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Computer hardware
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer,
such as the case,[1 ] central processing unit (CPU), monitor, mouse,
keyboard, computer data storage, graphics card, sound card, speakers
and motherboard.[2]

By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and

run by hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid
with respect to changes, whereas software is "soft" because it is easy
to change.

Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any

PDP-11 CPU board
command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software
forms a usable computing system, although other systems exist with
only hardware.

Contents
Von Neumann architecture
Types of computer systems
Personal computer
Case
Power supply
Motherboard
Expansion cards
Storage devices
Fixed media
Removable media
Input and output peripherals
Input device
Output device
Mainframe computer
Departmental computing
Supercomputer
Hardware upgrade
Sales
Recycling
Toxic computer components
Environmental effects
Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste
See also
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References
External links

Von Neumann architecture

The template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann
architecture, detailed in a 1945 paper by Hungarian
mathematician John von Neumann. This describes a design
architecture for an electronic digital computer with
subdivisions of a processing unit consisting of an arithmetic
logic unit and processor registers, a control unit containing an
instruction register and program counter, a memory to store
both data and instructions, external mass storage, and input Von Neumann architecture scheme
and output mechanisms. [3] The meaning of the term has
evolved to mean a stored-program computer in which an
instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time because they share a common
bus. This is referred to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the
system.[4]

Types of computer systems

Personal computer
The personal computer is one of the most common types of
computer due to its versatility and relatively low price.
Desktop personal computers have a monitor, a keyboard, a
mouse, and a computer case. The computer case holds the
motherboard, fixed or removable disk drives for data storage,
the power supply, and may contain other peripheral devices
such as modems or network interfaces. Some models of
desktop computers integrated the monitor and keyboard into Basic hardware components of a
the same case as the processor and power supply. Separating personal computer, including a
the elements allows the user to arrange the components in a monitor, a motherboard, a CPU, a
pleasing, comfortable array, at the cost of managing power and RAM, two expansion cards, a power
data cables between them. supply, an optical disc drive, a hard
disk drive, a keyboard and a mouse
Laptops are designed for portability but operate similarly to
desktop PCs.[1 ] They may use lower-power or reduced size
components, with lower performance than a similarly priced desktop computer. [5] Laptops contain
the keyboard, display, and processor in one case. The monitor in the folding upper cover of the case
can be closed for transportation, to protect the screen and keyboard. Instead of a mouse, laptops
may have a touchpad or pointing stick.

Tablets are portable computer that uses a touch screen as the primary input device. Tablets
generally weigh less and are smaller than laptops.

Some tablets include fold-out keyboards, or offer connections to separate external keyboards.
Some models of laptop computers have a detachable keyboard, which allows the system to be
configured as a touch-screen tablet. They are sometimes called "2-in-1 detachable laptops" or
"tablet-laptop hybrids".[6]

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Case

The computer case encloses most of the components of the

system. It provides mechanical support and protection for
internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and
power supplies, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air
over internal components. The case is also part of the system
to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the
computer and protects internal parts from electrostatic
discharge. Large tower cases provide space for multiple disk
drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor,
while desktop cases provide less expansion room. All-in-one
style designs include a video display built into the same case. Inside a custom-built computer:
Portable and laptop computers require cases that provide power supply at the bottom has its
impact protection for the unit. Hobbyists may decorate the own cooling fan
cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity
called case modding.

Power supply

A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage direct
current (DC) power for the computer. Laptops can run on built-in rechargeable battery.[7 ] The
PSU typically uses a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), with power MOSFETs (power metal–
oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors) used in the converters and regulator circuits of the
SMPS.[8]

Motherboard

The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a

board with integrated circuitry that connects the other parts of
the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives
(CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals
connected via the ports or the expansion slots. The integrated
circuit (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of tiny
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors Computer motherboard
(MOSFETs). [9]

Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:

The CPU (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations which enable a
computer to function, and is referred to as the brain of the computer. It takes program instructions
from random-access memory (RAM), interprets and processes them and then sends back results
so that the relevant components can carry out the instructions. The CPU is a microprocessor,
which is fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip. It is
usually cooled by a heat sink and fan, or water-cooling system. Most newer CPU includes an on-
die graphics processing unit (GPU). The clock speed of CPU governs how fast it executes
instructions and is measured in GHz; typical values lie between 1 GHz and 5 GHz. Many modern
computers have the option to overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of
greater thermal output and thus a need for improved cooling.
The chipset, which includes the north bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and the
other components of the system, including main memory; as well as south bridge, which is
connected to the north bridge, and supports auxiliary interfaces and buses; and, finally, a Super

