Educational Technology

Block-1 Educational Technology; Multifaceted Problem Solving

Approach [3]
Unit-1 Educational Technology for Learning Society

Unit-2 Case Study of an Open School

Unit-3 Case Study of a Participative Learning

Block-2 Educational Technology: State of the Art [4]

Unit-4 Evolution of Educational Technology: Technology of Education and
Technology in Education

Unit-5 Instructional Media and Materials - I

Unit-6 Instructional Media and Materials - II

Unit-7 Emerging Technologies

Block-3 Software Development [4]

Unit-8 Principles of Organising Learning Experiences

Unit-9 Principles of Designing Software

Unit-10 Application to Audio/Video Programmes

Unit-11 Application to Computer Programmes

Block-4 Optimising Learning [5]

Unit-12 Media Selection and Integration

Unit-13 Developing Learning Skills

Unit-14 Experimental Learning

Unit-15 Evaluation of Educational Technology

Unit-16 Managing Educational Technology

I UNIT 1 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
I FOR LEARNING SOCIETY
Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Nature of Educational Technology
1.3.1 Technology in Education and Technology of Education
1 1.4 Emergen* of Educational Technology as an Interdisciplinary Study
Trends in Educational Technology in India
1.5.1 Technology in Education
1.5.2 Technology of Education
1.5.2.1 Major Limitations in Implementing Learner-Centred Approach
1.5.3 Goals of Education
1.5.4 Communication Strategy
Perceptions of Experts on the Core Meaning and Functions of Educational
Technology
Emerging Trends of Development and Expansion of Educational Technology
1.7.1 Continuing Education
1.7.2 Easy Availability of Multiple Learning Resources
1.7.3 Rapid Adaptability of Learning Resources to Learner's Needs
1.7.4 Distance Education
1.7.5 Learning Styles
1.7.6 Virtual Reality
Ethical Issues Involved in the Application of Information Technology
1.8.1 Information Technology of the Past and Present
1.8.2 Making Information Based Decisions
1.8.3 Who Decides the Objectives of Learning?
1.9 . Guru-Shishya Parampara and InformationTechnology
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! 1.10 Future Classroom
I 1.11 Concept of Learning Resources,Centre Widened
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I 1.11.1 l h e LRC and Learning to Prod~ce/Mannfacturre

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1.12 Learning Society
i 1.13 L e t U s S ~ m U p
1.15 Answers to Check Your Progress

In this Optional Course, Educational Technology, you will have a dialogue with the
practitioners and experts working in the field of Educational Technology. As a teacher
when you plan various learning experiences for your students, you are using Educa-
tional Technology. Educational Technology encompasses aspects related to facilitating
the process of learning.
In this unit, we are going to discuss the nature of Educational Technology and its
role in the growth of learning society. We are also going to relate various phases of
Educational Teclmoloa and take a synopticview to begin with and then discuss the
future possibilities. This unit is prepared to assist you in getting the holistic view of
Educational Technology. It would also help you to link the concepts discussed in the
following units in a more meaningful manner.
Educa1ion:ll TccL~~ology:
hlultifaceted Proble~nSolving 1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will de able to:
prepare a flowchart showing major developments in Educational Technology;
describe the new trends in Educational Technology;
bring out the relationship between ~ d u c a t i o n a l ' ~ e c h n o l oand
g ~ Information
Technology;
give examples of implications of Information Technology;
state the role of Educational Technology in the context of Distance and Open
Learning; 1
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build a scenario of Future Classroom; i

explain the need to transform the school into a Learning Resources Centre (LRC);
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explain the role of Educational Technology in facilitating growth of a Learning
Society.

1.3 NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The process of understanding the comprehensive term Educational Technology can be
compwed with the famous story of an elephant and six blind men. While one blind man
considers an elephant like a wall, the other considers him more like a serpent. More
than that many a times some people confuse between the tail and the trunk. It is
also true that the elephant usually walks in small steps but sometimes if provoked by
enviionment it also runs in spurts. The same thing has happened with Educational
'I'echnolog y.

1.3.1 Technology in Education and Technology of Education

The luse of audio-visual aids, equipments, machines etc. such a Chalkboard, Cier Head
Projbctor (OHP), TV, Computer in education marks the "Technology in Education".
Here inore importance is given to the media used for carrying a message, whereas Ule
othek approach to Educational Technology is "Technology of Education". This approach
charbcterises the methodology appropriate to learners' needs, learning objectives, the
process of learning and teacl~ingas well as availability of resources. Technology of Edu-
cation includes Technology in Education. This can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.1.
We shall discuss more about these approaches in Block 2 (Unit 4).

Technology of Education

Using Technology
in Education

Fig. 1.1: Approaches to Educational Technology

The'first big spun in the movement of Technology of Education came in 1960's when B.
F. Slkinner propagated his theory of Programmed Instruction. This gave momentum to
'Technology of Education. (We discussed about this theory in Block 2, Unit 4.)
In 8990's the concept of Artificial lntelligeiice proved to be another spurt. Studies
on 4 ' ~ o w "learning contributed to the development of programmes on computer.

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Coi puter based learning enhanced human learning as it takes place through dy-
na ic relationships.
In the field of Technology in Education inany spurts were witnessed in the 20Ih cen-
tury and many are expected lo colne in lhi: coming century.
 In the year 1949, a powerful medium like Television came to the scene. This medium Educational Technology for
had the potential to replace all the teaching aids available so far. The medium could Learning Society
take the learners out of the four walls of the school. It became a very convenient
mode. The live telecast surpassed all other teaching aids including films. The VCR,
which came next to educational scene, offered much more control to the learner.
The next leap in Technology in Education was in the form of Computers. It had in-built
strength of interactivity which could change the culture the teaching-learning process.
The next logical development is computer networking. This technology is connecting
the learner to the whole world.

Check "iceas Progress

Notes : a i ~ V P I 'your
L~ answers in the space given helow.
h) <:clmpare your answers with rhose glven at the end oP the unlt.
I, Git.: two j l l t i > t r a t ~ c ~nfn ~'kchncilogy In Education.

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a: is an extension of slide-projector only.
'l,-lev!s~c;~a I
(TIF),
I h) can ~nteractwnth
; .,\tnp~~tc"r~ the learner>.
Ili:c\ptammed 'In~lrn~lion
is a base for "'Technology of Fklucation"
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1.4 EMERGENCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
AS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDY
If we restrict ourselves to the 20a century (1900 to 2000), during the first half the
dominant concept was teaching aids. The teacher was at the centre place on the
stage of education and whatever helped him to control the TLP was put into the
basket of Educational Technology. Later after the Second World War, the learner
came to the centre stage and much more thought was given to how he learns. In this
context Educational Technology can be defined as "technology which optimises
human learning". In the last few decades, we evolved a systems view of teaching-
learning process. Systems view helps in taking the realistic view of any problem to
be solved. The system, view has been initiated by the researchers in Cybernetics, a
Science of Communication. The computer system which evolved out of Cybernetics
has influenced the learning processes of an individual and the group. (More about
this is given in Units 4, 5, 6, 7 of Block 2).
Ed~tcatlonalTechnology: In the history of innovations we learn that many a times a simple technique which
Multifaceted Problem Solving concegtrates its attention on a small element of the system has gradually affected
Approach
the total system and thereby changed the whole function of that system.
The s h e thing has happened with Educational Technology. We do not wish to nullify
the eftorts of researchers, psychologists, educationists or hardware specialists who con-
centrqted on one simple thing and improved upon one technique and thereby knowingly
or unknowingly influenced the total system of Teaching Learning Process. We do,
however, wish to emphasize that the educationists i.e. managers of teaching-learn-
ing pdocess who are going to use Educational Technology in order to optimise the
learning, whether the student is near them or far away from them must not get them-
selves obsessed by one simple technique or a few techniques. This is primarily against
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which identifies Educational Technology with one big media like TV or Computer.
Such kinking hinders a total comprehensive movement of Educational Technology, i
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which needs a wider and integrated view of the whole process. i
At this stage, we would also like to emphasize that Educational Technology (and
Teaching Learning opunization) should not restrict itself to cognitive activities. The
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human learning consists of head, heart and hand, i.e. the Cognitive, Emotive and
Conative aspects. So even a learning technique which primarily talks about short
memorisation must relate itself to total human organism. Then only better tech-
niques of optimising human learning would emerge.

3.5 TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN

INDIA
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The ?rends in Educational Technology in India has two major dimensions, the first is
Techaology in Education and the second is Technology of Education. This is, of course,
an arbitrary division but an important one.

1.5.1 Technology in Education 11

In " ~ c h n o l o g yin Education", we have included most of the hardware that has been
mainly the contribution of Engineers and other experts primarily outside the education
field.:Here we start from the beginning of the century where the audio-visual aids like
the 1c)wcost non-projected aids, (charts, models etc.) have played a major role. At the
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other end, we shall have computer systems connecting us to the whole world. The
comduter system can also allow us to play games and sharpen our learning skills
with or without connecting ourselves with any outsider.

1.5.2 Technology of Education

The &her dimension is "Technology of Education" and here the emphasis is on various
Teaching Learning Process (TLP) which can be designed to help a learner to optimise
his lqarning. Here again the emphasis in the beginning of 20ikentury was on "teacher
deterbined" processes. It was presumed that the teacher is the controller of the process
i f e+cation and how he behaves in the classroom was studied in much greater detail
duridg this phase.

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The ext phase (i.e. the last 20-30 years) can be termed as the "learner determined"
phas Although in India this phase is more talked about than practiced, there are quite a
few Important experiments which have strengthened the need. It will take quite some
time to implement the learner centred orientation.
1.5.4.1 Major Limitations in Implementing Learner Centred Approach
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The major limitations in implementing this desire is the lack of our understanding how
@ child learns from a variety of sources. Even those who are working in the Distance
L e 4 i n g Institutions (DLI) like Open Universities or Open School are yet to be clear
abodt the variety of learning styles and learning processes, and therefore, when they
preppe or design Self Learning Material, such material, gets knowingly or unknow-
ingly teacher determined.
Another ilnportant hurdle is the traditional authoritarian attitude of the designer of Educational Technt~logyfor
Learning Society
such Self Learning Material. He feels that a learner is not going to learn unless he is
specifically told to do so. Both the inadequacy of techniques aswell as the attitudinal
barriers are coming in the way of developing Technology of Education. I n this con-
text contributions of cognitive psychologists (although many are yet to be translated
into educational practices e.g. psychologists like Brunner, Piaget, Ausubel and later
day Constructivisls etc.) require deeper study by educational technologists. (You
have already studied their contributions in Psychology Course).
Another hurdle is the learner's own feeling that helshe can not learn on hislher own.
The dependency on elders which was the dominant pattern of life during the medi-
eval period still persists in the Indian schools. This too came in the way of learner
centred education. Still a variety of techniques have emerged in the last 3 decades.
The next advancement in Technology of Education came with the research done in
cybernetics, a science of communication. Some cyberneticianswho worked later on the
computer systems started evolving and implementingSystems Approach to the problems
of education. (You will study more about Systems Approach in Unit 4). They to-
gether with educationists developed a variety of techniques such as Simulation games,
Multimedia where many variables can be put into problem solving situations and
the learner has to confront them and solve the problem. Some of these ideas will be
discussed in detail in the later Units.

:1 Check 1 ' 0 1 ~ Progress

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I?: ('ompare sour nnswcr with those given :it the end of the unit.
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j -3. 1 hc which you xrt: studying. now is an ex:implc o f "Self Learning M:itc-
g:ii?
i i;rr". C'!;r.;r:ify the folloxving aspects of this material into teacher detcrn~incd
! ; ~ n t lle :sncr LtctermincJ.
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1.5.3 Goals of Education

Along with these two major dimensions the third dimension which also needs to be
highlighted is the "Goals of Education". As long as the goal of education was just
memorisation of a certain sacred text, a narrow concept of Pathashala (a school for
memory) was adequate. From this we moved to goals of education as learning a variety
of skills which are useful in practical life as well as for higher thinking processes. Of
course during the previous centuries, the vocational education given by parents did
emphasize demonstrationwork in steps and then getting the student to repeat that work
and giving h i d e r feedback in terms of hisher own work. But somehow these methods
useful for apprenticeship in vocational education were not accepted in the formal
education stream, and therefore, a big gap was created between these two clusters of
methods i.e. those used in Pathashalas and those used by practitioners of Vocations (e.g.
carpenter). In the last 3-4 dccades, there is a change aAd quite a few methods from both
these groups have married not only in the context of vocational education but also in
situations where development of higher cognitive skills is aimed at. This is particularly
so in management education where development of cognitive skills such as decision-
making, problem-solving are the goals of education.
Gradually we are moving, not necessarily systematically or consciously, towards the
goal of education as development of a whole person, i.e. facilitating a person to
Educational TecLnology: report, "Learning: The Treasure Within" highlighted this goal. This, of course, includes
Multifaceten Problell~Solving the ethical, aesthetic and such other dimensions which are usually missed by the formal
Approach
education system. The methods, which may bc adequate for helping a student to memorise
some portion of a book, are certainly not ~dequate.They may be even misleading for
leming to become a whole person with a variety of dimension of life. Thus, the goals of
education also influence the process of evolving, designing new methods.
The changes in the goals of education have also influenced the design of the curricula.
In the beginning of the century, there was a lot more stress on Content Based or
Discipline Based Curriculum. Gradually, we are shifting more and more towards
Competency Rased Curriculum. Particularly at the primary education level, we have
introduced the concept of Minimum Levels of Learning which really means compe-
tencies that are expected at a certain level of education. This basic change from
memorizing certain information to develop competencies (in relation to head, heart
and hand) is an important one. Designers of curriculum are now giving less impor-
tance to the role of textbooks and much more to a variety of self or group learning
exercises for which a textbook may be an obstacle. It is this competency-based educa-
tion which would also relate itself to the whole person orientation that is mentioned
above.
Check Your Prngrrss
4. Match the followmg go:ils of education with thc methods of teach~ng-leaning.
. A (Goals of Education) B (Methods)
1. Sc~entificInquiry a) Apprrnticesh~p
2. Development of Co-operative Spirit b) 1IeuristicMethod
3. lndepcndent 1,eanling c) Project
4. L)cv:.iopment of VocaticloaI Sk~lls d) Programmet! In~triicticn

Distinction between tbe Concept of Method and Media

In this unit and later in the book at several places, we shall be using these terms - methods
anKl media somewhat interchangeably. Some persons say teaching by Radio and Television
is both a change in media and method. But it is necessary to understand the distinction.
A medium (e.g. Chalkboard, Radio, Tape Recorder, Television, Computer) refers to
the medium - a channel through which a message is delivered. In that sense a human
voice is a medium. The term "method, on the other hand, refers to the way these
mbssages are organised. The messages ;lay be organised in such a way that they are
&livered as a one-way communication - without leading to any feedback or interaction
vtween the sender or receiver of that message; or the metbod used may involve "inquiry"
- experimenting in a laboratory, or in Nature, reporting it to colleagues, discussing the
"&scovery" or failures etc. In the past, usually a teacher not only controlled the media (a
cfjalkboard, a book) but also the method (prescriptive authoritarian lecture which was,
cqnsidered logical by him). Now, there is shift from this medieval teacher controlled
dethods to more interactive methods. The learner is deciding how the learning
ejkperiences, he has to go through, are planned and delivered. Even a le~turecan be
oiganised according to different models of teaching like; Concept Attainment Model,
Idductive Training Model, Advance Organiser Model etc. These various methods are
discussed in ES- 331 i.e. "Curriculum and Instruction". In this book, however, mora
idformation is given about media than regarding methods without belitting the)
iqportance of methods discussed elsewhere. In fact, the selection of appropriate media
qill depend on the methods used in organising learning experiences appropriate to the!
~Uucationalgoals referred above.

lI.5.4 Communication Strategy

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l h e fourth dimension is Communication Strategy. In a way this is a sub-dimension ant1

nbt a major one, because it can be derived out of Technology of Education and Goals of
education. If the goal of education is imparting information then one-way communicatio~r
i$ adequate. But if the goal of education is to enable the learner to collect informatiou
approprihte to the problem that he faces (not necessarily in the classroom but later in
.
.." . . . . . . - .. . . ..
 It may be noted here that the multiple way in the classroom gets defined as commu- Ed~~crtioual
Technology for
nication between peers or co-students. But the multiple way which is now getting Learning Society
common in the last decade and which will be getting much more prevalent in the
coming century is not only with peers in the classroom bat with -1 variety of other
sources of learning. These also include persons that a student has never met, but s/
he can interact with them on the Electronic Mail. And such persons may be living in
any part of this Earth, which may even be physically inaccessible for our students. All
this and more have been made possible by computers, telecommunication,
teleconferencing and such other new technology in Education that is emerging.
The last few decades have witnessed this shift from one-way to two-way to multipIe
way communication which, on one hand, is influenced by the goals of education and
the Technology of Education, but which injits turnjnfluences these dimensions as
well. Thus, the process of evolution becomes l : ~ ~ more
c h interactive and dynamic.

1.6 PERCEPTIONS OF EXPERTS ON THE CORE MEAN-

ING AND FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECH-
NOLOGY
As stated above, Educational Technology advanced itself not only with the theories of
education but also by single track efforts of some small technicians. We must give credit
to those who worked on simple things such as how to make BB more efficient or what
kind of a chalk is more useful and breaks less when the teacher is using it. At the same
time going beyond a single technique, an educationist per say has to take a broader view
of the total system of education. Sometimes this gets hampered by the educationist's
own limitations as a person. Most of the educationists at least in India at present are
discipline based (I am a professor of Physics, or Chemistry or Psychology) and they do
not look at the TLP as a process by which a learner has to learn himself. In other words,
teachers/educationists tend to remain in their own closed door compartments and do
not relate with other disciplines.
On the other hand, those who come from the field of Psychology or "pure educa-
tion" know more theory but not how to design new techniques of TLP and particu-
1 larly facilitating a learner to learn on his own. The future advances in Educational
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Technology would, however, require a synthesis of both these streams.
For example, suppose we have to develop a game for enhancing multilateral thinking, crea-
tiveldivergent thinking in our children, the kind of software that will be required would be
quite different from the textbook Iesson that a discipline-oriented person usually writes.
Computer games like Sin1 City, which will be discussed later, will require a team of
experts from various fields like Town Planning, Psychology, Sociology, Engineering, etc.
This is possible now because of emerging Technology in Education. In the old days,
when a teacher had to depend only on one-way communication methods like lecturing
alone, it was not possible for getting the student to realise the multiple dimensions of
the problem. Now with the possibility of creating Virtual Reality, our rigid water tight
compartments can be broken and we can bring drastic changes in our thinking style.
More about this topic will be discussed in a later section.

0Engineering
& Philosophy

1I C.ybernetics
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,Icational
I lechnology I I
Management
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\
Biological

Fig. 1.2: Educational Technnlngy

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Educational Technology:
Multifaceted Problem solving 1.7 EMERGING TRENDS O F DEVELOPMENT AND
Approach
EXPANSION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
In b~lief,these trends can be summarised as follows:
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1.7.6 Continuing Education

In future an individual shall have to go on learning throughout his life. Continuing
Education (Nirantar Shiksha) is going to be absolutely necessary for the survival
and certainly for improving one's quality of life.
1.7.2 Easy Availability of Multiple Learning Resources
NOW,we find that a Computer which not only presents visuals but also speaks with the I

learher. In the field of telecommunications,we are also going to see many innovations. ,
1.7.3 Rapid Adaptability of Learning Resources to Learner's Needs i
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So f ~ ther resources of learning were mostly impersonal (e.g. a staric textbook). !'
Thep did not change according to the needs of a learner at different stages of learn-
ing. I n fact, this impersonal hardware/software made even a teacher to become non-
adaptive. The changes in computer linked learning resources as well as methods

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em rging out of new cognitive psychology and group dynamics stream are going to
faci itate learning of individuals different in their abilities, different not only in cog-
niti$e assets but also in their perceptions, attitudes, feelings, etc.
No*, more and more integrated innovations in Educational Technology are antici-

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pat d because of these trends and the Technology of Education is all set to help the
des gners of Instructional System to use changes in Technology in Education more
widkly (in terms of outreach) and deeply (in terms of "Whole Person").
1.714 Distance Education
We bave stated above that one of the major trends is the necessity of continuingeducation.
Thib requirement of the future citizens shall have to be met. The Open University or
Nadional Open School and such other distance learning institutions (DLIs) are striving
to fpfill the needs of this market. What will be the methodology of such distance learning
insditutions? They shall have to reach the learner at his doorstep rather than invite him
to the classroom, at the time, which is convenient to them. In order to facilitate this the
D ~ shall S have to develop a different methodology. Previously, we called these
"co~spondencelessons" But the correspondence lessons were primarily teacher
detkrmined information sprayingevents, in many cases not effective in terms of student
lea ning. Therefore, the DLIs who design such Self Learning Material shall have to
b
stu y the target goup in much greater details, and generate resources or materials
which would adapt to the learners' differing needs.
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In kuture, education cannot just be sold or delivered it shall have to be marketed,

an+ provided as per the contract negotiated.
1.4.5 Learning Styles
In ihe context of learning styles - the manner in which learners prefer to think or
lealrn the target oups are classified into 3 major groups (and there could be many
mdre combinatio s). T
a) One group involves in what is called "Serialised Thinking" or algorithmic think-
ing which is more akin to deductive logic.
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b) Other group solves problems more holistically, seeingthe totality of the problem,
seeingvarious components as they are related in real life situations, not after
dissection. They look at the total pattern when they try to solve the problem.
c) 1 There is a third group, which uses both the styles as per the situation demands.
These different approaches again are not to show that learners are by heredity or
some genetic factor divided into groups. This is only to remind the instructional
depigners that learners may have different needs at different times; their conception
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 of learning, thcir perception about the assessment process or use of that learning in Educational Techuology for
the real life situations keeps varying, All these factors determine what kind of meth- Learuiug Society
ods are necessary for a particular learner and for him to learn the curriculum.
Most probably, the learner will learn through a variety of approaches. The learner
will gadually devclop different styles of learning. For different expectations of the
society and histher own perception about what is desirable, hetshe will adopt differ-
ent techniques to learn different skills or goals of education. You will study some of
them in Block 3.

17.6 Virtual Reality

Computer scientists are now working with concepts like Cyberspace and Virtual Real-
ity. Cyberspace is a vast electronic thoroughfare where computer meets and exchange
information. This kind of instant access to information will change the value of ideas,
bring in new business synergies and become the engine for tremendous social change.
The computers have unlimited large network which gives the learner acccss to pzacti-
cally unlimited space. Networks, where computers are electronically linked to one an-
other over a cable or satellite, are rapidly reshaping the world, changing the very way we
think and talk.
The next advancement in this field is creating one's own reality. The virtual reality can
be defined as a three-dimensional computer generated irnmersive and interactive envi-
ronment. In simpler words, this technology lets one see, hear, feel and control (to some
extent) the environments which otherwise can not be easily (or not at all) experienced.
We referred above to Sim City game. This is one of the earlier stages of Virtual
Reality. In this a learner is told to create his own city. The game starts in the beginning
of 20thcentury and continues up to 21"' century. Variety of parameters like land,
water resources, energy resources and so on are made available to the learner to
play and he goes on selecting and relating these variables e.g. land with more
mountains or less rivers, lakes etc. In order to develop his town on such a landscape
he has to decide about what kind of energy will be used at what cost, industry and so
on and so forth. He goes on taking all such decisions and he also faces consequences
rising out of theme.g. if he decides to have the electricity produced with coal he has
to think in terms of pollution and hence for more hospitals. If he has more industries,
more or less people might come into his town depending on the Ecology and services
available. In this game, people (citizens) come out on the street and start shouting
against the Mayor for more taxes and inadequate services. The game also provides
newspaper which gives a learner (game player) feedback from a variety of target
groups who are affected by the decision that the Mayor makes. As the history unfolds,
the Mayor can go on changing some of his earlier decisions e.g. by 1970 the Mayor
may think about the workforce vis-a-vis costs and pollution. All such decisions can
be taken with the information provided and with the situations created by the players
of the game. Such a game can be played even by a 10 year old whose basic learning
skills are aroused and sharpened.
Thus, in the coming decades learners are going to be less dependent on classroom,
peers and teachers.
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Educatioual Technology:
Mnltifaceted Problelu Solving 1.8 ETHICAL ISSUES INVOLVED IN THE
Approach
APPLICATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
In ethics, the primary concepts are Right and Good. Right is related to the rules,
usually enforced by the social norms. What is Right in a given society of the medieval
era e.g. a widow can not remarry is not right in the new era. Similar are the differences
between Right in one geographical area and another area e.g. various nutritional
norms. The concept of Right is sometimes clouded by the concept of Good but
essentially Good is related to an individual's own perception of hisher psychological
and spiritual growth.

1.8.1 Information Technology of the Past and Present

The previous education system was primarily an inheritor of the past. What was
decidqd as Right or Good by the earlier generation was passed on as the Gospel
truth to the next generation. In other words, ethics was more 'book' based and tradi-
tion-oriented. Information Technology, was primarily the word of mouth of the
preacher or the teacher or the sacred books, written or composed by the then wise
people, restricted the perception and patterns of living to whatever is fed to h i d h e r
by their limited sources of information.

The new Information Technology is in a way going to liberalise the human beings
primarily by allowing him to see the various even contradicting patterns of living,
perception of right and wrong. It will encourage the persons to redefine what is
g o ~ for
d him and society. This will, of course, create confusion, as people will try to
break away from the static definition of right and wrong. The new Information Tech-
nology will allow individuals to get into many areas of knowledge and as such to
recreap a lot of anxiety and uncertainty. This will be true not only of the elders but
also ofthe young ones who will be provided with contradictory sets of inlormation
and still have to decide within a short span of time.

1.$.2 Making Information Based Decisions

It is true that the information retrieval can not substitute decision-making. All that
Inforrnbtion Technology does is to help a person to make information-based deci-
sions. h o s t religious, philosophical and ethical systems accept the value if individu-
als mahing decisions accept that individuals have freedom of choice and therefore,
they h k e responsibility for the consequences of their actions.

Unfortbnately, the education system of the medieval period or industrial civiliza-

tion did not reflect this ethical thought. Even in the industrial period, the education
system Feared itself to produce a skilled labour, a clerk, primarily an instrument for
the growing industrial world. The institutions of management where supposedly de-
cision-rpaking is to be taught were a few and for the elite. It is this elite class which
could sbmehow lay their hands on varied information sources like the library, tel-
ephone and now the satellite TV. These sources were costly and even their reach
was very much limited. The first break-through in India in this context was the tran-
sistor radio. Practically all villagers had an access to information supplied by the All
India Rladio.

The unfortunate part was the AIR which was controlled by the government and
hence id made only that information available to the masses, which was convenient
to thenl. The same limitation was suffered by the Door Darshsn until now. Only
recently, other TV Channels are breaking this monopoly of the Government as the
only soQce of information.

The next stage of computer plus telecommunication is going to facilitate informa-

tion based decision-making, actualizing the "freedom of choice". Then an individual
can be donsidered responsible for hisher actions as the system allows himlher to
select, and does not impose on him/her a course of action. The individual enjoys
''freedoh of choice".
I 1

1 Edllcqtiunal Technology for

Learning Society
I i
I IWotec : . I ) LX'r~tc!our ,in'wcr. in the sp;irc given helour. 1E
i
1
it
1.) ('t>n~pdrc
!riur anrlxcr with thoxc given at lhc cnd ol the u n i l .
lm<lainc a clam whrre .:luiir.nts h a t e a c c r w tn informiitrnrl Ihrnush \.ar!c>us
I
fh.
1
I \o1r1ces(such as 7 t: Inti-rnct ctc,). llow-n-ai>uld!heir proicct~I?(. Oi.rfcrent 6rom
/ thr ctudcnt.; rn the traditicln;il classroom'!

1 1.8.3 Who Decides the Objectives of Learning?

The older teacher controlled EducationalTechnologyeven in cases when it gave freedom
of choice regarding the mode of learning, the objectives were preset by the teachers!
community and elders. The setting up of objectives of education or any lesson was the
domain of the elders or in other words Curriculum Development was in the hands of
1 elite experts. The important difference now is that the student can not only select the
I learning medium - the Teaching-Learning Process, their teachers, their teaching aids,
but also the objectives - the combination of the goals that they want to persue. With the
additional facility of interactivity with the peers, not only with the teachers and experts,
the students will literally become a participant and can even design a new process for the
specific objectives to which they would like to devote themselves.

/ ~ o t c :s a) Write your answer in the space gi\en below. II

1
1i I)) Compare your answcr with those given at Ihc end of the unit. 1
!
i n which arcnr ul lcarninpprocess the new development in Information E c h -
17. n !:(>p
;illow thc learner. to get the contn~l'.'
I

1.9 GURU-SHISHYA PARAMPARA AND INFORMA-

TION TECHNOLOGY
The tradition in India which even now continues in the field like music is that a student
should have complete faith inthe Guru, and then receive the knowledge or skill in the
manner prescribed by the Guru. Usually the student stayed with the Guru in Gurukul or
Ashram and regarded the Guru as a second father. In Gurukul, both his physical
and emotional needs were satisfied by the Guru. This environment created both
intellectual and emotional bonds between the teacher and the disciple. The city
based colleges or schools changed all this and gradually more and more impersonal
relations were built up. Some educationists even talked about a contract between a
teacher and a taught in which a student is to pay the teacher for the attainment of
specified objectives just like any other commercial contract.
One wonders what would be the relationship between a teacher and a taught in
future with the predominance of Information Technology. One possibility is that the
I teacher will be regarded as one of the many sources of information, an additional
instrument like the W.Some may argue that there is nothing wrong in treating the
teacher as one of many sources of information whereas others may feel that certain
emotional human bonds should exist between the teacher and the taught. These
people emphasize that the teacher is not only a source of information but he is also
an influencer in moulding the personality of the child, a counsellor, a facilitator. In
Educational Technology: other words, a good teacher is not only providing information but he is also providing
Multifaceted Problem Solving
Approach
the skills of learning and helping the students to develop broad perspectives -broad
framework to relate themselves to the world at large.
We gpess that in spite of the sophisticated hardware and electronic IT, the human
needto have personal contacts with other people will not subside. In fact, it is likely
to grow and in that sense an individual can have more than one teacher. The
movement of couselling, peer counselling, the possibility of making friends and
communes through the electronic media would encourage and enable people to come
in contact with other great minds and thereby increase number of friends out of
whom some could function as teachers. In other words, in addition to teachers who
may quide in face-to-face situation in the future, students may develop contact with
people, (even emotional bonds with some of them) who may function as teachers,

Fig. 1.3: Showing Gurukul way of learning and IT way nf learning

1 . 1 FUTURE CLASSROOM
I n t h e bncient period, the student went to the teacher's home or to his work place
fok learning. In the medieval period, the monasteries where the student came to
om the teacher became the pattern. This gave rise to the present day class-
here the teacher teaches by the book and chalkboard and such other teach-
ing aid materials. This was obviously completely teacher controlled. In the indus-
t r i d i s a b n period the innovation of radio/TV enabled the teacher to leave the room
buf still the group was learning together under a plan designed by the teacher. The
tane r e k d e r s , videos and now the computer have changed this concept. 'l'liey have
givm the control of the learning process in the hands of the student. So, what would
be the hlassroom of futpre? They would be different types:

a) ~ h institutional
k framework like the schooVcollege of today would most probably
traFform into Learning Resources Centre (LRC). These will be the places where
stuflents may learn what they want to learn from the sources whicb they want to
selyct from and with the peers or the teachers whom they want to consult.
I

b) The homes or cluster of homes can also provide to the student or a group of stu-
' dedts the LRC. Thew could be utilised under the guidance of parents or elder broth-
ershisters or peers etc. in a face-to-face situation.
I
But it may be emphasized that both in type a) and b) a student will not be restricted Educatioual Techrulugy br
to the persons with whom he has face-to-face contact. He will have an access to Learning Society
persons residing far away from him; experts who may be anywhere in the world
along with the data banks with the interconnectivity provided by the telecommuni-
cations. What is difficult to predict is the proportion of human interaction required
either in face-to-face situation or through electronic mail situation. This may differ
from individual to individual and subject to subject.
The human interaction which may even be sometimes transformed into social pres-
sures are definitely required at certain ages particularly in the childhood and ado-
lescents wherc lots of skills and attitudes required for social survival are learnt
through the school/institution. In fact, the literal meaning of the school is a group of
individuals. The socialization process required for personality development is helped
by the schools. In fact, in that context the pre-school movements like Kindergarten
etc. brought the children together of early ages. Thus, we do not visualize that indi-
viduals will learn in isolated caves even if all the impersonal learning resources like
TV and Computer are made available to them.

1.11 CONCEPT OF LEARNING RESOURCES CENTRE

WIDENED
The concept of I X should not be restricted to the impersonal sources like books, audio
tapes or video tapes. The computer technology has a facility of the feedback mode but
even that at the lower end can be impersonal. The fourth generation computer system
made it interactive and adaptive. The next stage of computer based on tclecommu-
nicationnnternet is to facilitate not just a dialogue but multilogue, not only with
experts but also with colleagues through the mechanism of video conference and/or
E-mail etc. It is now possible that a group of persons exploring same area can think
together, communicate their thoughts, simultaneously, create virtual reality and
experiment with it and innovate new designs. These persons may appear to sit in their
caves, but are in communication with others as if in a face-to-face situation.
We have said above that the LRC can create "as if face-to-face situation". The sim-
ple technique of printing a book reduced the absolute necessity of the teacher giving
lectures, "drilling" in face-to-face situation and the technology in Education later
reduced this further. Still there might be certain area of personal growth both in
intellectual and emotional context, which would require face-to-face interaction. In
the face-to-face situation, most probably nobody needs to speak in terms of positional
authority but can share experiences and creatively think together (as in brainstorm-
ing), elaborate each other's ideas and build on them. The personal contact provides
certain kind of motivation which may not be possible to replace by the impersonal
technology in Education. The learning webs (Evan Illich) of tomorrow would defi-
nitely include human beings and although in many situations, they may not be in
physical touch with each other, they would be in "touch" psychologically-spiritually.
Certain kinds of creativity, character moulding require the interaction with other
people in physical context. The extreme illustration of this would be the mother's
cuddling the baby which stimulates not only the baby's touch sensation but also his
brain.

1.11.1 The LRC and Learning to ProducelManufacture

The above concept of LRC still is short of another essential component viz of learning
actual skills of production. e.g. somebody may study for examination, the information
about various trees, the ecology required for it, when the seeds should be planted,
what should be the fertiliser etc. In a multivariable game, he can &en simulate
Vrindavan Garden. Ail this would still not enable him to plant a few trees in his
back garden. For many pursuits in life, for most manufacturing skills of hand and
feet (and other Karmendriyas) different kinds of demonstrations are requifed. Most
such skills require teacherltutor demonstration followed by group work as well as
individual practice. Most propably for such practices schools with their literal
meaning of coming together would be required. But then such schools need not
have lecture halls. In the medieval period, the religious preachers giving sermon in
E ~ l u ~ i l l i o ~l'ccli~~ology:
ial moruasteiies introduced this technology of lecture halls and pulpit, which separated
Multif;rcetcd Proble~iiSolving
the teacqer from the student. The tradition or the carpenter of a blacksmith teaching
his pupil by demonstration and asking him actually to produce was belittled if not
condemded. The libraries were separated from farms or the furnace of the blacksmith.
" ~ o m o ~ o w ' sLRC
" will require not only the library with books and computers with
telecom@unication facility but will also require labs, workshops, fields where a group
of individuals or an individual can experiment, produce and share the joys and
sufferiqgs with others. The resultsloutputs of the labslworkshops can again be
chackedherified with the comparative programmes; thus enabling the individuals
to havela much faster track of learning with very wide comprehensive map.
1 CheskYons Progress
I
I
Nutes : a) Wrrte your Answers in the space given below.
hi C'oraparc your answcrc with rhow given a t the end of the unit.
i. I

@rite ir! your word? three characteristics of Learning Kehources Cciitre?

I .,...............................................................................................................................
1%I t 1L)u is the cancipl of LRC broader than ihc library?
I

I 10. $Vhicll akilis would the learner need to use the Learning Resources Centre?
I

I
4 I

.I:
1 LEARNING SOCIETY
?he uture society is doing to be a learning society. What does it mean? As distinguished
btati medieval sodiety knowledge will grow at much faster speed and in various fields.
30 e individual shan have to keep on acquiring the knowledge which will be affecting
thei vocation and livelihood. Most probably, the technique of production would be
cha ging throughout their lives. Again people shall have to learn on their own. Industries
lor b'gger organisatiods can set up their training centres for teaching special skills required
'for eir methodologp of work; but a large proportion of society shall have to chart their
1 owdpaths in an undefined sea. This requires a different orientation towards life. In other
worhs, people may have to learn things which may not have immediate relevance to

1
of working but which may turn out to be essential for their tomorrow's

Ap t from this learping of different modes of production, different jobs in one's life,
fut re generation will have the possibility of expanding and enjoying different aspects
of ,'fe. In Alvin Tomer's terminology persons of Post-industrial period are going to be
Pr sumers - that ,is people who are both producers and consumers. This idiom can
be etter translated in the Indian context by saying that in future a whole person will be
bo a Brahmin and a Sudra - that is knowledge-worker and manufacturer. In addition to
thi ,helshe can purgue the fine arts like dancing, music, painting, and relate oneself witb
th nature in various ways.
I
I
 In the medieval period and earlier, human beings had to spend very large portion of Educational Technology for
their day-time for physical activities required for bare survival that is to get food Learniug Society
and shelter. In post-industrial period, helshe have much more time as is evident
from the fact that even now in all the developed countries there are at least two days
holiday in a week and many are thinking of giving third day as holiday. This indi-
cates the nearly 50% of time will be available for activites other than those required
for earning daily bread. In other words a human can live a multifaceted life; for
which the person shall have to learn varied ways of living a purposeful life. This will
be true not only of children going to school; but much more intensely true for the
retired people. In Japan this problem is becoming much more intense when adults
become workaholics and have good physical health even after retirement (after the
age of 65). The solution to this problem lies in learning to develop oneself into a
multifaceted person. This will compel an individual to learn throughout his life.
This implies not only learning to do but also learning to be, to live as a "whole"
person contributing to Societies like Rabindranath Tagore or Sri Aurobindo.

Check Your Progress

-- I ~ u t r s : 21) Write your answer in the spucc given hvlow. I
t
I l-b) Compare your answer with those given at the erld of the unit. I
11. Why an individual would be required to learn throughout hi:;,'hcr life?
I

1.13 LET US SUM UP

We started by saying that Educational Technology is for optimising human learning. In
this human learning, individualisation is absolutely necessary because human be-
ings difler from each other and differ for good reasons, The Technology in Educa-
tion could be designed and manufactured keeping in view this bio-diversity and in-
dividual differences. We are sure the Engineering Technology is far outreaching the
requirements of the designers of instructional systems coming from social scientists.
Right now many hardware engineers and computer scientists are analysing the conven-
tional education and posingvery important question.. But it is this kind of confrontation
which will lead to answers regarding different styles of human learning. We can then
change the Engineering Technology to suit those findings from social and biological
sciences.
It can be noted here that in addition to Education and Psychology disciplines like
Anthropology, Economics, Philosophy, Mathematics, Biology, Neurology etc. will
be synthesized in the future century and a variety of new technologies will emerge
, which are not even conceived of in the last decade of 20thcentury. New systems will
enable learners to reach their respective life goals more efficiently and effectively.
The future society is a Learning Society wherein individuals will continue to learn
to do new things and "to be" a Whole Person. This will be possible by setting up
learning resources centers which will not only enable a learner to use various re-
sources - both human and non-human but encourage himher to transcend the con-
ventional limitations of time and space.
Of course, such a learning society- a school without walls is no where a reality as of
I today, but a direction is set. The coming century will unfold different paths towards
I
it. The "Information Technology" initiated by Computer Network needs to be geared
-
towards this Education helping every person to realise his own self - his potential
at the highest level - to use Sri Aurobindo words - to become a "superman".
 Edueatiounl Techuology: The ch:ipters which follow in Block 1, 2 , 3 and 4 giving concrete details about the
Mullifaceted Problem Solviug various concepts and techniques to improve our educational methods and systems -
Approach
i.e. ofeducational technology towards this end.

1.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2. a) False, b) True, c) True
3. Ail1the aspects of the Self-LearningMaterial arc Teacher Oetermined.
4. 1) b, 2) c, 3) d, 4) a
5. In the Sim City Game the player has full control:

i) Helshe is able to manipulate various parameters of the game.

ii) There is no danger involved (as it is a simulation).

iii) The game can be played any number of times with different parameters.
6. i) They would use authentic and up-to-date information.

ii) They may be using visuals.

iii) Presentation would be more creative.
7. - The new IT would allow the learners to:
+ decide the obiectives.

-t- decide the content areas.

- decide the methods through which s h e would like to learn.
8, i) It facilitates learning of an individual as well as group.

ii) It provides information toihe learners which is stored in a variety of ways.

iji) It can also provide contact with other learners.

9library basically stores information in print (books, journals, referencz books,

e c.) or on computer. It allows the reader to retrieve information s h e needs in
4systematic manner.
I

I,RC not only stores and allows us to retrieve information but also provides
fbcility to create information. The LRC will have laboratory, workshed where
the learners can experiment.

lo- t 'l
part from the skills required to use the library. e.g. searchinglsurfinginforrna-
on, retrieve information, the learner would in addition have following skills to
qse LRC:
i) experimentation
ii) exploration
I
iii) sharinglexchangeof ideas.
11. + Information is generated at a very high speed.
- Techniques of production are changing. New skills are required to perform
the jobs.

I - In order to keep up with them, one has to learn.

UNIT 2 CASE STUDY OF AN OPEN
SCHOOL
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 The Needs and Emergence of Open Schooling System in India
2.4 Features of the Open School System
2.5 Methodology Adopted for the Delivery Mechanism
2.5.1 Instructional Inputs
2.5.2 Study Centres and Organisation of the Personal Contact Programmes
2.6 Potentiality and Use of Information Technology in the Open Schooling System
Teleconferencing and Internet
2.7 Management of Admissions and Examinations
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Unit-end Activities
2.10 Key Words
2.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.12 Suggested Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit intends to make you aware of the features and emergence of open schooling,
methodology adopted for delivery mechanism in terms of instructional inputs. The or-
ganisatia of personal confact programmes is also discussed. Apart from this, you will
also come to know how educational technology has been used in open schooling to
overcome the problem of access, equity and providing quality services to the learners.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we will examine the emergence of open schooling system in India and the use of
technology in open schooling to overcome the problem of access, equity and providing qual-
ity services to the learners. After going through this unit, you will be able to:
a define the concept of Open Schooling;
a differentiate between Traditional and Open School System;
a understand the evolution of alternate systems of education in India;
a state the features of Open Schooling System;
a explain the delivery mechanism in the Open School; and
a explain the potentiality and use of information technology in Open Schooling System.

2.3 THE NEEDS AND EMERGENCE OF OPEN

SCHOOLING SYSTEM IN INDIA
In post independent India, a provision for equalising education opportunities has been
made through Article 45 of the Constitution, but to date many are unable to avail the
Educational Technology: existin educational facilities. This has been happening due to several reasons. Many
Multifaceted Problem Solving
Approach
I
student drop-out of the formal system of education because of their financial and social
circumsltances. Furthermore, many students have to discontinue their studies due to the
lack of sbholastic aptitude. Dropouts, who are later motivated to resume their education,
face the( difficulty in re-rentering the formal system of education.
Due to limited institutional infrastructure, the admissions in the formal system of
educatipn at secondary, senior secondary and university level are made on the basis of
merit fqr a fixed number of seats. As a result, some of the aspirants are unable to enter
into the; formal system of education. Apart from these, there are certain individuals
who cadnot enter into the formal fold either due to their physical handicaps or due to
the finahcia1 circumstances. In geographically remote areas, the population is widely
scattered. The schools in such areas are not within the reach of masses because of large
distancds. Thus, there are a number of handicaps faced by students.
There is another category of persons who look at education as a life time activity and
are inte ested in updating their knowledge in a discipline or acquiring knowledge in new
6
areas. T ese areas of new knowledge are either related to their hobbies or to the work
4
they ar doing in their j ~ b s Furthermore,
. some people realise that it is essential to
acquire lawarenoss of new techniques. Educational needs of these persons demand a

t
provisio for learning without making it incumbent on their part to join a course on a
fulldtim basis at a formal schooUcollege far away from their residence.
I
These fdcts have led to a search for an alternate system of instruction, wherein there is
flexibilitb in terms of institutional calendar, examinations, entry regulations and time
limit for completion of the courses. Apart from this, the alternate system should be
costreffelctive,should cause fewer burdens on centraystate government exchequers, and
cut acroqs the existingformal, non-formal and other educational programmes.

1
As a res It, our educational planners looked for new alternative approaches for provid-
ing acce s to education for those who wanted to continue their education. At school
level, co respondence education was first introduced in 1965, when the Conference of

1k
Boatd of Secondary Education at Pune, recommended correspondence educationcourses
for the p ivate students. The first school was established at Bhopal in 1965. The estab-
lish*ent of Patrachar Viqalaya at Dehi in 1968 followed this. The Board of Secondary
Edu~atin, Rajasthan (Ajmer) also started correspondence courses at school level in
1968. ~ h Central
k Board of Secondary Education, Institute of Correspondence Educa-
tionl(Al1 habad), Board Of Secondary Education, Orissa and SCERT, Tamil Nadu too
establish d such types of schools. But the correspondence institutions too had some
limiting fieatures. They adopted the same study scheme, syllabus and examination sys-
4
tem.As result, the problem of access could not tackled fully by the correspondence
institutiob as they suffered from rigidities.
I

1
It wqs fe t that [he Open Learning System (OLS) at the school level could meet the
challeng of bringing un-schooled children and adults within the fold of education.
As a res It the idea of starting an OLS at the school level surfaced in 1974 in the
world codference of the International Council for Correspondence Education (ICCE)
held in Hew Delhi. In 1979, the Open School was set up as a project of the Central
Boatd of secondary Education, Delhi. The Open School was not an examining body
at that tibe and its examinations were conducted by the CBSE. In November 1989,

1
the Ope School was upgraded and became the National Open School (NOS), an
autohom us institution. "The NOS was empowered to conduct its own examinations
and It bei$ame an independent Board.
I

The bissjon of NOS is to provide relevant, continuing and developmental educa-

tion to ptioritised client groups in response to the assessed needs of the people,
throsgh qn Open Learning System, at the school stage. This is an alternative to the
formal sybtem and thus make its contributions to:

i
lhniv rsalisation of education;

. ireat(er equity and justice in society; and

dhe elolution of a learning society.
~ e e d i in view
k
~ the above objectives an endeavour was made to make the courses in
consbnan e with the needs of potential target groups. The NOS has designed, de-
veloped and delivered high quality academic programmes as well as courses in pro- Case Stttdy 01 ibs Opcu S~.hrboi
fessional areas like Computer Applications, Word Processing and Secretarial Prac-
tice. It offers two types of courses: general education courses and vocational/life
enrichment courses. Open Vocational Education is offered at secondary and senior
secondary levels. Life Enrichment and Continuing Education Courses are addressed
to general public and those in various areas of work. The general education courses
offered by the NOS include:
Foundation Course equivalent to grade VIII serving as a bridge course for join-
ing the Secondary level programme;
Secondary School Course equivalent to class X level;
Senior Secondary Education Course equivalent to class XI1 level.
In order to further widen its access, the NOS has launched the following programmes:
Open Basic Education programme aimed at providing continuing education to
the neo-literates in the age groupl4+;
Open Elementary Education for the benefit of the non-schoolgoing children in
the school going group;
Rural Community Workshops are being set up for providing vocational educa-
tion and training in rural areas. Under this Rural Community Workshop scheme
financial support will be provided to NGOs to set up workshops for vocational
courses in rural areas;
Open Vocational Education Programmes which can be combined with academ-
ics, skill-based Certificate Courses of short and long-term duration, Special Pro-
fessional CertificateDiploma Courses, Stand-alone vocational subjects, Life
Enrichment Courses with vocational approach etc.;
a Emerging areas, namely, Early Childhood Care and Education, Ophthalmol-
ogy, Geriatrics, Pre-coaching for SC/ST, etc.
The NOS is playing the lead role in developing a network of open schooling chan-
nels in the country and as a result serveral State Open Schools and State Centres for
Open Schooling have come up in various states. The State Open Schools have come
up in Haryana (1994), Rajasthan (1994), Madhya Pradesh (1995), Karnataka (1995),
West Benga1(1997), and Punjab (1997). State Open Schools in Andhra Pardesh and
Tamil Nadu (1982) were set up in the eighties in their own form and format. The
NOS has also helped in setting up of State Centre for Open Schooling in Meghalaya
(1996) and in Himachal Pradesh (1997).
I ~ h e Yodr
~ k Progress
jhotes :
i
it I
.I,
bvrtre
'
your ansuer in the space given helow.
I
I b I Compare !lour answer with thosc given at the end of the unit.
I
1 1. 4.h.i1. rc *he ;;irious fartnrr that icd to the emergcnse of Open Schooling Systurn
in 111d1.i'
i

2.4 FEATURES OF THE OPEN SCHOOL SYSTEM

6 is seen that the open schooling evolved from the system of correspondence
education. The correspondence institutions at school level opened up opportunities
for their own time education - a student can learn on hisher own convenient time
Edocatio~ialTech~lology: to self-pdced learning. However, all these correspondence institutions at different levels
Multifaceted Problenr Solving offer the~sarnecourses which are offered in the formal system, thereby having the same
rigiditie$ with regard to admissions and examinations and use of only one medium, i.e.
print. Though, such correspondence education was able to transcend the barriers of space
and tim&,it was not able to serve large numbers with higher quality of educatiou and
diversity of courses that are relevant to individual and societal needs. This led to the
emergence of the open schooling.
Open Schooling System has been able to overcome this situation by incorporating
flexibility in terms of:
a op@nentry with respect to age limit and entry qualification;
op&n choice of courses/subjects from a wide range of academic and vocational
covrses allowing for their combinations;
a open choice of medium of instruction;
a fle$ible scbeme of examinations;
a opbn (self-directed) pace of multi-channel learning.
* ~ u l b l Resources
e
betehined by the learners
~acilitatedby the sy stern

* (ppen Schooling is User-centred

2.1: Distinphhing Fe~~tures
o f Open School System

I
The Open Schooling System, however, expects the learners to be: Case Study of an Ope11 School

self-learners taking responsibility of their own progress of learning;

self-directed;
highly motivated;
autonomous and independent taking less frequent help from a teacher;
actively undergoing learning by interacting with the self-instructional material.
The features of Open Learning in National Open School guarantee the following:
Easy access to education: Does not suffer from rigidity of formal system of
education or that of correspondence courses.
Expanded base of education: There is no upper age limit for admissions. The
learners have freedom to decide what to learn, when to learn and how to learn.
It allows learner to learn at his own speed and time. Fee concession is offered
as an incentive to the marginalised groups i.e. women, scheduled castes, sched-
uled tribes, ex-servicemen and handicapped. It offers programmes in Hindi,
English, and Urdu as national media and various regional languages such as
Marathi, Telugu, Bengali, Kannada, Gujarati etc. with a plan to gradually ex-
tend it to the remaining regional media. It allows credit accumulation in the
examination system in which a maximum of 9 chances are provided over a pe-
riod of 5 years and transfer of credits from other national boards. It is possible
to take re-admission after five years.
Ensures better coverage: Offers wide variety of combination of courses includ-
ingvocational courses. Academic and vocational courses are offered separately
and in combination. The learners have the freedom to choose subjects accord-
ing to their needs, interests and abilities.
Educational support: Provides much needed educational support to the drop-outs
who feel shy to re-enter the formal system and provides a bridge to re-enter the
mainstream.
Opens new avenues: Opens a new vista to improve the quality of life for all the
non-entrants at various levels who could not for any reason get the opportunity
for formal schooling.
Provides facilities: Provides facilities of education to the disadvantaged groups
who had to give up education early.
Quality education: Provides quality education to all through use of modern com-
munication and information technologies.
The in-built flexibilities of the NOS attract a wide range of learners. The NOS has a
vast heterogeneous student body comprising demographically diverse (age, gender
region, social background, etc.), educationally disadvantaged (most of them without
the traditional qualifications for entering into formal school and who have no
opportunities to make up for the lost time), economically weak (a large majority
belonging to low and lower middle income groups), under employed and unemployed
persons who want to continue their education and school drop-outs.

METHODOLOGY ADOPTED FOR THE DELIVERY

MECHANISM
It may be worthwhile to mention right in the beginning that the curricular framework
and examinations of the NOS are at par with the formal school system. The NOS
learners despite their poorer entry qualifications, perform as well as their formal
school counterparts. Thus it is worth anafysing the issue particularly with respect to
the institutional processes such as course design, instructional inputs, course deliv-
ery and evaluation process. We will be tellingyou methodology adopted by the NOS
 ~ ~ P ~ ~ L P I ~ I O ~ Y for
I.:ducalio~~irl : couqse delivery. But before that it is essential to mention the considerations that
Mssltit ~r.etrclI'roblenl Solving influenge the pedagogy of the open schools. These are as follows:
'il"proacL

op4n school students vary widely in age from school age children to senior citi-
zeds who differ in their experience and life skills (Age range from 14+ to 60+);
opdn school students differ widely in their learning skills and, in particular, in
their reading skills;
opdn school students are independent learners; they are self-propelled and self-
moqivated; and
a opeh schools often depend on multi-media instruction.
I

With these considerations in mind, the NOS makes use of available educational,
telecom@unicationand information technologies to make its instructional design and
delivery pstem more effective and accessible. Extensive use of modern communication
techno1 gy for educational purposes is one of the unique features of the NOS.
"i
The1 ~ a t b o n aOpen
l School follows a multi-channel learning strategy in its delivery
mechanism. The course$ are delivered through the instructional inputs, which are
con4titujed by the printed materials supported by audio and video programmes. As the

I!
learhers re new to the open schooling system, the NOS gives importance to face-to-face
instfucti nwhich is imparted through the face-to-face interaction organised at the study
F
centres. hus, the courses are delivered through:
i)
i
Inst uctional inputs; and

ii) perdona1 contact programmes organised at the study centres.

