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Unit-IV
Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the steam turbine (or engine) works.
Regenerative Cycle
In the Rankine cycle it is observed that the condensate which is fairly at low temperature has
an irreversible mixing with hot boiler water and these results in decrease of cycle efficiency.
Methods are, therefore, adopted to heat the feed water from the hot well of condenser
irreversibly by interchange of heat within the system and thus improving the cycle efficiency.
This heating method is called regenerative feed heat and the cycle is called regenerative
cycle.
The principle of regeneration can be practically utilised by extracting steam from the turbine
at several locations and supplying it to the regenerative heaters. The resulting cycle is known
as regenerative or bleeding cycle.
Fig. (a) shows a diagrammatic layout of a condensing steam power plant in which a surface
condenser is used to condense all the steam that is not extracted for feed water heating.
Reheat Cycle
For attaining greater thermal efficiencies when the initial pressure of steam was raised
beyond 42 bar it was found that resulting condition of steam after, expansion was
increasingly wetter and exceeded in the safe limit of 12 per cent condensation. It, therefore,
became necessary to re-heat the steam after part of expansion was over so that the resulting
condition after complete expansion fell within the region of permissible wetness. The
reheating or re-super heating of steam is now universally used when high pressure and
temperature steam conditions such as 100 to 250 bar and 500°C to 600°C are employed for
throttle. For plants of still higher pressures and temperatures, a double reheating may be used.
The improvement in thermal efficiency due to reheat is greatly dependent upon the reheat
pressure with respect to the original pressure of steam. Fig. shows a schematic diagram of a
theoretical single-stage reheat cycle. The corresponding representation of ideal reheating
process on T-sand h-s chart is shown in Figs. (a and b).
Advantages of ‘Reheating’:
1. There is an increased output of the turbine.
2. Erosion and corrosion problems in the steam turbine are eliminated/ avoided.
3. There is an improvement in the thermal efficiency of the turbines.
4. Final dryness fraction of steam is improved.
5. There is an increase in the nozzle and blade efficiencies.

Disadvantages:
1. Reheating requires more maintenance.
2. The increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable in comparison to the expenditure
incurred in reheating.
Steam Boilers
 The equipment used for producing steam is called steam generator or steam boiler.
 A steam boiler is a closed vessel made of steel. The main function of the boiler is to
transfer the heat produced by the combustion of fuel to water, and ultimately to
generate steam.
 The fuel used in boilers may be solid, liquid or gaseous.
Applications of Steam Boiler

 Steam boilers are mostly used in thermal plants to generate electrical power.
 These are used for various processes in process industries like food
processing industry, feed industry, textile industry, paper industry, building materials,
metal smelting, heating engineering, etc.
  These are used in houses or buildings in cool weather for generating a hot water
supply.

Essentials of a Good Steam Boiler/ Characteristics of Steam Boiler

Following are the important essentials of a good steam boiler:

I. It should produce maximum quantity of steam with the minimum fuel consumption.
2. 'It should be economical to install, and should require little a Mention during operation.
3. It should rapidly meet the fluctuation of load.
4. It should be capable of quick starting.
5. It should be light in weight.
6. It should occupy a small space.
7. The joints should be few and accessible for inspection.
8. The mud and other deposits should not collect on the heating plates.
9. The refractory material should be reduced to a minimum. But it should be sufficient to
secure easy ignition, and smokeless combustion of the fuel on reduced load.
10. The tubes should not accumulate soot or water deposits, and should have a reasonable
margin of strength to allow for wear or corrosion.
11. The water and flue gas circuits should be designed to allow a maximum fluid velocity
without incurring heavy frictional losses.
12. It should comply with safety regulations as laid down in the Boilers Act.

Selection of a Steam Boiler:

The selection of type and size of a steam boiler depends upon the following factors:
I. The power required and the working pressure.
2. The rate at which steam is to be generated.
3. The geographical position of the power house.
4. The fuel and water available.
5. The type of fuel to be used.
6. The probable permanency of the station.
7. The probable load factor.

Classifications of Steam Boilers:

1. According to the contents in the tube.

(a) Fire tube or smoke tube boiler, and (b) Water tube boiler.

In fire tube steam boilers, the flames and hot gases, produced by the combustion of fuel,
circulate inside of the tube and these tubes are surrounded by water.
Examples of fire tube boilers are Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler.
Cornish boiler. Scotch marine boiler, Locomotive boiler, and Velcon boiler.
Water tube steam boilers are completely reverse to the fire tube boilers, means the water is
contained inside the tubes and these tubes are surrounded by flames and hot gases from
outside. Examples of water tube boilers are: Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-
Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeftlér boiler.
2. According to the position of the furnace.
(a) Internally fired boilers, and (b) Externally fired boilers
In Internally fired boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Most of the fire tube
steam boilers are internally fired.
In Externally fired boilers, the furnace is arranged underneath in a brick-work setting.
Water tube steam boilers are always externally fired.
3. According to the axis of the shell.
(a) Vertical boilers, and (b) Horizontal boilers.
In vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical. Simple vertical boiler and Cochran
boiler are vertical boilers.
In horizontal steam boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal. Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler and babcock and Wilcox boiler are horizontal boilers.
4. According to the number of tubes.
(a) Single tube boilers and (b) Multi tubular boilers.
In single tube steam boilers, there is only one fire tube or water tube. Simple vertical boiler
and Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
In multi tubular steam boilers, there are two or more fire tubes or water tubes. Lancashire
boiler, Locomotive boiler, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler are multitubular
boilers.
5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam.
(a) Natural circulation boilers, and (b) Forced circulation boilers.
In Natural circulation boilers, the circulation of water is by natural convection. In most of
the steam boilers, there is a natural circulation of water.
In forced circulation steam boilers, there is a forced circulation of water by a centrifugal
pump driven by some external power. Which is mostly used in high pressure boilers such as
La-Mont boiler, Benson boiler, Loeffler boiler and Velcon boiler.
6. According to the use.
(a) Stationary boilers, and (8) Mobile boilers.
Stationary steam boilers can’t move from one place to another means fixed at a position.
These are used mostly in power plants, and in industrial process work.
The mobile steam boilers are move from one place to another. Ex_ locomotive and marine
boilers.
7. According to the source of heat. We have a lot of sources to produce heat in boilers like
electrical energy, nuclear energy and we can also use fuels at different states like solid, liquid
or gaseous fuel.
Simple vertical boiler:
 It is a fire tube, low pressure, vertical axis, internally fired boiler.
 It consists of a cylindrical shell and fire box is also in cylindrical shaped placed inside
of boiler shell. Half of the cylindrical shell was filled with water because to store the
steam we should provide some space with in the boiler.
 The fuel (coal) is fed into the grate through the fire hole and is burnt. The ash pit
placed below the grate and it is collect the ashes of the burning fuel.

