 The objective of the transient stability study is to

ascertain whether the load angle returns to a steady

EEE2416: POWER SYSTEMS II value following the clearance of the disturbance
1  Dynamic Stability (small-signal stability) investigates the
ability of a power system to maintain stability under
continuous small disturbances
Power system stability
 These small disturbances occur due random
BY fluctuations in loads and generation levels.
K. KABERERE
 In an interconnected power system, these random
variations can lead catastrophic failure as they may
force the rotor angle to increase steadily

Introduction Steady state stability

 Power system stability is the ability of synchronous Load angle and power transfer curve
machines connected in the system to move from one Consider a synchronous generator connected to an infinite
steady state operating point following a disturbance to bus as shown below.
another steady state operating point without loss of Xg Zline
synchronism Infinite bus
I
 There are three types of stability: E Ut U0

1. Steady-state stability Single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system

2. Transient stability The total impedance including the generator’s internal
3. Dynamic stability impedance = Z
 Steady state stability involves slow or gradual changes in Where  is the load angle
operating conditions e.g. normal load fluctuations. E – emf behind the generator reactance Z
X
U – infinite bus voltage 
I – load current R
2 5

E
o Restrict the bus voltages close to their nominal values
jXgI
o Ensure phase angles between two buses are not too
Ut
large
o check for overloading of the power equipment and IZline

transmission lines.  U
 Steady-state stability is assessed by load flow studies
I
 Transient Stability involves the study of the power
system following a major disturbance e.g. system faults, E  U 0
I
sudden load changes, loss of generating units, line Z 
switching etc E(   ) U   
 
 Following a large disturbance, the synchronous Z Z
machine power (load) angle changes due to sudden Apparent power at the infinite bus S  U I *
acceleration of the rotor shaft. Real power P  ReU I * 
3 6

1
 Observations
U . E(   ) U 2  1. It is not necessarily desirable to have total line
P  Re  
 Z Z 

compensation – series capacitor
2. Power can only be transferred if the line has some
U . E cos(   ) U cos
2
  reactance  P = 0 for X = 0
Z Z  Z
X
Let  = 90 -   For a lossless line (R = 0 and  = 90)
U . E cos(90     ) U cos  90   
2
R U . E sin 
 P  P Power transferred to the infinite bus
Z Z X
The steady-state stability limit is given by
U . E sin(   ) U sin 
2
  U .E
Z Z Pmax 
X
Maximum power transfer occurs when  +  = 90 or  If the load increases beyond Pmax,  increases but P
 = 90 -  where  depends on the line impedance decreases
 The system is stable only if  increases when P increases
i.e. dP/d is positive  -90 <  < 90
77 10

U . E U 2 sin 
Pmax   ……………………….… (1)
Z Z
R
sin   and Z  R2  X 2 …………………… (2)
Z

Substituting (2) in (1) gives

U .E U2 R
Pmax   .
R2  X 2
R2  X 2 R2  X 2
U .EU 2 .R
  2
R X
2 2 R  X2

88 1111

Under no-load condition, I = 0, E = U   = 0  the  Pmax can be increased by increasing E and/or U and
rotor and the stator fluxes are coincident reducing X
 Higher excitation voltages and fast response excitation
When the machine is loaded, the rotor flux leads the
stator flux by  systems substantially increase the steady-state limit
 Higher line voltage – increases transmission system
On no-load
capability
U2 U 2 .R  1 R  Methods of reducing the reactance
Pmax    U2   2 2 1. Use of double-circuit line
R X
2 2 R2  X 2  R2  X 2 R  X 
2. Use of bundled conductors
The optimum value of X is obtained from dPmax/dX = 0 3. Series compensation of the line reactance – optimum
value X = 3.R
 X = 3.R
4. Use of synchronous phase modifiers – installed in
intermediate substations to increase power limit
5. Use machines with low impedance
9 1212

2
 Transient stability Assumptions made in transient stability studies

 Deviations of machines frequencies from synchronous

frequency are small  d.c offset currents and harmonics
are neglected
 Only balanced 3- systems and balanced disturbances
are considered  only positive sequence networks are
employed
 For the system to remain stable, the generator
 The figure depicts a number of weights suspended by
mechanical power input must be equal to the electrical
elastic strings
output at the machine terminals i.e. Pm= Pe
 The weights and strings represent generators and the
 If this does not apply there will be accelerating power P a
electric transmission lines, respectively
if Pm>Pe or decelerating power when Pm<Pe
 Each transmission line is loaded below its steady state
stability limit
13 16

Methods of assessing transient stability

 If one string is suddenly cut, this will result in transient 1. The swing equation/curve method
oscillations in the coupled strings and all the weights will  The variation of load angle  with time is considered
wobble after an occurrence of a disturbance
 The coupled system may settle down to a new steady state  When a disturbance occurs, the machine will accelerate
or one or more additional strings may cut, resulting in a or decelerate depending on whether Pe < Pm or Pe > Pm
chain reaction in which more strings may break forcing a
 This involves changing the load angle from 0 to 1 as
system collapse
shown below
 In a similar way, in an interconnected power network, the  Stability will depend on whether  will continue to
tripping of a transmission line may cause a catastrophic increase or decrease or whether it will stabilize at a new
failure in which a large number of generators are lost value after some oscillations
forcing a blackout in a large area.