Thege a+ discussed below:

2.5.h I$structional Inputs

1
Combin tion of different media is found to be very effective in the teaching-learning
procbss. his also allows relatively quicker feedback to the learner and thus helps to
minimis the loneliness or isolation of the learner. With this perspective in mind,
the NOS(adopts multi-media approach in its instructional inputs. It offers multi-
channel /earning comprising printed material, video and audio inputs, telecasts,
a s s i p e / n t s , face-to-face interaction as well as interactive support material. Course
matelrial4 in the form of print as well as audio-video programmes are specially

I
designed and prepared by the NOS to suit the needs of learners and the facilitates
of thbir 1 arning. In traditional classroom teaching situation too, the utilisation of
the varidus media contributes a lot to the face-to-face teaching situation. The
inputs are designed and produced in such a way that they facilitate
measures taken by the NOS to make its instructional inputs responsive
of its learners are discussed instructional input-wise i.e. printed
programmes and internet.
a) Printed Materials
The NOS( uses prints materials as the main mode of instruction. The NOS learners
most of their study-time. The study materials are
such a way that they act like a live-teacher i.e. they are self-instruc- 1; z
is the r e a s o n t h ~ yare also called self-study print materials. Conscihs
to make the learning materials life-related through examples from
are in tune with thclevel of comprehension of an average stu-
They are usually prepared in modular formats so that the
Each module is a self-contained learning unit.
materials are developed by course teams, whose members are drawn
like the National Council of Educational
Technical Teacher Training Institutes (TITI),
from conventional schools. Further, special at-
practitioners from the study centres be-
with the students. Graphic artists,
suppart the team. The v-cational
-
28
I
courses are prepared by experts drawn from institutes of technical education and practi- Case Study of an1 Ope81 School
tioners for determining the difficulty level and the skill component of each subject. The
process of course development at the NOS is explained by the following flow chart:

Course Formulation

a Need Assessment
'
Course Designing
1
Print Material
I
Audio/Video
a Defining Target '
Development Production
Group Meeting of special .
. groupsto detail con- a Meeting of a Preparing
Course tent area and formu- course terms for academic
ldentification late learning out- assigning task note
comes for each area.
a Course Outline a Module writing Development
Identification o f of academic
a Formulation of media Components. Development of script by NOS
Objective illustrations and faculty/ex-
a . a Integrating media graphics perts from
Components. other institu-
a Review of the
tionslscrip t
a Finalising draft by the
writers.
modulewlse course course team
outline. a Programme
a Content Editing
producation
a Decision on themes
Language Editing and post-
for audio/video
producation
programmes.
a Preparation of the activities.
final manuscript A

Fig.22: Process of Course Development at the NOS

Source: Profile, NOS, 1999.

It is well known that efficiency of human learning is not merely the function of intel-
ligence and motivation. It also depends on the learning skills and approaches that
facilitate the learning. Drawing from the work of Skinner, Bruner, Piaget, Ausubal
and others, it is possible to state that in a given scientific instructional design, a
learner learns much faster, much better and more efficiently on herthis own. The
structure of self-study print material is derived from the contributions of psycholo-
gists such as Skinner, Ausubel, Bloom, Knowles, and many others. Com~?aredto a
textbook, the basic feature of self-study print material is the carefully structured
presentation designed to make learning easy and effective. Efforts are made to make
the text self-sufficient so that a learner does not hunt for the additional sources, or
even a teacher. For this the scope of the content of the module is visualised in detail.
While avoiding the non-essentials only the essential details are presented so that
every information required by the learners is covered.
The content is presented in such a manner that a learner can go through ,the mate-
rial without much external support. The content is self-explanatory and conceptu-
ally clear. For this, the content is analysed logically before it is presented. This logi-
cal analysis suggests the best order in which the content may be presented. This
order maintains the continuity and the consistency of the context. Thus, it promotes
self-learning on the part of the learner.
In the lessons there are access devices such as clear introduction, statements of the
objectives, seciion heading, presentation of the information in small sections, illus-
trations, etc. These are the basic parameters that facilitate learning. In contrast to
this, in the formal school classroom lecture, neither a set of objectives are given to
the students, nor the presentation is essentially structured.
The materials are designed and developed in such a manner that they arouse curiosity,
raise problems, relate knowledge to familiar situations and make the entire learning
Educa?ional Technology: meaningful for them. It provides necessary guidance, hints, references, etc. to facili-
Mlaltitceted t'rublem Solviug tate their independent learning. To make the content comprehensible, simple expla-
Approach
nations, examples, illustrations, activities and so on support it. It performs the role
of a teacher who can guide, instruct, moderate and regulate the learning process in
a classr@omsituation. Thus, the print material is self-directed i.e. it is able to direct
the entire process of learning.
You mqst be knowing that the optimum learning can be ensured only if the learners
are able to know that they are on the right track. In the formal classroom situation,
the teacher strengthens reinforcement at every stage of learning and retention by
asking lthem questions and getting their feedback. I n the open learning situation,
the leafners are not in regular contact with the teachers. The NOS learning materi-
als make provisions for feedback as well. In the NOS learning material there is a
built in evaluation system. Self-evaluation in the form of intext questions, terminal
exercisles, etc. provides the learners with the much-needed feedback about their
progress, reinfarces learning, and motivates them for learning. Moreover, the learners
can check up their retention by going through the "What have you Learnt" section
given dt the end of each lesson. Thus, on the basis of the above discussion we can
sumrndrise the structure of a lesson in the NOS module as:

lT'
Introduction

Content in Sections

Intext Questions i
Section

=!=
Terminal Excercises

I
Fig.2.3: Structure of a Lessen in the NOS Module

In addition to the instructional material for the various programmes offered, the
NOS/ also provides a whole range of support materials to its learners which is the
$tud$ guide. How to make best use of Open Schooling, Glossaries, Practical Manual,
*
Sample question papers etc.

1
hig priority is given to the feedback from the students as well as from the faculty at
the eadquarters. In order to facilitate regular interaction of the faculty at head-
quadters with the learners, the NOS reaches out to its learners through a quarterly
wgbzine called 'Open Learning', which promotes further interaction. It includes
besibes articles of general interest, questions from the students answered by the
academic experts. A newsletter "Open Schooling" serves as a source for providing
infokmation on the various activities of the NOS.
Computers are being used for the purpose of course writing. The layout and
procauction are given attention as these also facilitate learning. Thus, the learning
matbrial is carefully planned and produced by the NOS, this as such enables the
learbers to comprehend the lessons.
t
I b) Audio-Video Programmes
An effective combination of the media and the self-instructional nature of the course
Case ~ t d of
y an Open S C ~ O O ~

materials can provide the students what a good classroom teacher could do for them.
Keeping this in mind, the NOS follows the supplementary media approach in which
main medium af instruction is the printed material. The audio-video programmes
support this. The print materials give the basic and the necessary information. Cer-
tain portions in the course materials may need further information, elaboration,
demonstration etc. which can enrich the experiences of learners who have already
got the basic material in print. Audio-video programme on such areas can give the
learners a better understanding of the problems. Keeping this inview, such areas in
the NOS curriculum are identified and the NOS produces audio-video programmes
on such areas. These programmes render additional help to the students by explain-
ing or illuqrating the difficult points and complex concepts.
The NOS does not have studio facilities. The freelance producers do the entire au-
dio-video production. The NOS also utilises all available facilities in other institu-
tions such as Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET), Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU) for the production of audio and video pro-
grammes.
The audio and video programmes are made available to the study centres where
students can view and use them during the contact classes. The electronic equip-
ment such as VCRs and tape recorders to play audio-video cassettes is available at
the NOS study centres. The audio-video cassettes are also available to individual
students on nominal payments. The NOS educational programmes are also telecast
on the national network.
c) Internet
As you know that in the open learning methodology the learner does not have to go
to the educational institution. It is well known that through the internet a huge
amount of information can be provided to the people across the world. Thus, the
Internet can be used for delivering instructional inputs or providing information to
the open school learners.
As a step towards this direction, the NOS is offering a one-year course on "Certifi-
cate Course in Computer Applications (CCA)" on-line. The course is being offered
with the help of partnership with schools/institutions having basic facilities to offer
this course. This enables those who have access to internet, to continue their educa-
tion even at their home or office. In near future, it may offer all its courses and
programmes on-line.

2.5.2 Study Centres and Organisation of the Personal Contact

Programmes
?he NOS operates through a network of headquarters, regional centres and study centres.
It has academic, vocational and special (for disabled and disadvantaged target groups)
study centres. It has more than nine hundred study centresspread all over India and
the Middle East. The study centres are established in the formal schools, colleges,
teacher's training institutions and non-governmental organisations with the capac-
ity to provide academic support to the learners. For its vocational courses the NOS
is linked to institutes of workers' education, rural agriculture centres, community
polytechnics, vccational schools, voluntary organisations and NGOs which serve as
training centres for the NOS. The principals of these institutions function as the co-
ordinators of the study centres.
The study centres provide students with further support in learning by arranging
student counselling and guidance, student-teacher interaction and peer interaction,
organising personal contact classes, laboratory, workshop and other practical expe-
riences. Although the contact classes are not obligatory, a large number of students
take advantage of this support.
In addition to this, the NOS utilises the services of reputed academics interested in
promoting the open schooling system, to function as Academic Facilitators. They
LrBrlr.rt~ouaITecbndogy: sema as a direct channel of communication between the study centre and the NOS
M.$air~t-~a~d Pn)bl?.m Solving and glso hold counselling sessions for students. The NOS monitors the examina-
~ ~ ~ p g ~ 3%
a~a~xa
tionsorganised at the study centre through the Officers on Special Duty who work
on pirt-time basis.
It is dell known that the audio and video cassette technology is accessible for most
of thk learners in India. It is learner-friendly with the start-stop and rewind devices.
the NOS produces audio-video programmes for its learners. The audio and
programmes produced by the NOS are made available to the learners at the
study/ centres at a minimum cost. The students can also have access to the audio-
vided cassettes at the study centres. The learning aids like maps, specimens, charts,
sjideg are also utilised. These are of immense use to the learners.
The doordinator, academic facilitators, officers on special duty and teaching faculty
centres are mainly from the traditional system of education. As such
eed orientation and training to perform their functions effectively. In addi-
this there is a need of interaction of learners with the faculty at the head-
This is made possible through the teleconferencing technology, which is
in the next section. In order to make the study centre staff and learners
avail !he benefits of teleconferencing technology, a few regional centres and study
cientrks of the NOS b v i n g facilities such as telephone, television, fax machine are
firovibed with the dish antennae. These regional centres and study centres of the
NOS function as the learning ends where the participants can attend the
telec4nference sessions.
Ih vidw of the large number of study centres, coordinators, academic facilitators,
afficdrs Qn special duty and teaching faculty at the study centres, the NOS has re-

1
sorte to computerisation to monitor the functioning of the study centres. The NOS
main ains a database regarding the addresses of the study centres, enrolment at the
studycentres, addres$es of its academic facilitators and officers on special duty etc.
- -
r-
I
-I

IIJhe4k M ~ n rProgress 1
t

II I
h) Compalr your aria-rer with thnw j$tvc n at thc end r l f Ihc unit. 1
i
12. pat 'R' afrinst the correct slaternent and6W' zig:tinst the wmn~slalrmcnt.
I
!
It I
i In opcn schooling system there is rigidits i n terms of 'igc ilmll ,tad entry
c~ualiticationsonly. P7
1~
---
,.

I ii) The lcarnrrs in opcn schooling system cons:itule a homopc n e i , p,*p

I
~~
terms of aqyccts euch as. ,rpc, scjclo-cciirnofflli.st,jt J<. crnpioycd <tatus
The learners in open schoolingsy~tcrnart. c.~pectetlt o he high!\ nm"ti\ ated
and ~ridependenl.
ini

LII
The self-instructional materials rcyuire the presence of teachers t o i r n p ~I t
instructions.
atch the following: 11
1
On-line courses ) tkersonal con t ; ~ :P J D ~ T i i:?ln~\
r i

Study centre ji) Sr;urce o! inform& )n

Support material iii) Courses c.rffer~don intr rnrr

Internet iv) Study guide, practical rnnnual

Intext questions vj Statement of ohic;t~i.c.;
Access device vi) Structured prest'niil:l+)r~
Self-study print material vi) Self- evaluation
 Case Study of an Open Sckuel
X - ; l p e n Schml Iezrncra arc sway from the teachers and musl of thcm hrvd
put ciktry qualificatwni. Even then the products of open schooling arc .;it par
1,

wit thtrhc from thc f ~ r m aschool,

l IIOW doe5 the NC3S accomplish this task?
I

2.6 POTEN'I'IALITY AND USE OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY I N THE OPEN SCHOOLING
SYSTEM
As discl~ssedearlier the use of technologies of education evolved from principles of
behavioural sciences such as programmed instruction, commu~licationtheories have
helped in nlaking the sclf-learning materials more effective. The National Open School
utilises modern educirtion telecommunication and information technologies for mak-
ing its course delivery, ev:~luationand management of sub-systems more effective
and efficicnt. Lately, the NOS has been using teleconferencing for interaction with
its staff at the study centres as well as the learners. The computers are the latest
techn~logiciilinnovation :~ndit is well known that through the internet we can com-
municate \*:it11anyone in any part of the world within il few seconds. Thus, by the
means ol teleconferencing and internet we can reduce distance as they cim help in
communicating with anybody anywhere.
Accepting thc importarice of modern technologies in self-instruclionnl mode of
learning, the questio~tqposed are: to what extent these gadgets have been successful
in Open Schooling System? I3ave the dividends justified the enormous iinlounts of
money, cncrgl and time invested in these technologies? In this section, we will be
discussing the use of information technology in open schooling systcrn and its
potentiality.
i) Teleconferencing

As tliscussed earlier, the principals of the institutions who function as the co-
ordinators of the study centres have a crucial role to play in the te:tchinpJearning
activities taking place at the study centres. They are the olics who directly deal with
the learners. They arc responsible for the management of all thc activities taking
place at the study centrcs.l'he formal school teachers norm:illy constitute the teach-
ing faculty at the study centres. Assuch the role of co-ordinators and teachers at the
study centres is quite different from the role they play at the traditional school, as
the learners coming in this stream are different from thc formal school learners. In
open schooling systcrn, the students' nceds must be given highest priority and feed-
% hack from students ns well its from the iaculty ;it the study ccn!rcs (Co-ordinators.
Teachcrs, Academic facilitators, Officers on special duty) is essential.
But the interaction with tlic study centre staff and learrlers is a vcry difficult task as they
are very large in number and they are spread all over the country. The NOS uses
teleconferencingtechnolog.. for training personnel and cilnducting in1er:ictive sessions
with the learners. The NOS uses teleconferencingas through this n~odcit is possible lo
overcomc the canstrnints o l numbers, location and this also ensures simultaneity of
training.
li;leconfercncing is an electronic means, which can bring togcthcr p;~rlicip;~nts in
t\vo or more loc;~tionsto discuss their problems with lhcir tcaicher/tulor who :Ire at
a diffcrcnt place. l'hrough this spstcm [he particiyanls from dil'fercnt parts c;in in-
terilct with \he scndcr 'TV stalions. 'The communication from ltic 1'V presenter to
Educational Technology: the leqrners is facilitated via geo-stationary satellite. 'The two-way audio linkage
Multifaceted Problem solving either /through telephone channels or through satellite satisfies the queries of the
Approach
learners. Thus, teleconferencing is one-way video and two-way audio.
The NOS has been successful in reaching out to its learners and study centre staff
througb this mode. The NOS uses facilities available with lndira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU) for one-way video and two-way audio conferencing us-
ing the Indian communication satellites INSA'T-I1 and INSAT-I1 C. The receiving
facilities available in the Regional Centres, IGNOU are hired by NOS and they
serve ap the learning ends. Some of the study centres and regional centres of the
NOS eguipped with the receiving facilities also serve as the learning ends.
The tedhnology of teleconferencing has also proved to be effective in terms of time
and codt too. Through this technique the NOS could cater to the interactionitrain-
ing requirement of a large number of learnerststudy centre staff. The teleconferencing
does ndt involve much of travelling cost and the boardindodging cost as the par-
ticipands do not have to come all the way to the headquarters to attend the interpc-
tive ses$ions. The utility of this mode largely depends on the participants' response
and their initiative to interact and send in their queries during the teleconferencing.
This heips in prompt removal of their doubts and clarification of their problems.

I
The NO~Sis setting up a large communication network all over the country for facili-
tatibg itk course delivery and further widening the access. The NOS is also in the
process bf developing a web-based environment in order to enable students to have
access tq high quality education. The NOS has its web site at www.nos.org., helping
to disseipinate information about itself. The home page provides information about
the variqus programmes and courses, complete addresses of study centres, exami-
nation $$stem and a lot more to make the accession user-friendly.
NOS is ih the process of developing an electronic forum of internet based schools in
India caded "Indian Open Schooling Network (IOSN)". It will be beneficial to all the
students pho have an access to internet at school or at home. The NOS will play the role
of a noddl agncy in bringing the various schools all over India having internet facility
undsr thq network. The schools,which are not havinginternet facility and wish to be on
the aet, qan also join this network. It will provide information to the schools and stu-
dents in tbe following areas:
access to electronic information, archives and databases;
diredt support to teachers and learners to enhance educational access, quality;
care r counselling;
'l
jwb r&quirementsand opportunities available;
I
oourdes available through Distance Education and Open Learning mode;
of internet services;
drovhion of directory services;
offering courses through internet.

4
The NOS 's offering a one-year Certificate Course in Computer Application (CCA)
on-line. he NOS is seeking partnership with all schoolstinstitutions having basic
facilities 40 offer this course. In near future it will be offering all its courses and
progr&m&s on-line. This will enable the students who have access to internet, to
contique their education even at their homes or offices.
I
I

AGEMENT OF ADMISSIONS AND

INATION S
As you knc/w, that the NOS has an enormous number of study centres distributed all
over the criuntrv. The admissions are conducted at the studv centres The NOS has 1
 a massive student enrolment. The maintenance of their admission and examination Care study or a n Open school
records is a very difficult and challenging task. It is very difficult to maintain their
records manually. The NOS uses computers for monitoring and management of its
student records.
The NOS is a National Board of Secondary and Senior Secondary Examinations
similar to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and the Council for
the Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE). NOS conducts examinations
twice a year during the month of May and November. Every year thousands of stu-
dents appear in the NOS examinations. Maintenance of the examination records of
the students has been possible through the computers. The certificates are also com-
puterised.
Ex-SecondaryISr. Secondary students of NOS who have qualified in at least one
subject but could not successfullycomplete the course during a mandatory period of
5 years are eligible for fresh admission in the respective course. Credits of subjects
passed in the previous admission are transferred to the fresh admission and they
can complete the course after passing the remaining subjects. Similarly, the Ex-
Secondary/Sr. Secondary CBSE and State Open School students who have qualified
in atleast one subject and have not qualified in the course can seek admission in the
respective NOS programme. The credits of upto a maximum of two subjects can be
transferred for such students. The NOS has been able to deal with the re-admission
of students and credit transfer of thousands of students. This has been possible
through the computerisation. Thus, the computerisation has enabled the NOS to
deal with the vast number of students enrolling in it and appearingin its examinations.
?- ---
I ('ht.ck raer Progress I
rI
?'

!
j Botcs Mi itc your anx\r7t.rsin thc <pace p e n below.
t
i 1), C'omp,~ra:vour ansuerswith thusc given at the end of the u n ~ t .
!
;I h;:vc :imultifariou5 role t o pliiy inupcn >ehoo!rng ystem. Discu.;s in
('~a~+-~puterc
I
ct\ i*:xt t hc Y:?trnn:ll O ~ c School.
n
!

t
! (1 ili has m;ih/cd thr NOS to cater to the (
h'it \\ CL)S the ~nlurn,ationtech~~ology

1
pn: I?C 'n . ~ fr ,uahry in open schoohng" i
I

2.8 LET US SUM UP

It is clear from the above discussion that the NOS has emerged out of the need for
providing access to those who could not enter the formal fold due to its rigidities. Because
of the in-built flexibilitiesof the NOS a large number of learners from all parts of the
country are getting attracted to it. The NOS provides the facility of personal contact
programmes to its learners through its study centres, which are scattered all over
the country. The NOS delivers its programmes mainly through the printed learning
material which is designed and produced in such a manner that the learners can
learn evenin the absence of a teacher and that is why we call it self-instructional. In
order to facilitate better learning the NOS also emphasises the use of electronic
Edocadio~~al Technology: inputs like audio and video programmes. The audio and video prograuimes only serve as
M ultipaceted Problem Solving supplementary to the printed material. As the NOS has a large number of study centres,
Approach
it has vast population of the study centre staff and learners, which are spread, all over
the couhtry. The NOS uses teleconferencing technology for reaching out to them.
Teleconferencing programmes are organised by the NOS in order to provide orientation
to its study centre staff and conduct interactive sessions with its learners.

You must be knowing that on the internet a huge amount of information can be provided
to people across the world. Thus, through the internet various courses can be provided to
the ope4 school learners. The NOS has taken a step in this direction. The NOS is offer-
ing CerGficate Course in Computer on-line. All those students who have an access to
computer can pursue their education through this mode. The NOS has developed its own
web-site, which provides the latest information about its address, programmes and
courses, instructional system etc. Thus, we can conclude ,that the use of latest educa-
tional technology has enabled the NOS to widen its access, make its management sys-
tem efficient and provide quality services to its learners.

2.9 ~!JNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. visit a study centre of the National Open School. Note down your observations
abobt the type of activities that are taking place there.

2.
k
In t is unit you have studied the features of the printed study material produced by
the ational Open School. Did you notice some commonalties in the printed study
ma*rials of National Open School and this unit you have gone through.

2.10 1 KEY WORDS

Access Oevices : In order to make the printed materials self-instruc-
tional, it can be built into the material through the ac-
cess devices such as statement of objectives, brief and
clear introduction, division of lesson into sections and
sub-sections etc.

: Internet may be defined as the global collection of peo-

ple across the world linked together through the com-
puter cables or telephone line, making communication
possible with each other in a common language for
specific purpose. On the internet a huge amount of in-
formation is accessible to the people across the world.

Self-Insiructional Material : The leaming materials which are designed and pro-
duced in such a way that they enable the learners to
leam on their own without depending on the teacher
to explain every thing.

Teleconterencing : It is an electronic means, which can bring together

participants in two or more location to discuss their
problems with their teacherltutor who are at a differ-
ent place. Through this system the participants from
different parts can interact with the sender TV stations.
The communication from the TV presenter to the learn-
ers is facilitated via geo-stationary satellite. It involves
, dne-way video and two-way audio interaction. .
I
 Case Study nf an Open School
2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
In the traditional system of education the admissions are made on the basis of
merit for a fixed number of seats and as a result many are unable to enter the
formal fold. In geographically remote areas, the population is widely scattered
and the schools are not within the reach of the masses. Many learners have to
dzop-out of the formal system due to economic, social and certain other rea-
sons. The drop-outs of the formal system who later on become interested in
pursuing their education are unable to do so. Thus, due to its rigidities and
limited infrastructural facilities the formal system of education was not able to
accommodate all those,who were desirous of pursuing their education. This
situation led to the emergence of open schooling system in India. In the Open
Schooling system there is flexibility in terms of institutional calendar, examina-
tions, entry regulations and time limit for completion of the course.
2. i) W, ii) W, iii) R, iv) W.
3. a) iii, b) i, c) iv, d) ii e) vii, f) v, g) vi,
4. The products of Open Schooling are at par with those from the Formal School-
ing as the NOS uses available educational and information technologies in or-
der to make the process of teaching-learning effective. The printed materials
are written in a self-instructional format so that the learners do not have to
avail the help of teacher. They are carefully structured. In the self-instructional
material there are ample ways for access such as clear introduction, statement
of objectives, section headings, presentation of the information in small sec-
tions etc. Self-instructional materials make provisions for feedback through the
intext questions, terminal exercises so that the learners are able to assess their
progress. The audio-video programmes support the print material. Certain por-
tions in the course material, which require further elaboration, demonstration
etc., are identified and audio-video programmes are produced on such areas,
These programmes render additional help to the students. The audio-video pro-
grammes are made available and utilised at the study centres.
5. The National Open School (NOS) has its web site, which provides information
about the various courses offered by it, address of its study centres, examina-
tion system etc. It offers a one-year Certificate Course in Computer Applica-
tions (CCA) on-line. The computers are also availed f o maintaining
~ the stu-
dents' admissions records, examination records and other relevant database,
which due to vastness of number of students and study centres would have been
difficult to maintain manually. The certificates are also computerised. Besides,
the computerisation has enabled the NOS to deal with the re-admission and
credit transfer of thousands of students.
6. The NOS has been able to meet the problem of quality in open schoolingthrough
carefully designed and produced self-instructionalmaterial and the audio-video
programmes to support them. Since the faculty at the study centres is from the
traditional systemof edudation it needs orientation. As they are large innumber and
scatteredpllover India, it is difficult to organize face-to-faceorientationprogrammes.
The NOS provides orientation to them through teleconference. The NOS also or-
ganises interactive sessions for its learners through teleconferencing.

2.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Biswas, G. (1994): Distance Education in SAARC Countries, NOS, Delhi.
2. Mukhopadhyay, M. and Philips, S. (1994): Open Schooling: Selected Experiences,
COT,, Vancouver.
 CASE STUDY OF A
PARTICIPATIVE LEARNING
Structure
3.1 Ifit reduction
3.2 Qbjectives
3.3 Mirarnbika: Participatory Learning in Practice
3.3.1 Objectives of the School
31.3.2 ATypical Day in Mirambika
1.3.3 Glasses
4.3.4 Books
1.1.5 Teachers
3.3.6 Cumculum
3.3.7 Evaluation
3.3.8 -
'Projects' A Participatory Approach to Teaching-Learning
3.3.9 Resource: Their Use in Teaching-Learning
3.4 kcyCharacteristics of Participatory Approach
8.4.1 Clearly Defined Objectives
j.4.2 Access t o a Continuum of Learning Opportunities
8.4.3 Experiencing Real Responsibility
b.4.4 Collaboration Beyond the School and Peer Cioup
8.4.5 Outcomes of Achievement
b.4.6 Regular Review and Evaluation
b.4.7 Connecting to Other Areas of Learning

3.6 'Unit-endActivities
3.7 ;Answersto Check Your Progress

3.1 ( INTRODUCTION
ASwe have seen in Unit 1,Educational Technology is not just a matter of hardware-
tqacwg aids or TVJComputer, but also implies change in methods or organisingleaming
e ~ ~ e r k n c eItsalso
. leads us froma teacher dominated school withrigid walls to a Learning
Resoirce Centre where individuals are encouraged to be free in the pursuit of their
goals, curriculum and methods they use to attain those goals; and also in
partners/groups with whom they can participate in the learning process.
In thib unit, we will discuss a case study of a school -Mirambika where the experi-
mentiof participative learning of forming a learning society of students, teachers
apd qarents is going on.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After/ going through this unit, you will be able to:
d dcquaint yourself with objectivesof Mirambika school, its classes, books, teachers,
~urriculum,evaluation, etc.;
qlescribe the various resources and their use by Mirambika school; and
define characteristics of participatory approach.
 Case S t ~ t d yof a
3.3 MIRAMBIKA: PARTICIPATORY LEARNING IN Participative Learning
PRACTICE
I Nestled among the trees in the premises of Sri Aurobindo Ashram in South Delhi is
Mirarnhika -the school based on ideas of free progress education as envisioned by
the Mother and Sri Aurobindo. Mirambika started with 57 children and 10 teachers.

i Mirambika has its base in the principles of learning as envisioned by Sri Aurobindo.
I These are: the first principle of true teachingis that nothing can be taught. The teacher is
I
, not an instructor or task master, he is a helper and a guide. The second principle is that
the mind has to be consulted in its own growth. The third principle of education is to
work from near to t l i far,
~ from that which is, to that which shall be, The school aims to
achieve this by providing a stress free environment of learning to each child paced

ii F
to his individual needs and capacities.

3.3.1 Objectives of the School

6
, The main objectives of Mirambika (as stated in the school prospectus) are to develop the
mental faculties of children, their physical skills along with the psychic and vital quali-
ties. They aim to achieve these by providing an environment to help each child make an
attempt to seek perfection in all his action. They provide experience for learning through
activities, and to help the child discover his 'unique set' (personal capacities).Mirambika's
approach to schooling can be briefly summarized as aiming towards;

i) child-centered rather than subject-centered curriculum - mobilizing child's natu-

ral desire to learn;

ii) meeting the needs of the "whole child", promoting children's emotional and
physical needs as well as their intellectual development; and
iii) enabling "children" to play an active role in determining the content of their
education.

1 Chrrk \'our Progress

I

/ ~ o l e ;s a) Write your answers in tho space given below.

$1) ronll-7arc your anqwers with those givcn at the cnd o f the unlt.
11. Wh.~tare thc principles of learning as envisioned by Sri Aurobindo?
I

12. Wk;! are the main objcctlves of Mirdrnbikn?

I
3.3.2 A Typical Day in Mirambika
r
,
It is 8:30 a.m. in the morning, children dressed in colourful clothes are seen
approaching the school building. Some go inside while others get engaged in informal
sports in the wide open playgrounds surrounding school building. No bell rings to
I direct children to their classrooms, children are seen moving towards the dinning
hall for collective breakfast, exchanging news, having a bite of sandwich, fruit and
quietly disappearing in their respective classrooms. The 'diyas' (teachers) and children
-1 . tL<.:-..,,,l, ,I..,,., ..-,,
A....t:,, ,
: ,,, ,:
,,
+
,.
.o
+
h,
, ,
+
t
: .....
A..F,, th, A,-,
The day's work gets initiated by music played for meditation/concentration, Silence
prevails, students and teachers are seen sitting, some standing with eye closed, a few
look out of the windows deep in thought-perhaps attempting to gather their thoughts,
lookina forward to the day's work.
In the mornings children are engaged in group work where teaching-learning takes
place through "project-work". Each group (class) takes up different projects de-
pending on their age-level and the interests of children. Themes are selected based
on some current social aspects like pollution, environment, etc. Related to this the
messagcs to be transmitted and values to be inculcated are weaved in the project
while being executed.
Collective lunch for students and teachers at 12:00 noon is an informal affair where
childrein sit on durries spread on the floor, each class has serving duties by turn,
followdd by all children cleaning, their own 'thallis' (big metallic plates) and putting
them ib specified stacks/cupboards.
Lunch ib; followed by "Training" in English, Hindi and Mathematics. During train-
ing children undergo subject specific teaching by subject specialists. The younger
childran receive most of their education within the framework of projects, while the
older dhildren spend approximately half their school time on projects and the rest
on trajning. Twice a week in the afternoons children have 'club' activities which en-
sures flarticipation in extra-curricular activities of their choice and interest like cook-
ing, art, calligraphy, craft, jewellery making, pottery etc.
The closure of the day is marked by meditation music at 3:00 p.m. followed by light
snacks and meal. After this the children depart chatting, laughing merrily to their
homea.
3.3.3 ,classes
There are no graded classrooms in Mirambika, children are grouped according to
their dge. Classes are referred to as 'groups' and each group has an overlap of age.
Each hroup corresponds to the class of grading and is given a name likc Red group
(3+ years), Blue group (4+ years), Green group (5+ years), Yellow group (6+ years),
Osange group (7+ years), ...........progress and Humility group.
Classaooms in Mirambika have distinct physical structures. Large areas of work are
designed keeping in view the needs of children of that particular age-level. Large
glass windows in the class create an impression of unobstructed space and also pro-
vide the benefit for natural light and breeze. There are no doors at entrance and
partitions are done by placing cupboards, blackboards or by constructing low walls.
?'he younger children have large spaces as working areas along with an annexe to be
used fbr sleeping or givingindividual attention to children. Low tables and durries are
used by children for sitting whereas classes for older children have tables and chairs
whichlare arranged in a circular manner to facilitate interaction. Separate place is also
provi4ed for individual work. Some other features of the classroom are; common cup-
boards for keepingstationary, dictionariesetc., individual small cupboards for each
child Are provided since they do not carry books from home, blackboard, display board
etc. This gives an impression of children working together in small groups, connected
with aachother and not separated by cold walled structures.

Notes : a) 'Wr~tcyour answers in the s p c e @yenI,ciow,

h) ('clnlpare your answerswith tliosc gi\c.;i:~t the i nri th: 1m1:.

E
13. flow doer teaching-learning takes p1;:ce at %firamb~t;t'' I
I 1
 Case Study of a
4. What is the concept of a class in Mirambika? Participative Learning

.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.....,............................................................................................................................

3.3.4 Books
The school does not prescribe any books, children do not carry any books with them to
school. Some may carry with them notebooks or other reading material according to
their liking and choice. Each child's individual cupboard, however, has his/her re-
spective books, notebooks and other related materials.
3.3.5 Teachers
The teachers are called 'diyas', a word coined from'Didi' and Bhaiya'. The teachers
at Mirambika are doing voluntary teaching and are not paid any salary. However,
they are chosen on the basis of interest in working with children, affection and mo-
tivation to do their job. Some of them are full-time ashramites (residing in the
ashram), some are volunteers who come for teaching specific subjects or to take up
some specific activity, others are those who are B.Ed. trainees and are doing B.Ed.
from Indore University (summer), while taking up practice teaching in Mirambika.
The volunteers are paid only conveyance charges while the others are paid a token
stipend which varies across full-time and trainee teachers. The number of teachers
keep changing from time-to-time, however, the student-teacherratio is approximately
3:l. ..
Mirambika has a Teacher Training Wing on its premises which conducts on-going
training for its teachers in-service as well as pre-service. The training programme
focuses on the school ideology and philosophy, principles of learning which form
the basis of teaching-learning in school. There are full-time teachers who reside in
the ashram. Some teachers associated with teaching are the part-time people com-
ing from various institutions like Delhi University, I.I.T. and other organizations.
They are mainly the subject specialist's and are paid only conveyance charges. The
B.Ed. trainees (Indore Summer B.Ed.) are doing practice teaching in Mirambika
and are also associated with the schools teaching programme.
3.3.6 Curriculum
Mirambika has multi-level learning system, i.e. children within agroup may perform at
different levelsin different subjects and teachingis done specific* at their individual level.
The school has no fixed curriculum or syllabus. However, for each group, goals, in terms of
qualities, faculties and skillsto be developed duringthe course of one year are decided and
are divided into quarterly goals. Within this broad framework the child is provided varied
learning experiencesby working on projects which are inter-disciplinary in nature.
During the actual course of project work children do a lot of activitiesrelated to the
project chosen by a particular group. Childrencollect information, have Group Dicussions,
Quizes, Competitions, organising exhibitions and "questioning" on the topics. Some-
times, experimentation and field trips are also arranged. The groups are monitored
to provide for formal learning in informal settings. The child's learning is paced
according to his capabilities, e.g. a child may be performing a year lower to his age
on one subject and at a higher level in another. In the afternoons, the children are
taught specific subject areas e.g. English, Hindi and Mathematics. Subject special-
ists teach in small groups or individually depending on the needs of the child, and
keeping in view the minimum learning required for a particular age group. The cur-
riculum, therefore, is not rigidly structured and remains open-ended.

3.3.7 Evaluation
No tests or exams are conducted at any stage or in any group in Mirambika. The teachers
decide the goals to be achieved'during a specific time. In normal course the teacher
 ~ d u c i t i o n a Technology:
l plans for the week. Activities, in accordance with objectives, are also planned in
Multifaceted Problem Solving advance, Evaluation is done to know how much the child has covered and what more
Approach
is requited? The teacher plans the child's profile covering all areas of learning
(mentali physical, vital and psychic). The progress is measured against the child's
own recbrd and not with others in the group. No marks or grades are given, it is
taken as feedback of child's work by the teacher to the parents. It is descriptive-non-
judgemental and discussed individually with each child and his parents. In higher
groups children undergo self-evaluation on completion of a topic or activity for which
profornlas and schedules are prepared by the teachers.
-
1 Check lbui Progress
I

! Notes : a) Write your answer in the $pace given below.

!
I

I 5.
b) Compare your answer wit:) those given at the end c:f thc unit.
w$at is the nature of curriculum !'allowed in Mirambika?
I
I
........
!
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I
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1
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I

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6. ' H ~ W
I
are students evaluated inMir:i;nbikr?
!
I I
2.4.8 /projects9 -A Participatory Approach to Raehing-Learning
i
In Mir bika project work implies a participative approach to teaching-learningwhich
dettls th the theme related topics and cuts across all subject areas i.e. science, social
mathematics, language, arts, etc. The teacher's role is to guide children
scienc$ ally or in groups towards the process of inquiry in order to develop certain skills
individ
in menlal facilities. After the theme of the project is selected, the stages it under-
goes aqe as follows:

I
1. P1 nning: This indudes the aims i.e. the main ideas behind the project, the
go Is which the teachers and the students mean to achieve. During the planning
I

re eptive exchange of views and ideas.

t
st ge teachers and children express themselves freely and there is open and

e activities to be undertaken in different subject areas are detailed out by the

and children. The resource room also provides data bank on project themes,
1 ac ivities undertaken in previous years. This too helps in the selection of activities
foi a particular group.
3.
b
C 'ldren are given time to decide their areas of interest e.g. Science, Language,
S cia1 Studies or Maths for which there is a respective project. After they have

t
m de their choice, children are accordingly grouped.
small group works with their respective teacher. The activities undertaken are
changed keeping in view the child's interest. This provides
children at different levels i.e. while doing an activity in science,
children may be at varying levels of understanding and accordingly activities are
ddsigned.
5.
I
C ildren in one small group work together on one activity or independently on
I d'fferent activities. At the end of the day the work is shared with the rest of the
1 gttoup/class.
 6 . Weekly presentations, Quizzes, Exhibitions, Role-Plays, Mock-Sessions are also Case Study of a
held depending on the theme and the need. Participative Learning

7. The culminating activity of the project takes place for the entire school in the form
of fairs, cultural programmes, organised by young groups where the material devel-
oped/learnt is displayed 07 enacted. The older children organize quizzes, exhibi-
tions, or carryout experiments for the benefits of other children.
The exchange of information helps to strengthen, gain clarity and insight on the
- concept. As at one time a number of aspects are explored by different children, they
get to know of linkages across subject matter related to one theme. Thus, the con-
text of learning becomes broader and more relevant.
A teacher's role is of a helper and a guide. The projects are largely handled inde-
pendently by the children. No answers are provided, children are encouraged to
consult the library, look into encyclopaedias, dictionaries and search for material. The
teacher is at the periphery providing assistance only when required.
The intentions of project work may be summarized as:
Catering to individual differences, increasing the relevance of the Curriculum, developing
ability to participate in groups, encouraging curiousity, originality and expression and
I to search for the relevant material. Certain other distinguishing characteristicsof project
work are:
a Delegating responsibility;
a Providing complete freedom of self-expression;
l
I
!
I
a

a
Peer-sharing as a base for learning;
Learning directly from experience, experimentation;
a Self-evaluation for reflective thinking.
Project work is the work of planning and organising teaching material, where spontaneity
is an essential feature which influences the content of the lesson, which then becomes as
one cannot decide wether the topic will take off from the very point it ended the
previous day. This calls for a lot of flexibility in the organisation of project work. A
number of resources in school also aid in carrying out the work related to projects.

3.3.9 Resource: Their Use in Teaching-Learning

Mirambika has a number of resources architectural as well as organisational. The wide
open roof terrace is used for various activities of the children during the year. Similarly
the open grounds and spaces under trees surrounding the school are used for multiple
purposes like; nature walks, games, exhibitions, story telling or creating awareness
regarding the environment or to discuss issues like smoke, fuel, nature, solar energy etc.
Other resources in school differ from the conventional use they are put to, hence are not
merely in name but actually in the way they function. One of the spaces of use located in
the school is the library which is very well equipped with books both Indian and foreign
as well as reference books. Library is used by the children more as a center of activity
!- and exchange. Children are free to use the library whenever required, there are no fixed
timings.
Art room is conceptualized as a place to be used by teachers to develop sensitivity in
' children through the medium of art. Wide variety of materials like colours, brushes,
canvasses, poster colours, fabric colours, waste materials/boxes, e.g. cartoons, bottle
caps etc. clay, maida, beads, threads, plaster of paris, glues, dyes etc. are available.
Art is used when projects are taken and related art activities are integrated in the
work. Activities during 'club' related to teaching how to master the art of chalk
making, mehendi, feather painting etc. to the children. This cultivates creativity in
children.
Science laboratory has separate spaces for Chemistry, Physics, Biology and Home
Science. Activities related to planning and execution of science projects and workshops
are carried out. Inculcating scientific attitude is one of the major goals of science
laboratory. Efforts are made by children to develov skills of observing, measuring.
Educational Tecbuology: reasonirpg, hypothesizing, inferring and predicting through various activities. Thus
Multifaceted Problem Solving children are encouraged to be inquisitive, patient, optimistic and avoid procrastina-
Approach
tion for lwhich relevant activities are organised for children.
The mmic roomis equipped with instruments like Guitar, Harmonium, Tabla, Flutes,
Daflis, Damaroo, Manjira, Bells etc. To evoke a child's interest in music children
are allowed to experiment with instruments and no structured training is given. Chil-
dren are encouraged to make their own instruments using natural, raw or waste
materidls like leaves, pipes, papers, stones etc.
Gymnaeium and Sports roOm houses a large variety of equipment which is kept in a
smdlraorn. The children issue material themselves and enter it in the register kept for
the purpose. The sports roomis operated by the children on their own in the morning,
during lunch time and occasionally during the day also. Keys are kept at a specified
place add children are given the responsibility for operating, issuing, returningor break-
age of @aterial. Children are free to take whichever equipment they want after makinga
proper bntry in the regibter. Children from different groups are assigned once a week
duty foi checking its use and whether equipment is kept at the proper place.
Resomce room is a centre for development and storage of teaching aids. It aims at

d
getlera ing resources ahd to develop resource bank for providing different kinds of
teachi grnaterials. ChiMren'suse of these materials helps to make learninginteresting
and exl)eri&ntal. It alsd serves as a resource centre for organizing workshops for teachers
and pa@nts.
Comp*ter room documents information on all projects done individuallyby children
or in tHe classes. Information on activities undertaken, goals of the project, materials
used fc/r each and every project is documented.
~ f t i n~ ~u Js e u mis a huge hall and is used for multi-purposes like; meditation, display
of matbrial, holding diCussions or exhibitions etc.
1tma$ be seen that the various 'rooms' serve as a resource in the school and act as
cantr s of learning for students and teachers. The significance of these resources in
111. 1
Ira bika lie in the u& of space and, freedomeach one provides to the children in the
absenk of imposed rules and regulations. It is evident that the organisation of activities
id thede resource centres is geared towards making the learner take initiative, be inde-
pendebt, responsible, reflective, confident and active.

check Your Progress

~ o t e b: a) Write y o v answers in the space given below.
i
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
7. /(OW is project work mnductedin Mirambika?
!................................................................................................................................
i
J. ................................................................................................................................
i; .................................................................................................................................

' .................................................................................................................................
j .................................................................................................................................
.!

8,. ~ i v an
e example of how natural resources are used for teaching-learning in
Mirambika?
1 .................................................................................................................................
I ..................................................................................................................................

( .................................................................................................................................
! .......................................................................................................... .;.....................
 Case Study of a
3.4 KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPATORY Participative Learning

APPROACH
It is evident from the case of Mirambika that like any other pedagogical technique, the
use of participatory learning also requires planning. Students need to know the purpose
of the activity,what is expected of them, how they will be graded, how it fits in with the
course content.The importance of motivation to the success of learning is an overriding
,-
consideration. Students must be motivated to participate in discussions, exercises, and
written assignments that are intellectually challenging and require commitment and
personal interestlinvestmenton the part of the students.
A climate of trust will help students to ask questions and participate in discussions. A
learning environment must be carefully built; it does not antomatically exist. Building a
climate for learning and motivating the learning are two main considerationsfor using
$-! participatory learningapproach. To summarize it can be stated that the broad features of
-.
I -h participatorylearning are:

3.4.1 Clearly Defined Objectives

!+
Participatory learning requires setting, clarifyingobjectiveswith the students, since the
aim of learning is to identify and respond to the needs and interests of children.

3.4.2 Access to a continuum of Learning Opportunities

Participatory learningmakes learning accessible and offers open participation,unbounded
progression, through different stages of achievement.The focus of activity is on wider,
long term goals (future) and also the immediate objectives of that particular activity.
Learning begins at a place which participants can understand, relate to, and get
involved in. Success lies in offering opportunities to each individual so that transi-
tions are understood and supported ensuring progress towards more complex or
difficult tasks leading to deeper levels of trust and responsibility. All these together
generate motivation in the students as they are active participants in the teaching-
learning process.

3.4.3 Experiencing Real Responsibility

Work and responsibility are distributed among all participants rather than retained by
leaders of organisers. Decision-makingis to be shared as far as possible among partici-
pants. Opportunities for leadership are planned so as to equip children to take up re-
sponsibilityi.e. not to prescribe rules and impose decisions to encourage reflection and
critical discussion to provide appropriate guidance when sought. These together
help in developing capacity to govern themselves.

3.4.4 Collaboration Beyond the School and Peer Group

This calls for connectingresourcesby placing the learner in the centre, and not providing
pre-definedmaterials to provide the correct answer. This helps in transfer of knowledge
to contexts beyond the classroom This encourages the children to consider their actions
in relation to people and factors beyond the parameters of education. It also helps to
h
make use of various resources like library, parents, field-visits etc. Thus, the teacher
is not the only source of information.

3.4.5 Outcomes of Achievement

5

The outcomesof achievement are more qualitative in nature than quantitative. Such a
learning helps students learn how to perform a particular kind of task, to improve one's
performance record in a pacicular field like attendance, motivation, responsibility etc.
This provides the learner an hhproved understandingof the world or work, and provides
insight to ways in which democratic decisions are made. It helps to develop norms of
trust, honesty and reciprocity. All these are sustained by rmccessN collaboration of the
sharingof exderience.

3.4.6 Regular Review and Evaluation

Assessment is built in the learning activities and is not summative assessment. Regular
-,...:,.,. .,-A ...-AM-"" A& AL:-,.+:.,-" :"---&-A l",*l.~ +-a- ...n-L-" --A -A* L.. A- --+---,.I
Educational Technology: assesdor or teacher. Emphasis is on learners drawing their conclusions (reflective)
Maltifaceted ~ r o b l t mSolving with the help of team members. Different perceptions help in rethinking, reorganis-
Approach
ing add developing plans for the next stage.

3.4.7 Connecting to Other Areas of Learning

Comhitment to the objectives/goals is not by control, compulsion, certificates or
rewadds but is voluntary and is stimulated by activities inherently enjoyable and
inter&stingto the children. This leads to motivation for learning. Also it encourages
develbpment of habits and underlying capacities such as resourcefulness, searching
skills,,independence etc. which support more formal educational attainment.
Such learning experienceshelp children to make connectionsbetween ways of knowing
thing ;between situatrions inwhich they might need to learn, and between the skcific
dontc/nt of their activit5es and wider personal-social goals. Contributes to the capacity of
lbarnkrsto apply kno\kledge and understanding across contexts.

Not+s : a) Write your answer in the spice given below.

1 h) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
9. i What arc the key characteristics of Participative L,carningreflcctcd i n Mirantbikai:'
, ............................................................................................................................

3.9 LET US SUM UP

I

To &-arise, it c a n b said that Mirambika Free Progress School has its base in the

1
tea hing methods of Aurobindo who visualizes education accordingto the child's needs
an capacities. That being so, the school then seeks to provide an environment of
urance, where learning is self-motivated, self-directed,interactive and participative
would eventually make them responsible for their own actions.
As $eenthe ideology of education aims at modifying the school curriculum, maximising
the Ilearning modalities, helping the child to achieve his potentiality at his own pace and
lev41and devote the time to discover his unique set.
Thh essence of teaching-learningthrough projects lies in fostering general functional
beqaviour and knowledge transacted by using tools like questioning, querying and
Project work is a multi-disciplinary, theme-oriented, attempting to in-

3.4 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. ) State the characteristics of Participatory Learning.
2. 1 What are the features of qualitative assessment?
1 3. Make a lesson plan integrating the different subject areas?
I I
 Case Study of a
3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Pariicipa tivc Learning

1. The principles as envisioned by Sri Aurobindo are:

a) Nothing can be taught;

b) Mind has to be consulted in its own growth;

c) Education is to work from near to the far.

2. The main objectives of Mirambika are to develop the mental faculties of children,
their physical skills along with psychic and vital qualities.
3. Teaching-learning in Mirambika takes place mainly through project work.
4. Classes in Mirambika are called groups. There are no graded classes in the school.
5. Mirambika has no fixed curriculum. Goals in terms of qualities, faculties and skills
to be achieved at the end of the year are decided. Within this framework the child is
provided various curricular experiences.
6 . Mirambika has no tests or examinations. Evaluation is done to know how much the
child has covered and what more is required. The progress is measured against the
child's own record and not with others in the group. No marks or grades are given.
Evaluation is descriptive and non-judgmental.
7. The project work in Mirambika is conducted through the following stages:
a) Selection of theme for the project;
b) Planningof the project work;
c) Selection of activities;

d) Children are grouped according to their area of interest;

e) Each small group works with their respective teacher;

f) Children in small groups work on one activity or independently on different

activities;

g) Weekly presentations of the project work;

h) Final display of project work.
8. Natural resources like open grounds and spaces under trees surroundingthe school
are used for multiple purposes like nature walks, games, exhibition, story-tell-
ingor creating awareness regarding the environment.
9. The key characteristic of participatory approach are:
a) Clearly defined objectives;

b) Access to continuous learning opportunities;

c) Experiencing real responsibility;

d) Collaborating beyond the school and peer group;

e) Outcomes of achievement;
f) Regular review and evaluation;

g) Connecting to othm areas of learning.

UNIT 4 EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY: TECHNOLOGY OF
EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY IN
EDUCATION
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Meaning of Educational Technology
4.3.1 Technology of Education
4.3.2 Technology in Education
Hardware and Software Aspects of Educational Technology
Scope of Educational Technology
Evolution of Educational Technology
4.6.1 Audio-visual Phase
4.6.2 Cybernetic Phase
4..6.3 Psychology-Sociology Based Phase
4.6.4 Computer and Telecommunication Phase
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Activities
Points for Discussion
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION
We all know that some teachers teach better by utilising new methods'and techniques. Some
other teachers teach with some age old methods without looking back whether their teaching
is effective. Over the years, teachers and researchers have developed and used many techniques,
methods and equipments to make the process of learning effective. This process of developing
and using scientific methods, media and techniques for raising the effectiveness of teaching
and learning is essential for educational, technology.
In this unit, you will deepen your understanding about Educational Technology (E.T.) by
bther distinguishing between various aspects of Educational Technology. You will be able
to differentiate between technology of education and technology in education. Since many
technologies are used at school level, you as a teacher will be able to list down the different
hardware and software used at the school level.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
AAer going through this unit, you will be able to:
o define the meaning and'scope of educational technology;
0 differentiate between Technology of Educatioi~andTechnology in Education;
list down the hardware and software, separately, that have been is use at the school stage;
and
e describe the evolution of educational technology.
Educational Tecb~mlogy:
State d the Art 4.3 MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Before reading the following para, define the meaning of education and meaning of technology
separately. You may consult any dictionary for this.
The meaning which you have written may be as follows:
Education: Education is not only external arrangement by a trainer e.g. training of a dog,
it is a process of changing human behaviour in the desirable directioh or helping an individual
to bring out (educe) hisher best potential;
Technology: It is a systemic studL of techniiues, and methods applied to achieve an objective.
You may also say that it is that branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts, applied
science, engineering, etc,
Combirling the two you may try to derive the meaning of educational technology. Before
doing that you will try to review some of the definitions given by experts.
'I"k Ndonal Council for Educational Technology (1967) Kas defined educational technology
as "the development, application, and evaluation of systems, techniques h d aids to improve
the process of human learning. Therefore, educational technology means not only the hardware
or machines, but also all those processes which help in human learning.
A more comprehensive definition that is given by Leith is that "Educational Technology is
the application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning, to improve
the effectiveness aid efficiency of teaching and learning. In the absence of scientifically
established principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing to
improve learning situation." Here the scientific knowledge of teaching-learning refers to the
followilng.
T. Sakmato has defined educational technology as "an applied or practical study which aims
at maximum educational effect by controlling such relevant facts as educational purposes,
educational contents, teaching materials, methods, educational environment, conducts of
students, behaviour of instructors and interrelation between students and instructors". I11 this
definition emphasis has been given to the input, process and output aspects of education.
Unwin (1969) has also defined educational technology as "the application of modem skills
and techniques to the requirements of education and training. This includes the facilitation of
learning by manipulation of mediq and methods, and the control of environment so far as this
reflect$ on learning". An analysis of this definition pointed out that educational technology is:
1. an application of modern skills and techniques in view of the objectives.
2. faditation of learning by methods and media.
3. control of environment for effective learning.
An analysis of all the definitions, and in the light of the meaning of education and technology
witteo separately by you, may suggest that "Educational Technology is a science of techniques
and methods by which educational goals can be realised".
You whll be able to understand the meaning of educational technolsgy better by going through
the chwacteristics of educational technology as listed below.
4'

Characteristics of Educational Technology

1. It includes input, process and output aspects of education.
2. It stresses upon developing methods and techniques for effective learning.
3. It is an application of scientific knowledge to education ind training.
4. It includes organisation of learning conditions for realising the goals of education.
5. It emphasises designing and mearsuring instruments for testing learning outcomes.
6. It facilitates learning by controlling environment, media and methods.
4.3.1 Technology of Education Evolution af Educational
Technology: T~&nologyof
Technology of education deals with the active use of all the systematic application of the Education and Td~nology
in Education
resources of scientific knowledge of the process of learning that each individual has to pass
through in order to acquire and use knowledge. It also includes decisions about the educational
objectives to be achieved and decisions about the size of the learning groups, learning sequence,
teaching methods and selection of media. It also embraces the selective use of media, personnel,
knowledge, ideas and resources in the systematicplanning, designing, produotion, management
and evaluation of the educational process.

