g. 2000population is a bad name for a file
– a good alternative would be y2000pop
JJ II • Keep The Names Simple
J I – use abbreviations where possible
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 14
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
– use underscores where possible as a replacement for
spaces
– use upper case where it makes sense
– e.g. twn bndy or TwnBndy
JKUAT SODeL

• Implement A Tracking Method

– When you begin to perform analysis, this rule will
make more sense than it probably does now but it is
©2016

important to keep in mind.

– When you manipulate vector spatial data files, you
will frequently be generating a copies of the data that
have “added value”.
– When you manipulate raster data files, you will fre-
JJ II quently be performing a process multiple times before
J I you get the outcome you wish.
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 15
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
– Therefore, it is important that you have a naming
convention that will allow you to keep track of these
sequential files. Example, you may start with a shape-
file of town boundaries which only has one attribute
JKUAT SODeL

(e.g. the name of the town). Performing a process

called a Join, results in new attributes (population of
each town, zip code, the number of grocery stores in
©2016

each town, etc) being appended to the table. Once

the join is completed, you would export the entire file
to a new file in order to permanently retain the new
attributes. Because you have implemented a track-
ing method it will be easy to distinguish the latest
JJ II file you are working with.
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 16
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
Revision Questions

Exercise 1.  Define georeferencing.

Example . Distinguish between vector and raster.
JKUAT SODeL

Solution: Revise. 

Exercise 2.  List three rules to follow in creating data files.

©2016

JJ II
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 17
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1. Revise. Exercise 1
JKUAT SODeL
©2016

JJ II
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 18
 BIT 2324 Geographical Information Systems
Exercise 2. Revise. Exercise 2
JKUAT SODeL
©2016

JJ II
J I
J DocDoc I
JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation

Back Close 19