14 17

A disturbance on the system affects  and stability will

depend on how  varies with time
During a disturbance, the balance between Pm and Pe is
affected
Stability will depend on whether Pm = Pe at the new Pe1
Pe2
operating condition
Transient stability studies are carried out to determine
whether or not the machines will return to synchronous
speed with the new steady-state power angle
First-swing stability is based on the first one second
following the disturbance and ignores the action of
control systems e.g. speed governor

15 1818

3
Derivation of the swing equation If  is the angular position of the rotor in electrical radians
w.r.t. a synchronously rotating reference and 0 is its value
 Under steady state conditions, Te = Tm and Ta=0  the
at t = 0,
machine runs at synchronous speed Ns rpm
 = rt - 0t + 0 (electrical radians)
 However, when there is an imbalance between the torques So that
acting on the rotor, there is a net torque Ta that causes the
d
rotor to accelerate or decelerate  r  0  r (electrical rad/s)
dt
Ta = Tm – Te ……………………………….… (3) d 2 dr d r
  (electrical rad/s2)
Where dt 2 dt dt
Tm  Prime mover torque less mechanical losses in Nm dr ( pu ) d r ( pu )
 0  0
Te  electromagnetic torque developed in Nm dt dt
 Tm is assumed to be constant because the action of the Equation (7) can be re-written as
governor is ignored 2 H d 2
 Tm  Te Per unit swing equation
0 dt 2
19 2222

The rotor motion is determined by Newton’s second law, given by

dm  The swing equation governs the rotational dynamics of
J  Ta  Tm  Te …………………….… (4)
dt the synchronous machine in stability studies
Where
 The solution of the swing equation gives an expression
J - combined moment of inertia of generator and turbine (kg-m2) for  as a function of time
m – angular velocity of the rotor (mechanical rad/sec)
 A graph of the solution (swing curve) for all the
t – time (s)
machines in the system shows whether the machines
Equation (4) can be normalized in terms of per unit inertia remain in synchronism after a disturbance.
constant H (in s) defined as
1 J02m  MW.s 
H
2VAbase  MVA 
0m – rated angular velocity (mechanical rad/sec)
2H
J VAbase ……………………………….… (5)
02m
2020 23

Quantity
Substituting (5) for J in (4) gives
2H dm
VA  Tm  Te Length
02m base dt
Mass
Re-arranging
d  m  T T Velocity
 m e …………………….… (6)
dt  0 m  VAbase 0 m
2H
Acceleration

The base torque, Tbase = VAbase/ 0m and e = m p /2

Force
Therefore, (6) can be re-written as
dr …………………….… (7) Work
2H  Tm  Te
dt
where Tm, Te and r are all in per unit Power

2121 2424

4
 2. Equal area criterion
 The principle of the method involves comparison of Consider the energy injected during acceleration
energies injected into the system during acceleration and 1 
1 1
W1   Ta d 
  a
the energy absorbed during deceleration P d
 If the two balance, then stability is assumed 0 0

 The electrical power output-load angle characteristic of a But  = constant

1
SMIB system (lossless case) is as shown below
 P d  A
0
a 1

where Pa = Pm1 -Pe and A1 is the area under the curve

W1  K1 A1

25 28

 The generating unit is initially operating in steady state at During deceleration, the energy absorbed is given by
Pe = Pm = Pm0 and  = 0 2 
1 2
 If Pm is increased from Pm0 to Pm1, the machine will W2   Ta d   Pa d
1
 1
accelerate (since Pm > Pe) towards a new steady state load
where Pa  Pe  Pm1
angle
 However, due to the inertia of the machine, it will W2  K1 A2
overshoot this new angle If the system is to remain stable, the W1 = W2  A1 = A2
When  = 1, Pe = Pm1, and the acceleration is zero, 2

but d/dt is positive and  continues to increase If A1  A2   P d  0 a

beyond 1 0

When  > 1, Pm < Pe, and the rotor decelerates

26 29

Relationship with the swing curve

2 H d 2
The load angle reaches a maximum 2 and then  Pa pu ……………………………(1)
0 dt 2
swings back toward 1
Multiplying (1) by d/dt gives 2 H d  . d  P d
2