4.3.2 Technology in Education .

Technology in Education refers to the use of technological hardware in education. It is mainly
concerned with electrical and electronic gadgets which are used to facilitate the teaching-
learning process. Saettlef (1978) distinguishes between technology of education and technology
.
in education. According to him, the former is a behavioural science conception whereas the ,
latter is a machine (device) conception of educational technology. Radio, Television, OHP, ,
Computer, Tape Recorder, etc., constitute technology in education, whereas the radio
programmes, television programmes, computer programmes, OHP transparencies which are
based on scientific knowledge of education constitute technology of. education.

Check Your Progress

Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the.unit. ''

1. What do you mean by educational technology?

.
...............................................................................................................................................
%

............................................................................................................................................... . .

.......::.................................................. ........................................
..............................................

2. Differentiate between technology of education and technoloiy in education.

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................... A
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :a

...............................................................................................................................................

.4.4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ASPECTS OF I

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Educational technology as ari amalgam of Hardware add software is a known fact in the sense
that essentiallyhardware covers TV,computer, overhead projector, tape recorkr. and teaching
machines. The other aspect, i.e., software, includes audio-video cassettes, filmstrips,
transparencies, microfilm, slides, and so on. In the absence of these software gadgets hardware
alone can hardly satisfy the educational requirements. Therefore, both thc aspects of educational
technology are closely inktwined to serve the cause of education. From Ule above discussion
you may find that hardware is based on the principles of engineering technology and software
is based on psychological and sociological principles. In your school you may find many
technologies which are available and used by the teachers regularly. Most of the schools have
a blackboard and a chalk (both hardware) while that which is written on it (chwt, paragraph
etc.) is the software..You may also realise that these technologies are used by teachers and
students mostly in combination rather in isolation.

1. List separately, the hardware and software present in your school.

.
7
Educational Technologyr
State of the Art 4.5 SCOPE OFEDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
I
Activityt You have read above that. educational technology is not 'a new concept. And as
a teacher, you are acquainted with the use of educatiorial technology. Now, Tor better
understafiding of the scope of educational technology, recall your experiences in- the
classrooph and write some items as to what according to you are within the scope of
educatioCal technology. While reading please check the new points that you have not written.
Educationlal technology as you know is used to raise the efficiency of education. But with the
passage oif time, the system of education is facing new problems to be tackled. So, the
hardware and software of educational technology are ever expanding. Therefore, the application
of educational technology is much more than what it was a few decades back. Following are
some of the applications of educational technology that are worth noting.
Mass education: There has been explosion of population and knowledge. There is, therefore,
a need to educate the masses. The problem is multiplied further by having a large section of
illiterate geople. So, educational technology has a tremendous application to educate a large
section oflpeople and to impart a large amount of knowledge in a limited span of time. In-this
regard, thi mass media viz.. W,radio, newspaper and other modern technologies like computers
and information technology (E-mail, internet, etc.) has a lot of scope. The illiterate masses can
also be wade literate with the help of innovative methods and practices of teaching and
learning.
Historical information: Any branch of knowledge that we deal with has a historical base.
Such infdrmation is of tremendous importance for the students to understand any branch of
knowledjje in its totality. Such incidents when occur can be recorded with the help of audio-
video casette or documented in the form of a written or printed material. Such documents
become the source of information for learners to learn. The main advantage of such documents
is that w&cannot create or repeat the history once more howsoever we try hard and place it
before the learners. For example, can we have the same view of the explosion of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki (1946) and show it to our students? This is neither feasible nor possible.
Further, for example, we cannot have the same view of Nuclear test conducted at Pokhran
(1998). So such records..........in the form of a film taken when the incident is happening are
of immense value to the learners which educational technology can only provide.
Costly ahd hazardous experiments: In many fields of science and technology there are
some exgeriments having great implications for effective learning which are not advisable for
the teacwr to conduct in the classroom because of cost and health hazards involved. Such
experiments, once conducted carefully in the laboratory or elsewhere can be recorded with the
help of nbw electronic technology and be used by teachers and students for effective learning.
Gaming and simulation: If historical events which are either costly or hazardous which
cannot be conducted, then educational technology can rescue us by doing the same through
simulatidn. Computer technology in this regard plays a main role. This can provide a lifelike
picture o~fphenomena in three dimensions. It can also show the operation of different parts
of a pheqomenon and the consequences. The other possibility is games. Children can learn,
through play, many concepts that just cannot be taught in the formal set of the classroom. The
gaming qnd simulation has a great scope in the training of military personnel and in the field
of aviation. '
Distance education: Educational technology has a great scopein distance education and open
school programme (Go through the chapter on Open School in Block 1, Unit 2). Today there
is a great need for personnel training and education on regular basis for updating oneself in
the field of work. In this regard, distance education programmes, a relatively less formal
process of education, have acquired new status. Educational technology with its innovative
practiced can educate the learners who cannot come to the classroom setup for their education.
In this rbgard programmed learning materials, modules, contact programme, and counselling
are som? innovations which can help distance learners.
Collecti~n,storing and retrieval of information: There are certain cameras which provide
us the fbcility to take same photographs of events that take place in a fraction of second,
events tbat occur at a far off place, those that cannot be seen by the naked eye. There are also
satellite4 that work for us day and night to provide us information about places which are not
accessible to us. Information can be collected with the help of this new electronic technology
8 I
both in audio and in video form. such information can be stored with magnetic and electronic Evolution of Wucational
devices easily and can be retrieved within no time. Teclinology: Twl~nologyof
Education and Technology
Research: As mentioned earlier, information can be collected and stored to be used for in WA*r~ation
educational purposes. Information can also be collected and stored in the same way for
research. Further, for analysis and reporting, technology can be used. Not only quantitative
data but also qualitative data can be anlaysed and there lies the role of computer and the
different methods of data analysis methods and techniques. Moreover, in deveiopmental type
of research, different kinds of packages can be developed for raising the effectiveness of
learning. There are many researches already conducted in this field i.e., development of
programmed learning materials, computer assisted instrucdon, and computer assisted language
learning packages.
With, the facilitiei of INTERNET, Website, and INFLIBNET the researchers as well as a
learner wanting to inquire or find out something that is happening elsewhere can have access
to a large amount of information sitting at home. He can float his hypotheses, problems, and
ideas and get them solved while at home. In this process, the research'findings are not only
disseminated but also the quality of research can be increased

our P r orress
~
Notes : ;I) Write your answers i11 the space give11 below.
17) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
i. Wh:lt t:o you meall by hardware and software aspects of educational technology?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
3 . What ;iri. 111cdifferetit applications of educatio~ialteclinology with which you are familiar?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

4.6 EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Human beings have the potential to create. This potential has enabled the people to solve
problems and learn from their experiences. The ancient man learned to roll logs of wood,
tried to communicate through verbal and non-verbal ways, evolved language and gradually
then wrltten and printed materials were developed. Later on, thertechnology of software based
on psychology and sociology came into being. Now, we have mass learning, group learning,
and individual learning in operation. In all these new ventures we have used many technologies.
These technologies have evolved through the past decades of the nineteenth century. They can
be placed in four phases as follows:
i) Audio-visual phase
ii) Cybernetic phase
iii) Psychology-Sociology based phase and
iv) Computer and Teleco~l~municationphase
4.6.1 Audio-visual Phase
Before the 1950's the term audio-visual education was used (and riot E.T.). There were
various teaching aids like blackboard, maps, radio, films, etc. These were mainly media
through which a teacher presented his messages. The materials developed were not
systematically based on any psychological principles. Education was viewed primarily as a
p k e s s , of transmitting by a teacher, the messages which he considered important, to students.
In this transmission, he used aids which highlighted the messages. In a sense, this tradition
started with priilting technology - books, maps, charts, etc. Although a good teacher in his
F,duc:~tin~~nl
Tecb~mology: transactions with students, asked then1 questions etc.; and encouraged interaction with them,
St:~trof the Art
aids like hooks, radio or film were primarily non-interactive. This can be represented by the
following figure.

Teacher-
Radio
- Students

Fig. 4.1 : One-way Communication

4.6.2 Cybernetic Phase

While steering a ship; the sailor needs to know in which direction his boat is sailing, how far
the hoat is from the either bank of the riverlsea etc. In other words, he needs information
about the process in relation to the goal to be achieved - the end result to be obtained. This
require "feedback". The cybernetics tradition which lays emphasis on feedback is traced
back to the Second World War where there was a need for a systematic communication and
control system. Cybernetics has been defined as the comparative study of the human (or
biological) control mechanism and electro-mechanical control systems such as computers.
The wdrd Kybernetes in Greek, means "steersman", which emphasises the principle of feedback
control. The feedback refers to a kind of reciprocal interaction between two or more events
in which one activity generates a secondary action which, in turn redirects the primary action.
The feedback system has three functions:
a) It generates moveinent of the system towards a target or in a defined path, I
I
h) It conlpares the effect of this action with the true path and detects error, and
C) It utilises error signal to redirect the system. A simple form of the cybernetic model is
pfeselited in figure 4.2. i

)xpGz--+
A f
Remedial
Guidance
7 Output

Comparison with
l expected results and
Feedback identification of
, deviatio

Fig. 4.2: Cybernetic Model

(Sourae Kulkami, S S.(1986) Introduction to Educational Technology, New Delhi .

I
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co )

In most of the industrial processes or machines which emerged during and after World War 11,
the concept of feedback became operational for correcting any deviant steps. For example, in
a reffigerator, the thermostat informs the system of cooling whether a certain temperature has
been reached or not reached and instructs it to perform accordingly.

This informati011for remedial action (steering the boat according to the charted path avoiding
any deviations) was crucial not only in industry but also in education. Out of this emphasis arose
the drogrammed learning instruction movement where it was emphasized that at every step a
student should be told/reinforced about his progress (or deviation).

This furthex led to a complex systems approach where each component of a system provides
feedback to other components so that the totality -the system keeps on moving in &specified
path towards a pre-determined goal. ,
Cybernetic principles have some implications for learning Evolution ol Educational
Technolody: Technology of
Education and Technology
a) The activity involved is geared to the learner's stage of growth -physical and cognitive. in Education

h) The learner is given an opportunity to perceive meaningful relationships among the elements
of the goal towards which he is working.

c) The learner is provided with some criterion for indicating to h i specifically what progress
he is making.
d) The learner is presented the activity both in verbal and non-verbal context in varied situations
and practice conditions.

4.6.3 Psychology-Sociology Based Phase

This phase has a long history. It can be traced back to the learning theory given by Thorndike in
1913. Based on his theory, Pressey (1 926) developed a teaching machine. It provided an automatic
scoring device to the learners on immediate feedback basis. So, this was the first step towards
the formulation of systematiclearning. Subsequently, the theory of B.F. Skinner (1953) i.e.,
operant conditioning and the work of Norman A. Crowder opened new chapters in developing
Programmed Learning Materials. Their main contribution was that human behaviour can be
shaped. The following are the principles of operant conditioning:

1. Immediate reinforcement to student's response,

2. Gradual progression to establish complex repertoires, and
3. Revision or modification of the programme to fit the students.
In addition to the contributions by this behaviouristic psychology (Skinner et. al.) cognitive
psychology has also thrown morelight on how learning takesplace. Piaget and Bruner, later day
constructivist psychologists, have pointed out that a human individual is not only "taught" by
external forces, but he also learns, constructs his own world -e.g. concept maps etc., organises
his own learning, masters the environment around and changes/modifies his b&aviour/steers
his ship at his own initiative, etc.
Sociologists,particularly the School of Group Dynamics also added insights regarding how an
individual learns in a group, through interaction with peers and others.

In brief, the social sciences -psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. have also contributed a
lot to understanding of the teaching-learning process and in turn influenced educational
technology.

4.6.4 Computer and Telecommunication Phase

In the last decade, the world has been deluged with software technology which has been also
used amply for education and training. Multimedia, E-mail, internet, intranet and website are
used extensively today. There are telecommunication modes through which instructional materials
can be given to students. There are many computer software pachges developed for school
children in many of the school subjects. These packages also have been used and proved to be
effective in terms of time and level of students achievement. There are also several organisations
established in different parts of the world for the development of softwarepackages. For example,
in India we have Audio-Visual Research Centres, Educational Media Research Centres and
different Departments of Education and Educational Technology which have been developing
softwarepackages for the education of children. Many audio-visualprogrammesare also telecast
by Delhi Doordarshan for school children. Many of our progressive schools are also developing
educational software packages for children. School libraries also have such packages which are
used by teachers and students for teaching and learning. These packages are based on immediate
feedback principles which help students to learn effectively. In addition, many of these packages
are interactive, that is, as in a live teacher-student transaction a student can also ask a question,
do a pro-ject,revert back to a teacher/computer, make further inquiries/explore on his own, and
thus learn from different sources more or less on his own (without the help of a live teacher).
(More details about computers software development are given in Unit 11, Block 3).
1 Eclucetional Technology: Note that the evolution of educational technology has been presented in four phases for the sake
State of the Art of understanding it in a better way. But you may see that these phases do not have watertight
compartnients. The different phases are intermingled and can help each other to grow.
Check Your Progress
1 Notes : a ) Write your. answer in the s],acc give11 b.cIc>w, 1
i b) Compare your answer w ~ t l lthe one givcu a t the erln of f h s i!n:L
5~ Stat4 the d~fferenceb e t ~ e e ntho 11rst pl1a5e (prror to i 0 5 0 ~a t i t l (I?c i;:ci111 pi1c~.4
I
13 ~

ELlacarlonal Technology evolut~on.

4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learned that educational technology is a science of techniques and
methods by which educational goals can be realised. Educational technology, as you have
learned, has two aspects i.e., hardware and software. Hardware technology is based on the
principl* of engineering and software technology is based on the principles of social sciences.
In our educational system, there is a wide scope for educational technology i.e., to educate the
masses, istore historical information, collect large amount of information, use as alternative to
hazardous, costly, or non-feasible experiments by simulation. It also provides us the facility
of distdce education methodology and research by manipulating large amounts of data. The
evollutiob of educational technology can be seen in four phases viz., Audio-visual phase,
Cyberndtic phase, Psychology or Social Sciences phase, and Computer Software and modern
telecommunication technology phase. In this process of evolution you learnt that many different
discipliqes of studies have played a great role.

4.8 (JNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. Visilt a secondary school in your locality, meet the seniormost teacher (with more than 25
yews of service) and ask him to tell you how educational technology has evolved in his
school.
2. Fihd out from different subject teachers in a secondary school how they change their
methods of teaching over the years.

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Lmking into the evolution process of educational technology what can be its future?
2. What is the contribution of psychology towards the development of educational technology?
3. Hc/w is educational technology a science?
12
I ."
 Evolution of Educational
4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Technology:Technology of
Education and Technology
1. Educational Technology is a science of techniques and methods by which educational in Education
goals can be achieved.
2. Technology of education deals with systematic application of the resources of scientific
knowledge of the processes of learning that each individual has to pass through in order
to acquire and use knowledge. Technology in education refers to the use of technological
hardware in education.
3. Hardware aspect of educational technology refers to machine aspect of educational
technology which includes tape recorder, computer, OHP, etc. Software aspect of
educational technology includes audiolvideo cassettes, microfilm, slides, etc. while the
former is based on engineering principles, the latter is based on psychological and
sociological prin~iples.
4. The applications of educational technology are in the following areas:
i) mass education
ii) historical information
iii) costly and hazardous experiments
iv) gaming and simulation
v) distance education
vi) collection, storing, retrieving of information
vii) research
5. Educational technologies like blackboards, books, maps, films, etc. which were used
before the 1950's during the first phase were non-interactive in nature, whereas educational
technologies like computer, e-mail, internet which are used in the fourth phase of the
evaluation of Educational Technology are interactive in nature.

4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Alan C. et. al. Educational Technology: Implications for Early and Special Education, John
Wiley & Sons, London.
Hilgard E.R.and Richey H.G. (ed.) (1964): Theories of Learning and Instruction, National
Society for the Study of .Education, Chicago.
Mohanty J., (1992): Educational Technology and Communication Media, Nalanda, Cuttack.
Mohanty J., (1992): Educational Technology, Deep and Deep Publication, Rajouri Garden,
New Delhi.
Philips J.S. and Rock Well D.M. (ed.) (1976): Instructional Media and Technology: A
Professional Resource, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Inc., USA.
Mukhopadhaya M. (ed.) (1990): Educational Technology: Challenging Issues, Sterling
Publishers, New Delhi.
Richmond W.R. (ed.) (1970): The Concept of Educational Technology: A Dialogue with
YourseK Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 5, Winsley Street, London.
UIM"S 5 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND
MATERIALS - I

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Need for Aiding Instruction
5.3.1 What Makes Instruction Ineffective?
5.3.2 Why Teaching-Learning Aids?
5.4 Classification of Teaching-Learning Aids
Verbal (Printed) Material
5.5.1 Textbook and Supplementary Book
5.5.2 Workbook and Copybook
5.5.3 Programme Learning Material and Self-instructional Module
5.5.4 Encyclopaedia and Reference Book .
5.5.5 Newspapers and Magazines
5.5.6 Case Studies and Case Report (Simulating Reality)
Chalkboard and its Effective Utilisation
5.6.1 Qpes of Chalkboards
5.6.2 Chalkboard Writing
5.6.3 Chalkboard Drawing
Non-projected Two-dimensional Visuals
5.7.1 Varieties of Non-projected -0-dimensional Visuals
Preparing Two-dimensional Visuals
5.8.1 Analysis of Content
5.8.2 Techniques of Enlarging Visual Material
5.8.3 Layout
5.8.4 Lettering
' 5.8.5 Colouring
5.8.6 Border
Guidelines for Using Visual Aids
Characteristics of a Good Visual Aid
5.11 LetUsSumUp
5.12 Unit-end Activity
5.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

5.1 INTRODUCTION
All king of instructional activities are geared towards achievement of pre-determined
instructional objectives. Instructional objectives determine the learning experiences required
for their attainment. Organisation of learning experiences does require the use of various
methoda media and materials. Methods, media and materials help a teacher to transfer the
learning experiences to hisher students effectively.
In this unit, as well as in the Unit 6, our main focus is to provide you with a variety of media
and mamerials which are used in the instructional process. We also discuss the need for aiding
instruction, classification of teaching-learning aids and guidelines for using visual aids. We
focu;s on verbal printed materials and non-projected two-dimensional visuals in this unit.
 Instructional Media and
Matedals-I

After going through this unit, you will be able to :

discuss the importance of teaching-learning aids;
classify instructional media and material on the basis of their characteristics;
justify that different instructional contexts demand use of different media and material;
i acquire awareness about the effective use of blackboard;
describe the procedure and skills in making graphic aids for instruction; and
classify verbal printed material into various categories. .

5.3 NEED FOR AIDING INSTRUCTION

In the process of your study of the course on 'Curriculum and Instruction' you would have
understood that instruction is a formal activity and is purposeful by nature. The purpose of
instruction is to help the learner achieve learning objectives. Therefore, instruction as an
activity cannot be claimed to have occurred if corresponding learning objectives are not
attained by the learner. The 'effectiveness' of an instructional programme, thus, can be measured
in terms of the extent to which the learning objectives are attained by the learner. For example,
this module spells out six objectives to be attained by you. If, at the end of instruction (which
is self-instructional here), you have attained only five objectives satisfactorily, then this
instruction cannot be claimed to be fully effective.

5.3.1 What Makes Instruction Ineffective? -

In the cause-effect relationship of instniction and learning, if learning is attributed to the

-
learner, then instruction (teaching) is attributed to the teacher.
Organises which by
Teacher Instruction Learning b Learner
causes , the
Fig. 5.1 : Came-and-effect in Instruction

Ineffectiveness in instruction is likely to be attributed directly to the ineffectiveness of the

teacher. You would agree that, unless analysed further, the above conceptualisation is incomplete.
Assuming that the learner has the requisite abilities to learn and that the content is appropriate
%E to the learner, the way in which instruction is organised would decide the extent to which
learning takes place. By orgwised instruction is meant 'experiences' which are deemed to be
enabling the learner attain learning objectives. Experiences that cause learning are of different
kinds and they can be arranged on a co&nuum of "directness to indirectness" or on a
continuum of "concreteness to abstractness". Such an exercise has been done by Edgar Dale
who arranged the experiences on the above continuum and represented them as a 'cone of
experience' (for more details refer to Unit 17 of the course "Curriculum and Instruction").
! Thus, the experience of a flower could be presented to the learner by providing him with a
real flower which he could see, smell and touch or through an artificial flower, which also
could be handled by him, or through a three-dimensional model, a photograph, a drawing, a
sketch, a diagram, or the spoken and the written word 'flower'. As you know, all these
experiences of the same content of 'flower' are not similar and hence the nature of learning
attained would also not be similar. If spoken and written experiences cater to the attainment
of vocabulary and verbal abilities, the visual experiences of a diagram, sketch, or a photograph
would also cater to the attainments in written expressions like ability io make a labelled
diagram or learning to recognise a flower from those which are not. This would mean that
the learning outcomes of instruction, w-hich are stated as the instructionalllearning objectives
by the teacher, would depend upon the nature of iearning experiences.
J
1& InstructionalLearning
Objectives
+
- Learning
Experiences
---, Learning
Outcomes
Educatio~lnlTecl~nology: From the above discussions, we may be able to state that:
State of the Art
Leaning outcomes depend on the learning experiences and they are many and varied.
Leqning outcomes are pre-determined by the instructor and are stated as instructional
objectives.
Instructional objectives determine the learning experiences required for their attainment.
Organising instruction means organising learning experinces in accordance with the
insthlctional objectives.
Let us reconsider now the question of ineffective instruction. Ineffectiveness in instruction
may now be understood as meaning inappropriateness of learning experiences even when the
insttuctibnal objectives are stated properly.

Notes ; a) Wrlre your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer wtth the one given at the end of Ihe unit.
1. Do yo11 thlnk teacher ineffectivness i n organising instruclori means ~neffcctivcnesslil
I
oral communication?

..... .......................................................................................................................................
/
I

..........................................................
...................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

5.3.2 Why ~eaching- earning Aids?

There could be several reasons for the use of teaching-learning aids by the teacher. A few
important reasons are as follows:
a) Multiplicity of objectives: You know that the instructional objectives to be achieved
through teaching are many and varied. You also know that Benzamin Bloom has given us a
'Taxonoby of Igstructional Objectives'. Achieving these objectives would, as stated before,
require drganising various learning experiences, and by necessity, this would mean the use of
various media and materials. This may be summarised as follows:
Variety in Demand Variety in Mean Variety in Media
Objectives b
- Experiences and Materials
Fig5.3 : Linknge between objectives, experience and media

b) Teadher incompetence: In order to organise instruction effectively, a teacher requires to

possess a large number of competencies. In situations of oral communication, he needs to
possess an audible voice, which could be modulated or even produced rhythmically as in
teaching of poetry. In visual communication, he needs competence to write legibly and draw
accurati$y. From the angle of content, one needs a good memory for presenting accurate data
and sequentially organised content. Despite his efforts, a teacher may not possess all these to
a high degree and hence would run the risk of becoming ineffective. However, he can overcome
such risks if he uses teaching aids such as audio cassettes, graphic aids, and transparencies.
I

c) Learner motivation: It is a known fact in educational psychology or for that matter in

advertisement, that attention is a prerequisite to learning. Only a motivated learner has the
attqntion needed for learning. Unless ther,e is variety in the situation of learning or the material
being 1epnt;providing continuous attention is a difficult task for the learner. Stimulus variation
in teacqing has a desirable effect on the learner motivation. Use of teaching aids ensures
stimulus variation.
d) Apflropriateness of learning experiences: While teaching a group of learners, as seen
in a classroom, it is not enough that the teacher has appropriate material. It needs to be
ensured,that the appropriate material is presented appropriately as well. For example: If a
small pkture or photograph is appropriate for an individual learner, its use in classroom may
require mat the picture is enlarged, say with the help of a projector so that its presentation
 becomes appropriate. Use of teaching aids, then, is also with a view to ensuring that learning I~~tmctional
Media and
,experiences are presented suitably. hhterids-I
P C l - ~rogrrss
/ ~ o t e s: a j Write yonr allswers in lhe space given below. I
h) Compare your answers with the one given at lhe end of the unit.
2. Describc the importarice of using teaching-1c:u~ingaids to make instruction more effective.

5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING-LEARNING AIDS

-
Teaching-learning aids are classifiable in several ways. Edgar Dale's cone of experience
provides us with one such possibility of classifying them. In Unit7, under "Curriculum and
Instruction", you would have studied that teaching-learning aids are classified on the basis of
four important characteristics, viz., stimulationsprovided to the sense organs, learner's control
over media, type of experience they provide, and their reach.
The most widely made traditional classification is on the basis of the senses that are stimulated
by the teaching-learning aids. These can be classified as follows: Out of these six categories,
the first two categories are described in this unit, while the rest are dealt with in next chapter.
I. Visual (Verbal) Print o r Duplicated
Textbook, Supplementary Book
Reference books, Encyclopedia, etc.
Magazine, Newspaper, etc.
Documents and Clippings
Duplicated Written Material t
F'rogrammed Learning Material and Self-instructional Modules
Case Studies (Simulating Reality) and Case Report
11. Visual (Pictorial) Non-projected Two-dimensional
Blackboard Writing and Drawing
Charts
Posters
Maps
Diagrams
Graphs
Photographs
Cartoons
Comic Strips
111. Audio
Human voice
Gramophone records
Audio tapesldiscs
Stereo records
Radio broadcast
Telephonic conversation
Educational Te~hndogy: N. Visual Non-projected ~hreedime&onal
"tate of the Art
Mbdel
Miock-up
Diorama
Globe
-
Relief Map
Sfleciman
~ P P &
Hologram
V. Viskual Projected (Still)
a Slide

Wanspctrency (OWP)
bficrofilm, Microcard
Cbmputer
VI. Airdio-visaal Projected (With Motion)
6 Motion Picture Film
T+levision
Close-circuit Television
Video CassetteDisc
Multimedia Computer
Slide-Tape Presentation

5.5 VERBAL (PRINTED) MATERIAL

In the classification of teaching-learning aid; provided earlier, cattgory 11 consists of those
visual aids which contain printed verbal material. You would agree that each of the listed
materials under this category has distinctiy different purposes, content and organisation of
rnaterikl. Also, they are not used equally extensively in the instructional process.

5.5.1 Textbook and Supplementary Book

Both these verbal materials are specially Mitten by authors for the st- dents of a particular
grade or course. They are prescribed by tH'e institution and are based on a specified syllabus
under a curriculum. Hence, they may be considered ,as nmicular material. The text and
sxpplmentary book are used both by the teacher and the students during course of insir~~ction.
Materials in a textbook are predominantly verbal with some essential pictorial visual support.
Normally, a textbook consists ot classified segments of matter under chapters, units and
lessons. The style in which the text and supplementary books are written would necessitate
1X
 teacher mediation and hence are not meant for self-learning by the student. The most heard
criticism about a textbook is that it presents "predigested" material wherein the learner has
hardly to think but "read to remember".

1 5.5.2 Workbook and Copybook

As the names would suggest; workbooks and copybooks are meant for the learner to perform
a written exercise or undergo writing practice. Normally, they support textbooks in the sense
that they cover those responses of the le ner which involve writing. It is not necessary,
Y
though, that every textbook should have an accompanying workbook. Normally, a workbook
or copybook does not give the learner any new information. Workbooks and copybooks
provide learners with graded exercises which proceed from easy to difficult tasks.

5.5.3 Programme Learning Material and Self-instructionalModule

Unlike textbooks, programmed learning matefial (PLM)and other variations of it like the
open university course materials are used exclusively by the learners and they are designed
to be so. If a text or supplementary book presents matter in one chunk, the PLM and other
'self-instructional material' provide the content in meaningful and convenient 'bits and steps'
Also, unlike the textbook, the STM ensures 'learner participation' and involvement by presenting
answers to them. This ensures that the learner 'evaluates' his progress. The answers provided
to the questions help him do so and they act as 'reinforcement' in learning. However, the
SIMs have one thing in common with textbooks and that is 'self-pacing' or the possibility for
the learner to proceed with learning at a speed convenient to him. Such a thing, for example,
is not possible at the speed with which the material in a lecture is delivered.
\

5.5.4 Encyclopaedia and Reference Book

Classroom learning often raises many questions and problems which require further
investigation. Encyclopedias and reference books are a good source which provide basic
factual information. They provide the learner with a scope to locate, 'organise and evaluate
material. Encyclopedia are usually available in sets in which information is alphabetically
arranged for easy reference. Properly used, encyclopedias and reference books help students
to enrich their own factual background, to improve their skills in finding and interpreting
information, and to develop new interests in the world around them.

5.5.5 Newspapers and Magazines

Newspapers are usually for a mixed age group of readers and carry items of new and current
affairs. They contain sections for school age children on varied subjects. Magazines are
published for the public at large and also for school age children. Afew important applications
of newspapers and magazines in teaching-learning are: current events study and analysis;
study of local, national and world problems, practice in the reading, sbdy of written expressions
\
and styles; and visual and pictorial support to clpssroom work.

5.5.6 Case Studies and Caqe Report (Simulating Reality)

Simulation and case reports are specially designed materials that centre around a problem or
issue. They present the learner with the background and necessary data on one dr more
problem or issue which may be of general interest or may pertain to a particular subject of
study. If some of them require 'assuming a role', most of them involve the learner effectively.
Decision-making and problem-solving are other important features of case smdies and vase
reports.
Case studies are normally used in businesslmanagement programme and case reports are
normally used for discussion in medicalnegal education programmes. The learner is either
made to analyse the decision of some one else or is himself required to make decisions and
solve problems. The most common drawback of simulation and case reports is that they do
not provide factual information or 'hard content'.

- %
., . 19
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1. The matter written must be important, since a chalkboard is not a scribble pad. L n ~ i ~ c i i o 1Media
1 ~ I and
Maie~ials-1
2. The matter must he sequentially and logically arranged.
3. Udlise the space available so that the chalkboard writing is organised and balanced.
4. Maintain appropriate size to enable all learners to read without difficulty. Authors suggest
a size of 3 cm letters for a 6 m deep room.
5. Write from top downwards.
6. If the board is too long, divide the space into two by drawing a dividing line in the middle,
if necessary.
7. If, in the beginning, the writings are not parallel to the base use guidelines for practice.

Fig. 5.4: The ~lhuliiplechalk holder used by tllusicians for dmwing the
. five lines of the staff is useful fur lettering a d drawing parallel lines for a n y purpose.
8. Avoid running hand, write bold, independent letters.
9, Underline important w r d s and sentences, use different colour, if necessary.
10. Let the chalkboard writing be in points. Avoid writing notes un a chalkboud.
11: Try to preserve the writing for a review at the end of the lesson.
12. Hall' a stlck of chalk is better to write with than a whole stick. Hold it between the thumb
alld forefinger so that an inch or less prqjects.
13. The most convenient place to stand is towards the 1eft.side of the board. This allows
conveiliellt turning to face the class or board.
14. Use a duster to erase the writing and not your hand;
15. For the sake of practice, try drawing parallel lines from one end LO the other vertically,
hori~ontilllyand diagonally without lifting the chalk.

5.6.3 chalkboard Drawing

You know that the visual material on a chalkboard is not restricted only to writ~ng.A c h a l k b o ~ d
1s used for drawing di'igr-ams, stlckfline figures, actlon scenes and pictures. Of a11 this, you
would dgree that diagrams are the most frequent drawings on ;r chalkboard. A diagram is a
visual made of straight and curved lines or geometrical figures, unlike a picture, a diagram
merely represents something or idea. You may remember the following. while drawing diagrams.
1. Stra~ghtand curved lilies are the most common components of diagram. So, practice
draw~nglines of different types at different heights on the chalkhoard.
2 It !s easier to draw short lines and curves on a chalkhoard. Praclice drawing lengtl~y
lines ; ~ n dcurves.
Edua~tiondTePhmlogy: 3. Diagrams are accurate artd-proportionate visual representations. In doing so, lines of
State of tho A 3 diHerent thickness may have to be drawn. Sharpen and shape chalk with the help of
blade, knife or sand paper to get desired effect. Holding the chalk at different angles to
the board also gives lines of different thickhess.

F i t 5 5 : Chalk may be sharpened like a drawing pencil,

shaped with a knife or with a sand paper pad.

4. Several types of chalkboard drawing devices are available in the market. They make
drawing diagrams easy and accurate. Usually, they are oversized geometrical drawing
tools made of wood or plastic.
5. Templates and stencils are other aids for chalkboard drawing. One co~ild-make them
using hardboard or wood.
6. Even thread can be a useful device in drawing lines, circles and curves on a chalkboard.
7. For enlarging a small diagram on a chalkboard, methods such @ use of grid/squares and .
projection are useful.

Wrong Handwriting Correct Way Of

On ~ h a j k
Board Writing

Constitution Of
India
~nnci~lesjPractices

Beautiful But CursiveAnd

Hence Legible

Fig. 5.6: Cursive script and c o m t way of writing.

Organisation (Layout) of the content: The presentation of display material on the board
is an art. Space available on the board should be used judiciously.
 Instructional Media and
Left Middle Right Materials-I
'4-
For reference materials . For writing or displaying For display of charts, maps,
material developed during the and for rough work,
course of the ltsson, 'calculations required for
pertaining to the subject matter. mathematical problems, etc.
FSg. 5.7: Judicious use of chalkboard by a teacher

The proper use of a chalkboard can be done by dividing it in 3 parts with the middle one the
widest one. On one corner of the board (the left portion), references or main poinls are
presented and the other (right) portion, is used for displaying visual materials such as maps,
graphs, etc. The middle position iS for the material to be developed during the lesson. This
portion presentes the material meant for constantly earsing and writing.
Display of graphics: The grid, the projection, the template and such other methods are
used for displaying graphics on the board. Let us now discuss some of these.
i) The Grid Method: This is the simplest method of drawing an enlarged version of a
display. In this, the visual material is covered with a grid. This grid can be madeldrawn
either on the visual material or on a transparent sheet. You can decide how many times ,
(biggerharger version) of the visual you want to draw. After this, make the enlarged
version of the grid on the board. Thus, new grid will probably enable you to produce a
reasonably good copy of the original material, even if you are not 'good in drawing.

fig. 5.8: The Grid method of predueing Enlarged Copies of Grapllic Matelid

ii) The Projection Method: This technique also %elpsin producing enlarged version of the
visual materials when projected witQ the help of an appropriate type of projector like
slide projector for photographic slides, overhead projector for transparencies, etc. The
image of the visual can be projected on the boarcl and then the visual can be traced on
the board by using a chalk.

iii) The Template Method: This technique is used to draw outline egures on chalkboard,
This technique helps in producing visuals of the standard sizes (e.g., mlips, scientific
apparatus, etc.) on the b ~ a r dwith some accuracy. Here you can prepare a suitahle template
of the required shape in a suitable material, e.g., lightweight material like cardboard, thin
metal, rigid plastic, etc. This template can be placed on the board and traced.
In classes where Science;Mathematics, Geography and such other subjects are being
. taught, it is desirable to have thin lines or matrix drawn permanently I n a light co!o~~iun
the chalkboqd or on a-part of the board.
Educational Techmlogy:
State of the Art

Ffg. 5.9: Using an overhead projector and desk lamp to produce an enlarged
projection of an image on an opaque medium.

Check Your Pro&ess

Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of' h e unit.
5. Fill in the blanks.
a) The green board is made of -
b) In terms of their arrangement (mounting), chalkhoards are classified as
and
c) Why are guidelines used in chalkboard writing?

I d) (ither than writing, for what purposes is a chalkboard used?

I
e) Using chalk, how can lines of different thickness be drawl1 on a board!
f) What aids iue used in chalkboard drawing'?

5.7 NON-PROJECTED TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISUALS

Next tO the creations on the chalkboard, the non-projected two-dimentional visuals, which are
also called graphics, are the most used as teaching-learning aids. Even though graphics materials
are created by a teacher to simplify, illustrate and concretise learning experiences which may
otherwise be abstract, the most productive use of graphics in an active learning situation is
the student creation of the graphic material.
5.7.1 Varieties of Non-projected 'ho Dimensional Visuals
While classifying teaching-learning aids, flat picture, cut-out, poster, chart, graph, map, cartoon
and comic have been listed under the category of non-projected two-dimensional visuals. You
are awtue that among these, chart, poster, diagram, graph and map are most used in teaching-
learning. Let us try to understand what do they mean.
Diagram: A diagram is a drawing that shows arrangements and relations, as of parts to the
whole. It is 'a visual symbol made up of lines, curves and geometrical forms'. Basically, a
diagrw explains rather thw represents. It contains both pictorial and verbal part and the
verbal part is often the title and the labelling of parts.
 Chart: In its content and form, a chart overiaps heavily with a diagram. Hence, a chart is Instructional Media and
also considered a diagrammatic representation. A chart is a visual symbol for summarising or Materials4
comparing or contrasting or performing other helpful services in explaining subject matter.
Charts can present virtually anything except statistical or geographical data. Charts are of
different types:
1. T i e Chart: A time chart is a representation of material in their chronological sequence
I
of happening with suitable indication of time oi' occurrence. It 'helps students compare
and contrast happenings or events in relation to time. A time chart could also be presented
in a tabular form such as the railway Lne-table.
I 2. Tabular Chart: It presents information and data in a classified or categorised form
arranged in tabular columns. Financial statements, balance sheets, profit and loss figures
are best represented as tabular charts.
3, n e e Chart: It is a depiction of development, growth 'and change by beginning with a
single source which then spreads out into many branches as in the case of a tree. The
genealogical tree is a familiar example
\

Tree Chart Stream Chart

Fig .S .I0 : Examples of Tree and Stream Charts

4. Stream Chart: It is a depiction of development, growth and change by beginning with

the many tributaries which then converage into a single channel (the stream). So, the.
stream chart can be said as the opposite of the tree chart. A stream chart might show all
the raw material necessary for the manufacture of a fmished product, such as an automobile.
5. Organisational Chart: It is a representation of the functional relations'within an
organisation. For doing so, rectangles, lines, arrows and circles are used. The administrative
hierarchy in an institution or the legal system in a state can be represented in the form
of an organisational chart.
6. Process Chart: Ii is a representation of the stages of steps in a process. It is usually in
a cyclical arrangement such as in the case of life cycles, energy cycles and conservation
cycles. They may also be the steps in the process of making something.
7. Sequence Charts: They normally consist of more than one segment or chart and hence
have to do with the representation rather than content. 'Strip chart' and 'Flip chart' are
two types of sequence charts. The first is consuucted.as a single chart with various
sequenhal parts covered with strips of paper. The paper strips are removed sequentially
to reveal the content in stages. The flip chart is like a calendar with a sheet each for
twelve months. As the month changes, the sheet is flipped over. Actually, flip chart
consists of several charts arranged in a sequential order and fastened together at one end
with thin spiral, met% or wooden strip. - I

Graph: A graph is a diagrammatic treatment or representation of numeric or quantitative data.

Graphs are of three fundamental forms - line, bar 'and circle, In a way, graphs provide a
teacher with the possibility of concretising number and their relationships and provide the
learner with a scope to compare, contrast and analyse figures and trends.
Etlucalionrl Tccl~nology:
St:~ieqjf' 1I1eArt

Line Graph Bar Graph Pie Graph

Fig, 5.11:

Map: +4map is a visual representation of the whole or part of the earth.It is drawn to a scale
and m~ntainsthe directional relationship of the parts. As a teaching-learning aid, maps are
ind'i$pe@sablein teaching fundamental concepts such as size, distance, space, location and direction.
Postera A poster is a bold and symbolic representation of a single idea. Among the two-

26 - Fig. 5.12: A guod safety Poster

- - - - - -
 Instmctionnl Medin and
dimensional visuals, posters are the most eye-catching because their function itseIf is to attract Materials-I
the attention and pass on a single message. Posters have both visual and verbal components
and the verbal component is often called the 'caption'. What is basic to a poster is the caption
and the visuallpictorial part is for attraction and subsequently to support the message contained
in the caption. Posters can be highly creative in their content and presentation when compared
with any other graphic.

r--
- --

Check Your Progress

/Notes : ;I) Write your answers in the space given below.
!I
h) Compare your answers with the one given at the end of the unit..
h Fill in the blanks.
a) A ~liagranlis a visual symbol made up of lines, curves and
h) A i a visual representation, charts help a learner in
aril a subject matter.
c ) L i s ~below the different types of charts
I
-...
d) What is the relationship between a tree chart and a stream chart?

i' I e) T l i r . two-dinleiisional visual aid appropriate for teaching 'the life cycle of butterfly'

1
is rhc

I l-2- Tl t. verbal component of a poster is called a

1

5.8 PREPARING TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISUALS

Since there are several types of two-dimensional visuals, it is needless to say that there are
different considerations and guidelines for preparing them. However, since they fall wider one
category of teaching-learning aids, it is possible to think of some general principles and
procedures of preparing them.
\

5.8.1 ~ n a l ' ~ sofi sContent

Any visual v;quld centre around one or the other content. Basically, the visual is to aid
learning by cbncretising the content that otherwise is an idea or information and hence
abstract. One has to analyse the content with a view to knowing its component parts and their
relationships. It is also necessary to know the exact message to be communicated. This may
require reorganising the content or collection of more infom~ationand data. Since there are
several types of visuals, it may also be necessary that one decides about the particular type
which is suitable for the purpose.
However, it needs to be said that quite often, a two-dimensional visual is merely an enlargement
of material available elsewhere, like in the textbook, and a teacher needs the same in a larger
size for classroom teaching purposes.

5.8.2 Techniques of Enlarging Visual Material

1. Grid Method: In this method a grid, which is a matrix or horizontal and vertical lines
which are equidistant, is drawn with a pencil on the original material which is small.
Another grid is drawn with a larger scale on the chart paper. Maintaining the proportions
and direction the tigure is hand drawn on the chart paper while referring to the original.
The grid here acts as a guideline for enlargement.
2. Projection Method: The oribinal materials projected on to a blank chart paper fixed on
a boardlwall using episcope, if it is on a transparency. With the help of the image, which
is adjusted for its size, pencil sketch is made which subsequentl~~ is made permanent by
working on the pencil sketch over a table. .+. 27
Eclucational Teclmology:
State of the Art

. .
Fig. 5.13: Enlarging a chart by using an Episcope

3. Pantograph ~ e t h o d A
: pantograph is a mechanical device in which a lead-point traces
aut the enlargement of a figure moved over by a pin-point tracer; while one point is held
stationary. Adjustable pantographs are available which can enlarge the original figure
upto five times.

Fig. 5.14 : Example of Pantogtapb

5.8.3 Layout
Any visual should not only be accurate in content but also be appealing to the eye. Unorganised,
imbalanced materials do not appeal to the human eye. One needs to think about the organisation
of the matter or the visual so that it is balanced and not crowded or imbalanced. Balancing
means distribution of components over space such that there is comparability between the
two-part, if the visual is cut vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Arough sketch of the layout
is adwised before finalising.

5.8.4 Lettering
Lettering on a two-dimensional visual is done either by free-hand or by using tools or by
using readymade letters. Readymade letters in different sizes, shapes and colaur are available Inst~ctf01ldMedia and
in the market which could be stuck or printed by mbbing over the chart paper. Freehand Materials-I
lettering can be done by either first having the pencil sketch or by writing directly. Use of
pencil sketch and guidelines is advised unless one is quite sure about the consistency in size
and shape of letters in free-writing. Also, a bold style of writing is advised as against italics
or stylised writings unless under special circumstances. Several tools are'available for writing,
the main among them being'stencils and templates. Stencils for different size letters and so
also for capital and small type are available in the market. Even while working with stencils,
it is better to use pencil frrst.

This

Fig. 5.15: Different forms of IeUera

There are,hveral types of pens, colour and ink'available. There are erasable and non-erasable
varieties as well. 'Poster colours are best among the available colours. Indian ink can be used
with pen or cartographic pen set.
5.8.5 Colouring
Use of colour makes a visual appealing and helps a student grasp distinctions. But unirnaginalive
use of. colour may spoil the appeal of an otherwise appealing content. Colour has three basic
properties - hue, value and intensity. Hue is what we ordinarily mean when we talk of a
specific colour such as red, orange or blue. Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a
colour. Intensity refers to the relative strength or weakness which oidinarily is referred as
brightness or dullness. While selecting a colour one could be more specific if one takes into
account the three properties.
While using more than one colour, it is necessary to take into account the colour harmony.
On the crolour wheel, colours are arranged in a definite order. With the help of the wheel, it
is poss~bleto identify colours which are adjacent or opposite to one another.
A ~ l o g o u harmony:
s Analogous colours are those that adjoin on the c,olour wheel. For example,
when green-yellow, green and blue-green are used. it wuqjd make an analogous harmony.
Educational Technologj :
State nf the Art

Fig. 5.16: Tlie Colour Wheel

Compldmentary harmony: Colours which lie opposite each other on the colour wheel are
called compleillentary colours. For example, red and blue-green, yellow and purple-blue would
make a complementary harmony. Colour scheme generally uses a pair of opposites and one
other colour bordering on either side of either colour.
Monochromatic harmony: In this harmony, only one hue is'used in varying range of values
or of imtensities.
While using colour, one needs to remember that: (a) colours change in accordance with their
background. A black or white background helps to bring together discordant colours and sets
them Off, (b) colours change when you add black, white or any other colour to them,
(c) colpurs have inherent property to portray feelings or evoke them. Some can be cool and
soothing and others hot and disturbing.

5.8.6 Border
Normally visual materials such as chart, poster or diagram do require a border which brings
out the content of the visual. Borders are usually coloured dark and would differ according
to the colour scheme of the visual. About 1 to 3 inch border is provided to a standard size chart
or poster. However, under special circumstances, one may avoid the border.

5.9 GUIDELINES FOR USING VISUAL AIDS

Some important points to be borne in mind while using a visual aid are:
Avoid confusion - have the aids in proper order and accessible.
Greatest interest in the visual aid is evoked at the time of the initial showing. So, keep
aids out of sight till their turn comes.
Use, do not merely show them.
Display one teaching aid at a time, if many are being used in the same class.
Supplement visual aid with chalkboard sketches and explanations. Use them as aids as
they don't instruct on their own.

5.110 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD VISUAL AID

I

You will agree that it is appropriate at this point to indicate some of the most desirable
characteristics of a good visual aid in order that these criteria may be recalled in designing,
prebaring and evaluating teaching-learning aids of this category.
 1. It should explain an abstract idea, show a relationship, or present a sequence of procedure It~st~uctiond
hledia and
Materials-I
that cannot be clarified without it.
2. It should be large enough to be clearly visible to the entire group.
3. Avoid unnecessary decoration.
4. Avoid too much writing and the writing should be within the comprehension of the
learners.
5. The important parts should be accentuated by use of effects such as bright colour.
6. ,Whether reduced or enlarged, keep the visual to a scale and maintain proportionately.
7. It should show good workinanship and careful development.
8. It should be mounted in such a way as'to make it portable.
9. It should be displayed properly.
10. After use, it must be preserved using appropriate storage technique. 9h
4- -- . .- - -.

I Check j?,ui:'~rogress

I $1) Conlparc your nnslvcrc with the one given at the end of the unit.
17 Flii 10 the hl;mt\

I '1)

h)
The !echnique of enlarging
c,lltj-

lhterinE on :I
--
ii visital material are
'

two-d~mensional visilal can be done through or

Or-

i
C) T ~ P ~has^
T properties of colour are and
tl) W h a i is colnple~lic~if~uy
hannoay:!
. I
5.11 LET US SUM UP
The effectiveness of instruction is influenced greatly by the nature of learning experiences
because it is the learning experience which enables a learner achieve the instructional objective.
In providing learning experiences, a teacher makes use of the teaching-learning aids. Some
important reasons for the use of teaching-learning aids are multiplicity of objectives, teacher
incompetence, learner motivation and appropriateness of learning experiences. Teaching-learning
aids can be classified as audio, visual (verbal), visual two-dimensional, visual 3-dimensional,
projected visual, and audio-visual.
Verbal (print) materials of different kind such as textbook and supplementary book, workbook
and copybook, programmed learning material and self-instructional module, encyclopedia and
reference book, newspaper and magazine, simulation and case report are used to provide
learning experiences of different kinds. Textbook and chalkboard are the two most used
teaching-learning aids in teaching. Chalkboards are wall-mounted or stand-mounted or roll-
up type. Chdkboards.are used for writing as well as drawing, and in doing so, one needs to
follow certain guidelines.
Diagram, chart, graph, map and poster are the two-dimensional non-projected visuals used in
classroom teaching. Each one of them differs from the other in its content a$ well as the
purpose for which it is used. Also, some of them, such as charts. have further varieties within
themselves. Generally, one needs to give attention to the analysis of content, technique of
eiilargen~ent,layout, lettering, colouring and border. It is on the basis of these above aspects
of a two-dimensional non-projected visual that we can list a set of characteristics of a good
visual aid. Lastly, it needs to be remembered tliat the way a good visual aid is used in the
classrc~on:must also be good.
Educatio~lalTeehi~ology:
Sii~teof the Art
UNIT 6 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Audio Media
6.3.1 Human Voice
6.3.2 Audio Tape or Tape Reording
6.3.3 Radio

6.4 Visual Non-prqjected Three-dimensional Media

6.4.1 Models
6.4.2 Mock-ups
6.4.3 Diorama *
6.4.4 Maps and Globes
6.4.5 Puppets
6.4.6 Holograms
6.5 Visual Projected (Still) Media
6.5.1 Slides
6.5.2 Filmstrips
6.5.3 Microfilm and Microfiche
6.5.4 Overhead Projector
6.5.5 Computers

6.6 Audio-Visual Projected (with Motion) Media

6.6.1 Motion Picture Film
6.6.2 tnstructiond Television
6.6.3 CCTV
6.6.4 Slide Tape Presentation
6.6.5 Interactive Videa
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Unit-end Activities
6.9 Answers to Check Y3ur Progress
6.10 Suggested Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 6, we discussed the need and importance of instructional media and materials in the
instructional process. We also presented a broad classification of teaching-learning aids. We
discussed various kinds of verbal printed materials and non-projected twodimension~isuals:
I11 this unit, we discuss audio media, visual non-projected three-dimensional media, visual
projected (still) media and audio visual projected (with motion) media. We have already
discussed some media coming under these categories in Unit 17, Block 4, i.e. "Instructional
Media and Related Skills" of course ES-331: Curriculum and Instruction. However, we have
again repeated some of these media to provide you a holistic perspective.

6 . 2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you Will be able to:
.describe the instructional uses of radio;
differentiate between models and mock-ups;
Educational fechnology: define a diorama and discuss its instructional value;
State of the Art
describe the role of maps, puppets and holograms in the teaching-learning process;
ptepare and use slides and filmstrips;
u$e the overhead projector (OHP) in the classroom instruction;
pfepare and use OHP transparencies,
suggest ways of using computer-assisted instruction for individualised instruction;
discuss the role of instructional televisional; and
ube interactive video for individualised instruction.

6.3 AUDIO MEDIA

Media related to audio'have already been mentioned in Unit 6 of this Block. In this unit, we
discuss some of these media.

6.3.1 Human voice

The human voice is the most common form of the audio medium. It existed right from the
origin of human beings. When human beings talk to other fellow human beings, they create
sound. Through this sound, messages from one human being are transmitted to another. In the
classrioom, when a teacher talks or lectures, the messages are transmitted from him to the
students in the form of sound. How do you use this most natural medium of communication
more efficiently? You can learn about it from the Art of Drama; how to modulate your voice,
how m ! express your feelings, where and when to emphasise, when to pause, etc. All these and
relateLl skills are important to you as a teacher and communicator.

6.3.2 Audio Tape or Tape Recording

Audio tape or tape recording is a more popular teaching tool. The teacher can make live
rcordings of student and teacher conversation/dialogues etc. as it is much easier to prepare
these tapes than a grammophone record. This is very useful in independent study situations.
A tape recorder can record a message and play it back or play a recorded tape.
Therq are several variations of tape formats. But the most common for school use are the reel
to reel ('I, inch open reel) and the cassette. The 'I, inch tape can be played at several tape
speeds. Reel-reel machines typically have three settings for tape speeds (rated in inches of
tape per second passing by the tape leads). These are 'I, inches per second (ips), 3 3/4 ips, and
7'1, ips. The amount of tape on a reel can range anywhere from a few feet to as much as
36,000 feet.

34 - Fig. 6.1: Reel-to-red peeorder; a cassette tape recorder

A cassette tape recorder has a number of features which reel-to-reel systems lack. It is smaller . ~ t ~ u c t i v ~ iMcclia
:rl sncl
than reel-to-reel machine. Many operate on batteries as well as on ordinary alternating current. Mateiids-11
Hence, they are portable and are also inexpensive. The cassette is a plastic case, which
contains two tiny hubs; the tape is '1, inch wide, just half the size of ree- to-reel tape. Cassette
recorders and playback units run at 17/, ips.
A tape recorder is very simple to operate. It is very useful in teaching as well as in individualised
learning. However, it is easy to erase a recording if care is not taken. The picture of a reel-
to-reel tape recorder and a cassette tape recorder is given in Fig. 6.1.
6.3.3 Radio
Radio is a popular mass medium in almost d l countries of the world. It has the maximum
outreach. Almost everyone irrespective of economic background can afford to have a radio
set. It has the unique characteristic of speed and immediacy. It was thought in 1917 that mass
education can be achieved through radio broadcasts. In India, the first radio station was.
established in Bombay in July 1927. Then the next station was set up in Calcutta and in Delhi
it was set up in 1936.
In India, radio broadcast is done through All India Radio (AIR) services. School broadcasting
was started in 1937 from Calcutta. Since then, the school broadcast has increased. Most AIR
stations broadcast educational p r o g r a n m s for schools.
The Radio nledium is very effective for broadcast of lectures by eminent educationists, scientists,
historical statements, etc. It is a rich medium for broadcast of drama, stories, conmentary,
sports news, educational news and educ~tionalprogrammes. Radio medium is popular in both
urhan and rural settings. Radio programs are generally prepared on topics which are more
suitahle to verbal communication. Sound, music and special audio effects can be used in
audio programmes as to make them more effective. These techniques help create visual
images through sound. Non-broadcast mode (i.e. specially produced audio cassettes) is also
userul in classroom instruction. Institutions such as Central Institute of Educational Technology,
New Delhi, State Institute of Educational Technology, Educational Technology Cells of State
Councils of Educational Research and Training produce need-based audio preprogramms for
school children. We will discuss radio and audio programme further alongwith their advantages
and disadvantages in Unit 9 under Block 3 i.e. "Principles of Software Development".