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I/O chip, connected through the south bridge, which supports the slowest and most legacy
components like serial ports, hardware monitoring and fan control.
Random-access memory (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively
accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up
memory; this is stored in the RAM until the web browser is closed. It is typically a type of dynamic
RAM (DRAM), such as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), where MOS memory chips store data on
memory cells consisting of MOSFETs and MOS capacitors. RAM usually comes on dual in-line
memory modules (DIMMs) in the sizes of 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much larger.
Read-only memory (ROM), which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on or
otherwise begins execution, a process known as Bootstrapping, or "booting" or "booting up". The
ROM is typically a nonvolatile BIOS memory chip, which stores data on floating-gate MOSFET
memory cells.
The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) includes boot firmware and power management
firmware. Newer motherboards use Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) instead of
BIOS.
Buses that connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand cards for graphics and
sound.
The CMOS (complementary MOS) battery, which powers the CMOS memory for date and time in
the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a watch battery.
The video card (also known as the graphics card), which processes computer graphics. More
powerful graphics cards are better suited to handle strenuous tasks, such as playing intensive
video games or running computer graphics software. A video card contains a graphics
processing unit (GPU) and video memory (typically a type of SDRAM), both fabricated on MOS
integrated circuit (MOS IC) chips.
Power MOSFETs make up the voltage regulator module (VRM), which controls how much voltage
other hardware components receive.[8]

Expansion cards

An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion
slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the
expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the
motherboard.

Storage devices

A storage device is any computing hardware and digital media that is used for storing, porting and
extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and
permanently and can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar computing
device. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers.

Fixed media

Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. Hard disk drives (HDDs) are found in
virtually all older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solid-state drives (SSDs)
are faster and more power efficient, although currently more expensive than hard drives in terms
of dollar per gigabyte,[1 0] so are often found in personal computers built post-2007.[1 1 ] SSDs use
flash memory, which stores data on MOS memory chips consisting of floating-gate MOSFET
memory cells. Some systems may use a disk array controller for greater performance or reliability.

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Removable media

To transfer data between computers, an external flash memory device (such as a memory card or
USB flash drive) or optical disc (such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or BD-ROM) may be used. Their
usefulness depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have an optical
disk drive (ODD), and virtually all have at least one Universal Serial Bus (USB) port. Additionally,
USB sticks are typically pre-formatted with the FAT32 file system, which is widely supported
across operating systems.

Input and output peripherals

Input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The
following are either standard or very common to many computer systems.

Input device

Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad
instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, and image
scanners.

Output device

Output devices are designed around the senses of human beings. For example, monitors display
text that can be read, speakers produce sound that can be heard.[1 2] Such devices also could
include printers or a Braille embosser.

Mainframe computer
A mainframe computer is a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many
hundreds or thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform
large numbers of calculations for governments and large enterprises.

Departmental computing
In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more departments started to use
cheaper and dedicated systems for specific purposes like process
control and laboratory automation. A minicomputer, or colloquially
mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-
1960s[1 3][1 4] and sold for much less than mainframe[1 5] and mid-size
computers from IBM and its direct competitors.

Supercomputer
An IBM System z9
A supercomputer is superficially similar to a mainframe but is instead mainframe
intended for extremely demanding computational tasks. As of June
2020, the fastest supercomputer on the TOP500 supercomputer list
is Fugaku, in Japan, with a LINPACK benchmark score of 415 PFLOPS, superseding the second
fastest, Summit, in the United States, by around 294 PFLOPS.

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The term supercomputer does not refer to a specific technology. Rather it indicates the fastest
computations available at any given time. In mid-2011, the fastest supercomputers boasted speeds
exceeding one petaflop, or 1 quadrillion (10^15 or 1,000 trillion) floating-point operations per
second.
Supercomputers are fast but extremely costly, so they are generally used by large
organizations to execute computationally demanding tasks involving large data sets.
Supercomputers typically run military and scientific applications. Although costly, they are also
being used for commercial applications where huge amounts of data must be analyzed. For
example, large banks employ supercomputers to calculate the risks and returns of various
investment strategies, and healthcare organizations use them to analyze giant databases of patient
data to determine optimal treatments for various diseases and problems incurring to the country.