The machine will oscillate about 1 until the energy 0 dt 2 dt a

dt
injected initially is completely expended, and then d  d 
2
 d   d  
2

stabilise at 1  2    2  …………...…(2)
dt  dt 
But
 dt   dt 
 If  exceeds 3, Pm > Pe and the rotor accelerates again
Substituting (2) in (1) gives
causing further increase in  and the system looses
H d  d  d
2
stability  Pa ………………………(3)
0 dt  dt  dt
 Pm > Pe for 0 <  < 1 and the rotor accelerates whereas
Pm < Pe for 1 <  < 2 and the rotor decelerates Multiplying (3) by dt gives and integrating from 0 to 
 A1 is the accelerating area and A2 is the decelerating area  2 
 d  H  d 
2
H
0   dt 
d dt      Pa d
 Equal-area criterion states that A1 = A2 0  dt  0
0 0

27 30

5
 At  = 0, d/dt = 0; at  = 2, d/dt = 0
2
A2
 Pa d  0
0
where Pa  Pm  Pe
1 2
A1
   Pm  Pe d    Pm  Pe d  0
0 1
1 2
  P
0
m  Pe d    Pe  Pm d
1 1 0
A1 =   Pm  Pe 2 d  Pm ( 1   0 )
0
 In power systems, sudden changes in mechanical power
 
2 2
 EU sin  
A 2 =   Pe 3  Pm d   
are unusual  Pm d
1  
 Sudden changes in electrical power do occur e.g. system 1
Xe3

faults, line switching 2
 EU sin  
For stability Pm ( 1   0 )     Pm d
1  
31 X
34 e 3

Application of the equal-area criterion 2. Partial power transfer during fault

1. Zero power transfer during fault • This occurs in case a fault is on a section of the line far from
• Consider a generating unit connected to an infinite bus the the feed end
through two parallel transmission lines as shown below • During the fault, some power is transmitted to the infinite bus
Infinite bus X X Infinite bus
X X

X X U0
X X

3- fault U0 3- fault in the middle of the line

Equivalent 1- system Equivalent 1- system Before the fault
X1
x x Infinite bus X1 EU sin 
Xg x x Infinite bus Pe1 
X2 Xg X e1
x x X2/2 X2/2 X1 X 2
E
x x where X e1  X g 
U0 E
U0
X1  X 2
32 35

During the fault Where Xe2 is the impedance between E and U

EU sin  buses obtained after - transformations of the
Pe 2 
 If a 3- fault occurs on one of the lines near the supply Xe2 network
bus-bar, there is no power transferred to the infinite bus Xg X1
Before the fault X1Y X2Y
 jX 1 X 2  E
E  U 0  I  jX g 
 X 1  X 2  X2/2 X2/2 U0
X3Y

EU sin  X X
where X e1  X g  1 2
Pe1  X1  X 2
X e1 X‘1

During the fault Xg X1Y X2Y X‘1

Pe2 = 0
E
After the fault U0 E U0
X‘2 X3Y X'3 X‘2 X‘3
U . E sin  where X e 3  X g  X1
Pe 3 
Xe3
33 36

6
After the fault
U . E sin  where X e 3  X g  X1
Pe 3   For any system, there is a maximum allowable clearing
Xe3
angle if stability is to be maintained
 
1 1
 EU sin  
A1 =   Pm  Pe 2 d    Pm  d  This angle is called the critical clearing angle (CCA)
0 0 
X e 2 
 The time corresponding to critical clearing angle is called
2 2
 EU sin   the critical clearing time (CCT) i.e. this is the longest fault
A 2 =   Pe 3  Pm d     Pm d duration allowable for stability to be maintained after a
1  
1
Xe3
fault
 The CCT is determined from the swing curve
For stability
1 2  Under certain circumstances, it is possible to determine
 EU sin    EU sin  
  Pm  X e 2 d    X e 3  Pm d the CCT power-angle characteristics of the system
0 1
 CCT can also be evaluated using the equal area criterion
method in which 1 = cr and 2 = max
37 40

Example: Zero power transfer during fault

 cr 0
A1 =   Pm  Pe 2 d  Pm ( cr   0 )
0

EU
At  = 0, Pm = Pe1(max)sin0 where Pe1(max) 
X e1
A2
A1  P 
  0  sin 1  m 
 Pe1(max) 

38 41

Critical clearing angle

 The energy injected into a system during a fault  max  max

depends on the time taken to clear the fault A2 =


 P e3  Pm d   P
 cr
e 3(max) sin   Pm d
cr
 A delay in clearing the fault will mean a bigger value of
1
At  = max, Pe3 = Pm = Pe3(max)sinmax
 If stability is to be maintained (A1 = A2) then an
increase in 1 will also mean an increase in 2  P 
  max  180  sin 1  m  The angle is > 90
 If the delay is so long so that 2 > max then the system
 Pe 3(max) 
 max
will be unstable for  > max and  continues to
increase with increasing values of Pa
For stability Pm ( cr   0 )   P
 cr
e 3(max) sin   Pm d

cr can be evaluated from the above equation since it is the only
unknown.