Check Your I'rogress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given tielow.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
1. Whicll is the oldest form of audio media?

2, Wliy !x riidio called a mass medium?

..........................................................................................................................................

6.4 VISUAL NON-PROJECTEDTHREE-DIMENSIONAL

MEDIA
h e visual non-projected three-dimensional media include models, mock-up, diorama, globe,
map, hologram, puppet and specimen. We discuss these media in this section.

6.4.1 Models
Models are used for demonstrating the three-dimensional representation of.rea1 things (modcl
of an eye), or abstract things (model of solar system). They can be used in a wide range of
Educational Technology: instructional situations. They are particularly used for three specific purposes.
State of (he Art
as vistlal support materials in instructions;
as objects for study or manipulation in individualised learning; and
as construction project for individuals, small groups or even the entire class.
Advantages
Some of the advantages of using a model for classroom instruction are:
They can reduce very large objects (e.g. model of solar system) to a size that can be
conveniently observed and handled by you as well as by the students.
They can be used to demonstrate the interior structures of objects or systems with clarity
that i$ often not possible with twodimensional representations, (cross-section of the
earth, different layers of the earth).
They can be used to represent a highly complex situation or process in a simplified way
that can easily be understood by learners. This can be done by concentrating only on
essential features, eliminating all the complex and often confusing details that are so
often present in real life system.
Preparatibn
We can pepare models in different ways but the use of the standard techniques mentioned
will be useful.
Use of cheap materials such as cardboard, hardboard, wood and wire to prepare static
models like models of a dam, a building and the like.
Use of materials like modoelling clay and plastic line to produce realistic models of
living creatures, organs of a human body, etc.
Use of materials like plaster of Paris and paper mache to produce a physical map of a
continent, or a country, or landscape of a particular area.

6.4.2 Mock-ups
Mock-ups are generally used in the teaching-learning process, when a teacher finds it difficult
to provide first-hand experience to the learners. A mock-up is an operating model, designed
to be worked with directly by the learner for specific training or analysis. Mock-ups represent
real things, Sometimes, certain elepents of a real thing are purposefully eliminated to draw
the learners' attention to others.

6.4.3 Diorama
A diorama is a still display system which combines a three-dimensional foreground of pictures,
figures, etc. with a two-dimensional painted background, thus creating a highly realistic
effect. Diofamas are useful media in the teaching of many subjects. One can use dioramas in
subjects like history, geography, and biology etc.
Producing a Diorama
Ellington (1985) mentions the following steps in the preparation of a diorama:
1. Make a semi-circular base of the required size out of hardboard, thick card or some other
suitable material.
2. Make lup a strip of thin white card of suitable height that is capable of extending all the
way round the curved side of the base, draw andlor paint the required background scene
on thiS, and fix it to the base (e.g. with drawing pins).
3. Build up any landscape required in the foreground using plaster of paris and paint this
in the required colour(s).
4. Pro'duce or acquire any materials required for the foreground and set them in position;
such materials can include model figures (cardboard cut-outs, plasticine models, etc),
model buildings, model trees, model ships, tanks or other vehicles, pieces of rock and any
other materials that you feel will enhance the realism of the scene depicted. The picture
2x of a diorama is given in Fig. 6.2
 InsthaiondMedia nad
Materials-I1
Thrw-dimmdoml
la- in f-round
n d a of paintedpbrtar
of *is or pwhw
mdcM
I

red

F3g. 6.2: A typical diorama depicting a religious scene

6.4.4 Maps and Globes

All of us use maps in one form or the other in our daily life. When we tour a new place, we
take the help of maps. Thus, maps represent the earth or parts of the earth upon a flat surface.
The earth is represented on the map through lines, dots, colours, words and signs. In social
studies, maps are very important for learning many geographical, historical and economic
concepts.
-3

Globes are a scale model of the earth in threedimensions. These are the only kind of maps
that can give pupils a true conception of geographical relationships. Maps are broadly classified
into .the following categories.
i) Physical maps: These maps show climate, resources, rainfall, soil, etc.
& ii) Political maps: These maps show the political division of countries, provinces, etc.
iii) Economic maps: These maps show crops land used, railroad, etc.
F iv) Social maps: These maps show population distribution, languages, literacy rates of different
provinces, etc.
V) Historical maps: These maps show the boundary of a particular empire, treaties, etc.
The significant aspects of a map, which should be taught to students, are:
i) Land forms, ii) Water forms, iii) Human factors, iv) Distances, v) Political. factors.
vi) Climate and resources, vii) Transportation. viii) Location, namely, longitude and latitude
I of a place.
I

I 6.4.5 Puppets
Puppets are a very useful media in the teaching of history, drama, and literary topics. They
are available in the market or can be prepared locally according to the requirements. Puppets
can be made of cardboard, cotton, colour and other locally available materials. They are used
to dramatise any historical events like war, life of people during a particular historical period
etc. 37
Educational Tecl~nology: 6.4.6 Holograms
State of t l ~ eArt
Hoiograms are three-dimensional images of wonderful reality. These images are created on
a holographic (lensless photography) plate without a camera. However, a laser light beam is
used. one patt of the beam is reflected off the subject on to a photographic place and the other
reflected off a mirror and on to the same photographic plate. Holograms are less frequently
used in schools, as preparing them requires lot of technical skills as well as equipment. They
are also relatively costly to buy.

Note\: a) LVritc your answers in the space given below.

h ) Con~p~lreyour answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
i L\ill,it arc the i~istruct~olial
uses of models?
I
!

..........................................................................................................................................
:
4
i~ifferc~iliiitk
hetwecii politiciil' maps al~dhistorical maps'?

i ............................................... ..........................................................................................
..t- T

6.5 VISUAL PROJECTED (STILL) MEDIA

Visual projectbd (still) media include slides., filmstrips, overhead projector, microfilm and
computer.

A slide is a film transparency contained in a frame or mount. When pictures, diagrams,

specimens, etc. are to be shown to students, they can be mounted on slides and projected on
screen by the use of slide pro.jectors or viewer. Slides are a versatile medium. They are easy
to arrange and rearrange tomeet a variety of instructional peeds.There are several ways of
preparing slidqs. Diagrams, pictures, graphs, and illustrations can be drawn on a glass slide
using ink or by enclosing them between two glass slides (of 120 mm) and binding them
together. A micro-specimen can be projected by mounting it on a slide (e.g. blood). These are
usually using an epidiascope. An epidiascope is also used to project opaque objects
like a page book or d small three-dimensional specimen. Slides of 35 mm can be prepared
by photographing objects, pictures, events, landscapes, etc. and by getting a dia-positive
mode. An over exposed scrap film negative can be used to makeietching a needle on it.
Another way of improving it is to project photographic negatives, which is much cheaper in
comparisoh to a dia-positive. Now-a-days, it is possible to use a computer to design and
produce photographic slides.
The slides have to be projected in a dark room. Since it is a visual medium, back-ground
commentary on the content of the slides may be necessary. The teacher can make the
commentary while showing the slides or it can be pre-recorded and played on the tape
recorder along with the projection. But this has to be synchronised, i.e. the commentary and
the visuals shoclld match one another. A machine called synchroniser can be attached to the
automatic slide projector. By adjusting speed of the commentary, the commentary and visuals
can be synchronised.

38
A filmstrip is k leilgth of 35 mm film containing a series of still pictures intended for
prqjection in sequence oi at a time (Gerlach and Ely, 1980). '-1st like slides, filmstrips can In~lructionalMedin and
MnteIid.11
be prepared for pictures, diagrams, graph, etc. But unlike slides, there is sequential movement
of filmstrips on a screen. Filmstrips are projected with the help of a filmstrip projector.
Filmstrips can be hooked to a tape-recorder to provide the commentary. The teacher can teach
a lesson very ~ffectivelyby way of stopping and moving different frames in a filmstrip. The
teacher can prepare filmstrips by shooting appropriate frames in the film of a camera, and
then sequencing them accroding to the lesson or theme he wants to deal with.

Fig. 6.3: A typical classmom filmstrip projector

6.5.3. Microfilm and Microfiche

Microfilms are 35-rnm fi!ns, which contain photographed reading material. Each frame contains
materials of one page. The rolls of microfilm are placed in microfilm readers which project
each page on a re& vision screen. Microfiche is the miuiaturisation of microfilm. This is a
sheet of film carrying many rows of images of printed matter. Microfiche is reduced in size
in comparison to microfilm. Both microfilm and microfiche can be stored, retrieved and
projected for reading. They have great educational potential.

6.5.4 Overhead Projector

Overhead projector (OHP) is getting to be widely used in the classroom and other teaching1
learning situations. It is a medium through which still visual materials are displayed through
projection on the screen, It is a very simple instrument and one does not require any special
training to master its operation. The overall use of OHP can be seen under two categories:
i) Structure and operation of the instrument; and
ii) Preparation and use of the transparencies.
The hardware part is the instrument- the Overhead Projsctor. Today, it considered the most
convenient tool in the hands of teachers. It has several added advantages over other visual
teaching aids and especially over chalkboard or blackboard. The advantages are as foll~ws:
i) It facilitates two-way communication: While writing on the chalkboard, a teacha loses
his eye contact with the students, but when visuals are shown, the students can still be
faced. In this way, the teacher can observe the reaction of the students about higher
teaching process. This also helps the students to interact simultaneously with the teaching.
ii) It is a time-saving device: Visual materials can be prepared before coming to the class,
(as well as during the session) thus saving a lot of time that is spent on writing on the
chalkboard. Here, the materials can be prepared beforehand and arranged in the right
order. Thus, teaching becomes tension-free as the teacher devotes more time on discussion
than on lecturing and writing on the chalkboard.
 Educational Technology: iii) It is very easy to handle: For using and handling the OHP, one does not require any
Sbte of the Art expertise. If any replacement is required, it is the electric bulb, and everyone knows how
to replace a fused electric bulb.
iv) No darkened room necessary: Its visual materials do not require any dark room for
develloping or for projection. Thus studen~scan take down notes throughout the lesson.
I

v) It is easy to transport: It is a comparatively lighweight instrument which is portable

From one room to another.

Structure of OHP
The O W is a very simple instrument. It has one box which contains one electric bulb and
a blower. The top portion of the box is covered with a glass plate.
There are w e e switches on the box. One is for connecting it to the power supply. Of the two
other switches, one is for the blower and the other for the light.

LENS MOUNT HOUSING

LENS -
4RM GUIDE ROD

FDCUSING KNOB

1
Fig. 6.4: Structure of an overhead Projector

Operation
Whenever you want to use the OHP, ensure that the glass plate, lens and the mirror are clear
and dust free. Then connect the instrument to the power supply. For use, always switch on
the blower fjrst and then the bulb. Place the transparency on the glass plate. If needed, fix it
with the help of fringeslclip. View the image and adjust the mirror in position to get the
brightest and clearest image. It is advisable to fix the OHP in the classroom before teaching
commences. This saves the time spent on adjusting it. Basically, to get the best of this
instrument, it is essential to observe the following rules:
i) Position the projector and screen so that the latter can be seen clearly by all the students
of the clhss (this can be done prior to the beginning of the lecture). In many cases it is
best to place the screen in one of the front corners of the room, specially if locating it
in a central position would deprive you of access to a fixed chalkboard or blackboard,
which you might well want to use during the course of the lesson.
ii) Arrange the projector and screen in such a way as to eliminate or minimize two forms
of key stoning.
The first type arises when the axis of projection is not at right angles to the screen in the
horizontall plane, this can be eliminated by placing the projector opposite the centre of
the screen.

40
 ---- -

forward (if this is possible). In the case of a fixed vertical screen, the only way to solve In~tmctionalMedia an4
the problem may be to raise the level of the overhead projector itself, provided this can Matelialn-I1
be done without blocking the learner's view of the screen.

Screen \

Projection Head Resulting Image

Incorrect Alignment in Horizo~~tal
Plane

I
Projection Head
- Resulting Image
Incorrect Alignment in Vertical Plane
Fig 6.5: The Two Causes of Keystoning in OHP Displays

iii) Adjust the distance from the projector to the screen so that the image fills the full area
of the latter when properly in focus. Failure to use the entire area of the screen can make
it difficult for students sitting at the back of the room to see the details.
iv) Make sufe that the plate and head lens surfaces are clean and free from dust. Dirty or
d ~ ~ s tsurfaces
y can reduce image brightness and detract the clarity and quality of the
display.
v) In using OHP, the blower switch is to be turned on first and then the lamp. After use, the
lamp should be switched off first and then the blower. This is important because the
blower maintains the temperature of the projector to the room temperature.
vi) The pro,jector should not be moved from one position to another while in operations
(because the bulb may fuse or get switched off when heated as a result of the jerk).
vii) It .should not tie kept in use continuously for a long period.
viii) Use of a voltage stabilizer is desirable, though this depends on the fluctuation of the pore
supply.

Preparing transparencies
The second important part is the design and production of OHP transparencies. The
transparencies contain the instmctional material that helps in achieving the pre-set objectives
of the lecturelinstructional package. Let us, therefore, have a systematic look at how to design
and produce an OHP transparency.
There are two basic forms of OHP transparencies. One way is to prepare it on the continuous
roll and the other way on a single transparency sheet. Both these forms have their respective
uses.
The continuous roll
Every OHP has a provision for winding an acetate roll sheet from one end to The another.
I
Therefore, if needed, you can insert a blank acetate roll from one end of the OHP. To move
this roll from one end to the other, you can use it as a substitute of blackboardlchalkboard.
This form is more useful to a teacher who prefers to createJdevelop display of instructional
materials instantly along with the teaching-learning process. This type is preferable for
calculation, derivations, and other similar subject areas. This form is preferable to the
Educational Teclinulogy: blackboard/chalkboard as there is no need to rub off any of the material at intervals caused
Slate of the Art
by lack of space as it sometimes happens on the blackboard. This also protects your hands.
and clothes from chalk dust. In an OHP you can insert a big acetate roll that will suffice for
the whole lecture. Besides this, you can sit while you teach, if you prefer so.

The singk transparency

Previously, thin sheets were available for mjaking OHP transparencies. These sheets had a
tendency lo curl up. Therefore, such transparencies were fixed on a plastic or cardboard
frame. Suah transparencies were called mounted transparencies. Now-a-days, one gets sheets
which are thicker and less prone to curling. Therefore, moutning, which takes up a lot 01
space and time, is not necessary. Now-a-days, storing these thick transparency sheets in their
blank boxes is quite common, as they are very handy to store and to carry. While storing
however, it is advisable to keep some blank sheets of paper in between two transparencies to
ensure that, they do not stick to each other.
Although yingle transparencies are also used for creating the supportive display material
simultaneotsly with lecturing in a classroom, it is advisable to use them in the production of
prepared instructional material. In the coming paragraphs, the design and production of a
single OHQ transparency are discussed at length.
I
Design and preparation of an OHP transparency
An OHP trbnsparency can be prepared by a number of methods but the basic steps for its
preparation, remain the same in all the methods.
i) Drafting: Generally all the supplied blank acetate sheets are larger than the top glass
frame $f OHP. Thus, some standard measur2ment area should be decided first. The
marking of the area avoids the cutting of the material on projection. One of the simplest
metho4 is to prepare a draft. Foi this, cut out a square shaped thick white card of suitable
size, anb mark the effective outline of the OHP platen, using a blackfelt pen or marker.
This cap be used as the wurk surface and guide for preparing the futuri transparency
sheets. acceptable space for a grid is square. The grid can be easily produced manually.
It is also helpful to stick two small pieces of Blue-tack or similar rubber adhesive to the
top edge of the card as shown in the Figure 6.6. These pieces of Blue-tack hold the
acetate $bet firmly in place while you work on it.

Pieces to Blu-tack

Grid of 114"
Squares for Use
a s Guidelines

Fig. 8.6: A Home-made Work Surface for the Preparation of OHP Trunsparul~r~es
I

ii) Productibn of OHP transparencies manually: This is another simple and quick way of
producin4 an OHP transparency. In this either water-soluble or permanent marker pens
are used for writingtdrawing. The use of the specific type of pen depends upon the
content. Ifa transparency is to be re-used, it is preferable to use mejium-tipped spirit
based peds rather then water-saluble pens. Black, red, blue and green arc the preferred
42 I -
colours b$cause they get reflected better on the screen. If a large coloured area is to be
 shown, the use of a colour transpxency in that shape is advisable Instructional Media and
Materials-Il
Written material should be presented in writing or printing style. This -enhances legibility
to the optimum level. The smallest lettering to be used on a transparency should be
quarter of an inch, allowing for normal viewing and lighting condition. Lettering also
varies from situation to situation. Generally, type-written letters are avoided due to their
distress-causing nature. Generally capital forms are preferred for short titles and
emphasising points, and running printing style for the other matter.
A gap of roughly 114" is advisable in between lines and proper spacing should be used
in between the words. For producing fine quality in the finished product, machine-
generated lettering is required. Generally for most purposes, hand produced lettering is
perfectly adequate and much quicker.
iii) Typing OHP material: This is also a popular method of producing OHP transparencies.
For this, instead of a standard office typewriter a bulleting or primary typewriter using
a special ribbon or carbon sheet is used to type the material on to the acetate sheet. The
second way is to type the material on to a paper and make a transparency from this by
using a thermal copier.
iv) From opaque originals: We can also prepare an OHP transparency from opaque originals.
By this method, good transparencies are produced if the original material is suitable for
OHP projection, by using a thermal copier or similar machine.
v) From computer-generated originals: Today, it has become possible to design and prepare
OHP transparencies with the help of a computer.

You are able to provide gainful learning experiences to the students hy using OHP displays
according to the demands of the teaching-learning situations. There are three major display
techniques by which you can display your still visual aids by using an OYP. These are:
a) Progressive disclosure: This is one of the basic and most useful techniques from an
instructional point of view. In this technique, the transparency is totally covered with the
help of a paper, or pieces of paper - like opaque material. You can reveal the portion
progressively as the classroom teaching goes. This has the dual advantage of concentrating
the lnind of the learner on whatever item or section is being discussed, and retaining their
interest by keeping them in suspense about the next point (a good psycholagical ploy).
There are other modern and versatile methods of displaying this technique.

Masks Folded Back

to Reveal Material
Underneath

Mater~alStill to be Revealed

Fig. 6.7: Use of a System of Hinged Masks to Allow Progressive Disc1osul.e of the Vm.ious
Sections of a Block Diagram

b) User of overlays: This is also a very useful method. In it, the whole transparency is
displayed. As the teaching process progresses, other transparencies are placed over the first
transparency. With the help of this technique a complicated process can be explained in a very
simple manner by superimposing transparencies. This technique is useful for explaining
complicated processes/systems.
Edueatinnal Teei~nology: c) Use of animation: 'All OHP is able to project animation to a certain extent. Ripple tank
Sbte uf tlle Art
is ond such example. It is made up of a transparent sheet. By placing this tank on the
plated and projecting a light, characteristics of wares can be explained in a very simple
way. In another way, special polarising materials are placed on the platen.

6.5.5 Computers
Though some of us have no access to the use of computer in instruction at present, the future
years must certainly see a massive use of computers in instruction. As a communication aid,
it has a lot of potential which can be exploited for instructional purposes, especially in the
field of iddividualised instruction. As teachers,' we must know the role of computers in fie
teaching-lbarning process. A computer can record, analyse and react to students' responses,
it can .store and manipulate information on an extensive scale, it can control and manage a
wide variety of learning materials; and it can simultaneously cope with the learning requirements
of many individuals. It can make a number of planning decisions also.

Technical description of a computer

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs operations on that data in a
sequence [decided by a programme) and outputs the results. Computers can be of various
sizes and termed differently like mainframe computers, mini-computers and microcomputers.
Apart froin size, computers are differentiated according to specifications of the electronic
devices. Qese include the amount and type of storage, the capabilities of the Central Processing
Unit and the type and nature of the peripheral equipment (such as disc sotrage) that can be
connected to the computer. I

The basic microcomputer system as shown in figure 6.8 consists of an input device (e.g., the
keyboard), the Central Processing Unit of the computer and storage devices (e.g. Cassette tape
player, flclppy disc device), and the output device (e.g., a T.V. display Unit or a monitor and/
or printin$ terminals). The actual equipment of the computer system is called the Hardware,
while the term Software refers to the instructions or the programmes that the computer carries
out.

and Logic

Central Processing Unit (C P U)

---+ Flow of InstructionsICotnmands
-4Flow of Instructions/data
Fig. 6.8: Microcomputer System

The input device, usually a key board, (or cassette recorder or disc device), is meant to send
data and instructions to the Central Processing Unit. The control unit in the CPU receives the
instructiools involving calculation or comparison. It then controls the movement of data from
the membry to ALU for the arithmetic or logical operations, Once these operations are over,
it moves the results to a specific storage location and/or to the output device. Normally, a
television screen displays the work that the computer has done. A printer can also be used if
a hard cqpy is required.
 Role of computers in instruction Instructional Media and
Materials-I1
A computer has several applications in instructional situations. It is used to find the entry
level of students' knowledge on enrolment. It is also used to plan and print individualised
programmes, monitor a student's progress and compile tests and scores. But the most important
contribution of computer in the domain of instruction is Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
and Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI). Here, we will tell you about the different modes
of computer-assisted instruction and their advantages and disadvantages.

Computer-assisted instruction
In computer-assisted instruction, there is flow of information and interaction between the
computer and the learher. The computer delivers instructions directly to students and allows
them to interact with it through the lessons programmed in the system. A computer provides
feedback to the learner on the basis of histher perfprmance. On the whole it may be said, that
the computer acts as a teacher to the student.
In order to carry out this teachingllearning function, a computer utilises various instructional
modes. Let us now discuss.these modes in brief.
3--Drill and practice: In this mode, a computer presents the learner with a series of exercises
which he or she must do by giving some response. It provides the learner some feedback .
about the answer in the form of a congratulatory message if it is riglit, or a corrective
comment if it is wrong. 'Thus, computer-assisted instruction provides endless drill and
practice with repetition at a pacer that can be controlled by the learner. The computer
proceeds only when mastery is achieved by the learner.
-- -----

ii) Tutorial mode: In the tutorial mode, as in programmed instruction, information is presented
i
in small units followed by a question. The student's response is analysed by the computer
and appropriate feedback is given.
iii) Simulatibn mode: Learning experiences regarding real life systems of phenomena are
provided to the learner through this mode. For example, the study of genetics, experiments
in town planning, the operation of a system, etc., can be shown to the student through
simulation in the computer.
iv) Discovery mode: This mode uses inductive approach to learning wherein the problems
. are presented and the learner solves them through trial and error.
v) Gaming mode: In gaming mode teaching can be imparted, through a play way mode.

Computer-managed instruction
In conlputer-managed instruction (CMI) the computer gathers, stores, and manages information
to guide students through individualised learning experiences. The computer helps the student
to move through check-points (in the form of definite activities) in the education process at
different times via different paths matching the individual capabilities. It achieves this
individualised instructional process by a series'of activities-administering diagnostic tests,
scoring them, prescribing the appropriate paths and monitoring the progress of individuals all
along the route.

Chcrk Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
I ~"

h ) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
5. W h ~ c hof the following is untrue of slides but true of filmstrips?.

II a) They are uscd to project micro-specimens. diagrams, graphs, ~llustrations,etc.

h ) They have a continuous movement 011 the screen.
I1
C) Tlicy can be prepared by photographing objects, pictures, etc.
d ) They can be prepared with the help of a computer.
IC Which of the toll~wingis not observed while using an Overhead Projector?
I
a) Plaren i~ndhead lens surfaces are kept clean and free fro111 dust.
I Q
45
d
1
- - .-
Educational Technology: +

State of the Art

C) h e lamp is switched on first and then the blower.

d) it, should not used for a long time.
7. Whad are the instructional applications of a computer?
.............................................................................. ........................................................>,,',..
........,......................1)...(........*................................................................................................
.........................................................................................
........................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................... ..........................................
.............................................................................................................................................

6.6 AUDIO-VISUAL PROJECTED (WITH MOTION)

MEDIA
Audio visudl projected media include motion picture, film, television, CCTV, computer, slide
tape presentation, interactive video, etc.

6.6.1 Motion Picture Film

A motion picture (sometimes called a movie or film) is a series of still pictures (frames)
usually 8 nun or 16 mm in size, taken in rapid succession. When projected by a motion
picture pro.jector, they give an illusion of motion (Gerlach and Ely, 1980) Films vary in length
from one minute or less to 50 minutes or more. If a r6 mm motion picture is more than 50
minutes in length, it is usually stored on two or more reels. The speed at which a film is
pro,jected vadjes with the format of the fdm. A sound 16 mm film is projected at 24 frames
per second (fps), and super 8 rnm films at 18 fps. Therefore, it is possible to show films in
such a mannb as to create three types of images: 1) normal motion, 2) fast motion or 3) slow
motion.
Motion pictufe films are very useful in teaching various subjects. They are very effective i n
teaching literature, drama, history and geography and science subjects. Motion pictures motivate

46 Fig. 6.9: Leaming from Television

 the students as they enjoy the medium. They bring people, country, evpnts, etc. on the screen. In~tmctionr,Media and
Materials41
However, they are expensive and subject to damage if used extensively.

6.62 Instructional Television

This includes image magnification facilities, video taping and replaying and the open TV
system run hy universities or school campuses. Surgery skills in medical colleges, laboratory
skills and work.hop skills can he taught through instructional television. Instructional television
uses ope11 TV systems. Thus, we have UGC's countrywide classrooin programmes on Higher
Education which are telecast over the National Network. State Institute of Educational
Twhqcdogy (SIET) in six States and the Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET)
produce educationaI TV programmes for the children. These programmes are produced in
local language and telecast through a communication satellite.
We will discuss more on television and video programmes in Unit 10 under Block 3, i.e.
Application to AudioNideo Programmes.

6.6.3 CCTV
Close Circuit Television or CCTV is a form of instructional television. In CCTV, signals are
received by the receiver through cable. Therefore, its range is limited to the length of the
cahle. It is very useful for teaching a large group of students. It is used in medical colleges.
When an operation is being conducted, it is not possible to accon~n~odate all students in
operation theatre. Through CCTV, students are shown the operation in various rooms. Hence,
it Increases the range of instruction to one or more Iocations beyond the classroonl. It magnifies
exhihits nnd demonstrations which arc not possible in a classroom situation.

6.6.4 Slide Tape Presentation

In slide tape presentation, slides replace the filmstrip and .are used in sequential conjunction
with correlated recc~dingsin cassette tape. Slides are prepared according to the need of the
content to he presented ant; ti18 students' entry behaviour. Any particular slide may be deleted
'
and a new one added xcarding to the need of instruction. Slide tape presentation is very
useful in teaching as it includes both sound and visual.
Students take keen interest in such type of presentations. The teacher, with a little training,
can use the tape recorder with ease and effectiveness. The teacher can record his commentary
with appropriate background, music and sound. For example, if a sea is shown in the slide,
the roaring sound of tides may be given in the background music. The final recording is made
with the teacher's commentary along with the background music and sound effects on two
tape-recorders. The mixed recording of the final tape is done on a third recorder.

6.6.5 Interactive Video

Interactive video, an innovation in educational technology, is getting popularity day-by-day
because of its dual functions of providing video pictures and computer-assisted instruction.
Thus, interactive video makes use of the'existing technologies of video and computer-assisted
instntction and thereby provides all the advantages of the two media as well as an effective
interaction between them.

Technical description of an interactive. video

hl an interactive video system, the video medium can be either video disc or video cassette
and interaction with the system is provided by an interface to a microcomputer. A lesson
generally runs under the c ~ n t r o of
l the computer programme. The computer controls all the
normal functions of the video machine like play, fast forward, rewind, still frame, search etc.
Usually, the same monitor is used by the computer and the video. As a result, a student can
at a point of time see a video picture or computer display although an overlay of computer
output over the video picture can be done.
As we have already seen in case of computer-assisted instruction, interactive video also uses
the principles of programmed instruction in structuring teaching-learning sequence. Laurillard
, (1987) descrihes teaching-learning sequence in an interactive video in the following way:
Educational Technology: 'Video presentation (5-10 minutes):
State of the Art
Computer displays question relating to video sequence;
Student types in answer; computer checks it; if correct, computer outputs 'correct' message,
then plays next video sequence; if incorrect computer outputs 'incorrect' message, then
eithet plays a remedial video sequence or branches to a remedial computer sequence then
finishes with another test question."
Advantages of interactive video
i) The advantage of interactive video is that the amount of information immediately available
is enqrfious because of the i b e n s e storage capacity of a video disc. A single video disc
can eken store the entire Encyclopaedia Britannica.

.
ii) It h a the potential to present text, graphics, graphics film and sound in varied ways.
Disadvantages of interactive video
!

Because of its high controlled nature, learners have hardly any choice over the order of
presentatim of the material, or the tests. Thus, they cannot follow up their interests and
queries as they arise. In consequence, learning may become mechanical rather than meaningful.
Inspite of Some difficulties, interactive video may turn out to be the educational technology ,
. .
of the coming years.
---.-.-.--.-7--" -- 7
IL
space given beic$n:.
.s i : ~thc i

I
8.
63 Compare your answcrs witil the one given a i the end
Instruclinnal televisior~call he used lor:
a) Skill tfevelogmen~
i;i. tlrir' ;.-.;'
i i . ~ ~ .

11
1

e) All ot the ,ihove

9. What 1s not true of ~ntcractivcu~dcu'!
a) Presentation of vidco plclures
b) Pr$sentation of CAI luateriuls
c) Usc of prillclplcs of progranuned instrnction

6.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed four categories of instructional media, namely, audio media, visual
non-projected three-dimensional media, visual projected (still) media, audio-visual projected
(with motion) media. Under audio media, four media, namely, human voice, gramophone
recording, tape recording and radio were highlighted. .
Under visual non-projected three-dimensional media, we presented to you models, mock-ups,
diaroma, maps and globes, puppets and holagrams. Most of these media could be prepared
by teachers and make use of in teaching-learning process. Under viskal projected (still) media,
we touched upion slides, filmstrips, microfilm, microfiche, overhead projector and computer.
We discussed how to prepare OHP transparencies and how to organise computer- assisted
instruction (CAI).
Under audio-visual projected (with motion) media, we described about motion picture film,
instructional television, CCTV, slide tape presentation, interactive video. We highlighted the
instructional vdlues of all these media.
 Instmctionnl Media and
6.8 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES Mnterials-Il

1. Select a topic of your own choice. Prepare OHP transparencies on that topic. Teach the
topic to your student using OHP transparencies. Assess the impact of the use of OHP
transparencies in your teaching.
2. Prepare some models which could be of use in your teaching activities.
3. Visit the computer training centres in your city. Find out what training packages they
have.

1. Human Voice
2. Radio is called a mass medium because it reaches the large section of the population of
a country at the same time.
3. There are three instructional uses of models:
a) They are used as visual support materials in instruction
b) They are used as objects for study or manipulation in individualised learning.
c) They are used as construction project for individuals, small groups or even the
entire class.
4. Political maps show the political division of countries, provinces, etc., whereas historical
maps show the boundary of a particular empire, treaties, etc.

7. There are two major instructional applications of computer. One is computer-assisted

instruction and the other is computer managed instruction. In computer-assisted instruction,
the conlputer provides the lesson to the learners, interacts with them, gets responses from
them and provides feedback to them. On the other hand, in computer-managed instruction,
the computer gathers, stores and manages information to guide students through
individualised learning experiences.

6.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ellington, Henry (1985): Teaching Materials, A Handbook for Teachers and Trainers, London:
Kogan Page.
Gerlach, V. S. and Ely, D.P. (1980): Teaching and Media, A Systematic Approach, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Kulkarni, S. S. (1986): Introduction to Educational Technology, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co.
Kumar, K. L. (1996): Educational Technology, New Delhi: New Age International.
Laurillard, Diana (1987): The Problems and Possibilities of Interactive Video in the Computer
Revolution in Education (ed.) by Jones, A. (et, al.), Sussex: The Harvest Press Limited.
Sampath, K., Pannirselvam, A. and Santhanam, S. (1990): Introduction to Educational
Technology, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

7.1 Introduction 1
7.3 Futire Trends: Emerging Technologies in Education
7.4 Audio-Video Technology
7.4.1 hteractive Broadokting
7.4.2 Teletext and Videotext
7.5 Computer Technology
7.5.1 Computer
7.5.2 Videodisc
7.5.3 Hectronic-mail (E-mail)
7.6 Telecommunications and Networks
7.6.1 Communication Satellite
7.6.2 Telephone and Fax
7.6.3 Teleconferencing
7.6.4 VSATs
7.6.5 Internet and Intranet
7.7 Let Us Sum Up
7.8 Unitend Activities
7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
7.10 Suggested Readings

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Advancement in communication technology has contributed to the overall development of
people across Be world. Now, everybody talks about the communication technology revolution,
the role it is playing and also it is going to play in the future. You will agree with us that many
of the functions performed by the human beings could be replaced by electronic equipment
(Halal, 1992). 'The emerging communication and information technologies are gradually
covering the entire span of human activity. You might have come across many expressions,
such as electroQic shopping, education, banking, trading, political polling and voting, home
entertainment, W networks, electronic medical treatment, etc. The new option of interacting
globally is begihning to dramatically alter the world of works. Multinational corporations are
now able to cohduct their business activities around the world with ease. The potential of
emerging'technqlogy can be judged by the fact that a large sum of money, time, creativity and
efforts has beai poured in information technology industry.
Education has been benefited by communication technologies in various ways' and at various
levels. From botb the sociological and the economic points of view, communication Lechnology
has made an imgact on education training. Anumber of institutions in the developed countries
are offering courses through various communication technologies such as interactive W,
computer confe~encing,internet and other modem media. Some distance educationlopen
learning institutibns in the developing countries are also now offering courses electtonically.
As a result, a chonk of learners are pursuing their study through cominunication technology:
both the popular and modern media..
In earlier Units of this Block, you have studied the growth, potential and limitations of
popular media, such as radio and TV.In this unit, we shall take you a step ahead and discuss
the essential featdues, role and applications of modern or emerging media in the ducatio~al
process. Howevef; the emphasis in this unit is laid on those technologies which have strong
bearing on education: conventional as well as distancdopen learning situations. The creation
or adoption of new technologies and their applications is evolutionary in many forms. Some
of the technologies discussed in this unit may not be popular in education these days.
50
Nevertheless, in the changed scenario there is every possibility that today's students would Emerging Techdogie
look for more sources of information, thus tapping the potential of new technologies, as per
their needs and requirements. Keeping the potential of the various technologies in view, we
shall discuss three major technologies in this unit. They are audio-video technology, computer
technology, and telecommunications and networks. These technologies are not mutually
exclusive. Their applications overlap each other's domain. Before discussing different types
of technologies, we shall try to give you an overall picture of emerging technologies and their
perceived impact on education and training.
Experience has revealed that the communication technology strengthens the hands4f the
teacher, lrlakes hisher teaching more effective. But remember that it is pedagogy, and not
technolt\$y, that is important. Technology in the classroom does not automatically guarantee
better results for students unless it is planned, designed and implement@ creativelyleffectively.
Technology should be studied and adopted to take full advantage of its capabilities. You,
therefore, should look for new ways of teaching using technology. You can also try to utilise
some existing or emerging technologies in your teaching and assess their pedagogic effectiveness
in your classroom.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
discuss the role of emerging technologies in the changing scenario of the teaching-
learning process;
discuss the nature and essential features of different emerging technologies in the field
of education; gnd
explain the role and uses of viious technologies in a variety of teaching-learning situations.

7.3 FUTURE TRENDS: EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN

EDUCATION
The new communication and information technologies have profoundly affected our social '
structure. There is a growing interdependencebetween technology, information (message) and
society. At the policy level the use of communication technologies in education and training
has,been identified emphatically. The CA3E (Central Advisory Board of Education) Committee
on Distance Education (1994) recommended the urgent need for the use of electronic media
in the educational process in view of its vital importance, particularly to support distance
education. It also recommended undertaking some experiments with new technological systems/
developments, with an eye on the future and in keeping with the technical skills and advanced
infrastructure available in the country. \

Convergence of emerging communication and information technologies is taking place these

days, thus maximising the strengths of individual technology. Telecommunication clubbed
with computer technology has revolutionised the area of human communication. The capability
to exchange information on a global basis is possible through a powerhl communication tool:
.the satellite. Computer technology has provided tremendous capacity to store and exchange
information. The human-computer interface has made communication further efficient, in
terms of cost, time and reliability. This is the reason why communication technologies are
becoming popular in receiving and transmitting messages, data, voice and images.
The computing and telecommunication technologies are not leaving the education sector
untouched. These are enabling the teachers to develop multimedia in which text, voice,
pictures, simulation, etc. can be'integrated and delivered through computers as an intexactive
learning package. The technologies will enable us to develop what are often called virtual
classrooms, virtual universities, virtual conferencing, virtual laboratories, etc. (Takwale, 1995);
'Emerging technologies appear to offer the opportunity to gain access to knowledge and closer
to real life. This would lead us to a learning society. This is a single new development that
can revolutionise the future of education. Virtual reality and simulation will provide'the ability
for people to enjoy experience that we could not get o t h h i s e . This is an experience without
risk and promoted learning in a new way. So, communicgion technology will provide a new
-
A

51
 Educational Tecl~nology: strategy for education, for training experience. We are not talking about the technologically
State of the Art developed countries only, virtual classrooms or institutions are now getting established in the
developing countries also, like Thailand, Malaysia, India, etc.
To compete and survive in the competitive world of education it is essential to create, adopt
and utilise new technologies, which will allow efficient flow of data, voice and images to all
those who want to remain updated in the fast changing world. With this, education will cross
the country's border and will change the world into a 'global village'.
To cater to and be responsive to the education and training needs of the people in the country
and also to reach out to them, we can depend on innovative communication technologies. If
you look into the future trends of development, the education and training requirements in the
years to come would be much more information intensive, catering to the needs of individual
students. Fortunately, these days due to rapid developments in the area of digitisation, signal
processing, compression, miniaturisation, VSATs, etc. communication technologies are I
becoming available to the general public, (Kasturiranjan, 1995). In this way more and more
people (students in this case) would he benefited by the new technologies. In our view,
technology has the potential to revolutionise training and learning.
New technology almost always addresses the changing paradigms of education and training. I
It cbanges the way the teacher teaches and students do their work. It provides them new tools
to increwe the productivity in terms of learning outcomes. It makes learning easier, more
1
effective and more enjoyable. In brief, technology brings the following changes (Hathawy,
1990): l

Teacher's work: A shift from the role of the sole dispenser of knowledge to students to
one of helping students acquire knowledge from a variety of sources will be clearly
visible once new technologies are used. Appropriate use of technology in education
necessitates changes in the way teachers organise and implement teaching activities and
students engage in learning activities.
Treatment of students: New technologies can provide more individualised learning to
the students in terms of content, length and time.

requirements for facilities. Educational practice may opt technologically -

Facility design: Appropriate applications of technology in education may alter the
enhanced
learning agproaches. Educational facility designs can provide greater flexibility in using
learning materials, provide for better student access to a variety of information sources
within and outside the school and be accessible for a greater period of time.
Productivity: Technology - enhance learning system.can both increase productivity and
provide products for export i.e. courseware developed could be marketed. Productivity is
measured in terms of both quantity and quality, more and better.
The potential of technology must be exploited. Technology can be used to alter the way things
are done in education. When technology is used to alter the way education is delivered, a
number Of benefits should accrue, as mentioned above. It is worth to mention here that we
.should try and understand how technology can be used effectively in education and determine
the right roles for teachers and right role for technology.

AUDIO-VIDEO TECHNOLOGY
As this unit deals with emerging communication and information technologies, we did not
inchde -popular educational media: radio and television etc. in our discussion. However,
innovative applications of radio and television in teaching and learning are included.

7.4.1 Illteractive Broadcasting

As you b o w , the broadcasting mode, both radio and TV,is being used for education ar the
- primary, secondary and higher education level in the country for a long time. However, the
delivery of information has remained unilateral (one-way only). The ability to interact is a key
feature of face-to-face teaching. It is, therefore, important to decide what actual or equivalent
levels of interaction are possible in other forms of delivery of information i.e. in distance and
open learning system. One of the main characteristics of emerging media is the potential for
- 52 interactiqn. Now, efforts are being made to make the broadcasts interactive i.e. two-way
-- -
 Emerging Technologic
communication. The students, though physically separated from the teacher and the school,
can not only hear him but also clarify their doubts, ask questions or raise queries. You might
have seen various radio programmes (usually known as phone-in programmes) in which the
experts answered the question(s) asked by the listeners. Radio is a mass medium and is being
made more interactive. The listeners participate in the interactive broadcast through phone-
in system. IGNOU is also using interactive radio broadcast for tele-teaching.

7.4.2 Teletext and Videotext

The teletext and videotext are dedicated information services/systems. Both the technologies
are available in the country and are being used for business purposes by corporate houses. Let
us discuss each of these in Qetail.
Teletext: A teletext is an electronic publication delivered to the home television set either
through a television broadcast or a cable television network. It is composed of a text as well
as graphics and is read as it appears on a television screen, similar to the way the printed text
is read (Mirabito, 1994). A teletext magazine is composed of news, sports, railways and air
travel timings, and special interest features.
There are generally 100 or more pages of information, and a topic index organises the stories
(information) into specific subject areas. To gain access to teletext you need a standard
television set, a decoder and a keyboard. The keyboard resembles a television remote control
and is used to select the page you want to view.
Educational communication can be supported by the teletext. The service can be used to
advertise various educational activities being organised by the institute. It can make television
viewii~ga more interactive and active experience.

1 Despite past and future promise, teletext service could not emerge as a viable communication
tool. Some experiments on the educational use of teletext were conducted in developed
countries but its potential has yet not been fully tested in India. The service is not being used
for educational purposes in India. We, in India, however, can use teletext for disseminating
infom~ationto students, articular to those who are located far off from the school. It has
potential for distance educationlopen learning system. The distance education operations such
I as schedule of admission, dispatch of learning materials, examinations, delivery of student
, support services, etc., can be transmitted through the national channel of Doordarshan, catering
to the information needs of the distance learners. The pages of teletext magazine can be
increased to accommodate a variety of educational information. New electronic deivces could
also support higher-resolution images and enhance under interface to speed up the access to
various information. The teletext service could receive a further boost through narrowcasting
and slanting programming towards educational and professional interest groups.
i Videotext: A videotext system is a two-way, graphic-oriented, interactive service comprising
i thousand of frames or pages of information (Mirabito, 1994). The user can retrieve the
graphic and alphanumeric information from the computer via a standard telephone line.
I
England's National Prestel Service and Canadian's 'Teledon are examples of videotext system
eillg used by the subscribers for a variety of communications, including educational.

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer wilh the one given at the end of the unit.
1. What is interactive broadcasting?
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- 53
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Educational Technology:
S b t e of the Art 7.5 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
The major communication technologies: piint, audio and video, are converging today at the
computer, a fact which stirs excitement among educators who imagine their students as users.
The convergence of these media makes the learners more than users, it invites them to be
managers or controllers, of a large body of information that is easily available on a computer.
We shall discuss in brief, the various computer-based technologies available for educational
purposes h the following sub-sections.

7.5.1 Computer
A significwt benefit offered by the computer technology is the ease and speed with which
it can manage the learning process. The computer, therefore, is a useful tool for education and
training. I h e technology will exert even edlir influence on education in future. Computer
technology can perfonn the funchons 01 a classroom teacher. It can be used for a variety of
instructionfpwposes: individual instruction, home studies and independent learning. It is easy
for both the teachers and the studcnts to understand difficult and abstract educational concepts
by computer animation, graphics and clear colour presentation.
New developments have resulted in widespread usage of computers for information access,
education, training and comnlunication. A study conducted in USA concluded that computer-
based tools could reduce the time to learn by 30 percent. The finding is based on defence-
training, but this*may provide indication of the potential benefits for general education.
Virtual reality: A new development taking place in the field of computer is virtual reality.
This field of computing ha3 enlexged as n result of advancement in computer graphics for
generation of display devices (K.lwa: 1998). Virtual reality (VR) aims at poviding computer
generated virtual environ~ientwhich can be used as the most advanced tool of visuahsation
for a large number of scientific applicahons such as stuay of computer structures, near
realistic simqlalion of natural pehnomenon and conducting hazardous experiments. The student
can interact (with a life-like artificial world that can be perceived, explored and manipulated
at will. The various objects in the artificial world created by the computer behave in the same
manner as the objects in the real world. In real life we perceive objects by oui senses: seeing,
hearing, touch, taste or smell. In virtual reality, computers are used for creating visual
environment, audio environment and tactile environment for taking care of input to the three
senses. Computers create images by using advanced graphics techniques. Thl VR is a tool
of human being-machine interaction which is going to revolutionise education and training. ,

The videodisc is a product of the optical disc family. It has tremendous capacity to store
information, data, visuals and voice. Videodiscs have been adopted by libraries, researchers,
and schools h r storage of information. A videodisc can store thousand of still visuals, data
and information. A videodisc player makes it possible to view a single picture (also known
as frame) for the time required by the student. The videodisc player reads the same frame
where the im4gdpicture is stored. .
A videodisc player can be interfaced with a computer to create an interactive environment.
The advantages of videodisc are surnrnarised as follows:
Videodisc is a flexible medium giving control to study paths, access at any point in the
programme, and feedback as required.
Rarldom access.
Informatidn read without physical contract giving exceptional durability.
Permit ranid, almost instantaneous, access to vgrious segment to a programme.
Good display quality.
Slow motipn and reverse display.
o Each framb identified by frame number.
Superior fieeze-frame viewing. .
i
I

'I
Videodiscs have certain limitations too. Important among them are as follows:
e ~ o i n p a r a t i v e high
l ~ costs usually associated with production.
Emerging Tecl~nolqies

e Most videodiscs are a fixed medium - can be neither recorded nor edited usihg standard
I video production facilities.
f 0 Unfamiliar to most teachers and teacher educators, consequently there are limited
1
applications in Indian context.

Fig. 7.1: Videodisc

Compact disc-interactive (CD-I): CD-I is an optical storage system primarily geared to
educational markets. It is a sophisticated audio-video tool that supports a variety of playback
format. CD-I can also support animation, video and photographic quality images.
CD-I is an interactive too]. A student can interact with the database of illformation through
CD-I player and remote control device. Instead of watching and listening to a pre-arrangd
presentation, much like a video tape, the student can select the illformation he wants to hear
and see and the order in which it is to be played (Mirabito, 1994). Based up011 the student's
needs and requests the computer would retrieve and display specific information stored on the
interactive' disc.
Uniqueness: The combination of the two technologies (its functionality and use, and the
enablirig technology) provides a medium which has the potential for providing unique
educatioi~almaterials as adjuncts to the teaching and learning )recess. Well designed
prograinmes can effectively enhance the learning process. This is achieved through the active

surrogacy.
#
.
participation of the learner and the level of visual realism obtainable through simulation and

As an educatidnal tool it has been enthusiastically received by learners and is clearly enjoyable
to use, but it has not yet proved to be cost effective and evaluation of its educational benefits
is to be assessed.
Evidence of etTectivenas: In the educational context, it is far easier to find evidence of an
enthusiastic response to the medium than to find hard evidence of its effectiveness following
an objective and carefully executed evaluation. In the training context, there is no doubt that
it is highly effective in improving retention compared to other forms of instruction in
appropriately chosen topics.
There is also no doubt that CD-I has the attributes required for providing the most effective
types of learning environments, and that potentially it is an effective adjunct to conventioilal
teiaching. Llke all new educational technology products, there is a pressing need for evaluation
of the effectiveness of CD-I programmes before their widespread iiltroduction into the
curricul~m.Evaluation, howevkr, requires substantial time and yesources if anything more
than an informal survey of attitudes is to be attempted.
Educational Technology: CD-I has many characteristics. Some important ones are summarised below:
State of the Art
Versatility: CD-I is an extremely versatile medium. In one application it may serve as a
pictorial database for a museum collection of photographs held as video stills and, in another,
enable managers to take part in a realistic simulation game. It can serve as an entertainment
source by giving access to a selection of videos, or it might serve as a training programme
for motor vehicle mechanics, for example.
CD-I is at its most powerful when operating in a simulation mode. This may take the form
of a dialogue with a teacher, a realistic representation of surrogate travel, the conducting of
an experiment, the managem6nt of a commercial or business venture or the manipulation of
real equipment interfaced to the CD-I system. The great advantage of the higher levels of
functionality is that the education lists can teach the student, for example, how to be a
physicist, a traveller, a manager, or welder, not merely what physics, travelling, management
and welding are about.
Views of Cb-I: As a medium, CD-I may also carry a range of quite different applications.
It is, consequently, not surprising to discover that interactive video means different things to
different people. It may be seen as a totally new creative medium by video producers, or as
video-enhanced computer assisted learning (CAL) by educationists, or abstractly as one
component of a multi-media information system by computer scientists. Each of these views
is valid, so that evaluations of interactive video in a general sense are of little use unless
considered in terms of some particular form, function'ality and application.
For the educationist, it provides a potentially richer learning environment for the learner
giving all the control to him including access to an extensive audio-visual library held in
video form.
Speech recognition: Speech recognition is an innovation in computer technology. This feature
allows a computer to recognise human speech or words. It translates the spoken words into
information and makes it easier for people to do their job and learn. Some research and
development activities are going on in developed countries to use this capability of computer
technology fbr educational purposes. The student can instruct the computer fg perform an
operation instead of relaying on the keyboard or other interface for inputting instruction. The
system initiaPy diastases the voice of the user and then it recognises various words before the
assigned instruction is carried out. This language processing system has provision to differentiate
certain words, having similar pronunciation. The system simplifies various operations and
help the student simultaneously perform more than one task. Thus speech recognition system
is a very natoral interface since it employs one of our most common communication tools,
i.e. speech. The systems could recognise the student and could reply by means of the stored
speech, where a number of p h r i i s are recorded separately and then assembled into meaningful
sentences.
Some agenciets in developed countries are engaged in research and development activities
related to speech recognition. Conversation computer systems are being developed.
The technoloay could be very useful for visually challenged students. The technology can be
linked with optical character recognition (OCR) system. An OCR can recognise text from
publication and other printed documents. The information can subsequently be reproduced in
computer-genetrated speech, thus making the material available to visually challenged students.
In this way, human-computer interfaces become meaningful and productive for students with
disability.

7.5.3 Elect~onic-mail(E-mail)
E-mail has become quite popular all over the world. The business world has long since
realised the advantages of this device, as it provides the facility called E-mail, D'Souza
(1992) reported five essential advantages which e-mail has over traditional communication
modes, as disaovered by business institutions. They aie:
Reduced oost
Reducted paper handling
Faster colnmunication
Improved communication
56 Integration of data communication with records managements
 E-mail is primarily a store and forward messaging service. The messagestdata are sent and E~nergi~g
Technologies
s t o r e electronically into the user's mail-box and remain waiting till they are retrieved. E-mail
uses computer, text-processiag and communication tools to provide a high speed information
exchange service. The e-mail utility on a compute; system enables one computer-user to
colllmunicate with another user or a group of users via the user's terminal.
'1. . .
E-mail, unlike paper-based communica Ion, 1s tast and can transmit information (mail as the
tern1 indicates) in seconds or minutes across a continent. Replies can flow back just as rapidly
E-mail is text-hased. Unlike fax or telephone, e-mail has no picture or sound component.
Infornlation can he conveyed only in the form of a text. That is like the normal postal mail,
but unlike conversations, as the senders and the receivers do not attend to the cornmunicatioi~
act sin~ultaneously.Thus commul~icatioi~ through 3 e-mail is asynchronous or non-simultaneous.
To he able to use the facility of e-mail, four main compone~itsare necessary. They are:
A telephol~eline
Computer (mainframe, mini or micro)
A lllodem (equipment to convert whatever is typed into electronic -signals)
Colnnlul~icationsoftware.
One of the higgest advantages of e-mail service is its adaptability with regard to all kinds of
data termillals like desk top or portable computers, fax, telex, visuals display units, printers,
all of which can he utilised to send or retrieve data via e-mail. The conlide~~tiality
of the data
is nlail~tail~ed
as well as guaranteed delivery is possible as no one else can take data. Certain
data can be further locked by use of additional passwords.
E-mail, as a new technology, has inuovative instructional possibilities. Professor D'Souza's
(1992) studies on the potential applications of e-mail in the academic settings have identified
three hroad areas where e-mail has proved or can prove quite effective. These are:
Pedagog: Through e-mail the students can have easy access to information resources
which contribute to updating and greater learning. It has the capacity to present to the
student many kinds of information sources. Moreover, e-mail can remove time and space
barriers of the conventional classroom teaching. Sitting at home the teacher can respond
to students' prohlems concerning assignments projects or readings. It also provides one-
to-one comnlunication between the student and the teacher. Thus, it can offer more
individualised attention to the students with specific learning needs.
Research: With widespread computer networking among educational and research
institutions, researchers can use e-mail to access data. They can exchange their research
papers, proposals, formats, and so on quickly and conveniently. Thus, e-mail keeps them
in touch with professional and experts and can enable them to access a variety of databases
'
in almost any academic field in any partlinstitution of the country.
i Administration: As mentioned earlier, e-mail is heing used for day-to-day communication,
such as to receive or send messages at a convenient time, in a rapid, error-free and cost
effective manner; read messages numerous times; save messages for future reference, etc.
Mere speeding up the flow of existing information may he sufficient justification for
C
using e-mail. The value of e-mail call be increased when coupled with other devices such
as word processing, data-bases, etc.
As computer networks continue to grow and expand,.domestic as well as international e-mail
can be a valuahle tool for communication, writing, research and routine administration.