 Due to combustion, the hot flue gases flow from the furnace and passes around the
cross tubes and escapes to the atmosphere through the chimney.
 Due to these hot flue gases the heat is transferred from the fire tube to water through
natural convection phenomena and water will convert into steam.
 The Steam generation capacity for this boiler is up to 1000 kg per hour and maximum
steam pressure up to 10 bar. Size of the boiler ranges from 0.6 m diameter to 2 m
diameter and height from 1.2 m to 4 m high
 The efficiency for this boiler is nearly 50%.
Advantages of Simple Vertical Boiler

1. The initial & Maintenance cost is low.

2. Working is simple.
3. It occupies a small space on the ground, easy to install and replace.

Disadvantages of Simple Vertical Boiler

1. Steam production is limited because of the limited great area.

2. The impurities settle at the bottom and thus prevents the water from heating up.
3. Most of the available heat is lost through the chimney. The height of the tubes is small to
reduce the height of the boiler due to this the tubes have very little time to heat.
4. Efficiency of the boiler is very low.
Application of Simple Vertical Boiler

 Simple vertical boilers are used in a railway steam engine.

 These are used in road vehicles such as steam wagons or steam lorry and steam tractor.
 Simple vertical boilers are also worked in steam cranes, steam shovels & steam donkey.
 Mostly these type boilers were used in olden days only.

Cochran boiler:

 The schematic diagram of Cochran boiler as shown in fig. Cochran boiler is an

improved design of simple vertical boiler and it is a multi-tubular, internally fired
natural circulation boiler.
 It consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome-shaped top where the space is
provided for steam.

 It consists of a horizontal fire tubes with 69mm external diameter and are 165 in
number. Outside of these tubes we are having water.
 At the bottom of the boiler, fire-box is provided. The fuel is burnt on the grate
 The firebox is in hemispherical shape because if any un-burnt fuel is
present in firebox that will be deflected back to the grate and complete combustion is
achieved.
 Due to burning of the fuel in the fire-box, the fire and hot flue gases are produced and
these are enter into the combustion chamber through flue pipe. The combustion
chamber is lined with fire bricks on the outer wall of the boiler which is not allowing
the heat to outside of the boiler.
 Now the hot gases’ passing through the horizontal fire tubes and this heat
is transferred to water. Due to continues heating of water will convert into Steam
which gets accumulated in the upper portion of the shell from where it can
be supplied to the user.
 Finally the flue gases are discharged to the atmosphere through the smoke box and the
chimney. The smoke box door enables the cleaning and inspection crown of the
smoke box and fire tubes.
  These boilers are capable to burn any kind of fuel like wood, paddy husk or oil fuel.

Lancashire boiler:

 It is a horizontal drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, two-tubular, low pressure,
stationary, fire tube boiler with furnace located internally.
 It consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell filled with water surrounding two large fire tubes.
 The cylindrical shell is placed over brickwork which creates several channels for the flow of
hot flue gases.

 Solid fuel is provided by the fire door which then burnt over grate at the front end of each fire
tube.
 Small arc shape brickwork is provided at the end of the grate to deflect the flue gases upward
and prevent the entry of burning coal and ashes into the interior part of the fire tubes.
 The fire tubes are slightly conical at the rear end to increase the velocity of hot flue gases.
 When hot flue gases are allowed to pass through the downward channel at the front end of the
fire tubes. Now, these gases pass through the side channel towards the rear end of the fire
tube and finally escape out through the chimney.
 Dampers are provided at each side channel to regulate the airflow.
 The feed check valve is used to feed the water uniformly to the boiler shell.
 Once the boiler is at quickly, water converts into steam by absorbing the heat from the flue
gases. This steam is stored at the upper portion of the boiler where the anti-priming pipe
separates the water from steam. Thus the steam stop valve receives the dry steam for various
purposes.

Capacity:

 Working pressures up to 20 bar.

 Evaporative capacity up to 8000 kg/hr.
 The ratio of heating surface to grate area varies from 24 to 30.
 The size of the shell ranges from 2 m diameterx6 m length to 3 m diameter x 10 m
length.
 Efficiency 50 to 70%

Applications of Lancashire Boiler:

 It is commonly used to drive steam turbines.
 It is also used in marines.
 It is used in locomotives.
 It also employed in sugar mills, textile mills etc.

Advantages:
 Simplicity of design
 Good steaming quality
 Can burn coal of inferior quality
 Less maintenance and operating cost
 Easy to clean and inspect
 Stand against sudden heavy demand appreciable for considerable time without
pressure drop.

Disadvantages:
 Maximum working pressure is limited to 20 bar
 More floor-area is required due to brick work setting
 Cracks in setting due to large temperature difference inside and outside
 Restricted grate area due to furnace being inside.
 More time taken for developing steam pressure due to large water capacity.

Locomotive boiler

 It is a horizontal drum axis, multi-tubular, natural circulation, artificial draft, forced

circulation, mobile, medium pressure, solid fuel fired fire tube boiler with an
internally fired furnace.
  In the locomotive boiler the solid fuel is provided on the grate and which is burnt over
the grate. The burning of the fuel starts and it creates hot flue gases.
 A firebrick arch is provided in the furnace as shown in the fig. this will guide the hot
flue gases to a definite path and It also prevents the entry of burnt solid fuel particles
into the fire tubes.

 The hot flue gases pass through the long fire tubes and heat the water surrounding
them. Due to the heating, the water gets converted into saturated steam and gets
collected at the top.
 The saturated steam from the dome enters into the main steam pipe through the
regulator valve. The steam travels in the main steam pipe and reaches to the
superheater header. Form header, the steam enters into superheater element pipes.
Here it is superheated and then the superheated steam enters into the steam pipe of the
smoke box.

 The steam from the superheater goes to the cylinder containing piston. The
superheated steam made the piston moves within the cylinder. The piston is connected
to the wheels of the steam engine and the wheels start rotating.
Applications:
 In addition to railways, road rollers and haulage engines.
 The locomotive boilers have been used in agricultural fields and saw mill plants
 Stationary power service where semi-portability is desired.
Advantages of Locomotive Boiler
 It is portable and can be easily transported.
 It is capable of meeting sudden and fluctuating demands of steam.
 It is a cost-effective boiler.
 It has a high steam generation rate.
 It is compact in size and its operation is easy.
Disadvantages
 It faces the problems of corrosion and scale formation.
 Unable to work under heavy load conditions because of overheating problems.
 Some of its water spaces are difficult to clean.
 Maximum steam pressure is limited to 20 bar
  Leakage occurs frequently at the places where the tubes join the plates.

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

 It consists of a straight horizontal longitudinal drum filled with water as shown in the
fig .It is connected with a series of uptake header tubes at the front end and down take
header tubes at rare end of the drum.

 These tubes are connected by a series of inclined water tubes. Generally water tubes
are having 15 degrees inclination.

 Solid fuel is fed through the fire door then burnt over the grate to produce hot flue
gases. These flue gases are than force to move upward b/n water tubes. Baffle plates
are provided to guide the moment of the flue gases and ensure proper heating of the
water tubes

 By absorbing the heat, the water flowing in the water tube gets converted into steam.
This steam moves towards uptake header and gets collected over the water level in the
boiler drum.