Hardware upgrade
When using computer hardware, an upgrade means adding new or additional hardware to a
computer that improves its performance, increases its capacity, or adds new features. For
example, a user could perform a hardware upgrade to replace the hard drive with a faster one or a
Solid State Drive (SSD) to get a boost in performance. The user may also install more Random
Access Memory (RAM) so the computer can store additional temporary data, or retrieve such data
at a faster rate. The user may add a USB 3.0 expansion card to fully use USB 3.0 devices, or could
upgrade the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) for cleaner, more advanced graphics, or more
monitors. Performing such hardware upgrades may be necessary for aged computers to meet a
new, or updated program's system requirements.

Sales
Global revenue from computer hardware in 2016 reached 408 billion Euros.[1 6]

Recycling
Because computer parts contain hazardous materials, there is a growing movement to recycle old
and outdated parts.[1 7 ] Computer hardware contain dangerous chemicals such as: lead, mercury,
nickel, and cadmium. According to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the
environment unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and
recycling parts will reduce air pollution, water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions.[1 8]
Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to
recycle computers through the government approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be made
easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the RAM, DVD drive, the graphics card,
hard drive or SSD, and other similar removable parts can be reused.

Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future
production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminium, and a variety of plastics that are present in bulk
in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems. Components
frequently contain copper, gold, tantalum,[1 9][20] silver, platinum, palladium, and lead as well as
other valuable materials suitable for reclamation.[21 ][22]

Toxic computer components

The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the
metal plates. Resistors, semi-conductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain
cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium.[23] When these types
of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the environment.

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Environmental effects
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency only around 15% of the e-waste
actually is recycled. When e-waste byproducts leach into groundwater, are burned, or get
mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated with such toxins include
impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys.[24] That's why
even wires have to be recycled. Different companies have different techniques to recycle a wire.
The most popular one is the grinder that separates the copper wires from the plastic/rubber
casing. When the processes are done there are two different piles left; one containing the copper
powder, and the other containing plastic/rubber pieces.[25] Computer monitors, mice, and
keyboards all have a similar way of being recycled. For example, first, each of the parts are taken
apart then all of the inner parts get separated and placed into its own bin.[26]

Computer components contain many toxic substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), cadmium, chromium, radioactive isotopes and mercury. A typical computer monitor may
contain more than 6% lead by weight, much of which is in the lead glass of the cathode ray tube
(CRT). A typical 15 inch (38 cm) computer monitor may contain 1.5 pounds (1 kg) of lead[27 ] but
other monitors have been estimated to have up to 8 pounds (4  kg) of lead.[28] Circuit boards
contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to leach into groundwater or
create air pollution due to incineration. In US landfills, about 40% of the lead content levels are
from e-waste.[29] The processing (e.g. incineration and acid treatments) required to reclaim these
precious substances may release, generate, or synthesize toxic byproducts.

Recycling of computer hardware is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents

hazardous waste, including heavy metals and carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere, landfill or
waterways. While electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far more
dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and encourage the sustainable disposal
of appliances, the most notable being the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of
the European Union and the United States National Computer Recycling Act.[30]

Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste

As computer hardware contain a wide number of metals inside, the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) encourages the collection and recycling of computer hardware. "E-
cycling", the recycling of computer hardware, refers to the donation, reuse, shredding and general
collection of used electronics. Generically, the term refers to the process of collecting, brokering,
disassembling, repairing and recycling the components or metals contained in used or discarded
electronic equipment, otherwise known as electronic waste (e-waste). "E-cyclable" items include,
but are not limited to: televisions, computers, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, telephones and
cellular phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just about anything that has a cord, light or takes
some kind of battery.[31 ]

Recycling a computer is made easier by a few of the national services, such as Dell and Apple. Both
companies will take back the computer of their make or any other make. Otherwise a computer
can be donated to Computer Aid International which is an organization that recycles and
refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc.[32]

See also
Computer architecture
Electronic hardware
Glossary of computer hardware terms

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History of computing hardware

Microprocessor
MOSFET
List of computer hardware manufacturers
Open-source computing hardware
Open-source hardware
Transistor

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External links
Media related to Computer hardware at Wikimedia Commons
Computer hardware at Wikibooks
Learning materials related to Computer hardware at Wikiversity

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