Chapter 2

Energy, Energy Transfer,

and
General Energy Analysis
We will soon learn how to apply the first law of
thermodynamics as the expression of the conservation
of energy principle. But, first we study the ways in
which energy may be transported across the boundary
of a general thermodynamic system. For closed
systems (fixed mass systems) energy V
 can cross the
boundaries of a closed system only in the form of heat
or work. For open systems or control volumes energy
can cross the control surface in the form of heat, work,
and energy transported by the mass streams crossing
the control surface.

2
Energy

V

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as

thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic and nuclear and their sum constitutes the
total energy E of a system.

Consider the system shown below moving with a

velocity, V at an elevation Z relative to the3
reference plane.
CM 
General V
System

Reference Plane, Z=0

The total energy E of a system is the sum of all forms of
energy that can exist within the system such as thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear. The total energy of the system is normally
thought of as the sum of the internal energy, kinetic energy,
and potential energy. The internal energy U is that
energy associated with the molecular structure of a system
and the degree of the molecular activity. The kinetic
energy KE exists as a result of the system's motion
relative to an external reference frame. When the system
moves with velocity the kinetic energy is expressed as

2
V
KE  m ( kJ )
2
4
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field relative to the external
reference frame is called potential energy PE and is
expressed as
PE  mgZ ( kJ )
where g is the gravitational acceleration and z is the
elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to
the reference frame. The total energy of the system
is expressed as

E  U  KE  PE ( kJ )
or, on a unit mass basis,
5
 E U KE PE kJ
e    ( )
m m m m kg
2
V
 u  gZ
2
where e = E/m is the specific stored energy, and u = U/m is the
specific internal energy. The change in stored energy of a
system is given by
E  U  KE  PE ( kJ )

Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and,

thus, experience no change in their kinetic and potential
energies. The change in the stored energy is identical to the
change in internal energy for stationary systems.

If KE = PE = 0,
E  U ( kJ ) 6
Energy Transport by Heat and Work and the Classical Sign
Convention

Energy may cross the boundary of a closed system only by heat

or work.

Energy transfer across a system boundary due solely to the

temperature difference between a system and its surroundings
is called heat.

Energy transferred across a system boundary that can lift a

weight is called work.

Heat and work are energy transport mechanisms between a

system and its surroundings.

7
Since heat and work are path dependent functions, they have inexact
differentials designated by the symbol . The differentials of heat and work
are expressed as Q and W. The integral of the differentials of heat and
work over the process path gives the amount of heat or work transfer that
occurred at the system boundary during a process.
2


1, along path
 Q  Q12 (not Q)


1, along path
 W  W12 (not W )

The integrals of Q and W are not Q2 – Q1 and W2 – W1, respectively.

The following figure illustrates that properties (P, T, v, u, etc.) are point
functions, that is, they depend only on the states. However, heat and work
are path functions, that is, their magnitudes depend on the path followed.
8
 700
kPa

100
kPa

0.01 m3 0.03 m3

A sign convention is required for heat and work energy

transfers, and the classical thermodynamic sign convention is
selected for these notes. According to the classical sign
convention, heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system
. are positive; heat transfer from a system and work a
system are negative. The system shown below has heat
supplied to it and work done by it.

9
Energy Transport by Heat

Recall that heat is energy in transition across the system boundary solely
due to the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
The net heat transferred to a system is defined as
Qnet   Qin   Qout
Here, Qin and Qout are the magnitudes of the heat transfer values. In most
thermodynamics texts, the quantity Q is meant to be the net heat transferred
to the system, Qnet. We often think about the heat transfer per unit mass10
of
the system, Q.
 Q
q
m
Heat transfer has the units of energy measured in joules (we
will use kilojoules, kJ) or the units of energy per unit mass,
kJ/kg.

Since heat transfer is energy in transition across the system

boundary due to a temperature difference, there are three
modes of heat transfer at the boundary that depend on the
temperature difference between the boundary surface and the
surroundings. These are conduction, convection, and radiation.
However, when solving problems in thermodynamics involving
heat transfer to a system, the heat transfer is usually given or is
calculated by applying the first law, or the conservation of
energy, to the system.

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An adiabatic process is one in which the system is perfectly
insulated and the heat transfer is zero. Q = 0

There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:-

(i) The system is well insulated
(ii) Both the system and the surroundings are in the same
temperature (no driving force).

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Introduction to the Basic Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat transfer is energy in transition due to a temperature

difference. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction,
convection, and radiation.

Conduction through Plane Walls

Conduction heat transfer is a progressive exchange of energy
between the molecules of a substance.

13
Fourier's law of heat conduction is
 dT
Qcond   A kt
dx
here
Qcond = heat flow per unit time (W)
kt = thermal conductivity (W/mK)
A = area normal to heat flow (m2)
dT = temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (C/m)
dx

Integrating Fourier's law

T
Qcond  kt A
x
Since T2>T1, the heat flows from right to left in the above figure.

14
Example 2-1

A flat wall is composed of 20 cm of brick having a thermal

conductivity kt = 0.72 W/mK. The right face temperature of the
brick is 900C, and the left face temperature of the brick is
20C. Determine the rate of heat conduction through the wall
per unit area of wall.