 Anti-priming pipe is provided to filters the water content from the steam and allows
only dry steam to enter into the super heater tube. It increases the temperature of the
steam to the desired level and transfers it to the steam stop valve. Finally the smoke is
escaped to atmosphere through the chimney.

Capacity:
 Evaporative capacity of such boilers ranges from 20,000 to 40,000 kg/hr
 Operating pressures from 11.5 to 17.5 bar are quite common.

Applications:
 The Babcock and Wilcox boiler are generally used to produce high pressure steam in
power generation industries.
  The high pressure steam so generated is used to produce electricity.
Advantages
 Steam generation capacity is high. It is about 2000 to 40000 kg/hr.
 It occupies less space.
 Replacement of defective tubes is easy.
 It is the only boiler that is used to generate a large quantity of heat in power stations.
 The draught loss is minimum.
 Inspection of these types of boiler can be done anytime during its working.

Disadvantages
 High maintenance cost.
 It is not much suitable for impure and sedimentary water. In the case of impure and
sedimentary water, the scale may deposit in the tubes and this leads to overheating
and bursting of tubes. That’s why water treatment is must before feeding into the
boiler.
 A continuous supply of feed water is required for working. In the case, if feed water is
not continuously supplied even for a short period of time, the boiler gets overheated.
 The water level must be carefully watched during the operation of the Babcock and
Wilcox boiler.

Stirling Boiler

 It is one of the most basic variety of bent tube boiler.

 In most of the modern thermal power generating plants we use bent tube boiler.
 Stirling Boiler is one of the largest capacity boiler and it generate nearly 50,000 kg
steam per hour and can produce pressure upto 60 bar.
  In Stirling Boiler there are three steam drums and one or two mud drums. Three
steam drums are placed on the top portion of the boiler system structure and two mud
drums are placed on bottom of the structure. The top steam drums are connected to
the bottom mud drums with banks of bent tubes. Since the tubes are bent, the
mechanical stresses due to expansion of the pipes during heating cannot affect the
system much. The steam drums, mud drums and bent tubes are made of steel.
 The entire system is enclosed by a brick work. Here the brick enclosure is used to
prevent the heat dissipation to the surroundings.
 The fire door is constructed at the bottom side of the brick enclosure wall. The
damper is provided on the other side of the brick enclosure wall to take out the
combustion gas as when required.
 The fire brick arch is provided above the furnace.
 Three baffles are provided in the boiler system to allow the combustion gas to flow in
zigzag way. One water circulating tubes connecting the mud drums and also steam
circulating tubes connecting middle steam drums to outer steam drums.
 A group of hot water circulating tube from front steam drum to middle steam drum.
 A safety value is provided on the back steam drum. Finally the steam is collected
from middle steam drum. The steam compartment is constructed inside the middle
steam drum. The super heater is connected to steam compartment through a steel pipe.
Advantages
 The steam production rate is very higher.
 Pressure drop inside the boiler is less.
 Great flexibility in the design.

Disadvantages
 Cleaning is difficult.
 The size of the boiler is large.
 Large in space (occupies more space).
 A very high level of superheating is not possible.
Applications
 These boilers are used Paper Mills, Sugar Mills, and Steam Engine.

Lamont boiler
 It is a forced convection boiler. It is a vertical furnace water tube boiler in which the
water flows inside the pipe tube and fire or flue gases surround them.
 The water is first supplied to the feed pump from a large water tank. From the feed
pump, the water is entered into the economizer. Here the temperature of intake water
increases before entering into the combustion chamber.
 From the economizer, the water comes to a steam separator device where the
separation of steam and water takes place.
 The water is circulated by the centrifugal pump from the separator drum. Here
distributor header is kept for controlling the water level entry into the boiler.
 Now water reaches into the combustion chamber where flue gases surround them and
it starts getting heating.
 Now the water comes in the phase of radiant evaporator here major amount of water
is converted into steam and then it sends to the convective heat transfer.
  Here the remaining water is further converted into saturated steam. Now, this
saturated steam is further sent to the separator drum for separating steam.
 After separating steam now further sent to the superheater to superheat the saturated
steam and make use of it further for the generation of electricity and more.
 The air from the air preheater enter into the furnace where fuel burn. The flue gases
first heat the evaporator tube then passes by the super heater. These gases from the
super heater again use to preheat the air into air preheater before exhaust into
atmosphere.
 The working pressure of this boiler is up to 200 bar and have the steam generation
capacity of ranges from 30,000 to 45,000kg per hour at temperature 773 K.

Advantages of Lamont Boiler:

 Lamont boiler can generate a high amount of steam.
 It is easy to start its operation.
 The construction design of the Lamont boiler is very simple and easy to understand.
 This boiler can reassemble with the natural circulation boiler and
 it has a high heat transfer rate.
 It is flexible in design.

Disadvantages of Lamont Boiler:

 The main disadvantages are Bubble formation on a surface of the tube reduces the
heat transfer rate. For this reason a little problem with the total amount of steam
generation.
Applications of Lamont Boiler:
 Boilers are mostly used in power plants where steam turbines are used for the
generation of electricity.
Loeffler Boiler
 It is a forced circulation, high pressure, and water tube boiler with internally fired
furnace.

 In Loeffler boiler, the feed pump forces the water to enter into the economiser. The
economiser preheats the feed water and then it is passed to the evaporator drum.

 The evaporator drum has nozzles. The 2/3 of the superheated steam from the
superheater enters into the nozzles of the evaporator drum and the nozzles mix this
superheated steam with the feed water. This changes the feed water into saturated
steam. This saturated steam is then drawn from the evaporating drum by a steam
circulating pump and allows it to passes through the radiant superheater.

 The radiant superheater superheats the saturated steam with help of radiation energy
produce from the burning of the fuel. The radiant superheater tubes are placed in
furnace. The heat transfer to the water takes place through the radiation produced.
After the radiant superheater, the steam is passed to the convective superheater.

 The convective superheater is placed in the path of hot flue gases. It superheats the
steam coming from the radiant superheater to a temperature of about 500 degree C.
This superheated steam is than flows to the turbine and evaporating drum. In this
boiler, the 2/3 part of the superheated steam is used to evaporate the feed water into
the evaporating drum and remaining 1/3 part flows to the turbine.

 Loeffler boiler has the capacity to produce 100 tonnes/ h of steam at a temperature of
500 degree C and pressure of 140 bar.
Advantage:
 Able to carry high salt concentration for the steam generation.
 The problem of sedimentation and scale deposition in boiler tubes is fully eliminated.
 This boiler is compact in design.
 The high flow of steam on the tubes.
 The operation of the boiler is clean and salient.

Disadvantages of Loeffler Boiler

 The bubble formation decreases the heat transfer rate.
 The evaporating drum is used which improves the overall cost and also makes it
heavier.