1)) t':ml>;irc yo~iranswer with the oiic give11 at llle end of the iuiit.
-. Vzil:;~ ;s I1ic;lur by vir~uillreality?
Educatii~nalTechnology:
State of the Art
3. Write any three advantages of videodisc.
. .
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4. W h ~are
t the educational applications of E-mail?
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7.6 TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

The concept of telecommunication has also been extended to the field of education, where
learners can enroll for open learningtdistanceeducation courses and can interact with 'electronic'
instructbrtteacher. The learners can select textbooks and down load and review course.
Depending on the system, the teacher can be available for consultation during specified hours '

or through e-mail (Mirabito, 1994).

Telecommunications technologies are playing a significant role in dissemination of information
and promoting education at a distance. We shall discuss some telecommcnications technologies
in this Section.

7.6.1 Communication Satellite

Satellitqs can be a sole distribution source but are often used in combination with other
systems, including terrestrial links such as microwaves, cables and transmitters. Satellite
distribution and the emerging technologies associated with it are increasing the number of
people learning at a distance. But we should remember that the satellite should be used for
what it does best, in terms of reaching remote students, in terms of delivering learning
materials that could not be sent to the students through other means, and allowing, as far as
possible, for two-way communication between students and teachers and among students.
You might be aware of the experiment, popularly known as SITE (Satellite Inshyctional
Television Experiment, 1975-76) in which satellite was extensively used to reach and teach,
besides rural adults, primary school children living in the rural area: including,remote locations
and difficult terrians. Thereafter since 1982, INSAT (Indian National Satel1ite)'is being used
for education and development. Institutions such as NCERT, UGC, IGNOU produce educational
TV programmes for broadcast on the national channel through INSAT.
Satellite technology can be used to provide two-way communication. In last one decade, the
Indian SQace Research Organisation VSRO) conducted various experiments using satellite for
two-war interactive communication between the teachers and the students. Two-way interactive
commudication through satellite, popularly known as teleconferencing (one-way video and
two-way audio), has been operationalised in the country since February, 1995 with two
teaching ends (uplink facilities at IGNOU Campus, New Delhi and the SAC, Ahmedabad)
and morie than one thousand learning ends scattered all over the country. The facility is being
used by the various institutions for education and training at a distance. Due to wide coverage
and round the clock availability of the satellite, it can cater to the educational and training
needs of people, irrespective of the place of their location, age and creed.
With satlellite-based communication and computer technology, education systems call not be '
monopolised by a few. Various experiments have been and are being conducted to establish
satelliteibased communication networks, paving the way for free flow of information inside
and outside the country.
 Fig. 7.2: INSAT-1B Synchmous Orbit Satellite

7.6.2 Telephone and Fax

Both the telephone and the fax are increasingly being used for educational communication.
Telephone: Telephone is a useful means of communication in education at a distance. It is
being used widely in education in the developed countries for tutoring and counselling.
Telephone lines are used for a variety of communications, such as fax, video-text, yoice mail,
internet etc. We shall discuss important technologies where telephone is used in a major way
in this unit.
Flink (1978) mentions four ways of using the telephone in education:
Teleteaching, which is operated by a two-way loudspeaking telephone in h e classroom,
and students not present may listen to the verbal activities going on in the classroom and
also participate in the discussions.
Teleleeture is also operated by a two-way transmission. The teacher may present a lecture
to individuals or groups located at a distance. Two-way communication is possible for all
participants.
Dial access, is an information service rather than a teachingllearning system. The system
provides to the students with brief information on specific topics. The students can dial
the school or the source for requisite information.
Teletutoring is a system where an individual student can communicate with the tutor and
receive Individual help and support during his studies.
Baath (1979) researched into which educational functions the telephone can perform in distance
education. Baath's research was carried out in relation to different theoretical models for
teaching. We quote here some of Baath's conclusions:
The greater potential value of telephone contacts seems to lie in the opportunities to
establish individualised contact.
~ e l e ~ h o tutoring
ne could help the tutor get to know the individual student.
Telephone tutoring could, above all, help the student get started.
With regard to cognitive learning goals, individual guidance ov,er the telephone would appear
to be valuable as a.medium for fulfiling the following Gagne's teaching functions:
activating motivation
Eclucihtional Technology: e dirating attention
State of the Art
e stimulating recall of relevant prerequisites
e providing learning guidance
e prodding feedback
Moore (1981) seems to agree with Baath that telephone teaching has a large potential in
learning at a distance. According to Moore:
"Like correspondence education, radio, ;levision, computers and print, the
tekphone provides oppotunities for formal learning at a place convenient to the
learner."
"..,.like other distance teaching tmdia, the telephone cakhisseminate teaching by
rare or scarce authorities over a wide area."
"The telephone diflersfrotn the other media in being more highly interactive, and
therefore permitting a lesser degree of structure by the instructor..."
"An especially valuable characteristic of edur/ltional telephone is the potential of
tneeting highly specialised needs, and in this it can be contrasted with
broadcasting."
"$he telephone has the characteristic of immediacy."
Telephope is being used by the various educational institutions all over the world. The Open
university (OU) in UK,for example, developed the Cyclops System which used telephone
lines fot voices between study centres and the Open University Headquarters. The OU uses
three kinds of telephone tutorials: one-based conference calls linking upto seven students with
a tutor, $tudy centre-based calls linking students at one or more study centres with a tutor, and
one-to-qne student-tutor calls. IGNOU uses telephone lines for asking questions and raising
queries by the students in the teleconferencing sessions. You wiIl read about teleconferencing
in Sectibn 7.6.3.
Telephone would be a good medium for distance education if it is accessible to students at
affordable/reasonable cost. As per the latest data there are about two telephones per one
hundred persons in the country and it is expected that by the end of this century there would
be four telephones per one hundred persons. Thus, the density of telephone infrastructure is
very low in India in comparison to technologically advanced countries. Moreover, telephone
network is concentrated in the cities, and government and business houses. Some areas such
as villa$es, hilly tracts and difficult terrains, etc. are not adequately covered by the telephone
network. Moreover the tariff for distance calls is too high for a student to afford.
Fax: F+x is a device and process consisting of a scanner to convert hard copy to an electronic
signal which is then sent by modem on a standard telephone line to the receiving end where
the signal is decoded, reassembled and printed. Fax is also a useful instrument used for
transmitting visual images instantly. The number of fax is increasing at a fast pace in all over
the wotld including India. Its application for educational purposes is, however, limited. In
IGNOU, the distance learners can ask residual questions (including those which could not be
answered) in the teleconferencing sessions through fax. Sometimes the questions demanding
long answers can be responded through fax after the session is over.

7.6.3 Teleconferencing
Teiecoqferencing is an umbrella term that describes an electronic link or meeting between
participants at two or more locations. Unlike telephonic conversation which links two users,
telecon~ferencinglinks more users located at different places through audio-video andlor
compu/er technology. It is an important device of our overall communications system and is
emerging as a valuable tool for education and business meetings.
Before we discuss the potential applications and types of teleconferencing, we would like to
highlight the need for two-way communication technology. One of the most obvious markets
for interactive technologies application is edpcation. All educators agree that interaction is one
of the effective ways of gettinglgiving feed dck in the educational process. In other words,
P
feedbabk (that is interaction between the teacha and the students) is essential component of
60
the teaching-learning process. The ability of the student to interact with both the learning
materials a i d the teacher varies. Like face-to-face interaction, mediated-interaction also varies
from one-to-one consultation between a teacher and a student to one-to-many i.e. between a
teacher and a classes or group(s). It is obvious that due to cost and accessibility to emerging
technologies one-to-one interaction between the teacher and the student is expensive than
one-to-many when queries raised by the students or answers given by the teachers are shared
by large audience, classes or groups.
Teleconfereiicing provides a variety of advantages to teaching-learning at a distance or
autonomous learning. It can be used for brain storming, questioning, role play, group discussion,
case studies, problem-solving, etc. It can be used to keep the students and teachers informed
ahout important developments and innovations in the body of knowledge. It can link various
schools, learning centres or homes with the main institution (teaching end) thus, can help
teachers in providing quality education to memberlparticipating schools or students. The guest
lectures can be arranged through teleconferencing. The guest teacher call make live presentation
and be able to 'electronically' meet the studeiits in a classroom-like situation. Thus
teleconferencing makes it possible for the participating schools or learning centres to draw
upoii the best resources and experts in the specific field of study, who may not be available
to all schools or students under normal circumstances.
Like any communication technology, the application of teleconferencing in the teaching-
learniilg process will depend on the accessibility, cost and pedagogic effectiveness of the
techiiological coiiliguration being used. Nevertheless, if systematically designed, planned,
implemented and utilised, the teleconferencing sessions can provide valuable resource to the
students learning at a distauce. We should remember that teleconferencing, for that matter any
comnunicatioii technology, will not eliminate all face-to-face contact, which is called for on
different occasions. Depending on the nature of the knowledge or skills to be acquired by the
studaits, an on-site contact may be appropriate. In this situation, the teacher (expert) can
actually sit down with students, and make adjustment according to the need of their needs.
Besides facilitating education and training at a distance, teleconferencing can be used effectively
for conducting business m;etiiigs, and managing and monitoring the various operations of 911
organisation/i~~stitu;io~i
with n~ulti-campuses.It relieves the participants from the difficulties
of travelling distance lclcations and saves enclrmous time and money for them.

REGIONAL
CENTRES

IGNOU CAMPUS

lSCOhllNG VLEPHONE
A\ID FAX

h e n a m wrh KNOU

( F r r c p h a .amis

Fig. 7.3: Teleconferencing programme of the School of Education, IGNOU

(Source : Menon, M.B (1995) Utilisation ofNew Technologies in Distance Education (Reportof
project sponsored by Spencer Foundation, Chicago), School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
--
61
Edue;dianal Teclinology: There can be different types of teleconferencing, different types of technological configurations.
State of tlie Art For your purpose we discuss Wee types of teleconferencing system being used in India these
days. They are:
Audio conferencing
Viddo conferencing
Computer conferencing
These types have been classified according to the use of the technological co'nfiguration. Let
us discu$s each type in detail.
Audio conferencing: Ah audio conferencing can be thought of as an extended telephone
conversation, but instead of talking with only one person, you may be talking with several or
more students, located at multiple sites (schools). Audio conference is a convenient way to
bring people from diverse locations together to participate in effective discussions. An audio
conferencing is an effective communications tool for sharing informationlideaslexperiences
and is inexpensive to design and implement. An audio conferencing can be used for various
purposes. It can create an inexpensive communications link between a physical education
class and a sports reporter on the play ground or a medical science class and an operation
theatre ih a hospital which may be far off from the school or the students.
In audio conferencing the students can hear h e teacher and ask questions through the same
system, i.e. audio. Neither the teacher nor the students can see each other. Moreover, the
motivated students are likely to be benefited more as they would actively participate in the
discussion. The teacher, therefore, has an .important role to play in creating a favourable
learning environment and sustain the motivation of the students. The level and quality of
language used by the teacher also determine the effectiveness of the system. In a developing
country,like India, audio conferencing can prove to be an effective means of distance learning.
Audio conferencing has certain limitations too. Being an audio medium, it is a unisensory
medium i.e., it involves learning through listening only. It may not be useful for teaching those
topics which require visual support such as movement of a process, demonstration of a skill, '

colour oh an object, etc. This limitation, however, can be overcome to some extent by backing
up the teaching with the printed text such as workbooks, diagrams, handbooks, manual, etc.,
and supporting on the backing materials in the teleconferencing sessioi~s.The teacher can refer
to the diagrams, etc., in hisher presentation and'in turn the students can ask questions or seek
clarification on them (diagrams, etc.). In this way, the teacher can yideldirect the students to
conduct experiments at the learning centre or home (of course with the help of science kits
available with the students) through real-time interaction.
Video conferencing: As the term indicates, in this system students can see the teacher or both
the teacher and the students can see each other. Depending on the use of technology, there can
be two types of video teleconferencing. They are:
I
Two-way video conferencing
One-way video conferencing . .

Let us discuss each type in the following paragraphs.

(i) Two-way video conferencing: Two-way video conferencing is a teleconference where, as
implied by the name, video or visual information is exchanged. In the two-way video
conferencing students can see and hear the teacher and fellow students located at different
learnina centres, and can learn in an interactive environment and exchange viewslideas. A
primary advantage of the two-way video conferencing lies in its replication of a face-to-face
meeting. Students can react to each other's body language and visual clues in interpersonal
transactions. A two-way video conferencing can accommodate a range of information, including
graphic$ and possibly scanned documents.
The video conferendng can be either motion or non-motion operations. The term motion
implies that teachers can appear o n television screen in a lifelike manner. It can range fron
full motions, where transmission may look like conventional broadcast television, to limited
motion, where movements may be jerky and there is a deterioration in the picture quality. The
non-motion or freeze-frame video conferencing, the second category, consists of a series ot
still images that appear on the screen. Even though the visual element is not lifelike, an audio
62 hookup could support a conversation (Mirabito, 1994).
I - -

l"w0-way video conferencing is a costly affair. We need to create the necessary infrastructure . Emerging Tdndogiea
to transmit and receive visual signals at both the learning and the teaching centres. ~ e s i d i s ,
we have to equip the teaching and the learning ends'with camera crew and technical staff
to manage the two-way video, conferencing.
(ii) One-way video conferencing:In one-way video conferencing, the audio-video information
can be a one-way information or can be a one-way stream from the institutionlteaching end
to its learning centres or schools. These centres or schools may communicate with the teaching
end in turn, with a telephone or other audio-based hookup. The connection can be used for
question and .answer sessions the discussion on relevant points and for the clarification of
specific details.
The potential of one-way video conferencing (point-to-multi-points) has been demonstrated
in India through various experiments conducted by some educational institutions. The system
can be used for teaching different topics, including sciences. For example, dissection of frog
or conduct of an experiment by the expert can be seen or understood by the students located
in different schools or at homes. The transplant of heart and the specialised surgical procedures
can be relayed for medical students to view and learn a valuable medical technique through
the real-time nleeting.
. Computer conferencing: The term computer conferencing refers to computer-based meeting,
for exchange of pictures, words, graphics etc., between multiple sites. Special hardware and
software systems are used to support computer conferencing activities in both real time and
non-real time. Real time, in this context, implies synchronous communication in which messages
can be sent and received as you view the screen and interact with the system and the other
participrints tied in the network. The non-real time elements i.e. asynchronous communication,
in contrast, may encompass a series of longer messages, a central database of information and
a record of current and past comments and all the participants can see (Mirabito, 1994).

The very small aperture terminals (VSATs) is a compact satellite dish mated with the necessary
electronic hardware to create an earth station. The earth station consists of a small antenna
(generally less than 2.4 meters in diameter) and other devices to interface between the antenna
and the end-user equipment. The end-user equipment could be one or more personal computers
(PCs), telephone, a PBX, a video receiverlplayer, or any combination of these ( h i t k a r ,
1995). VSAT can receive or, in another configuration, receive and transmit signals. A VSAT
can link a few, or if necessary, hundreds of sites, including geographically remote locations.
A VSAT supports a variety of network configurations, and a large information including
computer data, can be transmitted on different speeds. The VSAT is more flexible and less
expensive 'than many land-based communication networks.
The advent of VSAT, now a decade old, has broken the barrier of distance and difficult
terrains. A VSAT-based wide network creates a highly reliable, error free and flexible
information highway compared to terrestrial alternatives available. In the Indian context, due
to non-developed terrestrial links, VSATs are becoming an ideal mode for communication.
VSATs can form a healthy backbone and can play a vital role in basic telephony.
VSAT is useful for institutionsluniversities'with multicampuses. Due to its dependency on
wireless communication transmission medium, VSAT has overcome many problems of
telecommunication..It is a viable technology when terrestrial lines are costly and difficult to
install. It has, therefore, become very attractive to existing terrestrial networks in terms of
availability, performance, variety of services, cost per.byte transmitted and cost per incremental
capacity growth. As a result, now there is no need to invest in high capacity transmission
lines, which are very difficult to create to cover the entire country. VSAT can provide cost
effective, reliable telecorrununication over large geographical areas, replacing or supplementing
traditional terreitrial lines (Amritkar, 1995). Telephone and services such as e-mail and data
transfer via VSAT do not require the use of radio frequencies.
VSAT is being used to transmit voice and data. It, however, can be designed to carry voice
and visuals also. Video conferencing through VSAT may be feasible in future. However, the
system may cost high and there will be a time lag in communication. The problem of time
lag can, however, be solved by LEOS (Low Earth Orbit Satellites) which can be placed at a
height of only 800 kms. 63
Educationd Technology: VSAT can be connected with computers and LAN (Local Area Network) to keep the main
State of tbe ~ r t school in tquch with learningltraining centres. It has a number of advantages over terrestrial
line-based telecommunication (Amritkar, 1995). The main advantages are as follows:
It is wore reliable, the call completion rate is very high (99.5 percent).
The cdst of expansion is not dependent on distance.
The user incurs a fixed cost for VSAT services, irrespective of distance.
Comdunication need not pass through ground facilities.
Transmission of huge data in less time across long distances is feasible.
Being)a modern telecom technology it is suitable for a large country and with areas of
difficdlt terrain.
Jha (1995) identified the following advantages of VSAT system over the terrestrial network:
The cpst is uniform and does not depend on distance, hence useful for hilly, remote and
ill-cognected areas.
Response time is much lower than dial up-link.
speed of transmission is much time higher.
LAN to LAN connectivity via VSAT is unique for data transfer.
Pointrto-multi-point communication is possible.
There is no interruption due to Erequent changes in weather.
Besides these advantages, according to Chowdhary (1996) the strategic benefits of VSAT are:
Cost,management: Institutions can fix their communication costs and make them.
Predictable: So each year communication budget can be planned accurately.
Gredter productivity: A single transmission medium and the centralised monitoring and
control provide higher quality and better management. There is a single point of contact
for operation, maintenance, rapid fault isolation and trouble shooting.
There ar certain hinderances in the growth of VSAT technology in the country. Importan
among m are:
w
4
Lack of interconnectivity with PSTN (Public Switched Telecom Network),
Hi& costs of satellite dishes, and
~ l o kgrowth in demand for the services.
These apd some other issues are affecting the growth of VSAT services in the country.
-- - "

Check Your Progress

-1
(Notes : a) Write your answer in the space glveli below.
I
b) Compare your driswer w!th the one given 'it rlic c::J 1 : :'!i* t. ':I
I
5. Hoh is satelltte used in educational activttie?'!
............................................................................................................................................
I
1I

i
6. How is the telephone helpful in teaching-learning ietivitieh'!
I
..............................................................................................................................................
'7, ~ikfucntiatebctween audio conferencing and videi, co;i~kri.ncing.
7.6.5 Internet and Intranet Emerging Ted~nologies

Internet
The internet is an electronic mail system and library access facility. It is a mail system
because it allows us to send and receive messages. It is a library access system because it
allows our request for information., provided we know what we are looking for. It is a
wonderful means allowing access to information, amorphous mass stored in databases. With
advent of internet there emerges a belief that there is another structure to support teachinqand
learning. By sharing information it facilitates an educational process.
Internet is growing at a very fast pace all over the world. India is no exception in-this regard.
Internet is a set of various intranets created by the various agencies. In other words, it is a
network of networks, a huge source of inter-connected infomation. Internet makes information
on any topic under the sun available to its users linked with networked computers. The users
can interact with master computer to navigate for required information. Internet is being used
for both the delivery of distance education and assisting regularlconventional classroom courses.
Internet also transforms two-way communication, reducing barriers of time and space. The
scale of its coverage, its immediacy, the quality of presentation and the ability to interact with
it and through it bring new dimensions to the world of knowledge, thus creating new
commuilities of learning.
Internet brought a change in the teaching-learning process. The students control the content
and the process of their learning. The new paradigm places learning with the students. The
earlier paradigm was that teacher must use technology to teach students. The new paradigm
.involves studeilts using technology to learn. The students go beyond the experiences of
teachers, beyond books in the library. They may find conference papers as yet unpublished,
press releases and news items from any part of the'world (Jenkins, 1998).The latest information1
content in the area of their interest can be downloaded and used as and when required. Thus .
use of internet places the focus on the student. This in turn focuses on aspects such as
student's prior knowledge and experience, readiness and motivation to learn.
There is very little experience of delivering courses via the internet. The logical choice is that,
the strengths and weaknesses that apply to computer-based learning will apply to most aspects
of teaching and learning through the internet. It enables the student to studyllearn at a time
convenient to himlher. Thus, it provides individualised instruction and is capable of providing
almost instant feedback.

Intranet
New communication technologies have created networks for sharing educational resources.
The networks allow one-to-one, one-to-multipoint, or multi-or-multipoint communication
between students and teachers, and among students. Depending on the coverage of the area
i.e. the size of the networks, there can be two types of communication networks: local area
network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN).
LAN is confined to a limited physical area, such as various schools in a town, or various
departments or units of a university, and share information and infrastructure. Thus, LAN can
create an integrated learning environment where students can plan joint projects, can discuss
their probleinslqueries related to their study. LAN can link the students to wide area network
(WAN).
WAN linksvarious institutional centres or campuses located in different parts of the country
or outside the country. Various centres or campdses of an institution or various institutions are
networked to share information, ideas, data, resources, etc. The interconnection of LAN and
WAN can make communication more effective, catering to the local needs as well as global
needs of the students. In other words, the students can access various LANs through WAN.
Due to technological developments various networks (LANs and WANs) have been created
all over the world, linking inter connected servers.
LAN and WAN dan be interconnected among themselves and with internet, thus making
commui~icatioivglobal.In this way a communication network can be created which interconnect
all the networks in the world, converting it into a 'global village'.
Many coinmunication networks hjwe been created in the country to disseminate and share
information. These networks are being used for the various purposes. Some of these networks
are discussed below: 65
Educatio~~al Technology: INET: The public data network (INET) has been expanded to 25 cities, out of total of 89
State of the Art major cities planned for the INET. This network service is available from any STD telephone
throughout the 'country.
HVNEP The Department of Telecommunication (DOT)has launched a high-speed satellite
networY called HV net which provides high speed data and voice communication capability
betwee0 computers and data terminals from any point in the country. This network makes use
of high speed VSAT technology. This eases the problem of remote area communication.
Growth in data communications among business partners and within organisations has given
a boost to the culture of computer to computer communication. The network offers the
following services (INSAT, 1997):
Switched data service between VSATs.
Access to DOTpacket switched public data networks.
Access to international data network through the gateway Packet Switching system of
vsh.
Vojce facility including connectivity to Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
Intelligknt Networks (IN): The Department of Telecommunication has introduced IN services
in the cbuntry. The final testing of these services has been tried out services such as toll-free
long distance calls, etc., offered by an educational institution have been introduced: This
network allows an educational institution to subscribe to a common number so that a call
made by a student from anywhere in the country or region is routed to a predefined destination.
All ch#ges for a call to the toll-free number will be paid by the institution, and not by the
student, Many institutions in developed countries, such as OpenLearning Agency, vancouver;
Athabasca University, Athabasca, Canada, etc., have allowed their students the facility to call
them free of cost, thus helping students in their study. Even in India, IGNOU has a toll-free
telephone through which the students can participate in teleconferencing sessions, can ask
questio$s, or raise queries on the presentations made by the experts. These advances in
telecommunications will transform the way people communicate and will facilitate the
develogment process.
ERNE*: The Department of Electronics (DOE) has been running an educational network,
called ERNET. This is an education and research network linking about 20,000 users. It
connectp all the five Indian Institutes of Technology (IlTs), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
and about 350 educational institutions. The n~tworkfacilitates active exchange of information
and acdess to databases. Thus, it provides a basic infrastructure for education and research.
Efforts are underway to connect all the colleges in the country so that young scientists and
research scholars can have direct access to information of their interest.
D E ~ T The : participating members and'libraries'and documentation centres from the various
databaspslunion qatalogues in Delhi and outside have created a network called D E L F .
There 4re 74 members of DELNET. Every member library has loaded their data onto a
computkr, which is connected to DELNET through e-mail system. The member libraries have
on-line access to huge database of all the participating libraries catalogue - referred to as
union catalogue. Interestingly, DELNET provides a courier service to transfer booksldocuments
from one library to another. The network is shown in Figure 7.4.

PElSoftware
database access
(3,03,000recordr)

Internet &

Cataloguing of
public in Indian
database database languages through
(1,600 records)
I
Fig.7.4 :Delnet: The Growing Network
-
TEXNET: Texnet offers the service of on-line advertising bulletin board where buyers and Eherging Technologies
supplier can advertise or browse through data on trading, manufacturing and retail chains of
the textile products.
Telemedicine network: Escorts Heart Institute and Research Centre (Delhi) launched in 1996
a round-the-clock telephonic heart monitoring service by means of which heart patients can
transmit the ECGs over phone to doctors at the hospital and get instant help in the case of
emergency. The patients who subscribe this facility are given cardiac beepers, which they can
keep with them all the time. While facing any problem, the patient can place the beeper on
his chest and record his EC within fifty seconas at,the press of a button. Electrocardiography
can be transmitted to the fully computerised heart care unit at the Hospital.
Escorts Heart Care Foundation Hot Line Service started by Heart Care Foundation of Indian
and Essar Cellphone Company in association with Moo1 Chand Hospital, Delhi is available
round-the-clock to help heart patien;ts in emergency. The hot-line provides answer to routine
queries about heart diseases. This unique hot-line phone oounselling iS available in Delhi and
nearby areas providing patients instant information about cardiac first aid in case of emergency.
Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, Delhi has also created a similar network, which in addition to
ordinary telephone lines is accessible through hot-lines and fax.
TDCC: Training and d&elopment communication channel (TDCC), a two-way audio and
one-way video communication system was established and operationallsed by the IGNOU
and ISRO in February 1995. TDCC with teaching-end facilities (studio and uplink) at the
IGNOU Campus, New Delhi and at the Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad links all the
IGNOU Regionallstudy Centres and State Open Universities in the country. TDCC is being
used on a regular basis for distance teaching and training, and business meetings. The efforts
are on to share and use physical, intellectual and human resources for raising quplity and
widening outreach of open and distance educatian programmes in the country (IGNOU,
1997).

I i::L!!~8p;;rc-
y ; ~ i i.li:i\vt,r ;~;:;lr tiii: i)lli. given at the end of the unit.
I

7.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed emerging communication and information technologies. Our
discussioli centred around three major areas of emerging technologies. These are audio-video
technology, computer technology and telecommunication technology and networks.' Under
audio-video technology, we discussed interactive broadcasting, telelext and videotext. Under
computer technology we discussed computer, videodisc, compact disc-interactive, e-mail and
multimedia. Under telecom&nication technology, we discussed communication satellite,
telephone and fax, teleconferencing and VSATs. Teleconferencingis alSo of three types: audio
conferencing, video conferencing and computer conferencing. Lastly, we focussed on internet
and inwanet and provided some examples of intranet.
Edocational TeAnology:
State of the Art 7.8 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES .

1. List vaious telecommunication and information technologies .available in your school

and pezirby schools. Assess the utility of these technologies for instructional purposes.
I

7.9 ' ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Interacdve broadcasting is a two-way communication between the students and the teacher
in which they! not only hear him but also speak to him to clarify their doubts, ask
questions or raise queries.
2. Virtual ;realityprovides computer generated virtual environment which can be used as the
most a~vanced'tool of visualisation for a large number of scientific application like
realisti? simuiation of natural phenomenon, conducting harzardous experiments.
.3. The three advantages of videodisc are:
a) Videodisc is a flexible medium giving control to study paths, access at any point
\
' in the programme, and feedback as required.
b) It has slow motion and reverse display facilities.
c) It has also facility of random access.
.

4. E-mail has three major educational applications:

Students can have easy access to vast amount of information resources
rough e-mail.
b) Research: Researchers can use e-mail to access data, and to exchange with their
iesearch guides and experts.
c) ~dministratioh:E-mail is also used in day-to-day administration. Sending ana
receiving messages at a convenient time, in a rapid, error-free and cost effective.
manner are possible through e-mail.
5. Satellite is used for education. and development. In SITE programme, satellite was used
to teach primary school children in the nual area. Satellite technology is also used to
'
provide two-way communication. The ISRO conducted various experiment using satellite
for tvdo-way interactive communication between teachers and students.
6. Telephone is helpful in teaching-learning activity. Teaching through telephone activates
motiv~tion,directs attention, stimulates recall of relevant prerequisites, Brovides learning
guidahce and provides feedback.
7. An audio conferencing is an extended telephonic conversation in which one talks with
severdl or more students located at multiple sites. Students can hear the teacher and ask
questions through the same system. In video conferenchg, students can see as well as
hear the teacher or both the teacher and students can see and hear each other.
8. Internet is an electronic mail system and library access facility. It js a mail system
because it allows us to send and receive messages. It is a library access system because
it allows us to our request for various information. Intranet is network of communication
tech~vologies.Networks can be of two types: local area network (LAN) and wide area
network (WAN).

7.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baath J.A. (1979): Correspondence Education in the Light of a Number of Contemporary
Teaching Model, quoted by T. Rekkedal (1989), The Telephone as a Medium for I~lsttuction
and Guidance in Distance Education, Norwegian Centre for Distance Education, Norway.
Flink R. ((1978):Correspondence Education Combined with Systematic2 Telephone Tutoring,
quoted by T. Rekkedal (1989).
Halal, W,E. (1992): The lrlformatiorl Technology Revolution, The Futurist, July-August 1992,
68 pp 10-151.
Jenkins, J. (1998): Distance Education, The Internet and the earni in^
culture, A paper Emerging Technologies .
presented in International Conference on Collaborative Networked Learning, New Delhi,
IGNOU, February 16-18, 1998.
Hathaway, W. E. (1995): Education and Technology at the Crossroad: Choosing a New
Direction, Campus Press Inc., ~ o r t hYork Canada.
Kasturiranjan, K. (1995): valedictory address in the seminar on Technologies for Educational
Networking, New Delhi, IGNOU, Nov. 1-2, 1995.
Mirabito, Michael M: A. (1994): New Communicatioy Technologie;, Boston, Focal Press.
Moore, M. (1981) Educational Telephone Networks; Teaching at a Distance, 19, pp. 24-31.
Takewale, R. G. (1995): Technologies for Educational Network, Presidential address in the
seminar on Technologies for Educational Networking, New Delhi, IGNOU, Nov. 1-2, 1995.
Kaura, H. K. (1998): Virtual Reality in the Book, Infonnation Technology in Education and
Research, R. Vogil & N. M. Singhi (eds.),Indian National Science Academic & Jain-interscience
Press, Delhi. I
--

UNIT 8 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISING

LEARNING EXPERIENCESa

Structure
8.1 I~itroduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Organising Learning Experiences : Case - I
8.4 Organising Learni~igExperie~ices: Case - 11
8.5 Principles of Organising Learning Experiences
8.5, l Be Clear about the 1,casnil)g O ~ ~ t c o m e
8.5.2 Help [.,earners to Work Individually.as well as in Groups
8.53 Leavc Opportunilies For Negotiations
8.5.4 Try Lo blake Colivcrsation \\ilh Pupils Personalised
8.5.5 Allo\\ 1,carners to Usc tl~eirl'rios Kno\vledgc .
8.5.6 Dcvclop I>earningl'ask \\ ill1 Wider Scope
8.5.7 Be Read! 10 Tolcralc Oil'l'cuent Rou~esto Desired Learnilig Outcomes
8.5.8 hlakc Use ol'Learncr's Abilily to Retlect
8.5.9 Design tlic Acti\,ily so as l o Create a Learning Cull~11.e
8.5. I 0 [Jse A\~nilablcReso~llres
Creatively
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Unit-end Activities
8.8 Ans\vers to Check Your Progress

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The National Curl*icuILIIII Frame\vork of School Education (discussion document 1999
NCEKT) emphasises realisation of 'Panchaslieel'. These include learner-centred
education. women-centred family. hi~manbeing-centred development, knowledge-
centrecl society and a motivation-centred India,

As teachers we are more concerned wit11 learner-centred education. The i m p o ~ ~ a n c e

of 'learner-centred education is not a new concept. Mahatma Gandhi wrote in the
issue of H U I - ~ ~(1Lst
I I IDece~iibel-1953):

"KeaI eclucatio~ihas to draw out the best from tlie boys and girls to be educated. This
can never be done by pacliing ill-assorted and unwanted information into tlie heads of
tlie pupils. It becomes a dead jveiglit crushing all originality in tliem and turning them
into mere automata."

Si~iiilarl~writing about liis concept of teaching, Sliree Aurobindo way back in 1910
pointed out, "The first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be taught. The
teacher is not an i~istructoror taskniaster. lie is a helper and a guide. His busiliess is to
suggest and not to impose. He does not actually train tlie pupil's mind. He only shows
him how to perfect liis instrn~nentsof k~iowledgeand Iielps and encourages him in tlie
process. He does not impart knojvledge to liini, he sliows him how to acquire knowledge
for Iiimself..."

Keeping in mind tlie philosopliies of.tliese rho thinkers we will think about tlie
organisation of learuing experiences.
 8.2 OBJECTIVES
Af1c.r goirig through tliis unit, you will be able to :
0 describe tlie importance of organising learning experiences;
0 build-up cases of different kinds of learriing experiences:
o enumerate tlie principles oforganising learning experiences.

8.3 ORGANISING LEARNING EXPERIENCES :

CASE-I
LVIien a teacher plans learning experience slie has to tliitik about different aspects of
teaching-learning processes. Let us read liow a teacher organises learning experience.
I t \% i!I help LiS to know tlie principles of organising learning experiences.

Suman wants to teach how to write 'personal letters' lo lier eighth standard class. It
is the demand of tlie sq I labus. It is not tlie need of lier pi~pils.She knows very well tliat
students are not interested - rather reluctant to write. They elisjoy discussions.

Slie ~eme~iibet-s tliat as a student slie did not en-joy composition periods. Slie clid not
Ik~iowhow to write, and above all why slie should write. As a member of tlie lower
r?i~ciclle class family. on rare occasions, her father i~sedto get letters from his brothers.
*Thesewere about relatives' deaths and financial matters, and these were written on
poqtcards. Her mother used to receive letters from lier brothers. These were written
ot? ~nlandletters or other paper. l'l~eyused to write their educational progress and
inqi~treabout family well-being. Sometimes envelopes used to contain dry scented
tlowers - pressed ones and a pinch of sugar grains. These were written in attractive
liand\\riting and some sketches on tlie paper. Slie has grown in a family in which
personal letter-writing u a s a part ot'cultitre. But still slie had no occasion to write
Icttcrs to anybody. Slie knows tliat many students live in a culture where personal
lellcr-writing is not a tradition. Nowadays children are familiar with tlie culture of
g~.cetingcards. Mothers 01- affluent families spend hours in search of greeting cards
so that their children cat1 use tlieni. In short no stitdent is in real need of learning to
M rile a personal letter. Thus. lier major problem is liow to make pi~pilsfeel tlie need
o f \ \ riting a perso~ialletter. The way out for her to solve tliis problem was to create an
rlternal need that is passing an examination witli.good marks. l'liis, however, is not
desirable.

I n lee1 the need for writing a personal letter, tlierc should be a personal arid eniotional
+ ~.~laliniisliip wit11 'otlie~s'\\\lo may include near relatives. distant relatives. and people
froi11t!le neighborhood. ancl from tlie school. There is a possibility tliat a cliilcl may be
g~ ing-itp i ~an i orphanage or slie might be feeling like an orphan among all relatives.
1!i that case it is quite possible tliat tlie cliild may be Iia\/ing an emotional relationship
\\ itit a pel animal. or trees or non-living things like a doll. toy, book, moon. etc. This

mc.at!c that slie must make lier pupils aware of this relationship.

I is11aIIy si1L3jectssuggested for personal letter-writing are congratulation for getting

prilcs. letters to frietlds about spending vacations, asking for permission to go for a
picnic. All pupils are expected to write on tlie same topic with which they do not have
any kind of personal experience. The teaclie~.wants to make tliis exercise of \vritinp
personal letter a real one. She thinks tliat writing a gratitude letter will be a p o d
exercise. -l'liis content is easy for riiotivatingcliildren to lttilise their emotional capacities.
Slic tvill say. 'Frie~ids,apart from food. clothes. a house to live in. M1erequit-e manj.
11iingsto be happy in life. Will you make a list ofsucli things tliat you feel are important
in j.ou~.life? Also write how you get these things."
Slie lcnows that students will not respond to tliis activity ini~nediately.Tiiese students
are in a habit of writing sornetliing about wliicli they are very sure. They are in a habit
ofwriting 'one correct answer' to tlie question, They miglit not like to respond to this
activity at all.

lftliey respond to tliis then slie will liave no problem. But ifthey find it difficult she wii1
request tliem "Would jrou like to work in triads since there are three pupils sitting on
each bench. That might help you think about tlie problem better."

They may come up w~itlisome answers or may not. Ifduring supervision she finds that
some groups are working on expected lines after fivetseven minutes, she will request
these groups to share their thoughts with the whole group. But if not even a single
student is found working on tliese lines she wi I I raise the following questions :

What do you get from your parents that cannot be purchased by money?
What do ).ou get from your friends'?
What do you get from y o ~ uservants apart from routine services?
What do you get from the vast expanse of the sky?

Do you get anything from tlie blooming flower of rising sun? You like to eat delicious
dishes of your choice. But liave you ever thought a b o ~the
~ t processes of its preparation
right from tlie beginning. Do you remember people toiling in tlie sun in the fields?

She thinks that these types of q~~estionswill motivate lier pupils to become aware of
the fact that there are many thi~igsin their life, whicll they get 'free of cost'.

This might help tliem to feel about 'others'. Slie thinks that tliis activity will help to
build an environment tliat is necessary for developing the affective domain of their
personality. She will ask. 'What form of writing will be appropriate for acknowledging
their gratitude to others?'

They may say that a letter or a clii~.Slie will accept both these answers. Now they
are ready for writing a personal letter.

She remembers how boring it was for lier to write an address and the technical aspects.
She will use this part of letter-writing for inviting pupil's cognitive abilities. She will use
the following questions for this purpose.

WI:y is it necessary to write tlie address in the riglit Iiand corner ofthe paper? Most of
us are 'right-handed' but what about left-handed people? Why is it necessary to write
a date ifcomputers are available? How to make use of facilities? Why is it necessary
to write a address in a particular form? Is it always necessary to write the sender's
full address in a personal letter? How do they sort out letters in the main office for
easy and quick delivery? How is this particular format of address helpf;.S for tlie
purpose of sorting? How is it helpfi~lto the person who is delivering the letters at the
door? (Similar discussion will be conducted about e-mail address). Why is sending a
personal letter by post preferable'?

Slle knows very ~ l e l that

l nobody follows any rigid pattern while writing personal
letters. But she mi~sttake care of her students. They should not lose marks for utilising
their creativity. Some examiners miglit not tolerate this creativity.

Now lier class is ready with tlie 'sub-ject' of personal letters and they are familiar with
the technical 'know-how' of letter-writing.

Slie k~iowstliat they are ready witll tlie requirement of letter-writing but it is not
s~ifficientfor motivating tliem to write a letter. For tliis slie will prepare a set of
personal letters received by a teacher from her student. She will edit these letters
keeping in mind tlie age-group that is plus eleven and m i n ~ twelve.
~s A set of five
letters will be given to eacli group. She will ask them to read and evaluate which letter
is vely good from tlieir point ofview. Reading and evali~atingactivity will give tliem an
opportunity to gain tlie type of language used for writing personal letters and at the
same time they will evolve sollie criteria to judge the 'qi~ality'.
Tliis will be followed by a discussion. Slie will ask four to six students to share tlieir
opi~iio~is about tliese personal letters and ji~stifica'tio~i,
This will help the group to list
tlie criteria forjudging a 'good letter'. For exa~nple,clarity of tlie tliouglit, the why and
how of gl-ati'tude,appropriate use of language, number of words, phrases, etc. The
lessori will elid with tlie followi~igactivity. Both tliese activities will take about twenty
to twenty-two minutes.
"Now all ofyou select any one ofyour choice- for writing a gratitude letter. We will
together select fifteen good letters for tlie 'ci. ?lay board'. How much time do yo11
require to complete tliis letter? 1 think that letter-writing is creative work and one
cannot expect to co~iipleteit within a li~iiitedtime. We will decide tlle deadline and
thus tliis lessor1 will be ended."

If you read this narrative of a teaclier carefi~llyyou will gain insight about some
principle of orga~iisationof learning activities. While preparing for planning, slie lias to
keep in rni~iddifferent aspects in mind. Let us a~ialysethis process of tlii~ikingand
make tliese aspects clear to 11s.

Designing of learning experience

Designing learni~igactivity is a decision-making process. Teachers' decisio~isare
influencad by i~i~iume~.able factors. I n the begi~i~iing,A teacher has to clioose tlie content.
The topic is given in tlie curriculu~iibook. As a teaclier slie lias to teacli it. Slie claims
tliat pilpils are reluctant to write. It is not clear from where slie gets tliis i~ifor~nation.
It appears that suddenly slie clia~igeslier role as a teacher and plays tlie role of a
lear~ler.Slie remembers Iier scliool days and e~npatliiseswith lier pupils. Tliis e~iipatliy
with pi~pilslielps Iier to design tlie 'set induction' activity. Instead of creating the
extrinsic need by scaring pupils by re~iii~idi~ig them of 'exami~mtionniarks', slie decides
to ~iiotivatetliem to feel about otliers. Slie tries to make letter-writing activity a 'perso~ial
activity' to be done for instrinsic need. That is why slie explores tlie specific content
for teaching.

Once tlie co~itentis finalised she prepares narration-inviting pupils to work on 'feeling'
escrcise. But liere slie is not sure about pupils' response. 'This leads her to plan for
options. She decides to allow working in a s~iiallgroup. Wliile pupils are bi~sytalking to
each other slie will get sufticient time toobserve tlieir beliaviour. At this point also slie
is not sure about pi~pils'response and to give direction to tlieir e~liotio~ial thinking
process, she prepares a set of questions. Tliougll slie did not specifically talk about
ob-jectives of this activity. she is clear about the outcome ofthis activity.

The second part of tlie learning activity is related to the teclinical aspects of letter-
writing. It appears to lie limited to the lower level recall activity. Tlie lists of qi~estio~ls
sliotv tliat pi~pliswill get a clia~lceto ltriow "why" aspects of eacli tlie ritualistic
activities like writing tlie date and adderss. Now-a-days ~iobodyfollows tlie rigid pattern
for \vriting personal letters but some examiners are not going to tolerate tliis. Teacher
tries to avoid this problenl.

'I-lie third learning activity is related to tlie reading of gratitude letters written by others.
Teache~.decides to use a set of letters as learning source. The theme u f tliese letters
is the same. Tliese are tlie letters written by pupils to their teachers. This is not the
simple reading activity. Pupils will be asked to use higher mental abilities. Tliis approach
to learning experience is problem-solving, Pupils are expected to judge the good letter P r i nciples of O r g a n i s i n g
1.earning Experiences
according to their own criteria. To solve this problem pi~pilswill have to use affective
as well as cognitive abilities.

Major outcome of this lesson is writing a 'personal letter'. Pupils are expected to
cornplete tliis work as a llonle assignment.
-- -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -

8.4 ORGANISING LEARNING EXPERIENCES :

CASE -11
The learning experience organised for teaching or rather learning to write personal
letters i~lvolvesthree preparatory experiences. Teacher plans to iltilise two coippositioli
periods for initiating pi~pilsto write a gratitude letter and asks them to complete it
taking their ow11time. Since it is individual work tliere is no need to complete the task
in tlie class. Second, it is creative work and tlii~scallnot be completed as a co~npulsory
work during the stipulated time.

Wllile organising a learning experience tlie teachertakes into account many possibilities.
But inally times the teacher is forced to take an 011 the spot decision and organise
lear~iiiigexperience according to the needs of pi~pils.Study the following classrooln
episode carefully.

As a teaclier 1 had orgaliised learning experie~icesfor teaclli~igtlie coilcept 'angle'

for ninth standard students. I thought that since pilpils were learning tliis concept right
from third standard there wouldn't be any difficillty forthem in learnnig tlie interior
and exterior oftlle angle. I thouglit that revising the concept 'arigle' would be completed
within five minutes for this purpose, I liad decided to ask pi~pilsto recog~iisetlie
representations of angle. A list of tlie followi~igfigi~reswas displayed on tlie roll LIP
blackbord.

Fig. 8.1
.;?,
,

1 hoped that pupils woi~ldhave no difficulty in pointing tlie figure that represented
'angle' as described by the defiiiitio~igive11in tlie textbook. I asked pupils to open tile
textbook and read tile definition carefi~llyand on the basis of that make a list of figures
thit represent 'angle'.

Some pupils pointed only figure orie as a representation of an angle. s o m i pilpils listed
figures exclilding 3,5,7,8,9,1 1.13.15. I~iilnediatelyI decided to change my plan. I decided
that class would be working for concept clarification. Tlie followi~iginteraction took
place.

T : Why don't you call figure 2 a representation of an 'angle'?

P Because tliere are no rays. Tliey are segments.
T : How many pupils agree witli tliis?
(Some pupils raise hands)
Why don't you agree with his explanation?
P : Definition says tliat there should be two rays but it did not say tliat tliertr
sliould not be segments.
T : How many pupils agree witli tliis logic?
P : I don't agree witli tliis. 1 would say that segments are subsets of rays. Thu!~
two segments satisfy tlie conditions set by the definition. Tlie figure triangle
lias three angles. They are ~nnrieof segments.
T : Anybody wants to give clearer !ogic tlla~itliat by Sudha.?
P :
T : So .......,.would you like to go tlirougli your list and correct it if necessary'?
P : Yes. Please give 11ssome time.
T : (supervises the work)
Have you finished the work? How many p ~ ~ p isay l s tliat figures 9 and I 1
are not representing angles? Will you explain tlie reason for that?
P : I n these figures end points are not comnion.
T : How many among you agree with tliis explanation?
P : Al I nod (show agreement)
T : Let us look at these figures carefi~lly.First let 11sobserve figure 9.
There are two rays and they intersect each otlier. Can we call tliat point a
vertex?
P : That is possible.
T : Are you not sure about it?
PI : Yes. There are in all four angles.
P2 : Please allow 11sto correct our list.
P3 : Now only 3.5.7.8.15 are not representations of an angle.
T : Please give reasons for that.
P1 : Figure tliree sliows collinear rays. It is not according to our definio~is.
P2 : I n Figure five there are no rays. Tliey are not representing the subset of
lines.
P3 : Figure sliows one ray but tlie otlier is a representation of curve.
P4 : I n figure eiglit tliere are two non-linear but their end points are different.
T : O.K. Now watch tlie representation that I am drawing on tlie board.
Tliis is tlie representation of a ray . . .
It lias one end point. Tlie otlier one is an arrow point. What does it represent?
P
T
:
:
--
It sliows extension. It extends in the direction of an arrow.
Now there are two representations.

A
Wliicli ray is a longer one?
B

P : B ray is a longer one.

T : How did you colilpare them?
P : By measuring lengths.
T : What are tlie postulates of a ray? Can you measure it's lengh?
P : No. A ray call not be measured as it's length is not finite.
T : 1 hope everybody is faniiliar with tliis postulate of a ray. Now look at the
figure eight. It shows two arrow points. They meet each other. Now can
you point out tlie difference between tliese figures?

In both tliese cases rays intersect each other.

I n tliat case you call tlie representation eight 'an angle'?
If we consider the postulate of ray and it's representation together we
have to call it 'an angle'.
That is consistent with our postulate of a ray.
Tlie~ifigure ten is also an angle.
Wliy ?
Tlie arrow point of the ray is intersecting the elid point of the segment.
According to tlie postulate of tlie ray it also represents an angle.
Do you agree with what she says?
Yes.
Cliaru call you explairi tliis on tlie board?

Char11= Arrow point of A is passing through tlie end point of segment B.

Botli these figures represent the same situation.
Does anybody want to say anything about tliis'?

Now lialiie tliose fiyul.cs o~ilywhich do not represent an angle.

3.5 and 7.
Now consider tliese figure

Cali we say tliat tliis figure represents an angle?

Yes.
Why? Can you explain it usi~igthe textbook definition?
Rays A and B are non-linear. Tlie arrow A represents the direction and
the representation can be expanded so as to cross direction shown by ray
B. Tlie vertex of tliis angle will be the intersecting point.
Now remember that though this figure is representing the angle.
conventionally we do not use this as a representation of an angle. Please
don't forget tliis. Did we learn anything new about angles during this period?
No. .
Why tlie~iin the beginni~lg.did all ofyou Iiave a problem about understand-
ing tile tcsr bool; defi~;irit.,ni)!'a~?angle?
~VL' \\.err no1 considcr~ngthat defi~iitionin a \\.idercontest?
* .
i.~)o>.oa L~II:.!!; tllal \\/e sl-~ould
change the detinit ion so as to avoid conl-t~sions
: ~ b o ~,! :?j ! ~ ~ ~ l c ~
,pnttvral c I)C~CIII[I~IIPII~ PI : Instead of saying two rays we sliould say two rays or segments. i
I
P2 : That is not enough. We liave to change tlie structure of the sentence. I
: Let LIS first list all the important items that are necessary features of the
angle. Tell me these one by one. I will write them 011the board.
PI : There should be two rays, or segments which are not collinear.
P2 : They should be positioned in a plane in such a way that they should have
one common point that is the vertex point.
'r : Is it necessary to say that tliese two rays or segnients S ~ I O Lbe
I ~co-planer?
~
You can do experiments using any appropriate objects. (Teacher sho\vs
two sticks. Pupils experiment using pens, pencils etc.)
P : No. It is not necessary
1' : Was it necessary to do the experi~nent?
P : Yes.
T : I n mathematics we accept post~~lates without proofs and all other defini-
tions are constructed on tlie bases of these postulates. Angle is defined by
any three points. which are not co-linear. A pair from these defines a line,
a seglaient or a ray. Any non-linear points are always co-planers. We have
learned these postulates i n the last chapters. TIlis is called logical thinking.
L,et us proceed further. How are yo11 going to structure the definition?
(Work in pairs)
Any g r o ~ ~.p. .. . ready with a definition?
PI : When two different lines. two non-linear rays or segments liave a common
point then we get an angle.
P2 : An angle is formed when two different lines or two nonlinear rays or
segments intersect each other.
: Many of you m ~ ~Iiave s t ~~nderstood the definition of an angle by now.
What points must we remember wliile studying geometrical representations.
P : We must not just look at the representation but we must keep in ~nindthe
postulates related to that representation. We made mistakes in the beginning.
We did not consider these post~~lates.

I realised that definitio~iof an angle is not a coniplicated one but it needed clarification
for making it ~ ~ s e fThe
i ~ l .learning experience helps pupils to revisit their concept about
"angle' ray and conventions of repersentation. Their concept of angle can be judged
by a ~ ' - 'g them to perform t!ie followi~igtasks.

Figures given below are representations of angles. How many disjointed sets of points
are formed in each case?

No\\ onwards I will organise this 'experience' as a regular one.

.
- - -- - -

8.5 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISING LEARNING

EXPEFUENCES
-

8.5.1 Be Clear about the Learning Outcome

Beiore planing any learning experience it is necessary to think about the purpose of
tllc activity. If you want your students t o acquire a manual skill, for example, students
are asked to arrange apparatus for the preparation and testing of carbon dioxide, then
 IBrinciplcs of O r g r n i s i ~ t x
you can bank on their ability to imitate to some extent. Ifyou want to develop thinking l.carniug E s p e r i e ~ ~ c e s
skills for tlie preparation of carbon, carbon dioxide sliould be posed as a problem-
solving activity. For example. wliicli chemicals can be used for getting carbon-dioxode?
Which of tliese chemicals are easily available? Wliicli of these clie~nicalscan be
handled safely? Wliicli of these cliemicals are cheaper? What other clie~iiicalsare
available to get the required cliemical effect? For wliicli chemical reactions heating is
not required? These types of questions are lielpfi~lin developing a scientific attitude.

8.5.2 Help Learners to Work Individually as well as in Groups

Plan an environment. wliicli provides scope for eacli learner to converse with peers
as well as witli teachers individually and also as a group. This will lielp teachers to
study eacli learner's contribution in tlie process of knowledge-building.

Each learner should get a chance to begin at different startilig points, to proceed in
different ways and at different rates. The qilality of learning environment should be
judged on tlie basis of scope available for eacli learner to develop his or her specific
potentials to its optimum along witli tlie acquisition ofotlier social skills.

Tuning into individual differences is necessary. The learning environment should take
into co~isideratiolitlie i~idividi~al
ways of preferences to acquire and process tlie infor-
mation. For this tlie teacher should tahe tlie position of an inquirer. Some of tlie ques-
tions i~sefi~l
for inquirq are listed below :

How does a particular learner worh in tlie specific subject domain ?

How eager is a pal-ticular pupil to commi~nicatewitli peers and teacliers?
Wliat efforts are required for a particular learner to get a sense of ~iiasteryand assur-
ance?
In what context does the learner appear to be happy?
Wliat is the learner attending to within tlie complexity of the current task?
Does the learner catch miscues and niismatclies and initiate problem-solving?
Wliat specifically makes tlie task so clifficult for the learners to understand?
What would make a difference to how this learner works at an activity?

So~neti~iieswhole group activities are i~sefi~l

to lielp students understand tlie meaning
of prepositional knowledge. For esa~nple,while revolving around tlie Earth, Moon
co~npletesone revoli~tionaround itself. The time required for completing one revolution
around tlie earth and around itself is equal and for tliis reason we can see only one
surface of tlie Modn.

For helping pupils to ilnderstand tliis infor~iiationtlie follo\ving experience was planned.

I reqilested a girl to complete one revolution around herself.