Tright = 900C
Tleft =
20C

20 cm

 T
Qcond  kt A
x
Q cond T W (900  20) K
 kt  0.72
A x m K 0.2m
W
 3168 2
m 15
Convection Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer is the mode of energy transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion.

The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from

Newton's law of cooling, expressed as 16
 Q conv
The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from
Newton's law of cooling, expressed as
17
 Q conv  h A (Ts  Tf )
here
Q conv = heat transfer rate (W)
A = heat transfer area (m2)
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
Ts = surface temperature (K)
Tf = bulk fluid temperature away from the surface (K)

The convective heat transfer coefficient is an experimentally determined

parameter that depends upon the surface geometry, the nature of the fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity. Ranges of the
convective heat transfer coefficient are given below.

h W/m2K
free convection of gases 2-25
free convection of liquids 50-100
forced convection of gases 25-250
forced convection of liquids 50-20,000
18
Radiative Heat Transfer
Radiative heat transfer is energy in transition from the surface
of one body to the surface of another due to electromagnetic
radiation. The radiative energy transferred is proportional to the
difference in the fourth power of the absolute temperatures of
the bodies exchanging energy.

Qrad  ATs  Tsurr 

 4 4

19
here
Q rad
= heat transfer per unit time (W)
A = surface area for heat transfer (m2)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4
 = emissivity
Ts = absolute temperature of surface (K)
Tsurr = absolute temperature of surroundings (K)

20
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational

field is called potential energy (PE)

21
The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be
converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two

systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature
Difference.

A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic

Process.
Mechanical Forms of Work

Work is energy expended by a force acting through a distance. Thermodynamic work

is defined as energy in transition across the system boundary and is done by a
system.

Mathematically, the differential of work is expressed as

 
 W  F  d s  Fds cos
here  is the angle between the force vector and the displacement vector.
As with the heat transfer, the Greek symbol  means that work is a path-dependent
function and has an inexact differential. If the angle between the force and the
displacement is zero, the work done between two states is

W12   W   Fds
2 2

1 1
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The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is known as the conservation of energy principle. It

states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. A
major consequence of the first law is the existence and definition of the property total
energy E introduced earlier.

The First Law and the Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the conservation of energy

principle. Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in the form of heat or
work. Energy may cross a system boundary (control surface) of an open system by
heat, work and mass transfer.

A system moving relative to a reference plane is shown below where z is the

elevation of the center of mass above the reference plane and V is the velocity of
the center of mass.
System CM 
V
Energyin
Energyout
z

Reference Plane, z = 0

24
For the system shown above, the conservation of energy principle or the
first law of thermodynamics is expressed as

 Total energy   Total energy   The change in total 

       
 entering the system   leaving the system   energy of the system 
or
Ein  Eout  Esystem

Normally the stored energy, or total energy, of a system is expressed as the

sum of three separate energies. The total energy of the system,
Esystem, is given as

E = Internal energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy

E = U + KE + PE

Recall that U is the sum of the energy contained within the molecules of the
system other than the kinetic and potential energies of the system as a
whole and is called the internal energy.
25
The change in stored energy for the system is

E  U  KE  PE

Now the conservation of energy principle, or the first law of

thermodynamics for closed systems, is written as
Ein  Eout  U  KE  PE

If the system does not move with a velocity and has no change
in elevation, it is called a stationary system, and the
conservation of energy equation reduces to
Ein  Eout  U

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

The mechanisms of energy transfer at a system boundary are:

Heat, Work, mass flow..
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1. Heat Transfer, Q: Heat is energy transfer caused by a temperature difference
between the system and its surroundings. When added to a system heat transfer
causes the energy of a system to increase and heat transfer from a system
causes the energy to decrease. Q is zero for adiabatic systems.

2. Work, W: Work is energy transfer at a system boundary could have caused a

weight to be raised. When added to a system, the energy of the system
increase; and when done by a system, the energy of the system decreases. W is
zero for systems having no work interactions at its boundaries.

3. Mass flow, m: As mass flows into a system, the energy of the system increases
by the amount of energy carried with the mass into the system. Mass leaving the
system carries energy with it, and the energy of the system decreases. Since no
mass transfer occurs at the boundary of a closed system, energy transfer by mass
is zero for closed systems.

The energy balance for a general system is

Ein  Eout   Qin  Qout   Win  Wout 

  Emass , in  Emass , out   Esystem
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Expressed more compactly, the energy balance is

Ein  Eout  Esystem (kJ )

Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc., energies

or on a rate form, as

E in  E out  E system ( kW )

 
  
Rate of net energy transfer Rate change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential, etc., energies

For constant rates, the total quantities during the time interval t are related to the
quantities per unit time as

Q  Q t, W  W t, and E  E t (kJ )

The energy balance may be expressed on a per unit mass basis as

e in  eout  esystem (kJ / kg )

28
ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES

Performance or efficiency, in general, can be expressed in terms of the

desired output and the required input as
Example

A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while

being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal
energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling
process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the
paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid.
Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.
Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.