Applications of Loeffler Boiler:

 The main application of the Loeffler boiler is It can be used for power generation.
Other industries like textile, Medical etc.

Benson Boiler
 It is a high pressure, drumless, supercritical, water tube steam boiler with forced
circulation.
 It works on the principle that the pressure of the water is increased to the supercritical
pressure (i.e. above critical pressure of 225 bar). When the pressure of water is
increased to the super critical level, the latent heat of water becomes Zero and due to
this, it directly changes into steam without boiling. And this prevents the formation of
bubbles at tube surface.

 In this process, less heat is required to convert water to steam as water is already just
above critical pressure and hence less fuel is required.
 The first and biggest part in Benson Boiler is Benson Chamber. Inside this chamber
other parts are kept. Blower is connected to air pre heater. Below air preheater, feed
pump is present. Feed pump is connected to economizer and transfer water to
economizer. This economizer is connected to radiant super heater. Radiant super
 heater is present at bottom of the benson chamber. This radiant super heater is
connected to convective super heater which is finally connected to turbine.
 In benson boiler we are not using steam and water drop. It will directly convert water
into steam. Blower will start working and it will blow air into air preheater and air
preheater will heat the air and a hot air will be out. This hot air will be used in the
furnace for further process.
 The feed pump increases the pressure of the water to the supercritical pressure and
then water enters into the economizer. In the economizer, the water is preheated using
the combustion gases to increase the efficiency of boiler.
 From economizer, the water passes to the radiant super heater. In the radiant super
heater, the water is heated using radiant heat transfer method. Here heat is transferred
from combustion chamber to water and water will partially convert into steam and
partially it will stay in the liquid form. Then this partial vapour and liquid will go to
the convective super heater.
 In the convective super heater, it will be fully converted into vapour or steam and
these superheated steam will got to the prime mover and rotate the turbine . This is the
working of Benson Boiler.
 The average operating pressure, temperature and capacity of benson boiler is 650
degree Celsius, 250 bar and 135 tonnes/h.
Advantages:
 It is a drum less boiler and hence the weight of this type of boiler is 20 % less as
compared with other types of boiler.
 It is light in weight.
 Occupy smaller floor area for its erection.
 Explosion hazard is almost negligible because of the use of smaller diameter tubes.
 It can be started very easily within 15 minutes.
 It avoids bubble formation due to the supercritical pressure of water.
 Transportation is easy.
 This boiler may achieve thermal efficiency up to 90 %.

Disadvantages:
 Due to supercritical types of boiler, its controlling need to monitor every time for
preventing an explosion.
 Boiler control for the variable load is difficult.

Application:
 This supercritical boiler is used in different industries to generate steam for the
production of electricity or mechanical power.
 The average operating pressure, temperature and capacity of benson boiler is 650
degree Celsius, 250 bar and 135 tonnes/h.
Boiler Mountings
Boiler Mountings are the fittings, which are mounted on the boiler for its proper and safe
functioning. Following are the mountings mostly used in boilers,
1. Water level indicator, 2.Pressure gauge; 3. Safety valves, 4. Stop valve, 5. Blow off cock,
6. Feed check valve and 7. Fusible plug.
Water Level Indicator
It is an important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to an observer. It is
a safety device, upon which the correct working of the boiler depends. This fitting may be
seen in front of the boiler, and are generally two in number.
A water level indicator, mostly employed in the steam boiler is shown in Fig. It consists of
three cocks and a glass tube. Steam cock C1 keeps the glass tube in connection with the
steam space. Water cock C2 puts the glass tube in connection with the water in the boiler.
Drain cock C3 is used at frequent intervals to ascertain that the steam and water cocks are
clear. In the working of a steam boiler and for the proper functioning of the water level
indicator, the stem and water cocks are opened and the drain cock is closed. In this case, the
handles are placed in a vertical position as shown in Fig. The rectangular passage at the ends
of the glass tube contains two balls.
In case the glass tube is broken, the two balls are carried along its passes to the ends of the
glass tube. It is thus obvious, that water and steam will not escape out. The glass tube can be
easily replaced by closing the steam and water cocks and opening the drain cock.
When the steam boiler is not working, the bolts may be removed for cleaning. The glass tube
is kept free from leaking by means of conical ring and the gland nut.
Pressure Gauge:
A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the steam boiler. It is
fixed in front of the steam boiler. The pressure gauges generally used are of Bourden type.

A Bourden pressure gauge, in its simplest form, consists of an elliptical elastic tube ABC
bent into an arc of a circle, as shown in Fig. This bent up tube is called burden's tube. One
end of the tube gauge is fixed and connected to the steam space in the boiler. The other end is
connected to a sector through a link.
The steam, under pressure, flows into the tube. As a result of this increased pressure, the
Bourden's tube tends to straighten itself. Since the tube is encased in a circular curve,
therefore it tends to become circular instead of straight. With the help of a simple pinion and
sector arrangement, the elastic deformation of the Bourden's tube indicates the pointer. This
pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which directly gives the gauge pressure.
Safety Valves gauge:
These are the devices attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive
internal pressure of steam. A steam boiler is, usually, provided with two safety valves. These
are directly placed on the boiler. In brief, the function of a safety valve is to blow off the
steam when the pressure of steam inside the boiler exceeds the working pressure. The
following are the four types of safety valves:
I. Lever safety valve. 2. Dead weight safety valve, 3. High steam and low water safety valve,
and 4. Spring loaded safety valve.
The first three types of the safety valves are usually employed with stationary boilers, but the
fourth type is mainly used for locomotive and marine boilers.
Lever Safety Valve:
A lever safety valve used on steam boilers is shown in Fig. 14.3. It serves the purpose of
maintaining constant safe pressure inside the steam boiler. If the pressure inside the boiler
exceeds the designed limit, the valve lifts from its seat and blows off the steam pressure
automatically. A lever safety valve consists of a valve body with a flange fixed to the steam
boiler. The bronze valve seat s screwed to the body, and the valve is also made of bronze. It
may be noted that by using the valve and seat of the same material, rusting is considerably
reduced. The thrust on the valve is transmitted by the strut. The guide keeps the lever in a
vertical plane. The load is properly adjusted at the other end of the lever.

When the pressure of steam exceeds the safe limit, the upward thrust of steam raises the valve
from its seat. This allows the steam to escape till the pressure falls back to its normal value.
The valve then returns back to its original position.
Dead Weight Safety Valve:
A dead weight safety valve, used for stationary boilers, is shown in Fig. 14.4. The valve is
made of gun metal, and rests on its gun metal seat. It is fixed to the top of a steel pipe. This
pipe is bolted to the mountings block, riveted to the top of the shell. Both the valve and the
pipe are covered by a case which contains weights. These weights keep the valve on its seat
under normal working pressure. The case hangs freely over the valve to which it is secured
by means of a nut. When the pressure of steam exceeds the normal pressure, the valve as well
as the case (along with the weights) are lifted up from its Scat. This enables the steam to
escape through the discharge pipe, which carries the steam outside the boiler house.