I requested otlier pupils to watch movements of tlie girl's head
I asked that girl to note do\\ln what she is observing.
Each pupil noted that they could see all sides of the girl's liead.
Girl noted that she could see all walls of tlie classroom.
This means that girl is revolt ing around herself.
Then I drew a circle large enough to place a chair within it on tlie floor i~sing
chalk.
I reqi~estedthe girl to liiove along tlie circumference and keep her face towards
centre of tlie circle.
As in tlie previous case 1 asked all pilpils to note down tlie observation.
soft\\ a r e I)C\~CIO~IIICII~ All p ~ ~ p ilioted
l s all sides of girl's head and the girl could see all walls of the
classroom.
This lneans that tlie girl is co~iipleti~ig
one revolution around lierself as well as
along tlie circumference.
I asked pupils to repeat tlie whole procedure by placing a chair within the
circle.
1 asked p~ipilsto draw figures indicati~igtlie Moon's inovements.
I 11 Ill IV
Moon
revolving aro~tnditself

Moon
revolving around tlie earth.
" 0 (0
'I-lie experience will elid by drawing the above figure on the board with the help
of pupils. This activity allows learners to translate tlieir observations into repre-
sentations.
Pupils will be asked to repeat the experiment with tlie Iielp o f a ball at liolne and
draw figures in tlieir notebook.

Once I tried tlie ball-activity in class but all p ~ ~ p idid

l s not concentrate on tlie given
\\ark. To avoid this the above lear~iingexperience is devised.

8.5.3 Leave Opportunities for Negotiations

Lcaniing e~iviro~i~ue~it slio~~ldleave aniple scope for iiidividi~alsto negotiate what they
iindcrstand with teachers mid peers. Learners construct their iinderstandi~igby talking
tlirougli, playing back and rou~ldingout i~nderstandi~ig in conversation. Syste~iiatically
managed i~idividi~alisntio~i in many content areas that come to scl1001 with specially
developed tnaterials and tecli~iologyi n the form of prograiii~iiedlear~iingrarely pro-
vides for tlie negotiation of ~inderstandiligwith teachers and peers.

If toacliers plan to make use of these tecliniques, different questions should be posed
so as to ~iiakelear~iersuse Iiigher thinking processes. For examples, a programme is
available on Pytliagoras Theorem. I n this case, teachers can select proble~nsfrom
Bliaskaracliarya's Lilavvati. Pytliagoras Tlieore~iiis related to tlie square area on tlie
sides of a right triangle. The teacher can ask p ~ ~ p itol sstudy half-circular area, equilateral
triangular area, regular pelitago11area on tlie sides of tlie riglit triangle.

8.5.4 Try to Make Conversation with Pupils Personalised

Ciivi~igleanier opportunities of revealing tlieir range of experiences will allow tlieir
p e r a ~ ~constructions
~al of ~neaningenter into leanling interaction. Tlie available technical
ad\ illices call be exploited for getting time for this type of conversation with lear~iers.
For csample, if half tlie class is busy doing some work with computers or busy in tlie
library tlie other half can work in a small group. This type of'experience' organisation
will give tlie teacher an opportunity to converse with each pupil.

8.5.5 Allow Learners to Use their Prior ~ n o w l e d ~ c

Lcarning experielice should allow learners to use what they a!ready know to arrive 31
n e ~~~nderstandings.
l If learning is to be a co~istr~ictive
process, then tlie leanier should
14
engage in tasks that have niea~iingfor tlle~li,(i.e. tasks that are situated in co~nprelien-
sible contexts) and allow what a learner already knows to enter into new learning
(both strategic and kno\vledge-based) prior kno\vledge is not just prior to prescribed
scliool learning. I t includes all thc image langi~agepatterns. social relations and per-
sonal experiences, that a pupil relies on to ~nakesense o f so~nethi~lg new.

8.5.6 Develop Learning Task with Wider Scope

A learner-centred experience delilands an essential change in lesson delivery. I t is
necessary to escape from the notion o f stepwise progression in all cases. Any pre-
scribed learning sequence o f instruction leaves solne pupils behind early in the se-
quence without any means to catch LIP. TO avoid this. one ~ n i ~design
st tasks that
provide entry for each lear~leraccording to his or her own level as far as possible.

For example: for initiating writing activity pupils can be asked to write a story about
what they learned and how it affected their behaviour or invite tllem to read the text t o
discover something they did not notice dilring their tirst reading.

These types o f activities give an opportunity for learners to lnove from where they are
to somewhere else. I t slioi~ldbe remem bered that on rare occasions prescribed learning
lilay be necessary but it SIIOLII~not dominate teaching-learning interactions.

For example, a teacher can create the f o l l o w i ~ i gopportunities for different learners
according to their own entry level \vIlile designing activities to develop reading skills
1. Read fa~iiiliarbook.
2. Reread yesterday's prose paragraph.
3. Do a few minutes work with letters singly or in making and breaking up words.
4. Co~iiposeand write a story.
5. Reasseliible a story presented as a puzzle fro111its parts.
6. Introduced to reading new books.
7. Read lnaterial to compare it \vitli previously read material.
8. Help peers to read new material.

8.5.7 Be Ready to Tolerate Different Routes to Desired Learning

Outcomes
T o bring pupils to some satisfactory level o f functioning, it is necessary to provide
opporti~~lities
through different strategies as there are personal differences. Similarly.
give scope for varied for~iiso f expression.

8.5.8 ~ a k e ' U sof

e Learner's Ability to Reflect
Make an effort to get pupils thinki~lgabouttlieir learning experiences and its value for
themselves. This is necessary to make pupils aware o f their ow11act and liiake sense
~ 1 1o ft the experience.

'8.5.9 Design the Activity so as to Create a .LearningCulture

Try to create the Iear~lingelivironment wliere all iiidividilals are col laboratilig for con-
structing new knowledge. In this case teachi@'and learning are not separate activities
where one knows s because one was taught x. It is instead a special for111o f sliarirlg
or co~niligto share beliefs. goals and intentions. In short. it is a culture.

8.5.1 Use Available Resources Creatively

By using educational technology (infbmation technology) it is possible to use different
resources available creatively. Worcl processors, database, spreadsheets, grapllics and
Soft\c,nrc Developme~it paint applicatron are powerful a~idriexible means of organising content as well as
marlaging learning activities of each learner or each group as per the required learning
outcome. Different technologies and techniques can be used for engaging learners to
encounter, explore, and construct patterns and relationships that would otherwise be
vcry consu~iiingto produce or simply beyond pupils' capacity to achieve i~naidedfor
esample.

Younger pi~pilsare reli~ctanttowards writing. The compilter can help tl~enito orga~iise
and to undertake routine tasks such as correcting spelling, gralninar and producing a
good quality copy.

Pupils just spend a lot oftime in drawing graphs and studying graph. Computer facility
can be utilised to avoid this.

Using different technologies and tecl--riques it is possible for teachers to engage and
activate each learner according to 1 i i UWII
~ reqi~ire~nentsand interests. This will leave
time for teachers to involve p ~ ~ p iilitb
l s dialogi~eindividually or in g r o ~ ~ p s .

All tlie above principles of organising learning esperiences are s i ~ ~ n ~ n a r i sine dthe
fol loc\iing cl1al-t.

Activating and Engaging

Engage prior knowledge and experience.

Enrich the mutual knowledge base
tlir0~1g11
i~idividualand group work.
Surface and dispel misconceptions.
Allow pi~pilsto use different resources
and guide them to develop skills for
resources.

Organising and integrati~rg 1Exploring a& Discovering 1

Integrate and synthcsise Consider new inforniatio~ii n tlie
inforniation from a variety light of already 'gained informa-
of resources. tion'.
Represent information : e.g. Create a 'knowledge' i~sing.
icons, graphics, mnemonics, New and previous information.
and metaphors. Create new categories.
Develop frameworlis and . Expand available categories.
models.
Use available material 1.V
creatively.
 . . . --- --.-- .- ....- - Principles o f O r g a ~ i ~ s ~ n g
Learning Expcric~ices

Notes : s ) Write J ' O L Inns\i'crs

~ ill the space given below.
h') C:on!p;lre 1.uu1.ansncrs w i l l l those gibe11 at the end ot'tlie u ~ ~ i l .
1. %'I-. s!:n~.~lrla tei~cherhc cicr~i.about the learning c-~utconri.?
.............................................................................................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................................
; ..

2. Wli! i s p~'ioiI\no\\Icti2.e of'lea1.11e1-s i)f! C ~ ~ I ~ I I I ~

iniportant in the o~ganisatiir~l
~qyriellce:;'.'
..........,........
...................................................................................

8.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we started our discussion with prese~itationof two cases of orga~iisi~ig
learning experiences. Fro111tliese cases, we built LIPtlie ma.jor principles of orga~iisi~ig
learning experiences. In the first case. we de~nonstratedliow a learning task like
letter-writing co~lldbe organised by tlie E~iglisliteacher. There are certain situatio~is
wliere on tlie stop decisioli liave to be taken about organisation of learning experiences.
In the second case, we presented how a ~natliteaclier clia~igedher original plan while
teaching about angle. Based on these two cases, we arrived at tell pri~iciplesof
organising learning experiences.
-

8.7 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

Keeping in niind principles of organisation of lear~iingexperiences evaluate the fol-
lowing examples. Suggest concrete alter~iativesto impro'vise organisatioli of each ex-
perience.
I
1. To help pupils to get experience of 'properties of magnets' tlie teacher gives
each of tlieni a piece of magnet. She asks them to study properties by using
I
textbook infomation. She permits pi~pilsto exchange liiagnet piece and to work
in pairs in case they feel co~iifortableto do so. Slie provides the111 required
material like thread. iron fittings, iron dust etc. While pi~pilsare working, slie
k talks to pupils one by one and asks some questio~isto help them think.
I 2. A larigi~ageteacher enters the class to teacli contelit 'adjectives'. She sees that
tliere are different kinds of leaves on each desk. After greeting tile class and
asking them what they are doing with these leaves, she tells pupils to individ11-
ally make a list ofwords describing ally single leaf. Tlieconditio~iis that the Iist
of words ~ i i ~be~ sexhaustive
t so that ally pi~pilin the class shoi~ldbe able to
name tlie tree just by reading tlie list.

3. Tlie teaclier prepares a list of thirty-five words tliat are in use i n a certain
a~icie~it
culture. This Iist lias two colum~is.In the first colu~iin.tlie pronunciation
of the word is given and in other column tra~islationof that word is given. Slie
gives a copy of Iist of a group of four pi~pils.011tlie basis of this list tlie teaclier
 asks each group to ~;~potliesise the important features of the culture with justi-
fications. ~ol'orleperiod pi~pilsconcentrates on this work. During tlie period.
teaclier takes oppo~.tunityto observe group work. Slie notes down /;ow pupils
are co~i~~iiilnicatilig
with each otlier, who is dorii i~lati~ig
tlie group work. wlio is
riot sliowing interest in the work etc. Slie also tries to converse with sonie
pupils about their interest in the subject history.

Next week teaclier gives a cliance to present group work. Teaclier notes down
on the board i ~ i i p o ~ t afeatures
~it ofci~lture.Within twenty mini~tessix points are
listed on the board. Teaches asks pilpils to read two pages of a chapter on
'Egyptian culture and asks them to check their Iiypotlieses about tlie culture.'

4. Teacher asks pilpils to collect information about tlie '1 857 freedom struggle'.
For this she requests pupils to work in groi~ps011 different subject themes. Slie
spends one period to disci~sswi'h each group about its progress and give sug-
gestions. Then she asks pi~pilsto present their work in tlie for111of a poster. I n
all twenty posters are prepared. They are displayed in the class for about one .

montli. After that the teacher gives pupils an objective test.

8.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

I. A teaclier slioi~ldbe clear about tile learning outcomes as they decide. how
learlii~igtasks have to be orgaliised. For example, tlie lear~iingoutcome is that
sti~de~its acquire laboratory skill. Tlie teaclier liiust ensure that students ar-
range laboratory apparatus, prepare chemicals and test them.

2. Prior k~iowldgeof learners is important in the orga~~isation of lear~ii~ig

experi-
elices because it lielps tlie learner acquire new knowledge.

3. Creating a learning cultul-e 1iieaus creating a learni~igenvironment where all

individuals collaborate to construct new koowledge. They all share beliefs, goals
and intentions.

1Q
UNIT 9 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING
SOFTWARE.

Introduction
Objectives
Software : Meaning
Designing Software : Basics
Designing Software : Principles
Designing Interactive Software : Some Issues
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Activities
Suggested Readings
Answers to Check Your Pro,(rress

9.1 INTRODUCTION
By now you liave stuclied tlie basic concept of educational teclinology as a mi~ltifaceted
problem-solving approach. You liave also stitdied educational technology as a state
of tlie art resource in Block 2. where we liave discitssed a variety of existing and
emerging teclinologies : their evolution, and their strengtlis and weakuesses. TIILIS
yoit have developed a fair undersranding of tlie colicept of educational teclinology.

Block 3 is devoted to designing and developing software for audio, video and computer
programmes. The first two units of tliis Block talk about tlie priciples of desig~iilig
i~istritctio~i
atid lea1.11iugexperiences \vIiile tlie last two i~nitsdiscuss applications of
those principles and gilideli~iesin actually preparing software. I n Unit 8 yo11 liave
studied, the principles oforganising learning experiences so that learning is facilitated.

I n Unit 9. we sliall discuss tlie broad principles of designing software for audio-
visi~almedia. Before tliat we shall clarify tlie i~nderlyingconcept of software and
then desig~iingsoftware. 'l~lius,tlie unit deals witli theoretical explanation of design-
ing software for effective learning by tlie learners. 111tlie fast changing society, the
impel-tance of effective instructional software has increased. Now, every teacher
expresses colicerli as to how to transact curriculum so that tlie leaniers are able to
achieve their learning objectives effectively atid efficiently i.e. maximum learning
with minimum energy and time devoted to learning tasks. Towards the elid of the
unit. issites related to designing interactive software are discussed. As you know,
interactive learning is an emel-ging area of educational technology.

Hope you will elljoy reading tliis u n i l .

9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going tliis unit you slioi~ldbe able to :
define tlie expression 'soft\va~.e'
discuss the basic concept of designing software:
discuss software designing principles collected from tlie various school of
tllo~lgllt;
discilss issues relatecl to designing interactive learning.
Software Development
9.3 SOFTWARE: MEANING

Before you go through this nit, you may like to understand tlie underlying concept
of software. Generally, tlie expression (software) is used for tlie computer programmes.
As yo11know, there are two parts oftlie computer-mediated teachning-learning process.
First is tlie equipment i.e. computer monitor, key board, hard disc, etc. which are
known as liardware, and wliicli are used to manifest I manipulate information or
sub-ject matter. The liardware includes physical, electronic and electromechanical
components of educational technology. We call this component 'teclinology in
education'. The second component is what we call inforniation, coutent or learning
experiences. Tliis is known as software. We call this component 'technology of
education'. Tliis refers to all types of courses or learning materials. Tlie equipment
or electronic devices (liardware) carry information (software) to the users. In this
nit, tlie expression 'software' is not only used with reference to computer programmes
but also for any type of media software ( including audio and video programmes).
So. tlie software liere refers to tlie teaching-learning materials delivered/transmitted
tlirougli any technology. It includes programmes for radio or television as well as
programmes of various types for a computer. Tlie burden of instructio~iis carried out
by tlie software (programmes), not the medium. We, therefore, liave to exploit tlie
liardware teclinology (audio, video or computer) by manipi~latingtlie software. As
teachers, our purpose would be to understand the theoretical background to effec-
tively design software for optimum lear~iingby our lear~iers.

- -

9.4 DESIGNING SOFTWARE : BASICS

Learning is based on intervention by tlie content or the human-being who organises

tlie c ~ n t e nand
t sequences ofthe learning activities. Tlie design of content and learning
activities is oftlie ~iiostcrucial factor in successf~~l
learning. Behind the design ofany
instn~ctionaltechnique are tlie pri~iciplesoflearning. Understa~idingoftliese principles
of learning is important for anyone who designs software. 'l'lie goal of software is to
cause learners to learn. Whatever teclinology we choose for learning, there is a greater
need for better software design in tlie mediated-learning situations than in tlie
con~entionalteacliing methods. In the face-to-face situation we have the opport~~nity
to amend, explain or add things wliicli are missing. We can change tlie sequence of
content or we can add lear~iingactivities suited to tlie learners. Such opportunities
are not available if tlie message is delivered through teclinology and learning takes
place at a distance. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that content is designed
effectively and appropriately suited to the needs of tlie lear~iers.
IC

Tlie discussion on designing issues can take different directions because of many
possible interpretations and many possible uses. To clearly ~~ndersta~id the concept
of designing software we should ~ ~ n d e ~ ~ two
t a n dconcepts:
, instruction and learning.
You miglit have come across many insta&cas.wIierethese concepts liave been invari-
ably used. We liave used these exPressib~i~'ihterclia~igeably in the various courses of
B. Ed. programme. Some experts liave differentiated between these two concepts.
According to tlie focus ofactivity, instruction occurs outside tlie learner while learning
is tlie result of i~iter~ial
cognitive processes within the learner. Instruction, therefore,
may be defined as a way of organising and sequencing infol.mation, content, experi-
ences or learning activities for tlie learner which include any or one of essential
elements such as presentation of information and provision of examples, practice
and feedback (Reigelutli, 1983). Learning on tlie other hand, results from effective
coding, organisation, integration and tra~lslationof information. Learning involves
processing of information in one's cognition. While instruction and learning always
require information/content. information is not always instructional, nor does si~iiply Principles of D e s i g ~ i i ~ ~ g
Softtt8arc
receiving information always I-esult in learning. Also instruction does not always
cause learning, nor does learning always require instruction (Grabowski atid Curtis,
1990). The purpose of this discussion is to convince you that designing software
includes both the processes. tliat is, instruction and learning. When we think of
designing learning materials we take internal as well as external conditions of the
learning process into consideration. We desig~isoftware in such a way tliat it moti-
vates and helps the learners to learn. -

Y e s : \i'ri;c > <:o, 3 n i i \ r i . '

tlic space g i \ c i ~belo\\.
iii

13) i'o1.11par~
yotll. aiib\\cl-\\ it11 the onc gi\.cn a t the c11d ot'tlic unit.

!. i<olli tlic pr-occ:,,~....)I : ~ i , ~ ~ . t ~ ant1

c t i olearning
~i n1.c i111lmrfa1.11
i n desigrli~lg
;lus~i!j.
.t.~~'~i;.u.t..
I

The second important concept of designing is media/tecli~iology.As you ~nigllthave

read in this Course, media can be defined as carrier of information (so designed)
from tlie source (institution or teachers) to the recei\iers (learners or users). Media
intervenes to reconcile them i.e. the source and tlie rc'ccivers. Media attributes play
an important role in facilitating different types of l i i ~ m n nco~iimunication.You will
study about selection and integration ofappropriate media for optimum gain or .learning
by the learners in Unit 13-Block 4 of this Course. While designing software for your
learners you have to take the strengths and weaknesses of the individual media into
consideration. Not all media are effective in teaching or learning all types of
information. In other words, not all media are equally effective in achieving different
types and levels of objectives. By implication each medium requires specific design
for optimum learning.

As ilistructional designer. we should aspire to fire the imagination and elicit tlie total
involve~nentof the learners. One way to enlialice this qi~alityof attention across the
learners and learning styles is to present information in a multi-sensory, multi-channel
format. Facts, concepts and relationships can be presentedldesigned in a variety of
ways: text, line drawing and graphics, computer graphics and animation, digitised
photographs, digitised sound, still video, full motion video and sound.

You might agree with 11stliat tlie concept of instructional design suggests us many
tools, techniques and strategies \vllich are useful in designing and delivering learning
materials. Together they provide a set of means towards accomplisliing instructional
objectives. A skilled teacher will be able to select and apply the appropriate tools,
techniques and approaches in the teaching-learning process. Being a successfill teacher
requires tliat YOLI plan, organise and communicate content using most effective ways
and Ineatis of delivering learning experiences to achieve learners' colnpetence.
-
You,
as a teacher, are responsible for designing software.

Therefore, you need to know :

Who are the target group?
What are tlie learning character-stics of tlie target-gt-OLIP?
Where does teaching take place?
 What tools and techniques are available to transact curriculum?
How to design arid deliver learning experiences successfi~lly?

According to Kenip and Smellie ( 1 989), for an instructional software to be success-

ful. the followilig should occur
Satisfactory learning takes place so that tlie learners can acquire 11ecessary
knowledge, skills and attitudinal behaviour pattern.
1,earning is accomplislied in accordance wit11 reasonable expenditure of money,
time and energy.
Learning experie~icesare ~iiea~iingful and iriteresti~igso tha*aniers are
encouraged to continue with tlieir studies.
The planning and iliiple~iie~itation of an instructional software prove to be a
satisfactory set of experiences for tlie software designer. 1

Tiic process of designing software starts with answers to the following four ques-
tions:
Who are the users of the software? (learners)
What do we want the learner to learn or able to do ? (objectives)
Flow is the subject matter or skill best learnt? (teacliing/learning methods, liiedia
and activities with resources)
How do we determine the extent to which learning has been achieved ?
(assessment and feed back)

I hcse questions emyhasise four main elements, i.e. learners, objectives,

? 7

and assessment.
According to Gunter, Estes and Scliwab (1990). t l ~ eabove four elements form tlie
Sralnework of software develop~ne~it procedures. There are otlier factors tliat either
support or relate to tliese four elements. such as assesslnelit of learning needs, selection
of topics, examination of learners' cliaracterstics, statement of methods and media,
specification of support services and evaluation of learning outcomes. Taking all
these conipoliellts together. we can develop an instructional software plan for our
learners.
Designing software is a step-by-step procedure that leads to specific lea~~iing
outcomes.
These four elements of designing i~istructiondecide the sequence of tlielear~iing

I
experiences. Effective instructional software, ~IILIS developed, are based on tliree
factors:
allows learners to become active participants in the learning process,
takes them through specific sequential steps, and
reflects research about thinking. learning and behaviour.

To conclude. a number of elements are i~ivolvedin pla~i~iingatid designing software.

The design of a sound product will require tlie consideration of a ni~mberof design
aspects. These include :
educational design
instructional design
graphical design and
li~lmaninteraction design

Each ele~nentlias the potential to determine the effectiveness of the learning process.
l'he careful consideration ofthese elements is important for development of software.
r---
- ------
I
I -
1 (.'heck ' i our Progress
!!
i !

9.5 DESIGNING SOFTWARE : PRINCIPLES

I11 this section, we discuss some principles of designing software, selected from a
variety of sources. that provide a solid repertoire for the teachers. Some of tlie principles
are fainiliar to you. These may not be in their technical fonii but you might be using
them in planning, designing and transacting curriculum. tliat is in teaching. in your
school. To provide you with a good foundation for ~~nderstanding these principles,
we describe in detail the steps in order to facilitate tlie usc of your knowledge in
designing effective software.

Many researcliers have developed models and methodology for designing and
developing learning ~naterialsand tlie colnlnon characte~isticsof these models are
sequential phases of develop~nent,imple~iientationand evaluation.

Wliile discussing tlie role of liiedia in education and training, Locatis and Atkinson
(1984) suggested sotile principles of designing instruction for acquiring knowledge.
attitudes and skills. Those principles are presented below in brief.

Principles of designing software for acquiring knowledge

Introduce novel or unexpected events at tlie start of instruction.
Recall prerequisite infonilation.
Present only relevant information so as to help learners attain tlie objectives.
Organise content tliat are easy to understand.
Provide pro~iiptsand cues to direct learners' attention: highlighting underlying
or superimposing words, v i s ~ ~ aor
5
l sgraphic can direct learners' attention to the
learning points.
Vary information presented and use an appropriate time span; attention lnay be
lost if tlie same inforlnation is presented or shown for a long time.
Present exalnples and illustration to clarify your point of view.
Provide appropriate practice for retention of learning.
Provide immediate feedback / knowledge of results.
Review and repeat what is learned.
S ~ f t w ~ Developnient
rc Principles of designing software for attitudes and behaviour
Tell the learners tliat the topic (content) you are learning is important and
i~sefi~l
to YOLI.
Present reasons or a convincing explanation as to why tlie topic is important to
Iiimllier.
Arrange i~itrinsicand extrinsic rewardslreinforce~iie~it.
Ensi~retliat students experience success and accompIish~iient;learners slioi~ld
successfully complete tlie taskslactivities given.
Associate content with things tliat arc artl.active to the learners.

Principles of designing software for psychomotor skills

Identify skills characteristics: Eac'; psyclio~notorskill requires different learning

conditions and ways of demonstl arid practising the skill. However, most
skills have mi~ltiplecharactekistics. So. a combination of conditions for learning
need to be devised and provided to them.
Demonstrate and explain the skill : A variety of techniques arid media can be
used to demonstrate tlie specific skill. Developments i n information
teclinology such as slow motion pictures, computer gaming, etc., make it
possible to demonstrate skills more effectively.
Provide practice and feedback on performi~igthe skill. Ample opportunities
for practice will ensure mastery oftlie skill. Both the simi~latio~i
and tlie actual
practice can ensure a long term impact of learning.

Harbeck and ~liermai;(l999) stated seven broad priciples for designing develop-
mental appropriate web-sites for young children. With some modifications, tliese
principles can be effectively used for designing any educational software. Let 11s
discuss tlie salient features of tliese principles in tlie context of this unit.

(i) Simple, clear ant1 concrete design : Needless to say, the software design
sliould be concrete. It should provide the learners simple and clear concrete
(opposite to abswact) stimuli, examples and illustrations. This sliould be done
keeping tlie mental age and physical development of tlie learners in mind.
(ii) Learning guidance: To ensure optimum lear~iing,there should be sollie
provision for gi~ida~ice
to tlie lear~iers.In case of any problern so~neexternall
additional support should be provided to them. Tlie software design should
provide for necessary gi~idaricecounselling or tutoring to facilitate learners'
leanling.
(iii) P~~ogressive ancl inclividualisecl: Tlie software design shoulcl be based on tlie
pre-requisites of tlie learners and should take them to tlie ter~ninalbehaviour
step-by-step. Their age. ability, interest and characteristics slioi~ldbe ltept in
mind while designing the software. By doing so we call cater to their individual
cl i fferences.
(iv) Relevant to the target group: The software design should cater to the
educational and training needs ofthe lear~iers.Tlie need-based input will make
tlie software usefill and interesting.The content should be identified based on
tlie concept mapping.
(v) Integrated activity: Tlie software design should have a provisio~iwhereby
the learners are motivated to acti~allywork on pedagogic activities. They sllould
be involved in activities such as problem-solving, discovery learning, etc.,
l'lie integrated activities sliould be related to the physical, emotional and social
developnie~itof the lear~iers.Therefore, tlie procedure of physical and cog~iitive
develop~iie~its sliould provide a basis for desig~iirigsoitware.
24
 Active and enjoyitble: Active responding is a basic condition o f any type o f Prillciplcs of Dtsignillg
(vi) Sot'tssarc
learning. Tlie software should. tlierefore, be desig~iedin s i ~ c lai way tliat tlie
learners involve tliemselves physically and cog~iitivelyin the learning process.
I~iterestingactivities of different, types and levels can provide valuable and
long lasting experiences. This w i l l fnake the software elljoyable. T o attract.
Ilold and sustain their motivation and attellti011is tlie main characteristic o f ali
effective software design.
(vii) Exploratory with multiple options: There are two aspects o f any software:
First. the learners shoi~ldbe allowed to explore most appropriate solutions to
the problems. Efforts should be made to follow a branching format where the
learners are not forced to follo~va rigid linear approach o f learning. Tlie software
slioi~ldnot put a blinker on students' eyes. Secondly, the software should provide
control o f learning to tlie learners. That is the leaniers should control tlie process
oftheir learning accordi~igto tlieir pace o f learning arid requirement. Tlie design
sliould allow learners to take appropriate decision regarping tlieir learning.
Tlie software. therefore. sliould be open-ended so tliat learners can take their
own path o f leariiing.

9.6 DESIGNING INTERACTIVE SOFTWARE : SOME

ISSUES

As you know. effective lea~.~;in~.dcmalidr activea&s on tlie part o f tlie learner. T o

learn we have to i ~ i v o l v eourselves in tlie learning activities. The participation may
be in terms o f raising a query. asking a question, arguing for a point o f view, conduct-
ing an esperiment, etc. Tlie learner cannot sit back passively. Active learning promotes
co~npreliension.retention ancl rccall o f infoniiation. Interactive software motivates
tlie learners for pliysical andlor cog~iitiveparticipation in pedagogic activities.

I n interactive learning. there call be two forniats: linear and brancliing. Both tlie
for~natscall be designed separatelj or as a combination o f both. In tlie linear f o r ~ i i a t
eacli information is presented in a sct order. Interaction ilivolves periodic qi~estio~is
or other participatory activities that are the s'ame for eacli lear~ier.Thus, each learner
passes through tlie same information in a linear way.

Fig. 10.1: Linear Design

*
A branching format. on tlie other hancl. makes i t possible to provTde 'optional' or
bra~icliingpatlis for tlie learncr. In this format different learnerscoi~ldstart at different
places in a software and move aliead according to their needs. T o design both tlie
formats ~ieedsdifferent strategies a i d approaches. Brancliing interactive software
provides alternative path for navigatio~iwliic!~attempt to address different leanling
style in tlie learners.

Fig. 10.2: Brancllit~gDesign

 Whatever format or strategy is used, interactive software can address good teachirig
ancl learning practices which aim to engage learners in active rather than in passive
learning.

With this background. let us now discuss principles o f designing interactive learning
soli\\,are.

While discussing approaches to interactivity. we find two schools o f thought about

interactivity. They are

Rodent Response Metaphors

Plianta~iialMetaphors

Idelus talk about both the points o f view o f designing interactive software

Tlie Rodent Response Metapliors Si110ol is based on tlie principles o f behavioural

ps\.cIiology. Tliis is cliaracterised by overt learner interaction with instructional
m:~lcrials.Learning is enhanced by shaping learner responses to instructional stimuli
ancl thereby developi~igan association between tlie two. Tlie interactive learning
designers have concentrated on contingencies o f reinforcement, imrned iate feed back
and tlie like.

-,
I lic Pliantamal Metal)liors Scliool is based on cognitive psychology. This school o f
t l ~ o ~ ~empliasises
glit that tlie learner is a ~iiediatorin tlie learning process. Tlie learn-
ing is viewed as proactive. by helping to shape learning. rather than being sliapecl by
it. Yofware designers wlio empliasise this orientation are concerned wit11 problems
sucli as learner motivatio~ifor lear~iing,infor~iiationprocessing. transfer o f learning.
etc.

Both Ilic approaches are not ~iiutuallyesclusivc. For effective learning both can be
applicd ill designing software. Lear~iingtakes place through tlie processes o f discus-
sion. interaction. factlitation o f learner's reflecting or thinking. assesment o f tlie
i ~ i t e ~ i d goal
c d and recom~nendationofapropriate tasks to achieve tlie ob-jectives. Tlie
clehign to be followed. allo\cs tlie learner to negotiate learning tasks to acquire an
inclcptli understanding o f tlie content. To make interactive software successfi~lwe
s l i o ~ ~usel d possible communicatio~itechnologies for interaction.

We should keep good teaching practices in mind while designing software. Some o f
tlie practices are as follows :
9

Stating tlie ob-jectivc clearly

Sliowing respect zind concern for tlie indiviclual lear11c1-
Making content interesting a ~ i dstimulating
llsi~ig
appropriate la~igi~age
and \/ocabulary
lJroviding m ~ ~ l t i pperspectives
le o f co~iceptsbeing learnt
Using tlie espericnces o f tlie learner
haaging tlie learner in problem-sol\/ing
Ilsing audio an$ video materials in order to projiide stimulus variations
Empliasising i ~ i d e p e ~ i d e ~ i c e l a i ~ t oo~f ~learners
o ~ i i y in their learning
Giving appropriate worklcontent load.
A p p l y i ~ i gappropriate assessment methods, the purpose o f which are clearly
u~lderstoodby tlie learriers
Giving feedback on their wo.rk or learning
 C'hcck Yonl- Pro,~rl-ess

Notes : a) Write !out. alis\\cl->iri tlie spacc given helou.

b) Co~iipare\inlll. ans\\crs \\lit11those si\,en at the end i)f tlie 1111it.

4. LV1.1tean! tlirec principle5 of designing softuarc Ibl ;~ttitiidesand

be!iav iour.

5. Ho\v docs I'liantamal Mctapliors School o f 7 Iioi~gliti i i f l i ~ c ~dcsig~i

i ~ c 01'
sol t\\areC?

LET US SUM UP

Hope you liave e11.joyeclreading this iiliit. You have st~rdiedthat in the context oftliis
illlit tliat tlie tern1 software is i~sedfor audio, video and computer progl-ammesl
courseware. We liave also briefly talked about Iiardware (technology in education)
and software components (technolog!, of education).

Designing software is based on tlie cystematic approaches to leanling. To understand

tlie colicept of designing software \\ c clifferentiated between instruction and learning.
Desip~ii~ig software i~icludesbotli instruction and learning i.e. estrinsic and ilitri~isic
conditions. Tlie softjvare design \ arlcs according to tlie type of ~iiedia/technology
used for delivery of inhrmatiori. As software designers. \ \ e should know about our
leaniers. tlieir leanling characteristics. ~iietliodsand ~iiedia.etc. Four ele~iientsof
software design: learners, oh.jectives. nietliods and media and evaluation are liigh-
lighted ill this unit. These four elenie~itsprovide a bas~sfor soft\vare developnient.
Tlie niai~ifirnctions ol'effectivc soliuare are to allow learner become active partici-
t pants in the teaching-lenrni~igprocc.ss and increase Iiisllier tllinking process.

Besides. w discussecl the principles statecl by Locatis and Atkinson (1984) and
Harbeek and Slier~iian(1999) ill tlic illlit. ~ f t &
going tliro~~gli
this 111iityo11 111iglit
k have observed that tlie clesigning of software depends on the pl.inciples of effective
learning.

At tlie end of the 111iit;\ve disci~sscdsollie issues related to designing interactive

1 software. TWOapproaches namely : rodent response rhetapliors and plianta~nal
I
I ~iiatapliors.are discussed. A list of good interactive teaching practices is also presentecl
I for your ready reckoner.

9.8 UNIT-END ACTlVITIES

1. Select any audiolvideo son\\ ii1-e yo11are fa~iiiliar\\itli. Analyse tlie principles
wliicli have bee11used to de\ign ilie software.
9.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Criswell, E.L. ( 1 989): The De.sign of C'on~puler-basedIiislrtrction, Macmillan

Publishing Company. New York, USA.

Gunter. M.A. Estes, T.tl. and Sehwab, J.H.(1990): Irr.rlieucfion:A iModelZ4pproach,

Allyn & Bocon, Boston.

f-iarbeck. J.D. and Sherman, T.M. (1 999): Seven Principles for Designing Develop-
mental Appropriate Web Sites for Young'Children, Educational Technology, Vol.
39, (4), 1999.

Keml.7, J.E. and Sniellie, D.C. (1 989) : Planning, Producing and Using Instructional
Mcditr, Harper-Collins Publishers, New York.

Koymen, O.S. (1 989) : Desig?~Theories for Dist~~nce Edzrcation in Development.

Desig~larid Distarice Edztcation, Michael S. Parer (ed.), Centre for Distance Learn-
ing. Monash University College Gippsland, Churchill Victoria, Australia.

Locatis, C.N. and Atkinson, F.D. ( 1984) : Media and Technologyfor Education und
Truinitig Charles E . Merrill Pub. Co. & A Bell and Howell Company, Columbia.

9.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

I Learning is the result of internal cognitive processes within the learner, whereas
instruction is a way of organising and sequencing learning experience. A good
software sl~ouldnot only organise learning experiences but also aim at active
cogllitive processes within the learner.

1. Knowledge about the characteristics and background of the learners help in

designing need-based software. The level of complexity will be pitched accord-
ing to the growth and develop~nentof the learners.

3 The four elernents of software develop~lle~it

are learners, objectives, media and
n~ethodsand evaluation.

4. 'Three principles of designing software for attitudes arid behaviour are:

i) Tell the learners that the topic (content) they are learnillg is important
and ~lsefillto thetn.
ii) Present reasons or convincing explanations as to why the topic is
important to himllier
iii) Arrange i~ltrillsicand estrinsic rewal-dslreinforcement.
5. Accordi~~g to t l ~ ePhantamal Metapllors School of tho~~gllt, learning is viewed
as proactive, by helping to shape learning, rather than being shaped by it.
Dosigners of software believillg in this school of thought emphasise informa-
tion processing, lear~fer'smediati011in the learning process, transfer of learning
etc.
UNIT 10 APP,LICATIONTO AUDIONIDEO
PROGRAMMES

Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Ilnportance of Audio/Video Programmes
10.4 Strengtlis and Weaknesses of Audio Programmes
10.4.1 Steps for Overco~ning[hc Weaknesses of Audio Programmes
10.4.2 Effective Utilisation ol'RadioiAudioProgra1111nrs
10.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of Educational Video Progra~nlnes
10.5,I strengths of ~ i d i Programmes
o
10.5.7 Steps for Ovcrcolning thc 1,imitationsof Video Prograuunes
10.5.3 Effective Utilisation ofvideo Psogranimes
10.6 Software Development for AudioIVideo Progra~n~nes
10.7 Development of Scriptwriting for Audio Programmes
10.7.1 Audio Script as it Evolves
10.7.2 Guidelines for Audio Scriptwriting
10.8 Developmelit of Scriptwriting for Video Programmes
10.8.1 Vidco scsiptwriti~~g
as it cvolkes
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 Unit-end Activities
10.11 Suggested Readings
10.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we propose to disci~ssthe importance of audio/video programmes, their
strengths as well as weaknesses, ways and means of utilising their strengths and
overcoming their limitations, principles of software development and application of
these principles to audiolvedio progranlnies, and develop~nentof script for audiolvidso
program me.

10.2 OBJECTIVES

u i II be able to:
After going through this unit, ~ , o w
discuss the importance and need of audio and video programmes;
describe the special features of audiolvideo programmes;
i~tilisethe strengths and overcome the limitations ofthe audio/video progranlmes;
apply the principles of so1twa1-edevelopment to thedevelopment ofaudiolvideo
prograliimes;
identify certain innovations in audiolvideo programmes;
develop scripts for audio/video programme according to the needs and interests
of the target audience.
10.3 IMPORTANCE OF ACTDIOMDEO
PROGRAMMES
Both formal as well as distance education have been utilising the electronic media like
radio. te!evision, audiolvideo recorders. Radio or audio programme is an effective
medium. It is also comparatively cheaper and easier for handling. Audiolradio
programmes not only inform. but also inspire. They inculcate values, change attitudes
a~icldevelop interests. There is already a very well-developed i~ifrastructi~re for
developing and broadcasting radiolaudio programmes.

Educational broadcasti~igand audio tapelcassette programmes liave, therefore, immense

potentialities. Particularly. in developilig countries like India, ediicational school
broadcasts. adult education programmes. Farmers Literacy Programlnes are used for
tlie lxbofit of tlie target audience. A series of progralilmes are broadcast for
correspondence and training in service teachers. Hence, botli for quality as well as
expansion of education, radiblaudio programmes are foi~ndi~seful.

Tlie B,ritisliOpen University broadcast radio and TV prograiiime related to the topics
of tlie courses of studies. I n India, UGC and IGNOU ~ltilisetlie audiolvideo programmes
at present for enabling tlie target audience to learn effectively and interestingly.

Television/video programmes are tlie niost powerfill media of com~iiunicationwhich

have ievolutionised tlie life style of many people in the world. The media liave
remalikable versatility in treatment ofthemes and providing learning experiences in an
efficient and interesting manner. Educational Televisio~i(ETV) and video progranlmes
are iltilised for iriiparting liberal and cultural education to various target audience. Tlie
progra~iinlesare now available for school and college education, nonformal education,
distance education and correspondence courses. I n brief, video and television
programmes are ilsefi~lfor students, teachers, parents. supervisors and educational
planners.

10.4 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF AUDIO

PROGRAMMES
The advantages and disadvantages of audio progra~nniesare mentioned below :

Strengths
i) Radio sets, tape recorders and cassette recorders are not expelisive in compari-
son to other electro~iicmedia.
ii) Even without electricity radio tapelcassette recorders can be used with the help
of battery sets.
iii) Tliese recorders call play back cassettes/tapes according to conveliience of the
learners. That is, these materials can be utilised for repetition, drilling, practising
and ill~~stratingsome specific teaching points.
iv) Radio sets, tapekassette recorders are comparatively handy and quite portable,
and as such can be used easily at vakious places.
\I) Production of educational audio programmes is easy and does not require many
technicalities.
-

vi) Prodution cost of educational audio programlnes is quite reasonable.

vii) ;rapes/cassettes are produced according to tlie edilcational lieeds alid coliditions
of special groLlps of learners.
Weaknesses Application to Audio1
Video Programmes
i) Audio progralnlnes are only sound-based and have no visuals. Hence, these ,
programmes can be boring. , .
ii) Audio cassettesltapes are generally developed locally, even institutionally. So
professional quality is often sacrificed.
iii) In case of a ~ ~ dthere
i o is no scope for interaction and feedback. Hence tliese are
one-sidedlone-way co~iimu~iicatio~i and miss tlie personal touch.

10.4.1 Steps for Overcoming the Weaknesses of Audio Programmes

With a view to overcoming tlie Ii~iiitatio~is
of tlie audio programmes, the following
steps should be taken:
i) Sound, being the only or tlie main liiediuln has to be supported by printed materials,
posters, slides, pictures. etc.
ii) As listening is very exciting for many, appropriate attention-drawing techniques
need be adopted in tlie audio programmes.
iii) In tliese progra~nmes,tlieresliould be adequate and appropriate use of music and
sound effects.
iv) Scripts, being tlie backbones of tliese programmes, should be prepared taking
pedagogic and psychological needs and conditio~lsoftlie clientele into considera-
tion.
v) . In educational audio programmes, there should be i~iiaginativcuse of humour,
elasticity, suspension, ci~riosityetc.
vi) I n order to make audio programlnes effective, teacliers sliould conduct audio
disci~ssio~is before, during and after tlie programmes atid organise otlier follow-
up activities.

10.4.2 Effective Utilisation of RadioIAudio Programmes

In order to ensure effective utilisation of educational radiolaudio programmes, the
followirig factors are to be taken into account:
i) P~.ovisio~i
and maintenance of audio setslaudioltape recorder
ii) Organisation of radiolaudio listening in class
iii) Pre-broadcastlplay back d isc~~ssion
iv) Post-broadcastlplay back discussion
V) Use of support niaterials
vi) Follow-LIPactivities

1) Provision and Maintenance of Radio Sets and Audio Tape Recorder

Tlie primary requisite of i~tilisationis tlie provision of a radio set and tape recorder
in the school. Since at present tliese sets and elements are of different varieties
and of various makes, scliools should not go for very costly sets or for very
clieap ones. If a Headinaster or Headmistress would like to have one for the
scliool, this can easily be dolie by purcliasing from the funds of the scliool.
The sets belonging to the scliool can be kept under the custody of either tlie
Headnlaster or tlie User Teacher. Sma,p.batterysets are preferable if tliey are
portable and call be taken to d ifferelit classes witliout ally difficulty. However, if
tlie scliool has proper electricity connections in different rooms, an electricity-
operated set will serve the purpose.Radio sets and Tape Recorder should be
properly lnai~itainedin tlie scliool.

ii) Organisation of Radio Listening in Class

User teacliers are generally tlie subject teacliers or teacliers wlio are interested
in tlie media and remain in-charge of the same. There are different subject
teacliers in different classes. Since a topic relating to one subject for oiie class is
Software D e v e l o p m e n t broadcast in one day For 20 nits., the user teaclier may not find any difficulty in
organising the broadcast activities in tlie class. Tlie probleni of tlie presence of
subject teaclier in all tlie classroo~nmay arise if there are more sectiolis in a
class. If a tape recorder or two-in-one is purchased, it can be utilised for recording
the School Broadcast Prograni~iieand played back thesame at different times in
tlie remaining sections.
Before switcliing on tlie radio, it is tlie responsibility of tlie User Teacher to
create a proper atmosphere in tlie class for listening to tlie scliool broadcasts.
'The receiving set should be kept in a central position so that every student ofthe
class listens to tlie programnie without any difficulty. Since tlie radio is an audio
equipment, every care slioi~ldbe taken to ensure it is audible to everyone in
class.
iii) Pre-Broadcast Discussions
After maintaining a proper listenin, environment in tlie class, tlie user teaclier
will ask certain questions preferably three to five in relation to tlie broadcast
topic in order to arrest tlie attention of the pupil towards tlie radio lesson. Tliis
will hold students atteiition to tlie programmes and the purpose of tlie broad-
casting will be achieved. Before a radio lesson, tlie User Teaclier slioi~ldbe
aware of the specific objectives of that pa~ticularlesson.
During broadcast or playback, a user teaclier nii~stsi lent1y observe tlie reaction
of studelits and will take a note of difficult concepts, words, phrases, etc. and
any i~nusualreaction from students. At the same time lie may listen to the
progralnliie and give liis opi~iionand s i ~ ~ ~ e s t ito
o ntlie
s concerned autliority and
also to All India Radio for i~iiprovementoftlie prograinme.

iv) Post-Broadcast Discussions

After tlie programme is over, tlie User Teacher may invite questions fiom the
students in order to clarify tlieir doubts on the programme. By and by, he may try
to explain tlie difficult ideas, words, phrases, etc. and ask certain qi~estionswhich
lie feels relevant and useful and not covered by the students and provide the
reply in case the sti~de~its fail to do so. Tlie user teaclier will try to clarify the
words and colicepts foillid difficult by the students. This activity may take about
I0 minutes.
v) Use of Suppol-t Materials
Tlie supp61-tmaterials sent by tlie Education Dept., by AIR to tlie radio scliool
from time to time may be consulted for effective discussion with students. Tlie
support materials are prepared on tlie basis of tlie radio scripts scheduled for
broadcast on different subjects and for different grades. It is riot necessary that
only the questio~ison tlie support ~iiatcrialsand context be asked by tlie teaclier.
He may ask questio~iswhich lie deems fit on tlie lilies suggested in the support
~~iaterials.
vi) Follow-up Activities
After this is done. the teacher may give sollie practical assignments to tlie studelits
to be done by tlie~nselvesin order to bring out creativity in them. They can write
an essay or a story or a poeni according to tlieir ability and interest.
In tlie above lesson children may be asked to write what they learnt from the
lesson. Tliis ~iiakesstudelits exercise tlieir brain and to recollect tlie infoniiation
they get in the lesson. This also helps tlie~nto enter into a healthy competition.
Again, tlie spelling errors ofthe students. if any, will be rectified wlien the sariie
is seen by tlie subject teaclier.
All these activities when properly organised resi~ltin joyfill and effective lear~iing.
Thi~s.tlie teaclier concerued should take active interest in tlie ai~dioll-adioprogramme
and present liirnself tliroirghout the period wit11 keen interest and rapt attention to the Application to Audioi
Video P r o g r a n ~ ~ n c s
listening of tlie progralnliie froni tlie beginning to end and orga~iiseall relevant activites
in a plaiitied and meaningful way. All this is esse~itialfor ens~u-ingefficient learning
tllrougll radio/audio programmes.

10.5 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF

EDUCATIONAL VIDEO PROGRAMMES
Educational. systems and educational materials need to be co~iscio~~sly and carefi~lly
designed to help pupils learn and grow towhsdscertain pre-stated educational objectives.
Most of tlie television progralnnles arc also an education of a kind, because they
inform, instruct, entertain and thus educate. Then used as a teaching tool, in an
educational situation-formal or non-formal. televisio~imay well be labelled as "the
mother of audio-visual aids". It call effectively conibi~iea ~iiultiti~deofteaclii~igaids-
films, slides, tapes. charts and other graphics. Asa teaclii~igaids, television lias several
advantages and can play a very important role in maki~igleamilig effective and joyfill.

10.5.1 Strengths of Video Programmes

i) Television can bring tlie whole world into tlie classroo~ii.
ii) It com bi~iesboth sound and pictures, ~liovi~ig
and still. grips tlie attention ofviewers
and lias great motivating power.
iii) It brings the past alive.
iv) It can bring distant objects. places, people. events and processes into tlie
~la~~~i~~lll.
v) It is a mass 1iiedii1111
and call reach a vast number ofviewers simultaneouIsy and
at distant places.
vij It can magnify small ob-jects \~liiclicall be seen by several students at a time.
vii) It call also show events in SIOIY and fast motion.
viii) Live and dramatised situations presented through televisio~ican be used to educate
tlie viewers.
ix) Equipment and materials generally not available in school laboratories, can be
shown on television.
x) In teaclii~igforeign languages, the native speaker call be brought in tlie class-
roo111 for ideal demonstration of speech.
xi) TV call also cut down tlie cost of education to some extent, if more and Inore
pi~pilsare allowed to have access to television programmes.
xii) As a corollary to tlie above. tlie illlit cost will collie dow~iand tlie cost-
effectiveness ofedwcation will incl.ease.

Weaknesses of Video Progl.nmmes

Televisio~iand Video Programmes, Iiowever, suffel. from a few serious drawbacks
also. Tliese are:
i) Televisio~iis one-way medium.Qnce it starts, it goes on and on. It can't stop to
answer the questions or remove doubts, if any, arising in the minds of viewers.
That lllealis yo11canllot fur11tlie page back and information retrieval is ni I.
ii) Televisio~iis a very expensive ~iiedium,and to bring dow~icosts, it sliould cater to
a large uiuii her of learnerscmaking effective programmes and using i~iterestiiig.
formats capable of being repented,
iii) TV tends to make the viewers inactive, and as sollie researches have pointed
out, its c o ~ i t i ~ i viewing
o ~ ~ s da~lingestlie brain tenlporarily.
S O ~ ~ \ I HDIe.vCc l o p m c n t iv) TV cannot cater to individual differences and can;.at best, meet the requirement
of tlie average group.

10.9.2 Steps for Overcoming the Limitations of Video Programmes

Witli a view to overcoming tlie limitations of telecasting and video cassettes, the
following steps need be taken:
i) Television, being a one-way medium, slio~~ld be sitpported by interaction between
teacliel-s and students. once prior to and another after tlie telecast. This helps
generate curiosity. prepare sti~de~its for reception of tlie ETV programmes and

transmitted therein.
-
video cassettes and for clearing doubts, if any, in tlie lang~~age and content
,

ii) Since television is an expensive equiPmen.t:lit isdesirable that niore care should
be taken for production and utilisatinn of stlitable ETV programmes, so that riiore
students are benefitted and cost 6 .;"ectiveness increases.
iii) There is no co~lclusiveevidence that viewers become inactive and their brain is
temporally damaged. Besides. viewing ETV/Video cassette programmes
intermittently canliot do ally harm to the ~ne~ital or psycliological make-up and
condition.
iv) ETVIVideo cassettes, sliould be tilade interesting and relevant to tlie needs of
tlie ci~rriculum,so that tliese can be made usefill and tlie individual differences
can be taken care of.
V) With tlie imaginative use of various visuals. music ancl electronic effects, ETVI
video cassette programmes call be made pleasa~itand educationally efficient.

10.5.3 Effective Utilisation of Video Programmes

For pro~noti~lg
effective utilisation of ETV and video-cassetteprogralnmes,the following
strategies need be taken:
i) Provision atid maintenance of TVIVCR sets
ii) Organisation of effcie~itviewing of ETV and video cassette programmes
iii) Pre-Telecastlplay back discussions
iv) Activity during viewing session
V) Post-Telecastlplay back video
vi) Use of support ~iiaterials
vii) Follow-up activities.

i) Provision and Maintenance of TVNCR sets

Procuring TVIVCR sets is a prerequisite to tlie ~~tilisation of programmes. This can be
done with tlie help ofunutilised fi~nds.UGC is also ~iiaki~ig adequate fillids av~ilableto
tlie i~~iiversity depart~nentsand affiliated colleges for purcliase of A.V. aids.
Mai~ite~iance of tliese val~~able eqi~ip~ne~it
is very importa~itand it sliouId be done from
tlie fitnds available for tlie purpose. But skilled and well-trained tecliniciaris sliould be
available for proper repairing and I~andli~ig of tliese aids.

ii) Organisation of Efficient Viewing Sessions

'Appropriate acco~n~iiod~tion for i~istallatio~i
and safe-custody of these valuable
equip~iie~it is essential and teachers wlio are interested in as well as co~nniittedto
these programmes ~ I i ~ ~bei lkept
d in-charge of tliese instrunients. so that tliey organise
tlie vie\ving sessio~isof ETVIvideo-cassette programmes properly. Appropriate seating
arrangement of sti~dentsand placenle~itof TVIVCR sets at the right place wliile
telecasting or playing back is necessary for proper viewing.
iii) Pre-TelecastIPalyback Disclissions Application to Audio1
\'ideo Progrnmlnes

Students should be motivated to know what is co~ningin tlie programme. For this tlie
teacher should briefly tell them about the caption. content and a few liiglilights of
telecast/play back to take place.

iv) During Viewing Session Activity

Sometimes students are left alone in tlie viewing session and teacliers go out of
classroom for other activities. It is necessary tliat tlie teacher should remain with tlie
students to tlie programme and note l.lie reactions of tlie viewers, tlie difficult colicepts
and words not understandable by them.

v) Post-Telecast/Playback of Video PI-ograrnrne

As soon as tlie watcliirig session is over, it is desirable tliat s t ~ ~ d e nneed
t s be asked
questions to test how far they liave been able to grasp tlie programme. Teacliers
sIi0~11d
explain tlie difficult concepts ancl words, so tliat it is easier forthem to understand
the content and message of tlie prograliime (clearly).

vi) Use of Support Materials

Printed materials need to be proviclcd adequately for going tliro~~gli tlie content and
~nissedin the coL1rs.e ofwatching
teaching points minutely and leisurely which are us~~ally
telecastlvideo programmes.
'.
vii) Follow-up Activity

After all, iftlie activities were properly organised, st~~dents

would be satisfied with the
learni~igesperiencesand be ill a position to express their own ideas about the progralnme
creatively.

Teachers need to give some assignnients to students with adequate freed0111and

flexibility to write a poem, a story. all essay, as they like. This will be ajoyful learning
experience as well as a relevant educational exercise.