39 42

7
Calculation of critical clearing time Solution
j0.4
Infinite bus
 CCT can only be calculated from power transfer curves X X
j0.2
if there is no power transfer during a fault (Pe2 = 0 and Pa j0.4
= Pm – Pe2 = constant - irrespective of the load angle) X'd = j0.2
X X 1.00

 Under any other operating condition, the CCT can only 3- fault
be obtained from the swing curves (Pe2  0 and Pa = Pm –
Pe2  constant; Pa = f())
 For the case when Pe2 = 0
Xe1 = j(0.2+0.2+0.4//0.4) = j0.6 pu

2 H d 2 d 2  E  U  IX e1  10  1  36.9  0.690

 Pm - Pe 2   Pm 0 ………………(1)  1.4419.4 pu
0 dt 2 dt 2 2H

43 46

Pre-fault power
EU sin  1.0  1.44
Integrating (1) gives Pe1   sin   2.4sin 
X e1 0.6
d 0t
 …………………..…(2)
dt 0 2 H m
 P dt  0 Pm t At  = 0, Pe1 = Pm = 1.0 pu
2H
 Pe1  2.4sin  0  1.0
Further integration of (2) yields  0  24.6  0.43 rad
0 Pm t 2
  0  During the fault
4H
j0.4 j0.4
Pt 2
At  = cr, t = tcr   cr   0  0 m cr
j0.1 j0.1
4H

tcr 
 cr   0  4H E
U0
0 Pm j0.2 j0.05 j0.2

44 47

Example 1 j1.6
j1.6
j0.4
A generator is connected to an infinite bus through a j0.1 j0.1

transformer with leakage reactance of j0.2pu and two

parallel transmission lines. The generator's transient E E
j0.8 j0.16
U0
reactance X'd = j0.2 pu and each transmission line has a U0
j0.8 j0.05 j0.16
reactance of j0.4 pu and negligible resistance. The generator
is delivering a load current of 1.0-36.9 pu to the infinite
bus whose voltage is 1.00 when a 3- fault occurs midway
Xe2 = j1.6  Pm 
along one of the transmission lines. Assuming that the  max  180  sin 1  
mechanical power input is 1.0 pu at the time of the fault,  Pe 3(max) 
1.44  1.0sin 
determine the critical clearing angle. Pe 2   0.9sin  1  1.0 
 180  sin    146.3
1.6
 1.8 
 2.55 rad
After the fault
Xe3 = j0.8
1.44  1.0sin 
Pe 3   1.8sin 
45 0.8 48

8
 Read on the following sub-topics
 cr  cr
A1 =   Pm  Pe 2 d   1.0  0.9sin  d Role of automatic voltage regulator in
0 0.43 improving stability
= cr  0.9cos  cr  1.25 Effect of grounding on stability
 max 2.55
prevention of steady state pull out
A2 =

 P e3  Pm d   1.8sin   1.0d
1
cr

= cr  1.8cos  cr  1.06

For stability A1 = A2
 cr  0.9cos  cr  1.25   cr  1.8cos  cr  1.06
 cr  1.78 rad  102

49 52

Factors influencing transient stability

• System loading
• Generator output during the fault – depends on fault
location and type of fault
• Fault clearing time
• Post-fault transmission system reactance
• The generator reactance – low reactance  higher Pmax
and lower initial rotor angle
• Generator inertia H  the higher the H the smaller d /dt
• Magnitude of generator internal emf – depends on field
excitation
• Infinite bus voltage magnitude

50

Methods for improving transient stability

1. Improved steady-state stability
Higher system voltage levels
Additional transmission lines
Smaller transmission line series reactance
Smaller transformer leakage reactance
Transmission line series compensation
Static VAr compensators (SVC) and other flexible ac
transmission systems (FACTS) devices
2. High speed fault clearing – fault clearing within 3 cycles
3. High speed re-closure of circuit breakers
4. Single-pole switching
5. Larger machine inertia, lower transient reactance – reduce
angular acceleration and increase CCT
6. Fast responding, high gain exciters
7. Fast valving
51
8. Braking resistors