The lift of the valve is controlled by the studs. The head of the studs projects into the interior
of the casing. The centre of gravity of the dead weight safety valve is considerably below the
valve which ensures that the load hangs vertically.
The dead weight safety valve has the advantage that it cannot be readily tempered because
any added weight must be equal to the total increased pressure of steam on the valve. The
only disadvantage of these valves, is the heavy load which these valves carry.
High Steam Low Water Safety Valve:
These valves are placed at the top of Cornish and Lancashire boilers only. It is a combination
of two valves, one of which is the lever safety valve which blows off steam when the working
pressure of steam exceeds. The second valve operates by blowing off the steam when the
water level becomes too low.

A best known combination of high steam low water safety valve is shown in Fig. It consists
of a main valve (known as lever safety valve) and rests on its seat. In the centre of the main
valve, a seat for a hemispherical valve is formed for low water operation. This valve is loaded
directly by the dead weights attached to the valve by a long rod. There is lever J, K, which
has its fulcrum at K. The lever has a weight E suspended at the end K. When it is fully
immersed in water, it is balanced by a weight F at the other end J of the lever.
When the water level falls, the weight E comes out of water and the weight F will not be
sufficient to balance weight E. Therefore weight E comes down. There are two projections on
the lever to the left of the fulcrum which comes in contact with a collar attached to the rod.
When weight E comes down, the hemispherical valve is lifted up and the steam escapes with
a loud noise, which warns the operator. A drain pipe is provided to carry water, which is
deposited in the valve casing.
Spring Loaded Safety Valve
A spring loaded safety valve is manly used for locomotives and marine boilers. It is loaded
with spring instead of weights. The spring is made of round or square spring steel rod in
helical form. The spring may be in tension or compression, as the steam pressure acts along
the axis of the spring. In actual-practice, the spring is placed in compression.
A Ramsbottom spring loaded safety valve is shown in Fig. It is, usually, fitted to
locomotives. It consists of a cast iron body connected to the top of a boiler. It has two
separate valves of the same size. These valves have their seating in the upper ends of two
hollow valve chests. These valve chests are united by abridge and a base. The base is bolted
to amounting block on the top of a boiler over the tire box.

The valves are held down by means of a spring and a lever. The lever has two pivots at E and
F. The pivot E is joined by a pin to the lever, while the pivot F is forged on the lever. These
pivots rest on the centres of the valves. The upper end of the spring is hooked to the arm H,
while the lower end to the shackle, which is secured to the bridge by a nut. The spring has
two safety links, one behind the other, or one on either side of the lever connected by pins at
their ends. The lower pin passes through the shackle while the upper one passes through slot
in arm H of the lever. The lever has an extension, which projects into the driver's cabin. By
pulling or raising the lever, the driver can release the pressure from either valve separately.
Steam Stop Valve
It is the largest valve on the steam boiler. It is, usually, fitted to the highest part of the shell
by means of a flange as shown in Fig. The principal functions of a stop valve are:
1. To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe.
2. To shut off the steam completely when required.
The body of the stop valve is made of cast iron or cast steel. The valve, valve seat and the nut
through which the valve spindle works, are made of brass or gun metal.
The spindle passes through a gland and stuffing box. The spindle is rotated by means of a
hand wheel. The upper portion of the spindle is screwed and made to pass through a nut in
across head carried by two pillars. The pillars are screwed in the cover of the body as shown
in the figure. The boiler pressure acts under the valve, so that the valve must be closed
against the pressure. The valve is, generally, fastened to the spindle which lifts it up.
A non-return valve is, sometimes, fit-ted near the stop valve to prevent the accidental
admission of steam from other boilers. This happens when a number of boilers are connected
to the same pipe, and when one is empty and under repair.
Blow off Cock
The principal functions of a blow-off cock are
1. To empty the boiler whenever required.
2. To discharge the mud, scale or sediments which are accumulated at the bottom of the
boiler.
The blow-off cock, as shown in Fig. 14.8, is fitted to the bottom of a boiler drum and consists
of a conical plug fitted to the body or casing. The casing is packed, with asbestos packing, in
grooves round the top and bottom of the plug. The asbestos packing is made tight and plug
bears on the packing. It may be noted that the cocks packed in this way keep the grip better
under high pressure and easily operated than unpacked. The shank of plug passes through a
gland and stuffing box in the cover.
The plug is held down by a yoke and two stud bolts (not shown in the figure). The yoke
forms a guard on it. There are two vertical slots on the inside of a guard for the box spanner
to be used for operating the cock.
Feed Check Valve:
It is a non-return valve, fitted to a screwed spindle to regulate the lift. Its function is to
regulate the supply of water, which is pumped into the boiler, by the feed pump. This valve
must have its spindle lifted before the pump is started. It is fitted to the shell slightly below
the normal water level of the boiler.

A feed check valve for marine boilers is shown in Fig. 14.9. It consists of a valve whose lift is
controlled by a spindle and hand wheel. The body of the valve is made of brass casting and
except spindle, its every part is made of brass. The spindle is made of muntz metal. A flange
is bolted to the end of boiler at a point from which perforated pipe leads the feed water. This
pipe distributes the water in the boiler uniformly.
Fusible Plug
It is tilted to the crown plate of the furnace or the fire. Its object is to put off the fire in the
furnace of the boiler when the level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit, and thus
avoids the explosion which may take place due to overheating of the furnace plate. A fusible
plug consists of a hollow gun metal plug P 1 as shown in Fig. It is screwed to the furnace
crown. A second hollow gun metal plug P2 is screwed to the first plug. There is also a third
hollow gun metal plug P3 separated from P by a ring of fusible metal. The inner surface of P2
and outer surface of P3 are grooved so that when the fusible metal is poured into the plug, P2
and P3 are locked together.

A hexagonal flange is provided on plug P1 to take a spanner for fixing or removing the plug
P1. There is a hexagonal flange on plug P2 for fixing or removing it. The fusible metal is
protected from fire by the flange on the lower end of plug P2. There is also a contact at the
top between P2 and P so that the fusible metal is completely enclosed. The fusible plugs must
be kept in a good condition and replaced annually. A fusible plug must not be refilled with
anything except fusible metal.
Boiler Accessories
Accessories are the devices which are used as integral parts of a boiler, and help in running
efficiently.
1. Feed pump 2. Superheater 3. Economiser and 4. Air preheater.
The following fig. shows the schematic diagram of a boiler plant with the above mentioned
accessories.

Feed Pump
The water, in a boiler, is continuously converted into steam, which is used by the engine.
Thus we need a feed pump to deliver water to the boiler.
The pressure of steam inside a boiler is high. So the pressure of feed water has to be
increased proportionately before it is made to enter the boiler. Generally, the pressure of feed
water is 20% more than that in the boiler.
A feed pump may be of centrifugal type or reciprocating type. But a double acting
reciprocating pump is commonly used as a feed pump these days. The reciprocating pumps
are run by the steam from the same boiler in which water is to be fed. These pumps may be
classified as simplex, duplex and triplex pumps according to the number of pump cylinders.
The common type of pump used is a duplex feed pump, as shown in Fig. 14.12. This pump
has two sets of suction and delivery valves for forward and backward stroke. The two pumps
work alternately so as to ensure Continuous supply of feed water.