At this stage, video cassettes liave a special significance as these can be played back
to sliow tlie teaching points, tlie v i s ~ ~ aand
l s actions miliutely wliicli miglit liave been
missed wliile telecasting or playing back for tlie first time so tliat difficulties can be
explai~iedby tlie teachers for easy compreliension.

Cl~eekYour Progress

Notes: kt)Write !our ans\\el s 111 [lie space given belo\\.

b) Compare youc alls\\el.e \\/it11 tl~osegivcn at tlic end of'tlie u n ~ t .
1 Point out the importance ol':\~~tlionncl Vidco I'~.o~~anlnlcs
In tlircc sentences
each.
 - "--
-- I
Software Development I hlcnr~onti\ c polnt, 111 fd\ ol~rof ' ~ ~ ~PdI . Oi o( ) L ' I - ~ I I > I I ~ C \

SOFTWAFW DEVELOPMENT FOR AUDl

VIDEO PROGRAMMES

I
Hardware and software are like two wings of audio prod~~ction. All kinds of machines
and eq~~ipment, called hardware, are essential but the materials tlierein or tlie acade~iiic
inputs of tlie prograliiliie are called software. Both of them slio~~ld go hand i n hand to
make the programme ~iieaningfi~l and effective. Hardware has its origin in physical
and eligi~ieeringsciences and software owes its origin to the social and beliavioural
scien~es.Software is developed according to the pri~iciplesof tliese sciences and is
used for niodificatio~iof beliaviour known as learning.

Softwar.e development is closely related to psychology and pedagogy. xely

associal:ed with tlie principles of programnied learning and is characte~ task
a~ialysis.identifyi~igobjectives, selecting suitable strategies, reinforcement tecliniques
etc. The software approach is often referred to as behaviour tecl~nologyaiming at
~iiodificationof behavio~~r or enrichi~iglearning experiences. Achieve~iientof
educational objectives is possible only tlirougli adequate use of software inputs and
orna~lisatians.Procurenie~itof hardware is a one-shot activitv. but software ~roduction
is a time taking process which has to be continuous and academic by nature. Software
lias to be need-based, ueed-specific and relevant. Teachers and students call easily
produce software and alsa progranilnes according to tlie currici~larneeds and provisions.
'Therefore, software devclop~ne~it should be pla~iliedmuch before hardware planning
and prodi~ctio~i and the entire teacliing leariling process should be viewed liolistically
with referelice to tlie c~~rrici~lar
weds and interests as well as abilities ofthe clientele
or target group. Optimuni achievement of tlie instructional objectives has to be
e~iipliasisedfor sqftware development.

Software productio~ifor audio-video programmes. requires a co~iibinationof content

knowledge, production tecliniques and com~nunicatio~i strategy to reach the target
audience. It is rightly said that as merely copyi~iga picture from a book into a large
slieet of paper does ~iotmake a good illustration, si~nilarlyjust recording a chapter or
story of a book does not give a good audiolvideo programme. Some basic questions
slrould be answered for ~~nderstandi~ig the prodi~ctionneeds. Some of tliese questio~is
are-
i) Software for wlioni?
ii) For what needs?
 Application to Audio1
iii) With what objectives? Video Progt'nrnrnes
iv) With what backgrou~idexperience and knowledge?
v) With what means and medium?
vi) By wliicli agencies?
vii) With what infrastructure?
viii) With what advance preparation?
ix) Wliat targets are to be set in terms of time and money?

A~iswersto tliese qi~estio~isare very relevant for proper planning and production of
audiolvideo programmes. Sometimes, wliile a~isweringtliese questions, we see that
change in one does not suit the needs of audiolvideo production. The stereotyped
ways or outdated rules and regulations do not proliiote creativity and productivity. Tlie
objectives of software production riiay be one or more of tlie following.
i) To i~ifor~n
ii) To entertain
iii) To impart skills
iv) To i~istri~ct
v) To. solve problems
vi) To genel-atethinking and curiosity
vii) To sti~ni~late
imagination and creativity
viii) To change attitude and interests
ix) To modify beliaviour.

Some of tliese objectives call be easily realised, but so~iieare not so easy to achieve.
Some objectives are quite clialle~igingand sollie are very sti~iiulati~ig.
Tlie production
process is a longdrawn-out one and adequate i~isiglitinto tlie process is developed for
ensuring effectiveness of tlie audiolvideo programmes.

10.7 DEVELOPMENT OF SCRIPTWRITING FOR

AUDIO PROGRAMMES
Script is the backbone of tlie audio prograliilne and tlie basic material for tlie a ~ ~ d i o
programme. It is not tlie filial product, but tlie basis for tlie audio programme. It is
aptly said that if you have a good script, lialf of the battle is won in making a good
audiolrad io programme.

10.7.1 Audio Script as it Evolves

A script is prepared to co~iimunicaten theme or an idea to listeners through a radio or
a ~ ~ dprogramme.
io Tlie link between tlie scriptwriter and listeners is established tlirougli
tlie producer who translates the script into sou~id.Necessary instructions to use relevant
and meaningfi~lsound effects ancl ~iiusicalsounds at appropriate places sliould be
give11by tlie script-writer. For esariiple. if tlie script-writer wants a boy to participate
'
in adialogue for a specific reason, this should be indicated in tlie script. If tliescene on
the deck of a ship is given in the script, sound of sea waves, singing of sea-gulls etc.
slioi~Id be suggested.

Every ai~dioprogramme is introduced by 8 compere or an announcer. Iftlie scriptwriter

is to tell so~iietlii~ig
specifically to tlie listeners. it can be mentioned by him in tlie
beginning very clearly. It should be indicated in tlie script wliether it should form a part
oftlie script orjust an announce~iient.But such introduction should be brief and catchy.
After making an interesting beginning, occasio~ialattention-catchers need be used for
making tlie programme interesting. At tlie points where tlie l istellers are likely to be
disgi~stedor disinterested, some interesting facts may be give11as attention catchers.
 Software D o ' e l o p m e ~ ~ t Siniilarly, the end oftlie script should be natural not abrupt. A cli~liaxshould not be the
end. Care sliould be taken for a slnootli, but heart-touching end. In tlie educational
auclio programmes, it is desirable to make sonie repetitions for reinforcement and
recapitulation. But such repetition shoitld not be made haphazardly, but in a planned
manner repeating only tlie i~npottantl~ighliglits.
Sotile activities can be suggested for tlie listeners who sliould not be just passive
Iistc~iers,but active participants. Appropriate silpport materials tilay also be suggested
by tlie scriptwriter for ensitring efficiency.
It is not desirable to show offtlie knowledge or use any difficult or bo~iibasticwords.
Si~iiplelang~lageand style are preferred. No ~noralisationor sermonising is encouraged.
There should llot be too many teaching points in a script and too Inany facts and
figures are to be discouraged. Some guidelines have been given below for reference
of the audio scriptwriters.

10.7.2 Guidelines of Audio Scriptwriting

i) Script is the most itnportalit part of an audio programme. Unless it is excellent,
every other aspect of production is useless.
ii) To be successf~~l it lllust be written in the appropriate language for the listener.
iii) 'The appropriate language is the language the listener call understancl, so it must
take into accoilnt the listener's background, education and interests. The writer
must, therefore, think carefitlly about tlie stritct~~re and tlie vocab~tlarylie is going
to use.
iv) Tlie words the scriptwriter uses are not read by tlie listener-they are
listened to. So, the words tilust appeal to tlie EAR not to the EYE.
V) Writing for tlie EYE relies on tlie conve~itio~is of writing-punctuation. paragraplls-
type sizes, colunlns arid headlines. The reader can go at his own speed. He can
go back to clleck any point of difficulty. He can stop reading, put the writing on
one side slid retilrn to it later.
vi) Writing for the EAR is quite different. Tlie listener cannot be given too many
facts. He cannot be given too Inany figures. It is essential to keep holding his
interest. Therefore. tlie script must be presented in an interesting way. It must
develop logically and also psychologically, i.e. his interest and emotion
shoulrl be sustained. Sequencing is important. Tlie radio writer nlay have
to repeat, expand and reinforce. He ~ n ~ luse s t the form of langitage which is
stmple aild informsl, It is SPOKEN LANGUAGE. The listener must be held,
otherwise Ile switclies off ~nelitally.
vii) How is the Iistetler held? Tlie radio writer ~ n ~think ~ s tofthe listener as his personal
friend .,.......... He must talk with tlie listener, not at him. He \nust bear in his
mind all t l 1 ~tones of voice that will co~iimu~iicate tlie script. He m1.1stread tile
script aloud to Itimself and ask .,....
"Wliat do 1 soulid like?"
"What do I mean?"

10.8 DEVELOPMENT OF SCRIPTWRITING FOR

VIDEO PROGRAMMES
I 10.8.1 Video Scriptwriting as it Evolves
l'lie process of writing a script for ETV and video pr.ogramlnes is essentially tlie
same as desigtiilig any learning activity. But writing video scripts means using your
"ideas and imagination in a different way, i.e., giving visilal treatment to your
ideas. TJlefirst thing, therefore, to t~nderstandand learn about script writing is that it
is not a process of writing words or sentences and thinking of pictures to accompali!
38
-m L *i
tliern. On the other hand, it is an inlagillative and creative process and is esse~itially Application to Audio1
Video PI-ograrnrnes
and basically an art of imaginative prograliinie creation, using the available visual
resources ... It is because of this reason tliat it is said tliat television progralnlnes are
evolved fro111the conibined or pooled talents of tlie producer, the scriptwriter and
occasionally others directly involved, such as designers, graphic artists etc. Success
can be achieved in this exercise liiore conveniently and confidently, if we look upon
the process of evolving an ETV/Video script as a cyclic process, as shown in the
diagram in Figure 10.1.

Final Script Research and selection

of inaterials

+
I

Story Board (Selection of resources 1

to match the content

P Structure of Programme

Fig.lO.1 : Process o f evolving r n ETVIVitleo Script

I n tlie Fig 10.1 circle of video script, we nie~itionedthe stages of video script
development. All these stages are broadly divided into three broad phases of activties.
These are:
1. Development of programme brief
2. Develop~ne~it of acadeniic note
3. Development of actual script
Development of Programme Brief
Development of programme brief include tlie following:
i) Topic or title ofthe programme
ii) Target group/ai~dience
iii) Objectives of tlie program~iie
iv) Format and style
v) Content outline
The exa~iipleof a programme brief on tlie topic "Bringing into focus" is given here.

Programme Brief

a Title of the programme : Bringing into focus

a Target audience : General viewers
a Objectives of tlie programme

1. To present tlie situation of street children in DeIhi and also to discus their problems,
reasons for becoming street children etc.
2. To sensitise viewers towards tlie problem of street children in India.
3. 'To present tlie efforts of Government, NGO and International agencies such as
UNICEF towards solving problem of street children in India.
4. 'To project tlie efforts of NGOs in Dellii in solving various problems of street
childreti in Dellii.
5. To ilnderstalid tlie Ideology, Philosophy, approaches and problem solving process
ol'NCO towards the pl.oblems of street children in Dellii.
Format of tlie programme . : Doc~~mentary

Content Qutlines:
I. Wlio are street children?
2. Categories of street children
3. Problenis faced by them
4. How do they survive on tlie street
5. Goverriment efforts to solve tlie problem of street cllildren
6. Efforts ofNGOs to solve their problem
7. f<oleof international agency

Development of Academic Note

Academic note contains. apart from objectives atid target group mentioned in academic
brief. alnplification ofcontent line and suggestion for visual niaterials, sound effects
ancl participants. I

Acacle~nicNote for tlie Docume~itary

If w ~ ego to any ciiajor city in India. we find that there are sniall children spending time
on tlie railway station. footpath. bus depot or working on tlie small hotels, Dhabas
cleaning utensils atid serving food to people. We also find children witli harmonium or
other musical instruments (sometimes created by tlie~nselves)singing and begging in
tlie trains. buses or on tlie street. We call them- "street children".

Have we ever asked o~lrselvesas to where tliese children have come from? Why do
tliey come on tlie streets? Wlletlier tliey like tliis kind of life or tiley are forced to stay
in these situations? Let's tind out from them tlie answers of all tliese questio~is.

You might be interested to know liow many street children are tliere in Dellii? Tlio~~gli
there is no adequate data available as of today, there may be more than I lakli street
children in Dellii.

The Problem
A child is pushed 011to tlie street for many reasons. lie seeks to run away from tlie
lia~.clsliipswithin tlie four walls of liis house but in doing so lie hopes liis freedom will
not rob him of tlie warmth, care and security that tlie home provides.

Most kids come from dysfi~nctionalor broken family settings where neglect. abuse,
pal-elitaldiscord and tlie like are every day happenii~gs.Other equally important reasons
are seeking a better life style, in search ofajob, peer pressiue, educational difficulties
and poverty.

On tlie street tlie child is left to fend for himself, in this process of coping he overtiiglit
becomes an independent adult. and is faced witli a number of hardships and trials.
l'his situation ofsurvival coupled witli personalised needs tilake tlie cliild vul~ierable.

N o sooner does tlie child live on tlie street, lie experiences tlie feelingofanomie. This
resillts from exploitation, abuse, trauma, liomelessness. depression, ~icylect,insecurity.
harassment and destitution. All these factors affect the core of tlie child more than tlie
mere deprivation ofthe basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. Correspondingly, the Application to Audio/
Video Programmes
child feels that he does not belong to a system that discards him. He internalises this
external focus of control to a feeling of "I am nobody". From this premise, he views
the world with suspicion, mistrust, fear and the desperate needs to survive on his own
even if he has to encroach on other's property.

A few shots of children on the railway platform, streets, working and begging.
0 Interviews of children on WHY DID THEY RUN AWAY FROM HOME?
(This question can be asked to 3 children -each from Street. SBT and Udayan).

Categoriesd of Street Children

1. Children on the street wlio live with their families. They liave the support oftheir
families though they work on the street.
2. Children who live on the streets with the streets as tlieir family. It is the street
that gives tliem slielte~food and fosters a sense of belonging and companion-
ship. A majority of them liave no ties with their families. Whenever they have
ties, tliey are remote and contacts with their family are few and far between.
3. Children on the streets wlio have no contact at all witli their families. They
include orphans, runaways and refugees.

Visuals from each categoly mentioned above. Interview of such kids with a question
"DO YOU HAVE COIVTACTS WITH YOUR FAMILY? WHAT DO YOUR
PARENTS DO?

It is the second and third category of children wlio suffer extreme depriv:ltion.They
are entirely on their own for tlieir econoniic and psychological survival, a situation in
which tliere is no protection and supervision or guidance from a responsible adult.

Children who run away from home can be classified into two grous:
1. Children run away fro111u~tpleasantor traumatic home environment. They have
family problems that tliey are unable to resolve, for example -alcoholism, cliild
abuse, ill treatment by step parents, une~nploy~nent and poverty. They have
experienced conflicts, which go beyond tlieir tolera~icelevel.
2. Children who rlln away from home to taste the exciting experiences ofgla~norised
city life.

Ask question to kids fro111SBT, Udaya~iand Street - "Why did they run away from
home?"

Problems they face while on the street

The street children face various problems from the police, older boys, their employee,
parents, lack of shelter and liealth facility, recreational facility, etc. They also face the
problem from general public- i.e. negative attitude of people towards these children.

The following questions can be asked to various people:

To street children-
1. What kind of problem do yo11face when you stay on the streets? How do you
overcolne these problems?
2. Would you like to go to your fanlily? If not, then why?
3. Would you like to learn?
4. What do you want to be in the future
5. Do you know which NGOs are working in this area? Do you go to these NGOs?
if not, then why?
 -

Softwwre Dec,elop~ncnt To tile Police and general pit blic -

1. What do yo11feel about the street children?
3. How can we solve the problems of street c'T7ildren?

Street children - How <lo sthey survive on the street?

Most of them w o ~ kas ragpickers, coolie, petty venders, selling water bottles on the
Railway and Bus statiqns; a few of them also work on Tea stalls, Dhabas, etc. Some
are also engaged it1 begging, pick-pocketing etc.

Few shot from these categories.

Ask the followi~igquestionsto street children:-
What work do you do?
How much do you earn?
How do you spend money?
Do you save money?

Government efforts to solve the problem of street children

Interview with Mr. A.P. Singh, Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Empowerment and
Social Justice.
What do you feel about the problem of street childrel~in India?
What are the govei-nment initiatives in solving the problems of street children in
India?
Which agencies are working as part~~ers in your efforts to solve the problems of
street children in India?

Efforts of NGOs to solve the problem of street children

/

1. NGO who is providing immediate service when tile child is in the problem:
Childline

Intewiew of Ms. Shweta Gandhi-Chedha, City coordinator, Childline, Delhi.

Few sllots of how they provide the service wlieli they receive the phone call from
street cllildren. (It can be dralnatised.)

Questions to be asked for childline

*
What is childline?
Wl~endid you start this project in Delhi?
Wlrat strategies have you'adopted to create awarness about the service?
What services do you provide to street children and how?
Hov is response from street children?

2. NGO who is providing long term services and reaching out to the large
nul-nber of children- S u l ~ ~ aBalak
m Trust.

Interview with Mrs. Praveen Nair, Managing Trustee, Salaam Balak Trust
about various activities of the organisation.
Questions to be asked:
When did the SBT start? What was the aim when you started?
What are the activities of SBT?
How do you identify street children?
Do you encourage these children to go back to their families?
What kind of rehabilitation progratnlnes you have for these children?
What is a root cause of this problem and how can it be solved?
Visit to the Akanksha project of SBT, which is located near the New Delhi Application to Audio1
Video Programmes
Railway Platform.
(Questions to be asked to tlie beneficiaries and children)
What services does Akankslia provide in this area?
What do you want to be in tlie fi~ture?

3. NGO wlio is working with s~nallnumber. ofcliildren but giving qualityeducation-

UDAYAN.

Interview with Dr. Kiran Modi, Director of Udayan.

Questions to be asked:
When did you started working with these children?
Wliat are the objectives of udayan?
What services you are providing to tlie children?
How far have yo11 succeeded in your goal?

4. Role oflnter~iationalagency-in solving tlie problems of street children

Interview with Mr. Gerry Pinto, Programme Officer, child protection, UNICEF
What role does UNICEF play in solving tlie problems of street cliildren in
India?
How are tlie proble~nsof street children in India different from problems of
street children in other countries of the world.
What needs to be done to solve tlie problems of street children in India?

At the elid ask a question to a cliild:

What is tlie ambition in your life?
Wliat would yoit feel when yo11stay with your liappy fatilily?

Development of Final Script

Based on programme brief and academic note, a draft script is prepared. After editing
and lnodification, tlie final script is prepared. In tlie development of script, the content
expert, tlie producer aid tlie scriptwriter are involved. Sometimes, both the content
expert and tlie producer develop a script without the lielp of a script writer. A script
for avideo has tlie title ofthe programme. There are two columns ill a script. Tlie left
colu~~ is nleft for tlie visuals that are to be shot and finally show11on the video and the
right column co~itai~isthe narration. One iliiporta~itthing in the script is that tlie narration
always corresponds to tlie visual. Tlie exalnple of a script is given hereunder.

Video Programme Title: Bringing into Focus

Visuals Narration
(Montage of various jobs perfornied by
small children supported by relevant music,
fast cutting)

We have becollie so i ~ n ~ n uto ~ ithe

e sight
washing plates, another- working in of working cliildre~iwe liardly pay any
a garage- A boy selling fruits -another- attention to tlie child wlio waslies plates in
a Dhaba or works in a tea stall, or to tlie
children working in a garage or a boy selling
fruits or to tlie boy who wants to give your
dusty shoe a shine.
Children roa~ningin tlie market place Have we ever asked ourselves wliere
tliese cliildren collie from? Why do they
come to tlie streets? Whether tliey like this
kind of life or are tliey forced to stay in
this situation?

lfwe go to ally major city in India we find

that there are sniall cliildren spending their
Railway station, bus depot and in tiriie on the railway station, footpath, bus
the busy traffic. depot or working in the midst of busy
traffic. We call tlie~ii-"Street Children"
i /

I n the a 6 e of adequate data. it is

difficult to state the exact nu~nberofstreet
children. According to tlie 196 1 Census.
there were 6586 children in tlie capital city
of Dellii alone, who were liolneless and
spent their nights on tlie pavements. This
figure increased to 26870 i n 1981. This
shows a foi~rfoldincrease in the nu~nber
of street children i n twenty years.
According to a research study in 1992, it
has been estimated that there are nearly,
one lii~~idred thousand street children i n
Delhi.

But liow can we identify street cliildren

among working children? Street cliildren
Children working in a Dhaba, tea can be identified on the basis of the
stall. A small boy- sitting near availability ofshelter to them and their level
his father while lie works of contact with tlieir faniilies.

The first category consists of the children

who live witli their families on the public
paveliients-cliildren running pavements or i n Jlii~ggiclusters. They
inside Jli~~ggi
cli~sters. have c o n t i ~ i ~ ~ ofamily
u s contacts tliough
they work 011the street.

1-he second category consists of those

children wlio spend all tlieir days and nights
CHILDREN ON THE STREET.
on the streets and in pilblic places. They
are described as "cliildreli on tlie street"

It is tlie street that gives tlie~iishelter, fend

I
Small children-taking food &
fr~litsafter a day's collection
and fosters a sense of belonging and
companionship. A majority of them liave
no ties witli their families. Sonietimes, they
have only occasiolial contact.

Tlie third categoly co~nprisesthose chi Idren

Children-moving inside Bus Depot of tlie streets wlio liave no contact at all
witli theirfa~nilies.They include orphans,
runaways and refugees. This is the most
crucial group as tliese children do not have
CHILDREN OF THE STREET. any protection from the society. They ha\.=
been described as "Cliildren ofthe Street ^.
 A cliild is pi~sliedon to the street for lilaliy Application to Audio1
Video Progrnmmes
rai Iway station reasons. He seeks to riin away from tlie
A boy-sitting inside a house & liardsl~ipswithin the four walls of his house.
lie feels that in doing so his freedom will
deprive hi111 of tlie warmth, care and
security that the home provides. But liow
wrong he is!

And this realisation collies late, so~iietimes

M ~ I I LaIsmall
, boy wliile moving very late.
ai~iilesslyinfront of New Delhi While moving around New Delhi Railway
Railway Station. Station. we found Mani~.a ruliawav from
his home in Lucknow.

who ran away from home.

GRAPHICS Children wlio run away from home can be

Children who run away from an classified into two groi~ps:the first
ii~ipleasa~it
or traumatic home category consists of c11i Idren wlio run away
from an t111pIeasa1lt or traumatic h o ~ n een-
vironment. They have family problems that

I
Cliildre~l-moving inside
bus depot.
they are i111ableto resolve for example-
alcoliolis~ii,child abuse. i l l treatment by step
parents. i~nemploymentand poverty.

The second category collsists of cliildre~i

who also run awav fro111llo~neto taste the
exciting experience of gla~norisedcity life.

On the street, the child is left with no

Children seen selling toys at tlie red
choice but to take care of l~i~iiself. This
light of tlie busy traffic crossing.
situation of survival coilpled with
personalised needs make the cliild
vulnerable. 111 tlle process of coping wit0
the hardships and trials for survival,
overnight he becomes an independent
adult.

Interview of a young boy who was a

street cliild

The declaration of the World Summit for

Children held in September 1990 at New
'I'lie declaration of tlie York states: "The clii Idre11oftlle world are
World siunmit the ~iiostinnocent,vi~lnerablearid dependelit
they are also the most important me~nbers
of society. Their time slioiild be one ofjoy
and play, 01' learning and growing. Tlleir
mosl iunocent, vulnerable ..., But for fi~turesl~oi~ld be sllaped in liar~nonyand
too many children. the life they mcet cooperation. Their lives should mature, as
is of another nature." experiences are added. But for too lilaliy
children. the lilP tllev meet is of a~iotlier
nature." 1
 Interview of Mr. Gerry Pinto, Programme
Officer, Child Protection.

tliat in other countries of the world?

There are mil lions of children across the

Cliildren sleeping on tlie pavements. world who do not even elljoy tlie basic
human rights. They have no childhood and
no future. From a very tender age, they
have to .act like adults and contribute
running Dellii Transport Corporation towards their family income. But inspite
Buses. of the hard work most of the time they are
not even able to secure one square nieal a
day. They are also tlie most vulnerable
victims of malnutrition and diseases.

Each 111i n ~ ~while

t e yo11 are watching tliis

I
A small child below tlie age of 5
playing on tlie pavement.
programme. sollie 18 children below tlie
age of 5 are dying.

Hunger is an invisible killer, silently taking

its toll on Iiumanity. particularly on infants
and children. For this very reason.
UNICEF views I i ~ ~ n g easr the "Silent
Emergency". 40,000 children across tlie
globe die every day from tliis Silent
Emergency.

What role does tlie UNICEF play in

solving tlie proble~nsof street children in
India?

Cliildren selling News papers. But how do these cliildren s ~ ~ r v i on

v e the
sundry items near Interstate Bus street?
Depot. Cllildrell washing cars at the of work as paper 'lawkers.
garage -Working at roadside street vendor selling sundry iteins at p ~ ~ b l i c
Dliabas places, car washers, shoe-shiners and
some at the roadside dliabas. others work
as rag-pickers in the areas surro~~nding the
railway stations at and busy bus depots

Sonie are also engaged in pick- pocketing.

The image we have of street cliildren is
tliat they are rogues and thieves. Are they
realy parasites? Do they help their families
also?

While we were shooting at tlie Inter State

Bus Ter~nin~~s-ISBT, New Dellii, we could
talk to some of the cliildren working as
slioes1iines.Tliefirst boy was Ajay.
 Application to Audio1
lliterview ofcliild who is busy in Video Programmes
polishing shoes at ISBT

Whatever the state of the Indian Republic

outside the New Delhi Railway a s it conipletes five decades o f
independence tliere is no doubt that the
majority of Indian children especially tlie
street children are in distress-despite five
decades of planning, the policy, budget and
administration.

Secretary, Ministry of Social Justice &

Empower~nentIGovt. of India.

Government initiatives.

SALAAM BOMBAY. a dramatic film on

street children released in May, 1988
SEQUENCE OF FILM inspired many NGOS to discover the world
'SALAAM BOMBAY' of street children. One of them is the
SALAAM BALAK TRUST. It identifies
one of the basic proble~nsfaced by street
cliildre~las shelter.

Today, the Salaam Balaak Trust provides

various services including slielter to 5000
SALAAM BALAK TRUST children in Mumbai, Dellii and
Bliu baneswar.

In New Delhi, it provides support services

Different activities inside tlie
to approxi~nately 3000 street children
building of SALAAM BALA . .

through its 9 centres located in and around

TRUST
tlie New Dellii Railway Station and
Paharga~ijarea.

The common features of the programmes

of Salaam Balak ~ I - L Iare
S ~ that they provide
shelter, nied ical services counselling,
formal and non-formal education,
vocational training, recreation and a saving
scheme for the street children.

r
Interview of Ms. Nair

Health is another very iniportant issue in

childcare. Without good health, life does
boy taking slielter at SALAAM not liold much meaning. Specifically street
BALAK TRUST cliildren should be prevented from drug
abuse and diseases like AIDS.
 Interview of Dr. Bitra George, Medical
Director, Salaam Balak Trust

1
Street children are vulnerable on the
A lady health worker takes the streets. Many times they face health
body temperature of a small boy. problenis, tliey want to share their emotions
witli somebody. Who will give t l i e : ~a
patient hearing?

Childline is one such project initiated by

tlie Tata Institute of Social Sciences, at
'Childline Office' a person Mu~nbaiCity and now extended to Delhi
attending a phone call City witli the help of a few NGOs and witli
the sponsorship of the Ministry of Social b
Justice and Empowerment.

Interview of Ms. Shweta Gandhi, City

Co-ordinator, Child Line, Dellii

Unless illiteracy is eradicated. none of o i ~ r

I
problems can be solved. education
comes awareness and awakening to do
better in life, to rise out of the darkness I

into light. And without proper education,

,
the joys of a beautifill childhood are denied I

to children. 1
GRAPHICS
In tlie world scenario. out of the 100 mil I ion

6 60%

I00 Million girl children

girl children of school age, 60% are girls
who have never stepped .inside a class
rooni

Children are basically very curious and

Children (girls) learning want to learn about the world around tliern,
compi~ters especially with modern technologies sucli
as computers. But there is a scarcity of
resources. 011a s~iiallerscale. we too can
do our best to help street children.

Iiiterview of Ms Madlii~Giipta, Udayan

Care

Today's children will be tlie fLlture of

tomorrow's world. But what if these
children themselves have a bleak fi~ture?
tlie busy traffic What if tliey are illiterate and ignorant
about any kind of opportunity? Then what
does their future hold for them? Or rather
what fi~turecontribution can tliey make for
the world?
the song "HUM HONGE
KAMY AB".
Software D c v e l o p m c n t before, during and after the listening and viewing. Since both audiolvideo programmes
are one-way co~nrlli~nication, SLICII interactive activities would be useful.

Software both for audio and video programmes is Inore important than hardware.
Software principles are based on psychology, pedagogy, programmed learning and so
on. Achievement of educational objectives would be possible through suitable software.
Some relevant questions relating to various aspects of planning, production and utilisatian
have to be answered before developing suitable software.

Script being the basic material for audiolvideo programmes, it is imperative to follow
some significant guidelines for suitable audiolvideo progr.anime. Though both these
media have special needs and potentialities, the script must be developed according to
the needs, interests and conditions of the clientele. The language format, humour and
relevance should be made use of according to the instructional objectives and nature
of progralnmes.

10.10 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. Identify a topic from the subject yo11are teaching ill your school. Develop an
audio script on the same topic.

2. Identify a topic from the subject you are teacing in your school. Develop a video
script on the same topic.

10.1 1 SUGGESTED READINGS

Awasthy, G.C. Brootlc~~srirrgirr India, ( 1965), Allied Publisher Pvt. Ltd., Born bay.

Central Inst4tute of Case Study of Educational Radio Educational Technology in

Delhi, (1980), NCERT. New Delhi.

Goel D.R. A Stzldy ofSchool Broaclcas~sin Inclia, (1 982), Ph.D.Study MS University

Baroda.

Goodman, Lester. Et/zlc*utionalRcrdio: Sonie Notes on Ils Potential and Its

Ulilwtrrion. ( 1972), CI ET, NCERT, New Delhi.
Hancock, A. Plarini~~g,for-
Eclzlccrtionul Muss hfeclia, (1977), Longman, London.
Millistry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, (1986), Nutional Policy
otr Ehlcution.
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India, NPE. (1992). and
Prograrnnie of Action.
hlinistry of Human Resource Development, Govt.of India. (1992). Prograrrinle of
Aclior~,New Delhi.
Mohanty J. Eduction~iITechnology and Coninizmicution medic^. (1986). Nalanda,
Cuttack, 2nd Edition.
Mohanty J. Educcrtionc~IBroadcu.~tirigRudio and TV in Educeition, ( 1 984), Sterling
: P~tblishersNew Delhi.

Mohanty J . "Role of Electronic Media in Distance Education" in Boar-d of Sec.

.IournnI, April J une. 1 988.
E~li~c~llion
Mohanty J. Educcrtionol Techonolog~),(1993). Deep and Deep Publications, New
Delhi.
 I
Raliman, S. "Sound Broadcasting for Educations" in Orissa Education Magazine, Application to Aulliol ,
Video Programmes
December, 1977.
Sahoo, P.K. Correspon~JenceEdzrcvrfion in Indian Utiiversil-y,Ph. D. Thesis, M.S.
University. Baroda. India11Education Review, October, 1989.
Sampath, K. (et.al.): Introduclioti to E~hrcnlionalTechoriology, (198 1 ), Sterling Pub-
lishers, New Delhi.
Sachramm, W. (et.al.) The Nerv Merlin: Menio to Edzrcntional Planners, (1967),
UNESCO.
'The Britisli Cou~icil,Media Dept.. "Rcrdio Writing", (1 979), a Xerox copy. London.
UNESCO, Report of Inlern~itiorlnlC'aniniissiori of Develop~rientof Education
(Learning To Be, 1972), (1973), Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.

10.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

i) Radio prograliililes are cheap and easier for lia~idling.They not only inform,
but also inspire. Tliey inculcate values, clia~igeattitudes and develop inter-
ests.
ii) Video progralnliies have re~iiarkableversatility i n treatment of themes and
provide learning experiences in an effcie~itand interesting manner. 'They
are used to impart liberal and cultural education to various target
audie~lce.

i) Production of educational audio progralillnes is easy and does not require

man y';echnicalities
ii) Tlie prodi~ctio~i
cost of educational audio programmes is quite reaso~iable.
iii) Audio programmes are produced in accordance to tlie educatio~ialneeds
and conditio~iof special of learners.
i) Video prograliiliies bring tlie past alive
ii) Video programmes call bring distant,-objects, places, people, events and
processes to tlie learner.
iii) They call aIso sliow events in slow and fast motion.

Software develop~ne~it is closely related to psycliology and pedagogy. It is closely

associated w it11 the principles of progra~nmedlearning and is cl~aracterisedby
task analysis, ide~itifyingobjectives, selecting suitable strategies, reinforcement
tecliniqi~esetc.

i) Scripts for audio prograliime nus st be written in tlie appropriate l a ~ ~ g i ~ a g e

for listener.
ii) The works used by tlie script writer must appeal to the ear not to the eye.
iii) Tlie script writer should not use too many facts, figures.
iv) He must talk with listener, not at him.

The broad activities involved in the productio~~

of a script are:
i) Developnie~itof programme brief
ii) Developmei~tof academic note
iii) Develop~ne~it
of actual script.
Structure
11.1 Introd~~ction
1 1.2 Objectives
1 I .3 Approaches to tlie Use of Co~nputersin Education
1 1.3.1 Compu!er Uased Training (CBT)
1 1.3.2 Computcr Managed Learni~ig(CML)
1 1.3.3 Computcr Assisted Learning (CAL,) arid
Colnputsr Assisted Instruction (CAI)
1 1.4 Modes of CAL
11.4.1 Drill and Practice
1 1.4.2 Tutorial
1 1.4.3 Conversation or Dialogue
1 1.4.4 Games
1 1.4.5 Siniulatior~
1 1.4.6 Databases
1 1.4.7 Narrative / I'rescntational

1 1.5 Advantages ofCAL

1 1.6 Limitations of CAL
1 1.7 Problems Related to the Use of CAL Approacli
1 1.8 Steps Involved in Develop~neritofCAL Package
1 1.8. I Analysis Phase
1 1.8.2 Design Pliasc
1 1.8.3 Progra~ilmingPhase
1 1.8.4 Validation Ph;tie

1 1.9 Let Us Sum Up

1 1.10 Unit-end Activity
1 1 . I 1 Answers to Check Your Progress
1 1 .12 Suggested Readings

1 1.1 INTRODUCTION
You liave read about Co~nputersearlier in Unit 8 of Block 2. B~aiefly,coniputer is an
electro~iicdevice that solves proble~nsby applying prescribed operations on data er~tered
into it. Functio~isof con~pi~ters in different areas can be categorised as control,
comm~~~~icatio~i, si~ni~lation,
desig~lingand artificial intelligence. Teaching-learning process
is at the heart ofany edi~cationalsyste~nand the process is basically a colnrn~~~iication
process. If function of a computer are utilised its full extent, it can help a teacher in
making tlie teacliing-learni~igprocess liiore effective than with the use of any other
media. For this, a lot of educational courseware tbr students is needed to be developed.

Educational coursewares entail CAL activity. CAL is a self-i~istructionalactivity in

which the cornputel. is used as a ~nedii~rn.
However CAL is one ofthe approaches to
the use of computers in education. These approaches are named CBI, CML,, CAI.
CAL. The same are discussed in the following paragraphs:
112 OBJECTIVES
Application to Con~puter
Programmes I
After going through this unit, yo11will be able to :
a explain what is CAL;
II
disci~ssapproaches to the use of Education CBT, CML, CAL;
describe various modes of CAI.,:
r state advantages, limitations and problems related to CAL;
a discuss tlie steps involved in the develop~ilentof a CAL package;
prepare an instructional design for CAL.

11.3 APPROACHES TO THE USE OF COMPUTERS

IN EDUCATION

11.3.1 Computer Based Training (CBT)

CBT is concer~iedwith tlie training, \vhicli aims at acliievi~igvarioi~sskills. Teaching is
I
I
not ~iecessarilydirectly related to vocational req~~irements, whereas training relates to
specific tasks within tlie real world. Hence, CBT nlainly relates to anyjob- performance.

11.3.2 Computer Managed Learning (CML)

CML inlplies tlie role of co~npi~ter i ~ education
i as maiiagement-aids. Since coliipilters
have been used ~iiai~ily in co~ii~iiercialapplications, educational institutions also started
using co~nputersfor management fi~nctions.CML systenis are usi~allyconceptualised
and iniplenlented as aids to tlie teacliers in their task of controlling and managing tlie
content, pace, seqLlelices and method of lea~ningby the students. As with many colnpilter
applications, tlie data recorded in CML for one purpose can also be used for otlier
purposes. Records of students' per.formance can be i~sedas a base for career and
fi~l-tlier
educational counselling: and can be sum~narisedinto reports from one scliool to
govern~nentalbodies on si~bjectsstiidied, pass rates, etc.
\

11.3.3 Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) and Computer Assisted

Instruction (CAI)
CAI or CAL implies the siti~atio~i in wliich the learner ge~ierallyisengaged in two-way
interaction with tlie co~iiputervia ter~iiinal.

CAL is the activity where teaching and learning in any par&of the curriculum are aided
by solile application oftlie coliiputer. Tlie role oftlle conipilter can be as a teacliing aid.
or it call be more student-centered.

Barker P. ( 1 988) Iias suggested tlie following fu~ictio~is

of CAL:
1. Management of learning,
2. Testing,
3. Tutoriug,
4. Exercising,
5. Use of a computer as a calculator,
6 . Use of a computer as a laboratory.
7. Use of a co~npi~terfor producing tecli~iicalmaterials.
8. Disse~ninationof nlaterial,
9. Arcliival of material,
10. Medii~nlof expression.
 11.4 h1ODES OF CAL
The scope of CAL includes a wide variety of fiinctions. These functions are i~sually
realised in ternls of a limited nun~berof CAL modes. The major modes of CAL can be
, noted as follows: n

I. Drill and Practice

2. I'i~torial
3. Dialogue /Conversational
4. Games
5. Simulation
I 6. Databases

I ' 11.4.1 Drill and Practice

Drill and Practice is tlie simplest form of CAL. A series of exercises is presented io a
student by the computer. Tlie student gives a response. TIw response is processed by
tlie computer and accordingly new activity is designed. Exercises can be created by the
compi~terby avoiding repetition. The items can be selected ra~ldonllyfrom the list and
presented. Sometinies the series is presented as it is. Also endless exercises can be
provided. As a response to the exercise, the progranlnle either asks the student to try
again till it is right or provides a chance orjust states the right answer. The responses
are also analysed to mark the success or to assel? the need of niore sti~dy.Tlie qi~estions
in tlie drill and practice are ofthese types: f i l l in tlle blanks, which is tlie odd lnan out,
correct or wrong, answer in a word/ sentence, multiple cl~oice. Activities like drawing,
measuring and arranging objects are also possible on colnputer. Generally, typinig of
long answers is avoided in CAL.

I 11 .4.2 Tutorial
In tutorial tlie topic to be studied is divided into a seqilence of short sections called
frames. It bears a close resemblance to the programmed learning sequences found in
print and in teaching ~iiacliinesin 1960's. The programmed text presents a number of
problems. particularly in detern~iningwhether the student has really ~nasteredtlie current
step and in deciding liow to bra~iclito tlie next step. The co~nputercan be used to
determine students' needs and perferences and to decide liow to brancli through material.
Tlie material can be more co~nplexwithout adding to the students' burden. Thus in the
field of brancliing, tlie computer opens LIPa range of possible brancliing wliicli would
liave bee11difficult to arrange in tlie scrambled text or primitive teaching machine. Tlie
coniputer can be programmed to brancli any number ofalternative pages in text where
tlicre are Inany different routes. In tutorial, eacli learner call be diag~iosedat every
small Stage and be led to a new path according to hisher need.

1 1.4.3 Conversation or Dialogue

These are based on tlie teaching lear~ii~ig method used by 'Socrates'. Botli tlie teacher
nncl tlie leanier take an initiative to start tlie teaching learning process. They can ask
eacli other questions and answer the~ii.These types oftl~torialsare based LIPOII ~iiodels
of teaching-learning process and require very co~nplicated and tinie-consuming
pl.c~gramming.Hence. writing ~iiostoftliese syste~i~s are research laboratory work and
they are not widely used. Also these are not practically cost-effective instruction systems.

I n clialogue tutorials tlie computer is engaged in learning about tlie learner. Tlius tliey
t1.j to improve and fi~rtlierindividualise tlie i~istructionalstrategy being ~ ~ s eDeepd.
q~~estioning tecliniqi~esand m~~ltifaceted a~ialysesof tlie responses given by tlie stltdent
can Iielp in building complex interactive dialogues.
11.4.4 Games Application to Computer
Programmes
Tlie modes discussed earlier provide information in a structured way, according to rules
specified by the author. Gaming involved with a dimension of conipetition motivates
learners to approacli tlie given siti~ationwith enthusiasm. If learning concepts are taught
or given for practice through games. learners generally tend to stick to it regardless of
the time it consumes. Video gallies as well as cornputer games, without any educational
input, are very popular with children ~vhohave access to a computer. If tliey are provided
wit11 instructional games, tliey will certainly acquire new co~iceptsand skills.

11.4.5 Simulation
A few real life systeliis and plie~io~iie~ia
canliot be direclty learnt. Tlie experinie~itsliiay
be time-consuming. expensive, difticult or sometinies dangerous too (e.g. fission of -.
atom).

Computer can be used to sin~i~late a real life system by following a set of rules, wliicli
approximate tlie behaviour of tlie real system. The rules specified for simulation may
be simple or co~iiplexand quality of approxi~nationcan be governed. Various levels of
approximation can be provided i n tlie sanie simulation courseware. It allows effect? bf
increasing experimental error or to give a feeling for tlie accuracy of tlie simulat?bn.
Simulation offers flexibility and control . In simulation, the particular feature of the
co~iiputeras an uitra rapid calculating and data processing niachine is used to its best
advantage.

Simulatio~icall provide tlie following advantages:

1. It avoids tlie difficulties and coniplexities ofreal by using idealised conditions.
e.g. changing demands and supplies ofcom~noditiesto see its effect on the market
economy.
2. It overcomestlie proliibitive costs of laboratory or field-work based experiments.
e.g. providing variety of acids with different densities in a lab for one single
experiment.
3. Tllk time ~ior~iially
deliia~idedby an experi~ne~it
can be foreshortened.
4. Dangerous experi~iie~its car1 be experienced in safety. e.g. increasing proporti011
of pollutants in tlie environnient to see the consequences.
5. Experiment, which would nomally be impractical, can be attempted. e.g. creation
ofcivilisation on adifferent planet.
6. The level of con~plexitycan be increased slowly. Variables can be added at every
stage.

11.4.6 Databases
One of tlie riiodes of learning is learning through exploration of resource material and
library utilisation. Tlie power ofa computer to store, retrieve and process information
is used to help the student as sfhe browses thi-oughthe material. One can respond to the
questions about the related infor~iiationand retrieve an item wliicli one needed, su~nmarise
statistical data, suggest possible times of investigation tliat may be of interest.

As in the library a book or a resource ~i~aterialcan be found using subject code, author
index or title index. One can provide such key works to tlie computer to find resource
niaterial. Unlike books, matel-ialstored in a main-frame con~putercan be made available
at all the terminals at atime.
Here tlie colnputer screen is used to present material to the student in a form some-
times referred to as an electronic blackboard. Along with normal verbal approach,
movement and animation call be used with colours and music. Simple presentations
car1 easily be developed by teachers to introduce learners to a new iliformatioli. e.g. a
teacher can develop slide shows using MS-Power Point or even develop web-pages
using Front-Page.
t
/ Clleck Your Progress
I
I
i . Match the Icar~iingpoints fi.onl colliinn M it11 tile appropr~atc~ ' 4ni~ o d cI'rclru, I
co!umn B.
A 13
I
I
i
Inlensit>-ot'eal-thiluake ;I? t i :- Ii t 1
i
Forming groups ni'students b) T)i.i!i nnil l'rnctici: I

i .
4.
accol-dingto parents' occi~pations
PI-oblemson division of nu~nbers
Information about parts of' bod!
c)
cl)
Siiii~~lation
I)atabasi:
II
11.5 ADVANTAGES OF CAL
- -

The lear~iingprocess could be strengthened more in many ways through these modes.
Advantages of tlie CAL approach are mentioned below:
1. CAL is individualised, that is each student is free to work at his own pace, totally
i~naffectedby the perfor~nanceofany other students. Since it can provide a method
of instruction designed for self-directive study, it helps in improving skills or
achieving objectives at all difficulti levels.
2. liiforlnation is presented in a strilctured form. It proves usefill in the study of a
subject where there is hierarchy of facts and rules.
3. CAL forces active participation on the part ofthe student, whicli contrasts with
tlie more passive role in reading a book or attending a lecture.
4. Partly as a result of interactive student participation, it provides immediate feedback.
The feedback may be remedial i11 nature or it inay direct tlie stiideiit to a certain
path depeiidingon its response.
5. CAL ~ltilisesa reporting system that provides the student wit11 a clear picture of
his progress. Thus students can identify the siibject areas in which tliey have
improved and in whicli tliey need improve.
6. By enabling stlidelits to manipulate concepts directly, and explore tlie results of
S L I C manipillation,
~ it rediices tlie time taken to compreliend difficult concepts.
7. CAL also saves tlie unauthentic labour ofteachers as well as students. Teachers
need not waste their time and labour i11 arrai~gingsame instructional experiences,
formilig qirestioiis for every student, evaluating them at every learning stage,as all
these are carried out by tlie colnpilter programme.
8. CAL offers a wide range of experiences that are otherwise not available to the
student. It works as m~~lti~nediaproviding audio as well as visilal inputs. It enables
tlie student to ilnderstand concepts clearly with tlie use of stimulating tecliiiiques
such as animation, blinking, graphical displays, etc.
9. Where a conventional practical demonstration is extremely difficult, iiiipossible or
dangerous, wliere tlie apparatus is not readily available, when a real siti~ation
woilld take an impossibly lolig time to investigate or wliere nialiipulatioli ofdifferent
varibles may prove ilsefi~l,simulation is oftremendous significance.
10. Learners can be provided any number of options in ~nultiple-choicequestions. Application to Computer
Programmes
Also a series of responses may be provided where some are better than others,
with each response providing feedback on each oftlie o~tions.
1 1. CAL provides a lot of drilling which can prove ilsefitl for low aptitude students
and througli which high-aptitude students can be escaped.
12. CALcan enhance reasoning and decision-;;laking abilities.
13. Students who use CAL beconie increasi~iglyself-directed in their learning style.
They become more responsible for learliing and less dependent on teachers.
They consider themselves capable learners.

11.6 LIMITATIONS OF CAL

Though CAL has a n ~ l nber
i of advantages, it has sonie limitations also. Sonie of these
are as follows:
1. A CAL package may be regarded simply as a novelty, rather than an integral part
of the educational process. It may threaten tlie objectives of the package.
2. Though sini~llationpermits execution of che~nicaland biological experiments,
hands-on expe,rience is missing. Moreover, CAL packages cannot develop nianual
skills such as handling an apparatus, working with a machine, etc.
3. There are real costs associated with the development of CAL systems. It is
expensive in terms of staff t i n ~ to
e devise and programme effective CAL.
4. Content covered by a certain CAL package rnay becolne outdated. A very high
cost is involved in the developmelit of these packages. If tlie course is outdated,
the resources involved in its developinent will be a waste.

11.7 PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE USE OF CAL

APPROACH
1. Motivating and trainiiig teacliers to make use of con~putersin education is a
challenging task. They may have fear ofthis new device. They may be unwilling
to spend extra time for preparation, selection and use of CAL packages. It may
also be perceived as a threat to their job.
2. CAL packages [nay not fulfil expectations of teachers. Objectives and methods
decided by the CAL author and of a teacher may differ.
3. There are administrative pl-oblems associated with computer installation. The
problelns particularly related to the physical location ofthe colnputer resources,
the cost of hardware maintenance and insurance and tinie -tabling.
4. Quality courseware demands a team approach. Expertise required for
developlnental process is from different fields SLICII as teaching, programming,
hardware engineering, subject expertise, etc. They may face problems i n coming
togethet-for a long time.
5. The rapid developlnent of harclware makes it difficuI,tto select a system before it
becomes obsolete. Ifa new system is illstalled by a maxinium number of institutions,
they may not get courseware required for the system and courseware developed
so far may becolne useless.
To overcome many of tlle problenls related to CAL a lot of educational software has to
be developed. A ~iuniberof such software is being prepared by experts in various fields.
For their wider use, they sllould be validated.
Sonware Development
11.8 STEPS INVOLVED IN DEVELOPMENT OF
CAL PACKAGE
Tlie sequence oftlie steps i~ivolvedi n the develop~nentof instructional materials !nay
clia~igeaccording to the nature of the problem. The general steps involved in the
develop~iie~it
of software call be discussed as below:

1 1.8.1 Analysis Phase

Selection of a unit

Though computer is one oftlie 111osteffective media, it demands more money resource
tlian any other media. The computer therefore should be used creatively and judiciously.
Assunling that a teacher has decided to write a progralnlne for CAL, tlie first question
that she sliould bear in milid is: wliy use a computer (CAL) approach. There sliould be
a rationale for the use of a computer.

Before you start to develop a CAL package consider the followi~igquestions:

Is my learner going to gain something more than slhe will gain by using otlier
mediali~inovativemethods? Does my topic involve such objectives which call be
achieved fully only if l use CAL?
Will my package provide individual learni~igexperience to the learner ?
Will the package provide interactivity with the learner, user control and scope for
self-evaluation?

Content analysis

To develop any self-learning programme, wk need to analyse the content properly. Tlie
teacher should know each and every teaching point fronl the selected topic. The process
of dividing tlie topic.into sub-topics or sub-points is called Co~ite~it Analysis. Conte~it
alialysis helps tlie teacher in identifying all the concepts, definitions, infoniiation points,
rules. examples, formulae, diagrams, illustrative graphics, etc. related to the content.

Entry behaviour

Alongwitli the content analysis, analysis oftlie target group is very essential. Before
developi~igany educational software, vocabulary, learning style, needs, conceptual level.
compreliension level of tlie learners should be analysed.

Once the content and target group are analysed, a teacher call sequence tlie concepts so
that they are logically arranged. Here tlie teacher can identify tlie prerequ~siteto learn
the topic. If some basic colicepts are not clear to tlie learner, slhe will not be able to use
tlie learning material of your topic. Hence tlie specifications of the learner's entry
behaviour are to be finalised.

Specification of objectives

After selecti~iga suitable topic, and alialysing it. the instructional objectives can be
determined keeping in mind tlie earlier learnt capabilities of the learner group both in
terms of their previous k~iowledgeand other competencies. Preparing statenielits of
IcalningoL!;e~~i\c;., f01.11pl.ogralnme is l i l e preparinf a su1n11:al.yL 1'!1:-. I;a~~;in; .-,
17.

in tt'rms of tlie cornp:tcn;!cs to be Icdr!?l

 .4pplicatioeto Computer
Prqrnmn~es

I Development of eval~~ation
measures
A statemelit of objectives describes tlie capability to be developed. If this description is
clear, it lielps 11sto design a test to assess how well tlie learner has acquired tliat capability.
A well written ob.jective imliiediately suggests relevant post-test items.

Self-teaming tilaterial also demands a pre- test to decide whether there is a need on the
part of a learner to go throi~ghtlie material or a sub-unit or whether he can skip it. So
far we have experienced that tlie teacher decides what s/he wants herhis students to
learli irrespective ofwhat the) all know or wish to know. Self-leanling material provides
*
facility to eacli individ~lallearner to clieck wliat sllie I < ~ o \ v ~ atid what s/he call learn.

I 11.8.2 Design Phase

It The alialysis phase is then followecl by a creative phase. tliat is tlie design pliase.

I Development of modular. structure

Since CAL is a self-instructional approach, individual differences s h o ~ ~be l dtaketi into
accoi~nt.Large-scalelearliitig processes are more easily handled in a segmented or modular
foniiat. I n this appl-oach clearly deiined areas of activity !nay be learnt only by those
learners for whom they are suitable.'TIi~~s,a palticular learner will concentrate only on
a particular sub-topic which he wants to master.111developilig a modular strilcture, tlie
course designer sliould identify tlie titleofeach module. objectives atid the combination
of presentation methods liiost suitable. Thus, tlie wliole package woilld be a set of
various interrelated modules. Though tliey are interrelated,one can select niodules to
be learnt or tlie pre-test lnay help the learner in selecting appropriate lnodules
I Development of flowchart
I
Tlie flowchart is an important picce of doculnentation needed wlier~developing
courseware. Once all the informati011that is required to be included in the course lias
been identified. and tlie nrle set lias been cona~.ucted.tlie flow- cliart becomes the link
between this infomatioli and tlie screen-presentatio~i.

"A flow-chart is a clialt showing tlic tlow -the relationships between events, activities.
concepts. Tlie relationship may be telilporal (in titile order) or non-temporal but.tliere is
al\vays a certain sequential order." (KuIkarni,S.S.1986)
Unlike study texts and structured texts, whicli follow one major route tlirough acourse, *

CAL enables appropriate feedback to be given to the learners in response to their

answers. Tliese anticipated wrong answers could lead to remedial loops containing
material, which is designed to clear LIPserious misunderstandings. To avoid confusions
in the bralicliing,the prograliime flowcllart is necessary.

The flowcliart sllows the quickest route througli the course. It sliows tlie frame numbers
and tlie count loops. It lielps prevent the course getting muddled and clearly shows the
bra~icliing.The flowchart can be used by later autl~orsto amend or edit the course. It is
also important in validatious, tliat is checking back to wliat the author wanted to happen.