Super heater:
It superheats the steam generated by the boiler and increases the temperature of the steam
above saturation temperature at constant pressure. Superheaters are placed in the path of flue
gases to recover some of their heat. In bigger installations, the superheaters are placed in an
independently fired furnace. Such superheaters are called separately fired or portable
superheaters.

We have three different types of classifications in Superheaters. Like according the mode of
heat transfers, according to the movement of gases and steam in the superheater and
according to the arrangement of superheater tubes in the boiler.

According to the mode of heat transfer we have convective superheaters, radiation

superheater and combination of radiant and convective superheater.
A combination of radiant and convective superhater as shown in fig.. Both these superheaters
are arranged in series in the path of flue gases. Radiant superheater receives heat from the
burning fuel by radiation process. Convective superheater is placed adjacent to the furnace
wall in the path of flue gases and it receives heat by convection.
According to the movement of gases and steam in the superheater.
In this classification we have three categories they are counter-flow, parallel flow and the
combined flow.
In parallel flow both the fluids means flue gases and fresh air flows in same direction.
But In counter-flow both the fluids flows in opposite direction. Mostly counter-flow is used
in superheaters for better heat extraction.
Further the super heaters are also classified according to the arrangement of superheater tubes
in the boiler :
i. Overdeck superheater is placed in the space over the water tubes.
ii. Interdeck superheaters are placed between the water tubes which are located near the
furnace.
iii. Inter-tube superheaters are placed between the bank or row of water tubes.
When the Steam stop valve is opened. The steam (wet or dry) from the evaporator drum is
passed through the superheater tubes. First the steam is passed through the radiant
superheater and then to the convective superheater. The steam is heated when it passes
through these superheaters and converted into superheated steam. This superheated steam is
supplied to the turbine through a valve.
Economizers:

Economizers are generally Heat Exchangers which are designed to exchange heat with the
fluid; it is used in modern high pressure boilers. It consists of a series of vertical tubes. These
tubes are hydraulically pressed into the top and bottom headers.

The bottom header is connected to feed pump. Top header is connected to the water space of
the boiler through the stop valve. Top header is provided with a safety valve which opens
when water pressure exceeds a certain limit. For maximum heat transfer rate the outer surface
of the tubes must be cleaned from soot and ash particles, so for that reason scrapers are
provided on outer surface of the tubes.

These scrapers are slowly moved up and down to clean the surfaces of the tubes. The action
of adjacent pairs of scraper is in opposite direction. i.e., when one scraper moves up, the other
moves down. The feed water is pumped to the bottom header and this water is carried to the
top header through a number of vertical tubes. Hot flue gases are allowed to pass over the
external surface of the tubes. The feed water which flows upward in the tubes is thus heated
by the flue gases. This pre-heated water is supplied to the boiler.
Economizers may be parallel or counter-flow types. When the gas flow and water flow are in
the same direction, it is called parallel flow economizer. In counter-flow, the gas flow and
water flow are in opposite direction.

Advantages

1. Feed water to the boiler is supplied at high temperature. Hence heat required in
the boiler is less. Thus fuel consumption is less.
2. Thermal efficiency of the plant is increased.
3. Life of boiler is increased.
4. Loss of heat in flue gases is reduced.
5. Steaming capacity is increased.
Air Preheaters:
Air Preheaters is a Heat Exchangers used for preheating the air which is fed to the boiler or
furnaces for combustion of fuels. The primary objective of air preheater is to extract the
waste heat from the flue gases leaving the boiler. It is installed between the economiser and
the chimney.
Air preheaters are classified into the following two categories:
(a) Recuperative air heaters in this type the heat transfer is through a metal wall. In this
type again we have two type’s plane air-preheater and Tubular air pre heater.
In plane air-preheater the flue gases pass through one side and the fresh air passes on the
other side so that the heat is transferred from hot flue gases to fresh air.

In tubular air pre heater the flue gas is passed through the tubes and fresh air is made to
follow a zig-zag path so that it passes a number of times and it captures the heat from the flue
gases.
(b)Regenerative air heaters, in which the flue gases and the air are made to pass
alternatively through the same path. Initially when the hot gases pass through a certain
medium called matrix, the matrix receives heat from the gases and stores in it-self. Next the
fresh air also passes through the same path and absorbs the heat from the matrix.

Performance of Steam Boilers

The performance of a steam boiler is measured in terms of its evaporative capacity.
Om

Evaporative Capacity:
The evaporative capacity of a boiler may be expressed in terms of:
(i) kg of steam/h
(ii) kg of steam/h/m2 of heating surface
(iii) kg of steam/kg of fuel fired.
Equivalent Evaporation
Generally the output or evaporative capacity of the boiler is as kg of water evaporated per
hour but as different boilers generate steam at different pressures and temperatures (from feed
water at different temperatures) and as such have different amounts of heat; the number of kg
of water evaporated per hour in no way provides the exact means for comparison of the
performance of the boilers. Hence to compare the evaporative capacity or performance of
different boilers working under different conditions it becomes imperative to provide a
common base so that water be supposed to be evaporated under standard conditions. The
standard conditions adopted are: Temperature of feed water 100°C and converted into dry
and saturated steam at 100°C.
As per these standard conditions 1 kg of water at 100°C necessitates 2257 kJ (539 kcal in
MKS units) to get converted to steam at l00°C.
Thus the equivalent evaporation may be defined as the amount of water evaporated from feed
water at 1000 C and formed into dry and saturated steam at 1000C at normal atmospheric
pressure. It is, usually, written as "from and at 100°C”.
Mathematically,
Equivalent evaporation 'from and at 100° C",

Let
t1 = Temperature of feed water in °C.,
hf1= Enthalpy or sensible heat of feed water in kj/kg of steam corresponding to t1°C (from
steam tables),
h = Enthalpy or total heat of steam in kj/kg of steam corresponding to a given working
pressure (from Steam tables),
 = (For wet steam)

= (For dry steam)

= (For superheated steam)

me= Mass of water actually evaporated or steam produced in kg/h of fuel burnt
We know that heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water
=

and equivalent evaporation 'from and at 100° C"

The factor is known as factor of evaporation, and is usually denoted by Fe. Its value is
always greater than unity for all boilers.
Boiler Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of heat actually used in producing the steam to the heat liberated in
the furnace. It is also known as thermal efficiency of the boiler.
Mathematically,

Boiler efficiency or thermal efficiency,

where me = Mass of water actually evaporated or actual evaporation in kg/ kg of fuel, and
C = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg of fuel.
Note: 1 If ms = Total mass of water evaporated into steam in kg.
and mf= Mass of fuel used in kg.

Then kg/kg of fuel

Note: 2 If a boiler consisting of an economiser and superheater is considered to be a

single unit, then the efficiency is termed as overall efficiency of the boiler.
The following are the factors on which the efficiency of boiler depends:
1. Fixed factors.
2. Variable factors.
1. Fixed Factors:
 Boiler design: It includes the arrangement and effectiveness of the heating surfaces,
the shape and volume of the furnace, the arrangement of flues, and the arrangement of
steam and water circulation.
 Heat recovery equipment: It includes the economiser, superheater, air preheater and
feed water heater.
 Built in losses: It includes the heat transfer properties of the settings and construction
materials, flue gas and ash heat losses.
 Rated rate of firing, the furnace volume and heating surface.
 Properties and characteristics of fuel burnt.
2. Variable Factors:
(i) Actual firing rate.
(ii) Fuel condition as it is fired.
(iii) The conditions of heat absorbing surfaces.
(iv) Excess air fluctuations.
(v) Incomplete combustion and combustibles in the refuse.
(vi) Change in draught from the rated, due to atmospheric conditions.
(vii) Humidity and temperature of the combustion air.

Boiler Trial
The main objects of a boiler trial are:
1. To determine the generating capacity of the boiler.
2. To determine the thermal efficiency of the boiler when working at a definite pressure.
3. To prepare heat balance sheet for the boiler

Heat Losses in a Boiler:

We know that the efficiency of a boiler is the ratio of heat utilised in producing steam to the
heat liberated in the furnace. Also the heat utilised is always less than the heat liberated in the
furnace. The difference of heat liberated in the furnace and heat utilised in producing steam is
known as heat lost in the boiler. The loss of heat may be divided into various heads as
follows.
1. Heat lost in dry flue gases:

Heat lost to dry flue gases per kg of fuel ( )

Where = Mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel,

Cpg= Mean specific heat of dry flue gases,
tg= Temperature of flue gases leaving chimney, and
tb = Temperature of boiler room.
This loss is maximum in a boiler.
2. Heat lost in moisture present in the fuel:

It is assumed that the moisture is converted into superheated steam at atmospheric pressure
(1.013 bar).

Heat lost in moisture present in the fuel

( ) ( )
( )
From steam tables, corresponding to 1.013bar, hg = 2676 kj/kg and t = 100oC

mm = Mass of moisture per kg of fuel,

cp = Mean specific heat of superheated steam in flue gases,
tg= Temperature of flue gases leaving chimney,
tb= Temperature of boiler room, and
hb= Enthalpy or sensible heat of water at boiler room temperature.

3. Heat lost to steam formed by combustion of hydrogen per kg of fuel:

Let H2 = Mass of hydrogen present per kg of fuel.

Mass of steam formed = 9 H2

Then the heat lost to steam per kg of fuel

( )
Note: Heat lost to steam and moisture per kg of fuel

( )
where mm is the mass of moisture per kg of fuel.

4. Heat lost due to unburnt carbon in ash pit

The heat lost due to unburnt carbon per kg of fuel

= m 1 .C1
where m1 = Mass of carbon in ash pit per kg of fuel.
C1= Calorific value of carbon.

5. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide (CO)

This loss, generally, occurs in a boiler due to insufficient air supply.
Heat lost due to incomplete combustion
= m2.C2
where m2 = Mass of carbon monoxide in flue gas per kg of fuel, and
C2 = Calorific value of carbon monoxide.

6. Heat lost due to radiation

There is no direct method for finding the heat lost due to radiation. This loss is calculated by
Subtracting the heat utilised in raising steam and heat losses from the heat supplied.
 Heat Balance Sheet

A heat balance sheet shows the complete account of heat supplied by 1 kg of dry fuel sand
heat consumed. The heat supplied is mainly utilised for raising the steam and the remaining
heat is lost. We know that heat utilised in raising steam per kg of fuel

The heat balance sheet for a boiler trial per kg of fuel is drawn as below:

Heat supplied Kj Heat Consumed Kj %

Heat supplied X I. Heat utilised in raising steam x1
by 1kg of dry
fuel 2. Heat lost in thy flue gases x2
3. Heat lost in moisture in fuel x3
4. Heat lost to steam by combustion of
x4
hydrogen
S. Heat lost due to unbumt carbon in ash pit x5
6. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion x6

X-
7. Heat lost due to radiation, etc. ( By (x1+x2+x3+x4+x5+x6)
difference)
Total X Total X 100%

Draught
Draught is the pressure difference which is necessary to draw the required quantity of air for
combustion and to remove the flue gases out of the system. (or)

Boiler draught is defined as the small difference between the pressure of outside air and that
of gases within a furnace or chimney at the grate level, which causes flow of air/hot flue
gases to take place through boiler.

The draught is necessary,

 To force air through the fuel bed to aid in proper combustion of fuel.
 To remove the products of combustion
 It also provides the velocity to flue gases and so increases the heat transfer co-
efficient in the boiler.
Classification of Draught:

Natural draught-chimney

Natural draught is obtained naturally by the use of a chimney. Chimney is a conical shape
vertical tubular steel or concrete structure having a large height as shown in fig. The flue
gases after transferring their heat in the boiler are guided by chimney to a considerable height
in the atmosphere. Chimney is the only outlet from boiler to escape the flue gases.

Generally the exhaust gases are lighter in weight than outside air and so lifts up naturally in
the chimney and finally escape out in the atmosphere from top of the chimney.

As the flue gases lift up in the chimney, more gases from fuel bed flow towards chimney to
take their place. During this process, they first flow through the boiler and do the job of
heating of water and produce steam. As flue gases flow through boiler and then to chimney,
fresh air from outside naturally enters the boiler and help in burning of fuel and production of
hot flue gases. So, in this way, a small pressure difference is naturally created between the
base of chimney and the air inlet point of boiler because of density difference between hot
flue gases inside the chimney and fresh colder air outside the chimney.

This pressure difference is called natural draught, because it is produced naturally or

automatically by chimney without any external aid. It is used in small boilers only.
Advantages of Natural Draught:
i. Easy to construct.
ii. No power is required for producing the draught.
iii. Long life of chimney.
iv. No maintenance is required.

Disadvantages:
i. Tall chimney is required.
ii. Poor efficiency.
iii. Decreases with increase in outside temperature.
iv. No flexibility it create more draught to take peak loads.
Artificial draught

When the draught is produced by some external agency i.e. mechanical fan/blower or by
steam jet itself, it is called artificial draught. Artificial Draught is generally required in
modern boiler installations, because to overcome the flow resistance offered by large flue
passages through the boiler and also a number of other accessories pre-heater, economizer,
super heater etc.

The Artificial Draught may be either mechanical draught (which is produced by fan/blower)
or steam jet draught (which is produced by using a high velocity jet of steam). Mechanical
Draught is used in small installations or in Locomotives. The mechanical draught is further
classified as

(a) Forced (b) Induced (c) Balanced

Forced draught

In a Forced draught system, a Fan or Blower is provided is shown in figure which forces the
air in the combustion chamber. In the combustion chamber combustion of air and fuel takes
place and hot gases generated. These gases are forced to pass through the flues, economiser,
air pre-heater and then they are exhausted after recovering heat of flue gases. This draught
system is known positive draught system, since the pressure of gases throughout the system is
above atmospheric pressure.
It is a positive pressure draught in which fan is installed at the base of the boiler before grate
which forces the outside air through fuel bed, furnace and air pre-heater and then flue gases
through flue passage, economizer etc. The enclosure for the furnace has to be very tightly
sealed so that gases from the furnace do not leak out in the boiler house.

Induced draught

In this system, the Blower or Induced Draught fan is located near the base of chimney. The
air is sucked in the system, by reducing the pressure through the system below atmosphere.
The flue gases, generated after combustion are drawn through the system and after recovering
heat in the economiser, air-preheater, they are exhausted through the chimney to the
atmosphere.

In this system a fan or blower is located at or near the base of the chimney which creates a
partial vacuum in the furnace and flue passage and thus the air and flue gases are drawn
through the boiler due to comparatively higher pressure of outside air. It is convenient to
produce induced draught and like in forced draught, any type of fan/blower may be used.

Advantages of Forced Draught (F.D.) over Induced Draught (I.D.):

i. The size and power required by I.D. fan is more because this fan handles more gases.
ii. Since the I.D. fan handles hot gases, water cooled or air cooled bearings are to be used.
iii. F.D. fan consumes less power and normal bearing can be used.

Balanced draught
It is a combination of forced and induced draught. In this system, the forced draught fan
overcomes the resistance in air pre-heater and grate while the induced draught fan overcomes
draught losses through boiler, economizer and connecting flue passages etc. Balanced
draught is most effective and used in large boilers. Depending on the type of fuel burnt and
type of boiler, the fan or blower used may be of any type as radial or axial etc. It is usually
run by an electric motor. In case of oil burners, air blower is fitted in the burner assembly
itself. Finally the flue gases pass on to chimney and escape to atmosphere because of pressure
created by fan.
Advantages of Mechanical Draught

1) It is more economical and its control is easy.

2) Desired value of draught can be produced by mechanical means which cannot be
produced by means of natural draught.
3) It increases the rate of combustion by which low grade fuel can also be used.
4) It reduces the smoke level and increases the heat transfer co-efficient on flue gases
side thus increases the thermal efficiency of boiler.
5) It saves the energy and the heat of flue gases can be best utilized by it.
6) In this way, it reduces the fuel consumption and makes boiler operation cheaper.
7) It reduces the height of chimney which now is only controlled by the requirement of
pollution norms.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Draught

1) Initial costs of mechanical draught system are high.

2) Running cost is also high due to requirement of electricity but that is easily
compensated by the savings in fuel consumption.
3) Maintenance cost is also on higher side.
4) Noise level of boiler is also high due to noisy fan/blower etc.
Comparison between forced draught and induced draught

Forced Draught Induced Draught

1) Fan or blower is placed before grate or The fan or blower is placed after the grate or
situated within the oil burner assembly in after the flue passages and before chimney.
case of oil fired boiler.

2) Pressure inside the flue passages is slightly Pressure inside the flue passages is slightly
more than atmospheric pressure. less than atmospheric pressure.

3) Due to above reason, there is serious Due to above reason, there is no danger of
danger of fire to come out and injure fire to come out from boiler flue passage in
someone if any leakage in boiler flue passage case of a leakage. Hence Induced draught is
take place. more safe.

4) It forces fresh air into the combustion It sucks the hot flue gases from the
chamber, which helps in burning of fuel and combustion chamber through flue passages
production of hot combustion gases. Due to and then passes on these to economizer, air
this force, the hot flue gases are further pre heater and chimney. Due to this suction,
pushed through the flue passages in boiler. fresh air is also sucked in to combustion
chamber.

5) Forced draught fan require less power Induced draught fan requires more power
because it has to handle cold and dense air, because it has to handle hot flue gases, the
the volume per unit mass of which is less. volume per unit mass of which is more.

6) Flow of flue gases through boiler is more Flow of flue gases is less uniform
uniform.

Steam jet draught

It is a very simple and easy method of producing artificial draught without the need of an
electric motor. It may be forced or induced depending on where the steam jet is installed.
Steam under pressure is available in the boiler. When a small portion of steam is passed
through a jet or nozzle, pressure energy converts to kinetic energy and steam comes out with
a high velocity. This high velocity steam carries, along with it, a large mass of air or flue
gases and makes it to flow through boiler. Thus steam jet can be used to produce draught and
it is a simple and cheap method. Actually the steam jet is directed towards a fix direction and
carries all its energy in kinetic form. It creates some vacuum in its surroundings and so
attracts the air of flue gases either by carrying along with it. Thus it has the capacity to make
flow of the flue gases either by carrying or inducing towards chimney. It depends on position
of steam jet.

Forced steam jet draught

Steam from the boiler after having been throttled to a gauge pressure of 1.5 to 2 bar is
supplied to the jet or nozzles installed in ash pit. The steam emerging out of nozzles with a
great velocity drags air along the fuel bed, furnace, flue passage and then to the chimney.
Here steam jet is forcing the air and flue gases to flow through boiler hence it is forced steam
jet draught.
Induced steam jet draught

The jet of steam is diverted into smoke box or chimney. The kinetic head of the steam is high
but static head is low i.e. it creates a partial vaccum which draws the air through the grate,
ash pit, flues and then to motor box and chimney. This type of arrangement is employed in
locomotive boilers. Here steam jet is sucking the flue gases through boiler so it is Induced
Steam Jet Draught.

Advantages

i) It is quite simple and cheap.

ii) It has the capability of using low grade fuels.
iii) It occupies very less space.
iv) Initial cost is low.
v) Maintenance cost is low.
vi) Exhaust steam from steam engine or turbine can be used easily in Steam Jet Draught.
Disadvantages

i) It can operate only when some steam is generated.

ii) Draught produced is very low.

Advantages of Artificial Draught over Natural Draught

1) Easy control on combustion of fuel and evaporation of water.
2) Significant increase in capacity or evaporation power of boiler.
3) Increase in fuel burning capacity of grate.
4) Fuel consumption decreases sufficiently.
5) Improvement in efficiency of plant.
6) Reduced chimney height.
7) Prevention of smoke.
8) Low grade fuel can be used.
Draught Losses
The draught is required to overcome the various draught losses in boiler as discussed below:
a) Loss due to the frictional resistance offered by flue gas passage to the flow of flue
gases.
b) Loss due to bends in gas flow circuit, which also offer flow resistance.
c) Loss due to friction head in grate, economizer, super heater etc.
d) Loss due to flow resistance offered by chimney.
e) Loss due to imparting some velocity to flue gases, which is required to increase heat
transfer in boiler and also to throw away the flue gases from chimney.