Designing frbmes
5
One of tlie advantages of CAL is that information can be broken down into quite small
packages. A module consists of a series of frames. Some of tliese will be criterion
frames, teaching frames and some testing frames.

Criterion frames

These sl~o~lldbe written first before the teacliilig frames, also acting as a clieck that the
teaching frames acli ieve their objectives. It sl~o~lldbe noted that a criterion frame tests
a teaclli~igpoint and no reference material is used in the frame. This is a test of the
learner's knowledge. Therefore, a criterion frame on the flowchart should be clear of
loops guidingthe student to get correct answers to q~~estions raised in frame.

Teaching frames

Teacliing frames contain all tlie information needed to complete the course.

Testing frames

Teacliilig frames are also associated with questioning frames, since there are few better
ways of learning information than by using it. Testing frames can have help and hint
frames with them. Tliese can be in tlie form of a prompt or a clue. Anticipated wrong
answers liiust be handled properly in tlie answer analysis. which requires a lot of
ilnagination on the part of designer.

Once tlie frames are designed, they should be converted in a manner useful for screen
display. Tlierefore, screen layout forms are designed at this stage.

Preparing screens with reference to actual programming

At the pl.ogramming stage, tlie roles, which the coliiputer can play, sliould be appreciated.
A nrunber of characteristics of computer display are discussed by field experts and also
sollie guidelines for tlieir effective use are defined. Some important points are dtscussed
in the followirig paragraphs. They are discussed under the following headings:

a) Screen layouts,
b) Text,
c) Graphics,
d) Timing,
e) Animation,
f) Sound,
g) Usercontrol.
a) Screen layouts Application to Coniputer .
Prograrnmcs

This refers to what is displayed on tlie'screen ofthe ter~ninal.A few simple rules for
good design are stated by Woodliouse David and Mc Dougal Anne (1 986). They are as
follows:

be consistent from one screen to tlie next;

arrange statements in tlie saliie order as acticuis to be carried out;
avoid excessive abbreviation:
use spacing ge~ieroi~sly and wisely:
allow adjustment oftlie level of helpfi~lpro~iiptingi~ifor~iiatio~i to the level wanted
by the operator;
do not clutter tlie screen with too I I I L I C ~information, or too great a variety of
symbols, colour or scripts or inverse colour blocks;
do not overuse the facility for bliriking as it liiay reduce co~icentratiori.If a blink is
used , it sliould be at the rate of 3-5 per second.

In general, tlie mini~iii~m amount of i~ifor~iiatio~inecessary to achieve tlie purpose

sliould be displayed. A small amount ofgraphical or textual information clearly and
effectively presented is liiore likely to promote understanding. ;

l~ifor~natio~i to be displayed sliould be presented one key point at a time. An effective ,

way of doing this is to reveal new images on the screen or to change all or part of an
e~istingdisplay.But care should be taken wliile changing part of an existing display so
that the change is noted by tlie learner. Tlie change should be eye-catching. Two or
liiore changes at a time are not advisable. For exa~nple,if a new text and grapliical
liiove~nentare displayed at tlie saliie time, tlie graphical ~novementobviously distracts
tlie attenti011and tlie new text is not attended to use of pauses between two actions is
helpfill iri such cases.
It is sensible to place titles at tlie top of the screen and prompts for action should appear
at the botto~iiafter the screen has been assimilated.

'The technique of bli~ikingcan be used to catcli tlie leanier's eye towards an important
concept.

Triangle Recta~igle Ellipse Quiz Help

'Total of'all the three

anglcs of'lriat~glesis

mL i~=: 45
Ill L h = 00
Ill L c = -

The designer may wish to retain some text or a diagram while displaying additio~ial
infor~iiation.Tlie use of wi~idowsto display information in a box that overlays part of
tlie existing screen can be very effective to empliasise points, for Iielp, i~ifor~iiatio~i
etc.
Windowi~igmay also be efffective for error message.

Consta~itchange can make tlie activity more interesting, avoiding visual boredom and
retaining attentiveness. Alternatively, visual consistency miglit be more iniportant to
keep users co~~fident and comfortable with the conventions adopted, that is where to
look for new i~~formation,how to answer questions, etc. Buttons like 'HELP'. 'QUIT',
'TEST', 'MAIN MENU', should be the same tlirougliout the package.
SoftwareDevelopment b) Text
The rule "Tlie programme sliould say just what is required and no more" stated by
Marshall David (1988) is an important point of consideration.Visual display units are
not suited to large aniount oftext. Text sliould only appear when essential. I n general,
text sliould be summarised. Paragraphs slioi~ldbe no more tlian three lines in extent
and slioi~ldhave space between them. If possible, form a meaningful group of words to
make tlie perception of the content easier.

Tlie screen forniat slioi~ldalways adopt tlie conventions that lines do not end in the
middle of words, and that paragraplis slioi~ldnot start on the last line of a page display.
Teht should be distributed over tlie whole screen orcentered. Characters in lower case
are assiliiilated more qi~icklytlian just upper case, which [nay be reserved for headings
and otlier emphasis. Text slioi~ldbe gra~nlnaticallyconsistent.

Check Your Progress

3 . Select appropriate screen layout.

a b c

L k l ~ d l l . krlird

k l d r dllsd d
rlrd dld#rl~,dfnr

dlkldk kd q d l k

C) Graphics and colours

The graphics capabilities of screens can be used in two ways. Graphics can be used to
display pictures and diagrams. They call also be used to enhance a text display by
drawing boxes and borders, shading etc. The use of boxes, borders, shading etc. is
inipol-tantin enhancing screen presentations.

By making display more attractive, colour helps motivate learners. The range of colours
available is very restricted. Therefore, items in different colours stand out and tlie eye
tries to give significance to tlie colour chosen. Tliis can be distracting but it can be used
to focus attention.

Elements of a display, which appear in tlie same colour, give the i~npressionof being
related in sonie way. Conversely, elenients in different colours are seen as separate.
Tliis coding can be used deliberately to relate different parts of a display. e.g. Good and
bad habits of a child call be shown in two different colours throughout the package.

It is advisable to be consistent with tlie use of colour tliroi~glio~lt

a piece of software.
For example, heading sliould be in the same coloul-sunless there is a special reason for
a change.
Blocks of colour behind part of a display can be used for emphasis.Attractive informative
displays can be created using just one background and one foreground colour. Not all
colourofcombi~iatio~is offoreground and background colours give legible displays. It is
essential to select ~olours,wliicli contrast in brightness. Placement of blocks of colour
of si~liilarbrightness liest to each other should be avoided (e.g. red and blue). 'They
tend to merge and look fi~zzy.Also large solid blocks of wliite and yellow should be
avoided since they give an irritating flicker. Too ~iii~clicontrast or very bright coloi~rs
shoilld be avoided. Dull coloilrs make learners disinterested.
d) Timing
Changes to tlie display resulting from n learner's input should be clearly visible. They
slioi~ldbe co~npletedat a >peed. \vliicli neither keepstlie learner waiting nor is too fast
for tlie learner to see what has clia~iged.Allowing the user to control \vIien clia~igesto
the screen display take place, and at \\hat speed. makes a progranlme more flexible for
use witli a wide range of learners ol'clifferent abilities.

e) Aniination
The illusion ofmovement is a po\vell't~lfeature tliat can f o c ~ attention
~s dynamically. It
can visualise processes of cliange tliat the programme is illustrating. Too many and -
speedy animations may creatc conli~sio~i.

Keeping ob.jects animating without reason,along witli otlier important matter on tlie
screen should be avoided. There sliould be a provision to stop animation by the user.
Allowi~ig tlie user to control a~ii~iiatio~is may increase learner- participation and
interactivity of tlie media to a great extent.

Nowadays, sound effects are being wed in many programmes. These sounds are either
whizzes or bangs or tones to reflect success or faili~re,or soriieti~iieseven appropriate
ditties or comliielits tliat relate to tlie content. Buzzers used to reflect failure are proved
effective in decreasing tlie chances 01' failure.

Use of sounds liave led to tlie development of CAL packages in phonetics and also for
developing listening as well as reading skills.

Tlie learner sliould also liave control over tlie use and volu~iieof sound.

Sounds may distract tlie learner from the impo~-tantriiessage. Hence it is advisable not
to use sounds wliere tliey are 1101 essential. Verbal repetition of test written on tlie
screen sliould be avoided.

To conclude, all sort of documentatio~iand ideas should be ready before tlie programming
phase. At this stage. the task of preparing tlie module is coniplete.
g) User control
l~iteractivityis tlie keyword in learncr-centred activities. Ifa learner is in tlie interactive
situation, where a learner call experience and get feedback at every stage, learning
becomes more effective and long-lasting. Tlie computer can provide this facility wliicli
is missing in any otlier ~iiedia.CAIzsliould never be mere presentation with screens
advancing and allo\vi~iga lear~lcrt o j ~ ~\\tatcli.
st A learner should liave co~itrolover the
parameters like sound. ani~naliona s \\cII as the content variables. Learners sliould be
able to decide ~.liicliniodules to learn, to open again if needed and close if tired.

11.8.3 Programming Phase

Once the screen layout is ready, tlie next stase is to pet the CAL, runtii~igon tlie co~iiputer.
l'liis can be done in t\vo ways. The instructional desig11i.r.tliat is tlie courseware author,
may himself or herself perforni tlie programming task on his own by utilising his /her
programming expertise; or the whole task of proogram~~ing can be performed by another
programh.lerora team ofprograrnmers. If tlie CAL is a ~iii~ltiniedia package-it certainly
requires teamwork.

Generally. a teacher ~ v h ocloes tlie i~istlvctionaldesign of tlie CAL package, may riot
possess programmi~igexpertise. Such a teacher is provided programming facility by
special tools. These tools are called authoring tools.
Sothvnre Development These are the tools that are designed to minimise the actual amount of programming
espertise required by a teacher in the creating of educational software.

A~itlioringsystems are software packages that guide the author through the process
eliminating tlie need to know how to programme. From the point of view of an ead-
ilser, authoring systenis provide more facilities than authoring languages and support
riiost of tlie aspects ofthe CAL package producing process.
,
Dean Cliristopher and Whitlock Quentin (1 988) state tliat some fundamental features
must be provided by any ai~tlioringsystem :
1. present text aiid questions on a screen;
2. accept responses entered i~singa keyboard;
3. analyse the responses;
4. , store details of responses and values ofcounters on a file;
5. branch to other parts oftlie learning programme;
6. provide feed back;
7. interface with subroutes written in computer programming languages.

The authoring systems do liiake tlie coniputer friendlier. It leads the autlior through the
authoring process one at a time wit11 al I control function being executed automatically
by tlie system.

11.8.4 Validation Phase

Evaluation by experts
a
When an author has co~npleteda section oftlie course, it is ready for peer evaluation,
the reviewing and assessing of a course. Since CAL involves higher technology and a
liigh cost, if quality ought to be approved by applying some'criteria. Once the CAL
package is ready for usage, it is expected to be used by a wide range of learners. That
is tlie reason wliy it requires testing.

According to Dean Christopher and Whitlock Quentin (1 988), the following factors
should be considered while evaluating a package :
Content : The course nii~stteach the subject matter that lias been specified in the
initial objectives.
Accuracy :Tlie i~iter~ialassessment verifies tliat the subject matter taught is accurate
and sufficient.
presentation': The qiiality of tlie presentation on the screen must be consistently
high. Tlie usage of tlie area must be effective and uncluttered.
4. Adherence to presentation standards and guidelines: The purpose of presentation
standards is to make tlie medium as unobtrusive and sympathetic to tlie user as
possible. Tlie autlior sliould not be permitted to use different screen layouts
according to whim. Peer evaluation sliould pick up occasions where the standards
have not been adliered to. TI1is will cover such items ds:
a) YesfNo responses;
b) Multiple choice question;
c) Instructions for continuing to next screen;
d) Headings;
e) Highlighting;
f) Use ofcapital letters, etc.
5. Use of the authoring language: Just as there should be a set of standards and
guidelines for course presentation,there must be standards for using the authoring
language iftlie writing and tlie amendment oftlie course is to be efficient. These
?:a1 Jards cover sucli items as labelling, branching, response analysis and use of
6. Statistics: Statistics are kept for two main reasons: to measure s t i ~ d e ~perform-it
ance and to aid validation o f tlie course. Tlie detailed statistics o f tlie exact path
tliat eacli s t i ~ d e ~lias
i t taken tliroi~glitlie course, and tlie answer to eacli qi~estion,
are impel-tant during the testing phase.

Peer evaluation w i l l lead to a course review tliat decides tlie changes tliat slioi~ldbe
made and may. if tlie evaluation lias covered an early section o f a course, lead to
revised objectives or a new approach to si~bsequentparts oftliecourse. Any revisions
as a result o f peer evaI\uation 11ii1stbe completed before tlie stage o f course validation.

Validation should o l i l ~be

, carried out on coilrses or sections where tlie prog~.a~iiming
part is co~nplete.Tlie course author call hope to get the followinp data when tlie saniple
lias co~npletedtlie coilrse:
1. pre-test and post-test results:
2. tlie time spent by eacli student on tlie computer and on tlie overall course;
3. the responses o f all tlie bti~dents:
4. tlie students' evaluation ofthc course;
5. any difficulties tlie students ma! have faced.

Tlie si~bjectiveinformation needed by tlie author is:

1. suitability oftlie la~iguagei~sed
3. si~bjectmatter:
3. questions:
4. presentatidns:
5. e~ijoy~nent.

The process oftesting incl ides two stages:

a) Working with small group of'learners i.e. Pilot Study

b) Experimenting with a sample o f learners from target groi~p.

a) Pilot Study
Tlie Progranime i s tested on a s~iiallg r o i ~ po f learners (5- 10). Tlie process o f learning
is discussed witli tlie~ii.Detail comparetive study is done witli reference to tlie leaniers'
entry beliavioiu-, time taken for learning, their learning habits. attitudes and results of'
post-tests. TIILIS. there is a scope FOI. rcvisil;g the programme before its implementation. ,

b) Field try-out
The sti~dyi s C O I ~ ~ L I C I C ~b> tlie expcr~nientalresearch. 'The data obtained from tlie
learners i s analysed by apply~ngstatistical measures. This i s called validation testing. A t
tliis stage. tlie learners go tliroi~glitlie programliie without tlie aid o f a programme
designer. 111validation testing also learners sliould be recluested to give overt responses
and commelits regarcling \ v l i ~accortli~ig
. to them, their responses were considered wrong
by tlie computer. Tlie des~gncrcan revise the proprammc in s i ~ c lsituatio~is.i Data
regarcling tlie perfol-malice ufincliviclual learners from tlie validation sample should be
recorded in a table. After study in%tlic tablc tentative li~~polliescs regarding effectiveness,
i ~ t ~ l i ttlie
y , feasiblity oftlie CAL. pacl,apc can be tested.

Information o f tliis Iiind ~.e!gardingcll:~!.acteristicoftlie target groupof learners wliicli

after tlie performance ill the progranlmc would be liell,fi~l both in revising or preparing
supplementary material and in devising remedial instruction \vliere necessary.

Once tlie valiclation is ovcr. there IS a temptation ancl lihcliliood tliat tlie prqject w i l l be
regarded as complete. f lo\jever, \ j irli some courses, 1.evisio11Inay be forced by changes
to tlie subject being taught. A regular review sliould be done to co~isiderthe status of
the course, its usage, I-elevance,need for improvement, etc. This follow-up process
should lead to detailed refinement of tlie product.

11.9 LET US SUM UP

Co~ilputertechnology has reached the schools. As a teacher you will be required to use
the computer as a teachi~iglear~iingtool. If a teacher walks parallel to teclinology and
tries to develop software, tecl~nologywill be a boon to edilcation. In this unit, we have
disc~~ssed various modes of Compi~terAssisted Learning e.g. Drill and Practice, Tutorial
etc.

While cleveloping any soft\vare. a teacher shoilld follow a certain procedi11-e.In this unit
\ve have discussed these steps of developing a CAL package. It is important that at
every step of the developmental process, one has to be resourcefi~l.The whole process
of development ofConipilter Software is ateamwork. Yo11as a teacher, designer ofthe
soft\vare milst play a lead role.

1 1.10 UNIT-END ACTIVITY

1. Select a small i111itfro111yoi~rsilb.ject. Try to develop a design for CAL. Disci~ssit
wit11 your friends.

11.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1 1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

j01-C7,4L, Macmillan Education Ltd., London

Wa~.l\cr.P. ( 1 987): Az,/hor. L~n1guclgc.s
Dean, C. and Whitlock, Q. (1 988): .J. Hm~rlhookoj'Corrpu/er-B ~ a e dTechnolo,q..
Kogan Page, London.
Knlkarni, S.S. ( 1 986): Irirrorlz,c~/ior~
lo Educatiorlcll Tcchriologj~: A ,S:~~s/cms
Approc~ch
lo .\.Iicro Lelrel EJZICLI/I'OII.
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, Bombay and
Calcutta.
Marshal I, D. ( 1988): C',4L/('BT- The Gr-ecr/Deh(r/e,Clial-tweII Bal-tt, Sti~dentLiterati~re.
UNIT 12 MEDIA SELECTION AND
INTEGRATION
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Media and Instructional Process
12.4 Need of Media Selection
12.5 Factors Affecting Media Selection
Pedagogic Utility
Human Factors
Availability and Accessibility
User Friendliness, Control and Interactivity
Cost
Effective Communication
Infrastructure Faciiities
Time
Hardware
12.6 How to Select Media?
12.6.1 Write an Instructional Objective
12.6.2 Determine the Domain in which the Objective can be Classified : Cognitive, Affective.
Psychomotor
12.6.3 Consider various Factors Affecting Media Selection '
12.6.4 Consider various MethodslTechniques to be Adopted
12.6.5 Selecting the Media
12.7 Media Integration
k

12.8 Multiple Media and Multimedia

12.9 Let Us Sum Up
12.10 Unit-ehd Activities
12.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress
12.12 Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION
In Block 2, we introduced you to a variety of media which are used in the teaching-learning
process. The knowledge of various media helps a teacher while transacting learning experiences.
Sometimes, it is very difficult on the part of a teacher to judge which medium out of an array
of media is the best for a given instructional task.,Hence, comes the importance selection of
media and their integration in the instructional process. In this unit, we will focus on why and
how various media are used in the teaching-learning process.

12.2 OBJECTIVES - - - - -

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

discuss the importance of media in the instructional process;
point out the need of media selection;
discuss the factors affecting media selection;
define media integration in the context of instructional process;
point out the need of media integration;
differentiate between multiple and multi-inedia.
Optimising Learning

We have( discussed the concept of instruction and the instructional process in Block-1,
ES-331 '~urriculumand Instruction' of the B.Ed programme. In this context, we recapitulate
what is qeant by Instructional Process and the role and importance of medin in this process.
Insttucticjn is a process of providing a controlled environment consisting of various compments
with which learners interact and gain experience, leading to the attainment of certain
prespeci@edlearning outcomes or instructional objectives. The components which constitute
instouctidnal environment are (a) content or learning experiences; (b) teacher or provider of
learning experiences; (c) methods and media which are means of providilig learning
experienbes; (d) learner is also a part of this instructional environment when learning takes
place. Ltt us look at Figure 12.1 and understand how learning takes place.

I Instructional Environment
1

Method

I Teacher < > -<

-
I
1 .
I

I
I

1
I
I
Fig. 12.1: Components of an instructional Environment

The maip aim of carrying out any instructional activity is to provide learning experiences to
the learrjers. To carry out those activities, a teacher decides instructional objectives, identities
learningexperiences, transacts these learning experiences in an instructional environment and
evaluates the attainment of instructional objectives or learning outcomes by the learner.
Transac$on of learning experiences means transaction of a given content. In order to transact
a given Icontent, a teacher takes the help of some methods. These methods may be teacher
controllqd, learner controlled or group controlled methods. A teacher can use teacher controlled
merhodd like lectures, demonstrations, learner controlled methods like PLM, projcct work,
library bork, etc. or group controlled method like debates, discussions, seminars, panel
cjiscussibns, etc. Through all they methods a teacher attempts to provide direct learning
experierjces. A teacher can give a learner direct experience with the objects of instruction.
When hhlshe wants to illustrate something about objects or processes, he or she can perform
a demodstration using the actual objects and communicate orally the points he or she wishes
to hake1 For example, he or she can teach compounds and mixtures to high school srudents
by mixing up different chemicals. (refer to Unit 7 in Block 3).
Ths use of various methods, techniques alone does not help a teacher in the transaction of
leamind experiences. There are many events of instruction which require use of several
media taudio, visual and audio-visual. For example, it is too difficult or expensive in many
cases ta have actual objects under s k ~ l yin the classroom. Hence, a teacher often selects a
visual fjedium to represent the objects, either photographs or figures. The learning experience
praviGed through media, thus, becomes mediated experience. Each medium is effective for
speci&c learning tasks and with specific learner groups. Thus various media make certain
types ofllearning tasks easier. In other words, various media facilitate a teacher in the transaction
of Pearnling experiences.

12.4 1 NEED OF MEDIA SELECTION

--
--
-
From tie above discussion, it is clear that media have an important role in the instructional
process, But, all media are not suitable or appropriate for all types of instructional tasks.
Each qedium has its own capabilities or attrihutes. Attributes are pictorial representation,
Size (eplarged, reduced or real), Colour (black and white, limited colours, full colours),
I
I
I
I
OptimisingLearning the mesdage? Is it available as well as accessible to the teacher and students? Questions such
as these have to be taken into consideration in the selection of media. Several authors have given
difeerenq models of media selection. Among them the model given by Romizcowski (1981) is

7
widely uoted. His model covers most factors of media selectio
All)the factors which contribute to the media selection may be categorised into the foliowing:
1. Pedhgogical Utility 4
2. Human Factors -
3. ~vdlabilityand Accessibility
4. UseL Friendly
5. Cost
6. Effective Communication
7. ~nfrfastructuralFacilities
8. Tide
9. ~ d d w a r e

12.5.1 Pedagogic Utility

lXis fdtor is concerned with two aspects: First, the instructional objectives to be achieved at the
end of the instructional process. Second, content or learning experiences to be transacted during
the instructional process. Instructional objectives mainly pertain to three domains of Bloom's
Taxonhmy of objectives. These are: Cognitive Domain, Affective Domain and Psycho-motor
a m $ . Content includes concepts, facts, figures, principles, procedures, propositions, attitudinal
c h g @ s ,skill development, etc. Therefore, a teacher has to identify media in terms of the content
he/she~wishes to provide to students for the intended instructional objectives. Let us examine
vtlrioui; media which can be used for furthering learners' development in each of these domains.
Cogni/tive Domain (Factual infannation, visual identification, concept formation, principle1

.
role learning, learning procedures, etc.)

a
dhalkboard, Marker board
Qrawings, charts, maps, flip-chart etc.
hnt-textbooks, short readings manuals, workbooks, handouts, articles etc.
a Model, real objects, simulators
dlides, filmstrips .
OHP transparencies
r $dividualised instruction through CALJCAI, audio tape etc.
Rive instruction-through classrook lecture, demonstration -
WandCrn
Video tape and Film
"Telecast and Broadcast
B -
interactive video
B Teleconferencing
a Computer Conferencing
Affebtive Domain (Development af attitudes, interest, opinion, motivation etc.)
Chalkboard
Hip-chart
JTV, film and video tape
a Audio tape
I

a Telecast and Brdadcast

a SlidesISound
a Live Instruction-classroom lecture, demonstration
a Simulation and Role-play
a Telephone teaching
0 Audio-Video conferencing i
I
Computer conferencing
 Psychomotor Domain (Development of psychomotor skills and skill coordination); Media Selectio~~
and Integration

il Live classroom demonstration

Drawing, paintings

1 . Model, real object

Chalkboard drawings

1 Audio tape-skills through listening

FilmPNNdeo tape - for demonstration of processes leading to skill development
[
@ Language laboratory for developing auditory discrimination and listening comprehension
Computer simulation/animation, C&AI, computer conferencing
Audio and Video conferencing.
Apart from instructional objectives, selection of media is also governed by the kind of learning
experiences or content knowledge a teacher wants to provide histher students. For example,
most media can handle abstract. knowledge, but there are some such as television that are
excellent for representing concrete knowledge. Media also differs in the extent to which they
can help to develAp different skills. This is related to the control characteristics and the
representation features of the medium. For example, television, videos and computers are
excellent media for imparting skill education. A teacher therefore, requires a good understanding
of what is required to teach a particular subject, confined with knowledge of the pedagogic
strengths and weaknesses of different media. Rowntree (1994) has given a chart which suggests
the more common media might best enable your learners to perform a given learning task.
Chart
Which media might best do what?
Tasks Media
Pt au vi ct cs mi cc le ff tt
Provide a carefully
argued analysis.
Convey sights, sounds
and spirit of subject.

Build learners' ideas

into the teaching.
Ask learners to answer X X X X X X X X
questions about subject.
Enable learners to try
things, out physically.
Ensure learners to get physical
feedback from real world.
Give learners standardized
verbal feedback.
Give each learner a unique X X X
personal feedback.
Continuously alter teaching to x x
suit each learner's needs.
Provide learners with a record x x
of the learning experience.
Key: pt = print; au = audio; vi = video; ct = computer tutoring; cs = computer simulation.
mi = multimedia; cc = computer conferencing; le = lecture; ff = face-to-face tutoring; tt =
telephone tutoring.
(Chat adapted from ~own&ee,D: Preparing Materials for Open, Distance and Flexible
, Leanzing, Kogan Page,, London, 1994). 3
1
Optimlsing Learning
ICheck Your Progress I
~ a t e s a)
l Write your answers in the space given below.
I
1 b) Compare your answkrs with those given at the end of the unfit.
3. ~ d c of
h the following is best suitable for the development of affective attributes'!
a) i OHP transparencies
I
b) Charts
C) 1 Maps
I

d) ~ u d i otape

1
Wh'ch of the following provides a carefully argued analysis?
a) computer cofferencing
b) Telephone tutoring
C) Lecturing
I

I ! I

12.5.2 Human Factors

Hutnan Factors related to the selection of media are the teacher who uses media for teaching

b
purpose and the learner who uses for learning purposes. So far as a teacher is considered
hehhe s ould have favourable attitude towards the use of media in teaching-learning process.
Some te hers are very comfortable with certain media, while they find difficulty in others. All this
lack of proper orientation or training of the teachers in the use of various media. Hence,
attitude and orientation in media compels himlher to select one medium or other.
learner factor also plays a great role in media selection. Learners bring to every
situation a set of capabilities for Iearning. These include prior information about
subject and basic intellectual skills to decode and process the new material.
in many ways to influence the choice of media. For example, learners with
benefited from a highly structured mediated instruction, whereas learners
profited from unstructured presentation in which they can control the
meaning of the material (Johnston, 1987).

12b.3 ~vailabilit~
and AecessibiUty

~h
W n e v r a teacher decides to use any media for insfructional purposes, helshe should consider
their av 'lability both inside and outside the instituti~n.In schooIs, there are learning resource
centres. b e s e resource centres are equipped with various teaching and electronic media. The
teacther pan make sure that the intended media are available there. If not available, helshe
shopld xplore the possibility of their availability outside the institution. Sometimes, certain
meqia mt 3y not be available to a teacher. In such situations, the teacher can look for substitutions.
For exadnple, the book substitutes the age-old teacher, a TV programme substitutes a film.
the teacher should not be desperate if a particular medium is not available, but
to achieve the desired objectives.
Very oftbn the availability of niedia even does not ensure selection of media. Available media
accessible to the users. Accessibility means that the teacher is able to access the
teaching purpose and the learner for learning purpose. Now-a-days, many schools
are provbded with televisions and computer sets. Though they are available in schools, they
accessed either by teachers or the learners due to some reason. For example, the
institutions may not allow others to use their gadgets.
,
NOW-a-daysmany students are enrolled in National Open School and State Open Schools to

1
coqplet secondary and higher secondary education, Open schooling which follows distance
edupatio methodology uses multi-media approach that includes different media. Students of
this systbm must have access to their media either at home, or in a local study centre dedicated
10 to Open )earning, or at a local public institution that shares its'facilities, or at their place of'
 -
work. Therefore, availability and accessibility to both teachers and learners are two important M e S e k d b n .odInteflmuon
considerations for media 'selection.
,
12.5.4 User Friendliness, Control and Interactivity
Media should be easy to operate and handle by their users. The ope;ations of media should
not be so complex that the users have to depend on technical people for their management.
Many a times, it so happens that even if someone is interested to use certain media, he may
not be able to use it because handling of media requires technical experiences. In other words,
media to be used should be friendly with the users. -
The users, namely, teachers and learners, must have co~&olover media. Suppose a learner is
learning-receiving messages transmitted through a textbook or an audio tape or through slides
where he can adjust the speed of reading according to his needs, or stop the presentation,
repeat it again, etc. The user should be able to control media according to requirements.
Similarly, a teacher can make us8 of media like audio tape, video tape or computer programmes
in hidher teaching and control the media according to the requirements during teaching.
Learners do have more control over permanent media like books, cassettes and computers
than over ephemeral media like lectures or broadcasts. This control .enables learners to learn
from media more effectively.
Interactivity means the ability of the learner to respond to the media and obtain feedback on the
response. This enhances student learning to a great extent. There are two kinds of in-tivity:
Learning material interactivity: This means learner interacts with the medium, gets feedback
from it and the medium accommodates learners own input and direction.
Social interactivity: Learners interaction with teachers and with each other via the medium.
For example, in teleconferencing, learners situated in different locations interact with each
other through this new technology.

12.5.5 Cost
Cost or affordability is an important consideration in media selection. The instructional objective
a
for an instructional task may be achieved with the help of alternative .media. But, the choice
of media depends on how much the user can afford to get such media. For example, a teacher
can buyfrent a film on how Indian Parliament functions provided hefshe has the budget to do
that. Otherwise, hdshe has to depend on the print medium. Costs related to media are capital
costs, production costs, recurrent costs and variable costs. Here is a brief look on what these
costs are and how they affect the budget:
1. Capital Costs: Capitql costs are initial expenditure the institution incurs for the establishment
of either a studio or a :omputing network or obtaining necessary hardware equipment.
2. Production Costs: These costs are related to the production of instructional material.
Production costs vary from one instructional material to another. Fixed costs for one hour
of instructional material has been estimated as follows:
Face-to-face lecture 1 unit
Audio cassette/Radio/Teleconference 2 uniti
Televised lecture 2-5 units
Computer-mediated communication 2-5 units
Print 2-10 units
High-quality television programme 20-50 units
Pre-programmed computer-based learning 20-50 units
Computer-controlled video disc 50-100 units
(Units give a comparative picture of production costs)
Source: COL Kit 2 (1997).
3. Recurrent Costs: These costs are required to maintain and manage media. For example,
teleconferencing requires a high cost of maintenance because the production staff is
required to operate the equipment.
4. Variable Costs: These costs are linked with the increase or decrease in the use of media.
For example, if the audio cassettes are used by many people, their costs come down. 11
 -
Optimising Learning Audjo cassettes and radio have low fixed and low variable costs whereas broadcast
.television has high fixed cost and low variable costs.
I

12.5.6 pffective Communication

~ffactiv4communication is the most important factor in the process of media selection.
While sqlecting any media, one has to look into the fact that the medium selected is able to
commudicate the intended message or information efffectively. If the medium does not
commudicate the message effectively, use of such medium in the instructional process is
meaninqless. For example, while teaching growth of population in India dunng the five
years, you use a bar graph. The bar graph should be able to clearly convey the information
rel?ardidg the growth of population during the last five years. Therefore, the tcacher should
take enpugh care to produce the mediumso that it communicates effectively.

12.5.4 Infrastructure Facilities

i
Uye o media for teaching-learning activities requires adequate infrastructure facilities.
Inbstqucture facilities like table, chair, electric supply etc. should be available i i the classroom
or any1 specific place where media are to be used. For example, while using OHP in your
teuchidg, you must ensure that the classroom has a table on which the OHP can be kept.
There khould be electric power point for supplying electricity to the OHP. There also should
bk a dhite surface or a white screen on which the projection can be made. 1
1.2.8i Time
Time lis a great factor in the selection of media As all of us know, there is a fixed time for
any class which may range from 35 minutes to one hour. While selecting any media, instruction
for a feacher has to look into how much time a medium requires for better presentation. For
exa+le, in a class period of 35 minutes, a teacher earmarks 10 minutes for the use of an
audiq programnie. If, he/she gets the audio programme of 10 minutes, he/she can fruitfully
b
use t e programme in hidher teaching. But instead if he has a film of two hours duration he
koulp not be able to show it to the classroom at that stage. Therefore, the teacher has to take
'

into pccount the time factor in the selection of media.

I

12.$.9 Hardware
NOT-a-days most of the educational technology hardwares are in the form of electronic
gad$ets. We all know that innovations are always taking place in all types of electronic
, gad$ets. As a result, we happen to get more sophisticated gadgets from time to time. Hence,
important that while selecting any educational technology/hardware a teacher should
look into certain aspects. The media selected should b e safe and durable. They should also
be' {oqatible with the existing equipment. If you go for any sophisticated media, you should
ensbre that adequate maintenance service along with spare parts of the gadgets are easily
available in the market. Moreover, the gadgets should be appropriate for the geographical and
cli&atic conditions.
! --
dheck Your Progress
/ Notes: a) Wllte your answcn in the spacc given below.

1: b) Compare your answers with those given at the end ol l l ~ cunit.

5. How does availability and accessibility affect the selection of media'!
I

:
How does cost detel-]nine media selection'?
:
... ............ ........................................................................
~; 1
:. i .
...........................................
I
 Medh Selection ond Integrption
12.6 HOW TO SELECT MEDIA ?
In the previous section, we discussed various factors which are considered while selecting .
media for the instructional purposes. Once you are'clear about the various factors, you need
to know the steps involved in the selection of media. There are four steps in the selection of
media. These are:
1. Write an objective.
2. Detennine the domain in which the objective can be classified: Cognitive, Affective,
Psychomotor.
3. Consider various factors affecting media selection.
4. Consider various methods/techniques to be adopted.
5. Select appropriate media.

12.6.1 Write an Instructional Objective .

The first step in the selection of media is to write an instructional objective. A good instructional
objective has four distinguishing characteristics. These are:
1. It describes something which the learner performs or produces.

I 2. It states an observable behaviour or a product of the leaner's behaviour.

3. It states the conditions under which the behaviour is to occur.
4. It states the standard which defines whethei or not the objective has been attained.
Let us examine the following objective in terms of the above mentioned characteristics:
Instructional Objective: A trainee will be able to type dut 40 words per minute without any
mistake. ,

In this example:
4. Learner performs - Typing out
2. Observable behaviour - n p i n g out .
3. Conditions - Without any mistake
, .
I

4. Standard - 40 words per minutes

+

I 12.6.2 Determine the Domain in which the Objective can be Classified:

~o'gnitive,
Affective, Psychomotor
Once you have specified or written the objective, you determine the domain in which the
objective can be classified. The example of instructional objective which we have given earlier -
belongs to psychomotor domain as the trainee is expected to type out 40 words per minute
which is a psycbomotor skill.

12.6.3 Consider various Factors ~ffectingMedia Selection

At this step, you ate expected to coosider the various factors of media selection in terms of
the written objective. ~ o o k i i gat the earlier example, you can think of various media. Out of
the available media, a video programme depicting a typing skill is more appropriate. A learner
can get command over the video programme. He/she can learn the typing skill on hisher own
by switchingan and switching off the video programme and then actually practicing on a
typewriter.

12.6.4 Consider various MethoddTechniques to be Adopted

At this step, you are required to consider various methods/techniques to be adopted. We have
discussed about methods and techniques in ES-331 i.e. Cumculurn and Instruction. For example,
you are foll&ing the lecture method to discuss a new concept. In this case, you can think of
using OHP transparencies to support your main points in the lecture; even summarising whatever
you have discussed in your lecture. In the illustratioa of typing which we gave earlier, you can
think of demonstration as method. For that, you may choose la video programme which
demonstrates the typing skill. Hence, decisions of methodsltechniques also deterfnine the
process of media selection.
~ptim
king Learning 126J Selecting the Media -- i
the appropriate need of different media, you can select the media. In this case,
depicting typing skill iS selected to help practice the method on a typewriter.

12.7 ( MEDIA INTEGRATION

we have discussed that each medium has some instructional value or
use of a single medium cannot fulfil the requirement of any instructional
media have to be used in combination. Although one of the media could be
other media should be used so that the quality of presentation becomes
also can be combined with appropriate methods so that instructional
Let us take an example of a class on geography wherein the
Pollution". The class period is 40 minutes. He divides

I
; 'Igble 12.1: Example of Media Integration on the topic ''EovironmcnW Pollution"

~eacherl'sActivities Media to be used Time

To$c 1
1
Intrbduc 'on to the
I
Uses chalkboard and shows transparency.
Uses lecture-cum-discussion method.
10 minutes

Teatfhinq the main Uses lecture-cum-discussion method writing on 15 minutes

Conrent 1 chalkboard or showing 4-5 transparencies.
Citihg E arnples

1
Sumtnd
I 1
I
Showing a 10 minutes video sequence on
"Environmental Pollution" or showing a set
of 10 slides on "Environmental Pollution", or
showing 10 pictures on the topic.
Explaining verbally or by showing a
10 minutes

5 minutes
transparency or by writing on a chart.

124 $~ULTIPLEMEDIA AND MULTIMEDIA

I

1
In the pre ious sections, we discussed how various media can be integrated in teaching. When
we iqtegr te more than one medium into our teaching, we call it media-mix or use of multiple
m e d i ~or ultimedia. But, due to the advancement of technology, one may not take the help
of a qum r of media to be integrated with teaching. A single medium.can consist of features
of mbre an one medium. Such media are called multimedia. For example, the advanced
called Multimedia computer. These computers comprise text, data, sound,
picture, graphics and interaction. Therefore, the use of a single mutimedia
process fulfils the requirements of many media. The components

14
Fig. 12.3: Components of a multimedia
I
I
 Media Selection and Integration
Check Your Progress
Notes: .I, Wrik yciur answers in rhc spacc given helow.
':-$) Coliiparc ynur answers with those givcn at the end of rhc unit.
7. W!~:ltarc the various steps ie thc selection of medin

.....................................................................................................................................
8. I)IIIIrelltrnte hetwecn niultiple media and multimedia.

12.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we focussed on media selection and integration. In the beginning, we discussed
the importance of media in the instructional process. Media constitutes an important component
of the instructional environment. However, it is very difficult to decide which medium is the
best for a given instructional task. Hence, one has to select media on the basis of several
factors. 'These are pedagogic utility, human factors, availability and accessibility, user
friendliness, interactivity, cost effective communication, infrastructure facilities, time and
hardware aspects. We also merrtioned the steps of media selection. We provided an example
of media integration with instruction. We differentiated between multiple media and multimedia.

12.10 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

1. Choose a topic of your choice. Analyse the content according to the media requirement.
Select the media. Justify the basis of media selection.
2. Select and teach a topic of your choice with appropriate integration of method and media.

12.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

An instructional environment comprises of a teacher, a leaner, content or learning
experiences, method and media.
Each medium has its own attrihutes and is not suitable for all kinds of instructional tasks.
Hence, there is a need of selecting media.

(c)
Whenever we select any media, they should be available locally or in the school.
Sometimes, some media are available in the school but are not accessible for use in the
instruction activity, then such media cannot he selected. Therefore, both availability and'
accessibility of media are to be taken into account while selecting the media.
Cost determines the selection of media. While selecting media, a teacher should be aware
of the cost of the media or how much helshe can afiord to get the media. He should
always select media which are within the school budget.
There are four steps in the selection of media. These are:
i) Write an objective.

ii) Determine the domain in which the objective can be classified: Cognitive, Affective,
Psychomotor.
O p t i n ~ i s i ~Learning
~g iii) Fonsider various factors affecting media selection.
iv) Select appropriate media.
8. Wheh we integrate more than one medium into teaching, we call it as multiple media or
media-mix, but when a single medium consists of more features in media, it is called
multimedia, for example, we have computers which serve the purposes of more than one
medium.

12.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Kulkami, S.S (1986): Introduction to Educational Technology, New Delhi: Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co.
2. Kumar, K.L. (1996): Educational Technology, New Delhi: New Age International.
 DEVELOPING LEARNING SKILLS

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Learning Skills
13.3.1 Stages in the Process of Learning
13.4 Learning Styles
13.5 Learning strategies
13.6 Strategies for Reading with Comprehension
13.6.1 Meiamemory
13.6.2 Metacognition
13.6.3 Metacomprehension
13.6.4 Strategies Used by Skilled Readers
13.7 Study Skills
13.7.1 Note Taking
13.7.2 Underlining
13.7.3 Marginal Comments and Coding Systems
13.7.4 Summarising
13.8 Problem-solving Strategies
13.8.1 Algorithms
13.8.2 Heuristics
13.9 Teaching Thinking Skills
13.10 Let Us Sum Up
13.11 Unit-end Activities
13.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

13.1 INTRODUCTION

With rapid social change and technological advancement, education is becoming more accessible

! to people at their convenience in terms of time, place and pace, through the open learning
system. Through (OLS) people are becoming more responsive towards education.

I In any system of education, learning outcomes and students achievement is of major concern
as these are thought to be the determinants of evaluative aspect of education. Though the
academic achievement of students depends on various factors such as the students desire to
learn, instructional strategies, study materials, students' study skills, etc., the learning skills
of students are thqught to play an important role in the academic achievement. ResearChes
focusing on students' learning skills and difficulties in learning from text have found that
most students do not have appropriate and efficient strategies necessary for learning on their
own. Students generally need guidance.
There can be many possible explanations regarding why students lack the strategies necessary
for independent learning. However, the most obvious reason is the lack of systematic instruction
on learning strategies in o w institutions. Students' lack of control over strategy appears to be
another well supported explanation of why so many students are not effective and efficient
independent learners. Adequate learning skills among students enable them to become
independent learners both in and out of schools. In this unit, we discuss the skills of learning
independently.
 I

13.2 (OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
defilhe the meaning of learning process skills;
dischss the needs and characters of learners;
identify the learning skills to be acquired by the learners;
diffdrentiate between the learning skills and the study skills;
identify the various study skills required by the learner;
discCss different problem-solving strategies;
acquiant yourselves with how to teach thinking skills.

LEARNING SKILLS
Learning skills have been understood differently by different people and have been used inter-
changeably with study skills. Nevertheless, they all talk about competencies or skills associated
with acqbiring, organising, synthesizing, remembering, and using information and ideas read
in books!, observed or listened to in different situations.
Learning is a life long process, and in the whole spectrum of education, our focus is on
enhancing certain competencies and skills in learning. Hence, skills in learning refer to students'
devdlophent of confindence and competence in learning. While confidence in learning depends
on the stodents' motivation, self-interest, positive attitude to learn, etc., competence in learning
comes from specific activities a student is engaged in while doing a particular learning task.
Jn a conventional sense, the three R's i.e., reading, writing and arithmetic are the three basic
learning skills. However, there are a number of sub-skills involved in each of these and they
are interrelated and complementary to each other. In addition to these, there are certain
subject-ypecific learning skills which are required to accomplish learning activity in that
particulah subject. These subject-specific learning skills differ from subject to subject. For
example, the skills for learning mathematics v a j considerably from the skills required for
learning a language or any other subject, say music/dance.

13.3.1 Stages in the Process of Learning

It is evident from the above that essentially there are three stages in the process of learning;
namely, ~cquiring,synthesizing, and applying new information knowledge. There are different
skills or a set of skills required in accomplishing each stage and each of these functions
requires specific skills to do it effectively. For example, acquiring information or knowledge
can be accomplished through reading, listening, observing, etc. The skills required in these
stages qe:

Acquisition
Acquiri g new knowledge/information is one of the most important pre-requisite of the learning
I
process. We acquire most of our knowledge through reading, listening and observation. While
one intedacts with text, listens to someone or observes certain event, a number of new concepts,
new ideas, new words and new symbols come all along in the way. The act of analysing these
concept$ ideas, symbols etc. is to find out their underlying meaning and making sense out
of them, is known as acquisition.

Reading
It is onq of the major means of acquiring new knowledge. It is a constructive process which
involved both reconstructing an author's message and constructing one's own meaning using
the prini. The process of reading requires the use of complex thought procedures to interpret
printed symbols as meaningful units and comprehend them as thought units in order to
understand a printed message (Collins and Cheed, 1993).
 Listening Developing Learning Ski$

It is another important means of acquiring new knowledge. It is a "selective process of

attending to hearing, understanding and remembering oral (and at times visual) symbols"
(Barker, 1971; p.71). The process of listening begins with perceiving a message, interpreting
it and understanding the meaning. Effective listening requires the listener to hear what the
speaker said, without a biased pre-selection (I hear what I want to near) interpret it accurately.
and understand the meaning. Usually, the interpretation part in listening is difficult because
of the symbolic nature of communication (Gleans and Brilhart, 1993).

Observation
It is similar to listening, except that in observation, interpretation and understanding are based
on the visual symbols unlike in listening; where it is essentially based on the aural symbols.
It is a process of perceiving visual symbols, interpreting them, understanding the meaning and
relating it with prior knowledge.
As in listening, the limitation in this is that the process of observation is selective, i.e.
determined by the observer's interest. At the same time, one need not hear or observe everything
that is said to be spread around your eyes. How to select what is crucial and not waste the
time in hearinglseeing that is not cr~cial~im~ortant, is a problem for every person and hence
one has to learn the skill of listening/observine systematically and not take it as natural
process.

Synthesizing
It requires the student to make sense out of the information acquired and relate it to the
previous knowledge. While synthesizing the ideas, the learner categorizes, organises, and
combines the newly-learned ideas; and creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies
the ideas to totally new situations to be able to see a set of abstract relations among them.

Application
It is an important and final step in the process of learning. Most of what we learn is intended
for application to problem situations in real life. Application refers to the use of the abstraction
of theory, principle, concept, idea or information correctly in an appropriate situation.
-.
Check Yow Progress
Notes : :I) Write your answers in the space given below.
I
b) Compare your answers with the those given at the end of the uni,t.
I
1. What does students' learning depend on'!
I
2. Nalnc: the stages in the processes of learning.
I
I
! 13.4 LEARNING STYLES
In any classroom it is not very likely that any two students learn the same thing; in the same
way; at the same place. We are finally beginning to realize that in order to assist each pupil
and to capitalize on his or her natural inclination to understand, we must be able not only to
diagnose his or her style of learning but to accept it. There are many styles of learning, and
there is no evidence to suggest that one is better than another. What is better is the style that
fits each person most comfortably; what is not better is to try to fit a person into a learning
mode that seems alien and strange. Once we accept (and appreciate) the idea that there are
different ways of learning, each valid for particular students, then we can be free to explore
various ways of teaching in order to accommodate the vast array of learner differences that
confront us. 19
Optimising Learning Each of us has a style of learning as individual and as our own personality. These styles could
be cate$orized as visual (reading), aural (listening), and physical (actively doing things).
Each classroom is likely to include students whose styles of learning vary widely. Although
teacherq cannot cater completely to each student's particular style, they can attempt, utilize
the strehgths and reduce or modify the weaknesses of'those in their classes.
An individual's basic style of learning is probably laid down early in life and is not subject
to any fundamental change. For example, a pupil who likes to learn by listening and speaking
(aural style) is unlikely to change completely and become an outstanding reader.
In the interest of effective motivation, it is important to be sensitive to each student's learning
style. If, for example, some students seem to learn best by reading, you might want to suggest
books to them, but to call on them more often in class; to encourage them to experience more
physical or verbal learning, may not be advisable. On the other hand in some cases, you might
find it bkneficial to encourage students to read more but not to the point of exasperation. Once
we iden~ifyand become aware of each student's particular style of learning, we can build on
that style, along with helping him or her experience other modes of learning. All this leads
to effective learning.
We all have our preferences for learning, our own learning styles. Recently educational
psychologists have begun to concentrate on the importance of learning styles. Learning styles
can be defined as the normal variations in internal and external preferences for the setting and
manner in which learning takes place.
Everyone has preferences for studying. Some like noise, while others can't stand any. noise.
Some like to hear lectures, some prefer discussion, and some would rather personally experience
the thing being studied. Each student has hislher own specific preference.
One misttake is consistently made while analysing the learning styles. Learning styles illustrate
the preferences of students for learning, and it is wrong to think that a student with a visual
prefererlce cannot learn from a lecture. Students need not always operate in their preferred
mode of learning. However, there is some evidence to suggest that when students are allowed
to learn using their preferred style, their achievement is more.

/Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.

I
!1 3. ~ h p aret the various categories of learning styles? I
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b) Compare your answers with the those given at the qnd of the unit.

4. Whui mistake we make while analyzing learning styles'!

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13.5 )LEARNINGSTRATEGIES
In the previous section, we have talked about the learning styles, now we will talk about the
learning strategies. Certain relatively generic skills facilitate learning in a broad range of
situatioq like; reading with speed, accuracy, and comprehension; critical thinking; general
principles of problem-solving, and "learning to learn" skills and study skills. As a part of the
recent etnphasis on cognition and human information processing, a great deal of research has
bean dobe on the development of effective strategies for learning, and on how these strategies
may betaught to individuals who do not develop them spontaneously.
Learning strategy could be divided into five categories; which are: Developing Learning Skills

i) Rehearsal strategy involves actively repeating (saying, writing) material or focussing on

the key parts. For brief rote learning tasks, rehearsal may involve repeating key terms
aloud, copying the material, taking verbatim notes, or underlining important parts.
ii) Elaboration strategy involves making connections between the new and the familiar. For
rote learning, elaboration strategy includes forming mental images to associate with the
material, generating sentences that relate to the items to be learned to more familiar
items, or using mnemonic devices like the keyword method. In more complex meaningful
learning, elaboration strategy includes paraphrasing, summarizing, creating analogies,
taking notes that go beyond verbatim repetition to extent or comment on the material,
answering questions, and describing how the new information relates to the existing
knowledge.
iii) Organizational strategy involves imposing structure on the material by dividing it into
parts and identifying superordinate-subordinate relationships. In simple rote learning,
organisational strategy involves breaking lists into chunks. Organisational strategy for
complex meaningful learning includes outlining the text, creating a hierarchy on network
of concepts, or creating diagrams showing their relationships.
iv) Comprehension monitoring strategy involves remaining aware of what one is trying to
accomplish, keeping track of the strategy one uses and the success achieved by them, and
adjusting the behaviour accordingly. This strategy includes self-questioning to check
understanding, taking action when one does not understand, using statements of objectives
to guide study, establiphing sub-goals and assessing progress in meeting them, and
modifying strategies; if necessary.
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v) Affective strategy inclubes establishing and maintaining motivation, focusing attention,

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maintaining concentrati n, managing performance, anxiety and managing time effectively.
These relatively generi learning strategies and related cognitive skills are not only worth
teaching to elementary and secondary students but are helpful in your own learning.
r- ----- - --

Check Y~iurProgress
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/Notes : 11) Write your answers in the space given below.

I Compare your answels with the those glvcn at the end of the unit.
5. N:rlnr rhr: categories in which the learning stratcgles could bc cr:tegorisctl.

16. Rir n,ic learning. which strategy is appropriate? 1

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13.6 STRATEGIES FOR READINGWITH

COMPREHENSION
Children's awareness of and ability to use strategies for remembering what they learn emerge
gradually and uncertainly. So they often use an inefficient strategy. As they do not possess
knowledge that should enbale them to use a more efficient strategy; some of the strategies
for reading with comprehension are given below:

13.6.1 Metamemory
Metamemory is the knowledge about how memory works and how to memorize effectively.
Children only gradually come to learn that some kinds of material (meaningful, organized, 21
Optimising Learning interesting) are easier to learn than others; that recognition tests are easier than recall tests;
that paraphrased recall is easier than verbatim recall, or that active rehearsal will produce
better rdsults than silent reading. Training studies showed that children who were given
metclmemory strategy usually learned more than controlled children but often reverted to their
pre-training behaviour unless continually reminded of using the strategies.

13.6.2 Metacognition
The tern metacognition refers to the knowledge about cognitive processes and how they
function, and the term metacognitive awareness refers to a person's conscious monitoring of
his or her own cognitive strategies during the process of applying them.

13.6.3 Metacornprehension
A partilcularly interesting sub:topic in research on metacognition is the study of
metaconbprehension; the strategy that readers use in monitoring, evaluating, and repairing
their coqhprehension during reading. Children can use monitoring strategy that helps them
understahd what they read and remember in an organised way. This strategy includes identifying
relevant background knowledge, generating and responding to questions about the material,
making connections between its parts, drawing inferences from it, and summarizing and
organizing it. Unfortunately, students rarely receive instruction in these comprehension-
monitoring strategies in typical classrooms. Thus, it is important for teachers at all grade
levels td be aware of this strategy and prepare themselves to teach them to students who do
not use them spontaneously.

13.6.4 Strategies Used by Skilled Readers

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Skilled readers use strategies appropriate for the purpose of reading, monitor their
compre~ensionas they read, and take corrective actions (repair strategies) in response to
ambiguities and comprehension failures. In particular, they use strategies for; (1) clarifying
task derhands, (2) reading for meaning, (3) focusing on important content rather than minor
details (deading for remembering), (4) monitoring their comprehension as they read, (5) checking
and reviewing to make sure that goals are being met, (6) taking corrective action when
comprehension fails, and (7) recovering from disruptions so that text processing can continue.

Check Your Progress

-7
/Notes t a) Write your answers in the space given below.
1I bj Compare your answers with the those given at the cnd of the i;nlt.
!
1 8. What do you Inern by Metamen,ory?
...........................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
8 .

do you mean by Metacoinprehension'!

13.7 STUDY SKILLS

To learn efficiently from texts, students must be able not only to comprehend what they read
but also to retain and use the information. This requires the use of effective skills for independent
learnind. Even school students differ considerably in the nature and outcomes of their study
skills.

Surface-level versus Deep-level Learners

Surface*level learners try to memorize the material so as to be able to reproduce it, whereas
the deeplevel learners try to understand the material, develop insights, and think about how
it woulq be used. The surface-level learners are less likely to enjoy reading the text and are
22 nervouq in testing situations. Study skills which students use are as follows: