JAMES W.

DALLY
WILLIAM F. RILEY
KENNETH G. McCONNELL
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in 2018 with funding from
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 INSTRUMENTATION
FOR ENGINEERING
MEASUREMENTS

JAMES W. DALLY
IBM Corporation

WILLIAM F. RILEY
Iowa State University

KENNETH G. McCONNELL
Iowa State University

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

New York Chichester • Brisbane • Toronto • Singapore

Copyright (c) 1984, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published simultaneouslv in Canada.

Reproduction or translation of any part of

this work beyond that permitted by Sections
107 and 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright
Act without the permission of the copyright
owner is unlawful. Requests for permission
or further information should be addressed to
the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Dally, James W.
Instrumentation for engineering measurements.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Engineering instruments. I. Riley, William F.
(William Franklin), 1925- II. McConnell,
Kenneth G. III. Title.

TA165.D34. 1983 681'.2 83-10452

ISBN 0-471-04548-9

Printed in the United States of America

10 987654321
 PREFACE

During the past decade, considerable progress was made in developing finite-
element methods and other numerical techniques to predict the performance of
vehicles, machines, and structures. The use of computer-aided design and com¬
puter-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) is growing at a very rapid rate. Many
firms are reducing design and development times and increasing product quality
and yield by using these modern technological methods that integrate the powers
of the digital computer into the design and production processes. Engineering
evaluations and tests are important components of the computer-aided design
process. Carefully specified engineering tests should be performed during the
design and development stages of all new products and processes.
Engineering evaluations and tests serve many purposes. Periodic sampling and
testing of a product on a production line is an essential element of most quality
control programs. Experiments are often used to verify mathematical or nu¬
merical models used in the design process. Prototypes are often tested thoroughly
to establish their performance limits. Vehicles and systems are often subjected
to the rigors of qualification testing to ensure their satisfactory performance over
extended periods of time under very harsh environmental conditions. Continuous
measurements of process variables, such as temperature, pressure, and flow
rate, are used to optimize and/or control industrial processes. Evaluation, ex¬
perimentation, and testing are essential to the continued development of so¬
phisticated industrial products. The efficient and accurate measurement of quan¬
tities, such as voltage, current, strain, temperature, pressure, flow rate, and
force, is of critical importance today and for the foreseeable future.
This textbook deals in considerable detail with many aspects of the instru¬
mentation currently employed for engineering measurements and process con¬
trol. The book was written for use in a first course in engineering experimentation
or engineering measurements that may be part of an undergraduate program in
agricultural, aerospace, chemical, civil, mechanical, or nuclear engineering. Such
a course would normally follow an introductory course in electrical engineering;
therefore, it is assumed that the student is familiar with the fundamentals of
electricity and electronics.
The first four chapters of the book deal with instrumentation systems in gen¬
eral, experimental error, voltage measuring instruments, sensors for transducers,
time, count, and frequency measurements, and signal conditioning circuits. This
part of the text contains the basic core of material that is applicable to all types
of measurements; therefore, it should be presented in as much detail as the
iv PREFACE

course schedule permits. Experience indicates that the student’s awareness of

concepts, methods, and apparatus used in engineering measurements often lags
his theoretical and numerical analysis capabilities.
Methods used to measure specific quantities are described in considerable
detail in Chapters 5 through 9. The coverage includes strain, force, torque,
pressure, displacement, velocity, acceleration, temperature, and flow rate. Lim¬
itations on the length of the text precluded coverage of thermal- and transport-
property measurements, sound measurements, and nuclear radiation measure¬
ments. Statistical methods that are commonly employed in the analysis of
experimental data are briefly discussed in Chapter 10.
Throughout the text, heavy emphasis is placed on electronic methods of meas¬
urement, since electronic systems provide accurate data that can be used for
automatic data reduction or process control. Again because of limitations on
the length of the book, this emphasis on electronic methods required omission
of most mechanical instruments, such as dial gages, bourdon-tube pressure gages,
manometers, and so on. We believe that most students can master the use of
these simple devices without assistance.
The material presented in this text is sufficient for a two-semester or a two-
quarter course. The first course could consist of a lecture/laboratory sequence
covering Chapters 1 through 5, 8, and 10. The second course would then consist
of a lecture/project sequence with material from Chapters 5 through 9 covered
as required for the proper development of the projects. In spite of the very
significant costs associated with a laboratory program in terms of capital equip¬
ment requirements and salaries for the faculty and support staff, exposure to
the widely used transducers and recording instruments for measurement and
process control represent an essential part of a modern engineering education.
We developed the material for this book in numerous classroom and laboratory
situations over the past 20 years at Illinois Institute of Technology, IIT Research
Institute, Iowa State University, and the University of Maryland. The mathe¬
matics employed in the treatment can easily be understood by junior and senior
undergraduates. A great deal of effort was devoted to the selection and prep¬
aration of the illustrations used throughout the text. These illustrations, together
with the exercises at the end of the chapters, complement the text and should
aid appreciably in presenting the material to the students. We hope that students
and instructors alike will find the presentation clear and enlightening and that many
of the mysteries of the laboratory, with its numerous black boxes, will be clarified.
We thank the following reviewers whose valuable comments aided us in re¬
fining this material: Robert G. Leonard, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University; Byron Jones, Kansas State University; and John Ligon, Michigan
Technological University.

James W. Dally
William F. Riley
Kenneth G. McConnell
 cohrrENTS

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Chapter 1 Applications of Eiectronic Instrument

Systems i
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Electronic Instrument System 2
1.3 Engineering Analysis 4
1.4 Process Control 5
1.5 Experimental Error 7
1.6 Minimizing Experimental Error 14
1.7 Summary 16
References 16

Chapter 2 Voltage Recording Instruments 20

2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 General Characteristics of Recording Instruments 21
2.3 Static Voltmeters 26
2.4 Quasi-Static Voltmeters 36
2.5 Dynamic Voltmeters 44
2.6 Summary 73

Chapter 3 Sensors for Transducers 78

3.1 Introduction 78
3.2 Potentiometers 79
3.3 Differential Transformers 81
3.4 Resistance-Type Strain Gages 85
3.5 Capacitance Sensors 91
3.6 Eddy Current Sensors 94
3.7 Piezoelectric Sensors 96
3.8 Piezoresistive Sensors 101
3.9 Photoelectric Sensors 104
3.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) 107
3.11 Thermistors 108
3.12 Thermocouples 109
Vi CONTENTS

3.13 Sensors for Time and Frequency Measurements 112

3.14 Summary 118

Chapter 4 Signal Conditioning Circuits 123

4.1 Introduction 123

4.2 Power Supplies 124
4.3 The Potentiometer Circuit (Constant Voltage) 125
4.4 The Potentiometer Circuit (Constant Current) 130
4.5 The Wheatstone Bridge (Constant Voltage) 131
4.6 The Wheatstone Bridge (Constant Current) 135
4.7 Amplifiers 139
4.8 Operational Amplifiers 144
4.9 Filters 153
4.10 Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 161
4.11 A/D and D/A Converters 162
4.12 Time-, Frequency-, Count-, and Phase-Measurement Circuits 170
4.13 Summary 183
References 187

Chapter 5 Resistance-Type Strain Gages 192

5.1 Introduction 192

5.2 Etched-Foil Strain Gages 193
5.3 Strain-Gage Installation 194
5.4 The Wheatstone Bridge for Strain-Gage Signal Conditioning 196
5.5 Recording Instruments for Strain-Gage Applications 202
5.6 Calibration Methods 212
5.7 Effects of Lead Wires, Switches, and Slip Rings 214
5.8 Electrical Noise 220
5.9 Temperature-Compensated Gages 223
5.10 Alloy Sensitivity, Gage Factor, and Cross-Sensitivity Factor 225
5.11 The Stress Gage 229
5.12 Data Reduction Methods 230
5.13 Summary 234
References 238

Chapter 6 Force, Torque, and Pressure Measurements 242

6.1 Introduction 242

6.2 Force Measurements (Load Cells) 243
6.3 Torque Measurement (Torque Cells) 254
6.4 Pressure Measurements (Pressure Transducers) 262
6.5 Combined Measurements 270
6.6 Minimizing Errors in Transducers 274
6.7 Frequency Response of Transducers 279
 CONTENTS Vii

6.8 Calibration of Transducers 284

6.9 Summary 287

Chapter? Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

Measurements 292

7.1 Introduction 292

7.2 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Relationships 293
7.3 Vibratory Motion and its Representation 300
7.4 Dimensional Measurements 304
7.5 Displacement and Velocity Measurements in a Fixed Reference
Frame 310
7.6 Motion Measurement Without a Fixed Reference 329
7.7 Piezoelectric Sensor Circuits 343
7.8 Measurement of Transient Signals 357
7.9 Transducer Calibration 364
7.10 Summary 382
References 384

Chapter 8 Temperature Measurements 399

8.1 Introduction 399

8.2 Resistance Thermometers 401
8.3 Expansion Thermometers 416
8.4 Thermocouples 419
8.5 Two-Terminal Integrated-Circuit Temperature Transducers 432
8.6 Radiation Methods (Pyrometry) 434
8.7 Calibration Methods 441
8.8 Dynamic Response of Temperature Sensors 443
8.9 Summary 446
References 447

Chapter 9 Fluid Flow Measurements 457

9.1 Introduction 457

9.2 Flow Velocity (Insertion-Type Transducers) 460
9.3 Flow Rates in Closed Systems by Pressure-Variation Measure¬
ments 481
9.4 Flow Rates in Partially Closed Systems 487
9.5 Flow Rates in Open Channels from Pressure Measurements 489
9.6 Compressible Flow Effects in Closed Systems 492
9.7 Miscellaneous Flow Measurement Methods for Closed Systems 494
9.8 Summary 503
9.9 Tables of Properties of some Common Liquids and Gases 504
References 507
Viii CONTENTS

Chapter 10 Statistical Methods in Experimental

Measures 517

10.1 Introduction 517

10.2 Characterizing Statistical Distributions 518
10.3 Statistical Distribution Functions 522
10.4 Confidence Intervals 526
10.5 Comparison of Means 532
10.6 Statistical Conditioning of Data 533
10.7 Regression Analysis 534
10.8 Chi-Square Testing 539
10.9 Error Propagation 543
10.10 Summary 545
References 546
Appendix 556
A.l Temperature-Resistance Data for a Thermistor 556
A.2 Thermoelectric Voltages for Iron-Constantan
Thermocouples 559
A.3 Thermoelectric Voltages for Chromel-Alumel
Thermocouples 561
A.4 Thermoelectric Voltages for Chromel-Constantan
Thermocouples 564
A.5 Thermoelectric Voltages for Copper-Constantan
Thermocouples 566
Index 568
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

Acceleration
Radius
Clyy Cartesian components of acceleration
'■n ^Qy Polar components of acceleration
'■R> Oey «4> Spherical components of acceleration
A Amplification factor
A Area
B Flux density
B Strength of a magnetic field
Specific heat capacity
Velocity of light in a vacuum
Velocity of sound
Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv Specific heat at constant volume
C Capacitance
c Discharge coefficient
c Viscous damping constant
Q Cable capacitance
Q Contraction coefficient
Q Equivalent capacitance
C/ Feedback capacitance
Cg Galvanometer constant
Q Input amplitude
Cz, Leadwire capacitance
Q Output amplitude
Cp Piezoelectric sensor capacitance
Q Transducer capacitance
Q Coefficient of variation
Cv Coefficient of velocity
d Damping ratio
d Deviation
d Displacement
d* Full-scale displacement
D Damping coefficient
D Diameter
D Flexural rigidity of a plate
X LIST OF SYMBOLS

e Electron charge
e Junction potential per unit temperature
E Electromotive force, voltage, or potential
E Modulus of elasticity
E’ Potential gradient
Ei Input voltage
Eic Amplitude of a carrier signal
Amplitude of a transducer signal
Back electromotive force
Voltage displayed by a meter
Output voltage
Reference voltage
An adjustable voltage
E. Unknown voltage
E* Full-scale voltage or range
Error
Accumulated error for a system
Amplifier error
Recorder error
Signal-conditioner circuit error
Transducer error
f Frequency
fbw Bandwidth
fr Resonant frequency
F Force, applied load
Fb Bolt load
g Gravitational constant
G Gain
G Shear modulus of elasticity
h Convective heat-transfer coefficient
h Planck’s constant
h Thickness
I Current
I Intensity of light
I Moment of inertia
r Current density
If Feedback current
4 Gage current
Galvanometer current
h Input current
It Full-scale input current
Im Meter current
Itn Full-scale meter current
L Output current
 LIST OF SYMBOLS Xi

Is Steady-state current
Ish Shunt current
r Amplitude of a sinusoidal current input
j Polar moment of inertia
k Adiabatic exponent
k Boltzmann’s constant
k Radius of gyration
k Spring constant or stiffness
k Transmission coefficient of a lens
K Dielectric constant
K Torsional spring constant
K Transverse sensitivity factor for a strain gage
L Inductance
L Length
Lt Transducer inductance
I Length
4 Gage length of a strain gage
Loss factor
m Mass
rua Accelerometer mass
mo Object mass
nip Plate mass
m, Transducer mass
M Mach number
M Moment
M^, My, Cartesian components of a moment
n Index of refraction
N Number of charge carriers
N Number of cycles
N Number of turns
A^db Number of decibels
P Pressure
Pd Dynamic pressure
P'd Measured dynamic pressure
Po Static pressure
Ps Stagnation pressure
p's Measured stagnation pressure
p Force, applied load
p Power
Pd Power density
Power dissipated by a strain gage
P,
PT
Power dissipated by a transducer
Px> Py> Pz Cartesian components of a force
q Charge
xii LIST OF SYMBOLS

q Rate of heat transfer

q Resistance ratio
Q Volume flow rate
Qi Input quantity
Qo Output quantity
r, 0, z Polar coordinates
r Resistance ratio
r, 0, (}) Spherical coordinates
R Radius
R Range
R Resistance, resistor
Ra amplifier resistance
Rb ballast resistance, ballast resistor
Rb Equivalent bridge resistance
Rci Input resistance of a circuit
Rco Output resistance of a circuit
Re Equivalent resistance
Re Reynold’s number
Rf Feedback resistance
Rs Gage resistance
Rg Galvanometer resistance
Rl Leadwire resistance
Rm Meter resistance
RM Measuring-circuit resistance
RM Recording-instrument resistance
Rc Reference resistance
R. Parallel resistance, parallel resistor
R„ Piezoelectric-sensor resistance
Rs Series resistance, series resistor
Rs Source resistance
Rs Series resistance
Rsh Shunt resistance, shunt resistor
Rsr Series resistance, series resistor
Rj Transducer resistance
R. External resistance, external resistor
s Displacement
s Distance
s Span
S Calibration constant
S Sensitivity
Sa Axial strain sensitivity of a strain gage
Sa Strain sensitivity of a material, alloy sensitivity
Circuit sensitivity
Constant-current circuit sensitivity
 LIST OF SYMBOLS xiii

^cv Constant-voltage circuit sensitivity

Voltage sensitivity
Sf Fatigue strength of a material
Ss Gage factor, strain sensitivity of a gage
c*
•^8 Corrected gage factor for a strain gage
Galvanometer sensitivity
Si Current sensitivity
Si Instrument sensitivity
Sn Strouhal Number
S, Charge sensitivity
Reciprocal sensitivity
‘Jfi Recorder sensitivity
Shear strain sensitivity of a strain gage
System sensitivity
Ssg Gage factor for a stress gage
Si Transverse strain sensitivity of a strain gage
S. Standard deviation
S,! Standard error
S. Torsional yield strength of a material
t Time
tr Rise time
T Period
T Temperature
T Time constant
T Torque
Absolute temperature
Te Equivalent time constant
T Natural period of an oscillation
T Reference temperature
T
^ s Stagnation temperature
u, V, w Cartesian components of displacement
u„ Uq, “z Polar components of displacement
u^, Uy, «z Cartesian components of displacement
U Energy
V Velocity
Vn Ve, Polar components of a velocity
Vic, Cartesian components of a velocity
Vr, Ve, Spherical components of a velocity
^ ^

Fluid velocity
Voltage
Centerline velocity
W Specific weight of a solid
w Width
w Weight
xiv LIST OF SYMBOLS

Calibration weight
K Equivalent weight
External weight
Spectral radiation intensity
X, z Cartesian coordinates
X Position
X Sample mean
Z Impedance
Z, Input impedance
Zo Output impedance
Zo Zero offset
a Angle of incidence
a, p, y, 0, cj) Angles
a Angular acceleration
a, p Coefficient of thermal expansion
P Time constant for a temperature sensor
7 Shear strain
7 Specific weight of a fluid
7 Temperature coefficient of resistance
7 Temperature coefficient of resistivity
7r0 Shear strain component in polar coordinates
yxy yyx
yyz = 7zy ’ Shear strain components in cartesian coordinates
yzx = yxz.
8 Displacement
e Emissivity
e Normal strain
s' Apparent normal strain
Axial strain
Ec Calibration strain
e« Normal strain component
^6) Normal strain components in polar coordinates
Ef Transverse strain
^xx’ ^yy’ ^zz Normal strain components in cartesian coordinates
Principal normal strains
Tn Nonlinear term
0 Angle of rotation
0 Angular deflection
0 Angular displacement
e. Steady-state rotation of a galvanometer
0* Amplitude of a sinusoidal oscillation
X Wavelength
M- Absolute viscosity
M- Arithmetic mean
 LIST OF SYMBOLS XV

M- Mobility of charge carriers

V Poisson’s ratio
TT Piezoresistive proportionality constant
P Mass density
P Radius of curvature
P Resistivity coefficient
P Specific resistance
a Normal stress
CT True standard deviation
O-rz Normal stress component
CTr, O'ej CTz Normal stress components in polar coordinates
^xx> ^yy> ^zz Normal stress components in cartesian coordinates
(^V ^2> ^3 Principal normal stresses
T Shear stress
T Time constant
Effective time constant
Shear stress component
‘re Shear stress component in polar coordinates
•Ary

•yz Shear stress components in cartesian coordinates

-a ^

Phase shift
Photon flux density
Illumination
Angular velocity
3

OJ Circular frequency
0) n Undamped natural frequency
(O nm Natural frequency of a measurement system
(O ns Structural resonance frequency
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 _ONE_
APPLICATIONS OF
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The primary objective of this textbook is to introduce electronic instru¬

mentation systems in a manner sufficiently complete that the student will acquire
an ability to make accurate and meaningful measurements of mechanical and
thermal quantities. The mechanical quantities include strain, force, pressure,
moment, torque, displacement, velocity, acceleration, flow velocity, mass flow
rate, volume flow rate, frequency, and time. The thermal quantities include
temperature and heat flux.
Most readers of this text will have a conceptual understanding of these
quantities through exposure in previous mechanics or physics courses, such as
statics, dynamics, strength of materials, or thermodynamics. The student’s ex¬
perience in actually measuring these quantities by conducting experiments, how¬
ever, will usually be quite limited. It is an objective of this text to introduce
methods commonly employed to make such measurements. Through this ex-
2 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

posure to the experimental aspects of the problem, the student will improve his^
understanding of many of the laws and/or formulas that were introduced in the
analytically oriented courses. The individual will also become familiar with all
elements of an electronic instrumentation system and will improve his ability to
design effective experiments and measurement methods that can provide solu¬
tions to many practical engineering problems.
Emphasis in the text will be directed toward electronic instrumentation
systems rather than mechanical systems. In most cases, electronic systems pro¬
vide better data that more accurately and more completely characterize the
design or process being experimentally evaluated. Also, the electronic system
provides an electrical output signal that can be used for automatic data reduction
or for control of the process. These advantages of the electronic measurement
system over the mechanical measurement system have initiated and sustained
the trend in instrumentation toward electronic methods.

1.2 THE ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

A complete electronic instrument system usually contains six subsystems or

elements as indicated in Fig. 1.1.
The transducer is a device that converts a change in the mechanical or
thermal quantity being measured into a change of an electrical quantity. For
example, a strain transducer (gage) bonded to a specimen converts a change in
strain Ae in the specimen to a change in electrical resistance Ai? in the gage.
The change in resistance A/? can then be converted to a change in voltage AE,
which can be measured accurately with relative ease. Since the voltage is pro¬
portional to the strain, the strain sensed by the transducer can be determined
once the instrument system is properly calibrated.
The power supply provides the energy to drive the transducer. For instance,
a differential transformer, which is a transducer used to measure displacement.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram representing an electronic instrumentation system.

' Throughout this book the impersonal “he” and “his” will be used for reasons of style and accepted
English usage. It has been apparent for many years that women are active in all engineering
disciplines. Pronouns encountered in the text should be mentally translated into “he and she” or
“his and her” each time they appear.
 1,2 THE ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEM 3

requires an ac voltage supply to excite two coils that create a fluctuating magnetic
field. Power supplies, such as constant dc voltage sources, constant dc current
sources, and ac voltage sources, are selected to satisfy the requirements of the
transducer being employed.
Signal conditioners are electronic circuits that convert, compensate, or ma¬
nipulate the output from the transducer into a more usable electrical quantity.
The Wheatstone bridge used with the strain transducer (gage) converts the
change in resistance AT? to a change in voltage S.E. Filters, compensators, mod¬
ulators, demodulators, integrators, and differentiators are other examples of
signal conditioning circuits in common usage in electronic instrument systems.
Amplifiers are required in the system when the voltage output from the
transducer-signal conditioner combination is small. Output signals of a millivolt
or less are common. Amplifiers with gains of 10 to 1000 are used to increase
these signals to levels where they are compatible with the voltage-measuring
devices used in the system.
Recorders are voltage-measuring devices that are used to display the meas¬
urement in a form that can be read and interpreted. Digital voltmeters are often
used to measure static voltages. The display of a digital voltmeter is in the form
of an array of easy to read illuminated numerals. Self-balancing potentiometers,
oscillographs, oscilloscopes, and magnetic tape recorders are other examples of
recording devices employed to display quasi-static and dynamic output signals.
Data processors are used to convert the output signals from the instrument
system into data that can be easily interpreted by the engineer. Data processors
are usually employed where large amounts of data are being collected and manual
reduction of these data would be too time-consuming and costly. Suppose 50
transducers are installed on a development vehicle and the vehicle is operated
for several hours on a test course to evaluate its performance. In an experiment
of this type, the reduction of the data to graphs, charts, and tables that are
sufficiently concise for engineering interpretation is a mammoth and time-con¬
suming task. Data processors convert the analog input signal to digital form,
which can be automatically processed on a digital computer in accordance with
programmed instructions. The processed data are displayed as graphs and tables
that illustrate the salient findings of the experimental program.
Process controllers are used to monitor and adjust mechanical and thermal
quantities in a manufacturing process. The signal from the instrumentation sys¬
tem is compared to a command signal that reflects the required value of the
quantity in the process. The process controller accepts both the command signal
and the measured signal and forms the difference to give an error signal. This
error signal is then used to automatically adjust the process. As a very simple
example of automatic control, consider a time-temperature cycle in an industrial
oven that is being used to cure plastic components. The temperature is measured
and converted to a voltage output signal. The signal voltage is connected to the
input terminals of a process controller, where it is compared to a command
voltage. The command voltage is provided by a source that can be varied with
4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIO INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

time to give a voltage-time profile identical to the temperature-time profile

required in the oven. The process controller forms the error signal by subtracting
the measured voltage from the command voltage. The error signal is then used
in an automatic control system to adjust the heat flow into the oven to maintain
the required temperature-time profile within a specified error band.
Electronic instrument systems are used in three different areas of applica¬
tion, which include:

1. Engineering analysis of machine components, structures, and vehicles to

ensure efficient and reliable performance.
2. Monitoring processes to provide on-line operating data pertaining to the
process that allows an operator to make adjustments and thereby control
the process.
3. Automatic process control to provide on-line operating data pertaining to
the process that is used as feedback signals in closed-loop control systems
to automatically control the process.

Each of these applications is described in the following sections.

1.3 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

Engineering analyses are conducted to evaluate new or modified designs of
a machine component, structure, or vehicle to ensure efficient and reliable
performance when it is placed in operation. Two approaches can be followed
in performing the engineering analysis: a theoretical approach or an experimental
approach.
When the theoretical approach is used, an analytical model of the component
is formulated and assumptions are made pertaining to the operating conditions,
the loads imposed on the component, the properties of the material, and the
mode of failure. Equations are then written that describe the behavior of the
analytical model. These equations are solved by using either exact mathematical
methods or, more frequently, by using finite element procedures. The results
of the theoretical analysis provide the designer with an indication of the adequacy
of the design and an estimate of the probable performance of the component
or structure in service.
Uncertainties often exist pertaining to the validity of results from the finite-
element model. Does the model accurately reflect all aspects of the prototype
design? Do the assumed operating conditions properly cover the full range of
loadings imposed on the component? Are the boundary conditions properly
represented in the model? Have significant errors been introduced in the analysis
through use of the numerical procedures?
With the experimental approach, a prototype of the component is fabricated
and a test program is conducted to evaluate the performance of the component
in service by making direct measurements of the important quantities that control
 1.4 PROCESS CONTROL 5

the adequacy of the design. This approach eliminates two of the serious uncer¬
tainties in the theoretical approach. An analytical model is not required and the
assumptions regarding operating conditions and material properties are not nec¬
essary. However, the experimental approach also has serious shortcomings. In
comparison to the theoretical approach, it is extremely expensive. Also, uncer¬
tainties arise due to inevitable experimental error in the measurements. Finally,
there is always a question whether the transducers were placed at the correct
locations to record the quantities that actually control the adequacy of the design.
The preferred approach is a combination of the theoretical and experimental
methods. The theoretical analysis should be conducted to ensure a thorough
understanding of the problem. The significance of the results of the theoretical
analysis should be completely evaluated and any shortcomings of the analysis
should be clearly identified. An experimental program should be designed at
this stage of the theoretical analysis to verify the analytical model and check the
validity of assumptions pertaining to operating conditions and material prop¬
erties.
The results of the theoretical analysis are extremely important in the design
of the experimental program. The locations and orientations of the transducers
can be specified more accurately and the number of measurements can be re¬
duced appreciably. It is also possible to reduce the number of tests necessary
to cover the full spectrum of operating conditions when theoretical results are
available.
The results from the experimental program are then used to verify the
analytical model and to check the validity of the assumptions and numerical
procedures. If significant differences exist, the analytical model can be modified
or the theoretical approach can be changed. When the theoretical approach is
verified and confidence in the analysis is established, it is then possible to op¬
timize the weight, strength, or cost of the component.
The combined theoretical/experimental approach to engineering analysis
provides the most cost-effective method to ensure efficient and reliable per¬
formance of new or modified designs of mechanical or structural components.

1.4 PROCESS CONTROL

Electronic instrumentation systems are used in two types of process control:
open-loop or monitoring control and closed-loop or automatic control.
Open-loop control, involving a process that is being monitored with several
transducers, is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The data from the transducers are displayed
continuously on an instrument panel. An operator observes the quantities being
monitored and, if necessary, makes adjustments to the process input parameters
to maintain control of the process. The operator closes the loop in this type of
process control. The accuracy and reliability of the data displayed on the in¬
strument panel are extremely important as they provide the basis for the op¬
erator’s decisions in adjusting the process. The operation of most freighters and
6 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

tankers is done with open-loop control. An operator in the engine room monitors
measurements of ship speed, engine speed, engine temperature, oil pressure,
fuel consumption, etc., and manually makes the adjustments necessary to main¬
tain the required speed.
A second type of process control, known as automatic or closed-loop control,
is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. In the closed-loop control system, the operator has
been eliminated. Instead, the signals from the electronic instrumentation system
are compared to command signals that represent voltage-time relationships for
important mechanical or thermal quantities associated with the process. The
first controller measures the difference between the command signal and the
transducer signal and develops an error or feedback signal. The feedback signal
is then used in the second controller to drive devices that correct the process.
As an example of closed-loop control, consider a hydraulically actuated posi¬
tioning mechanism that moves an engine block, during machining, through a
battery of drilling and tapping machines. The desired position of the engine
block along a track, together with the time required at each position, are used
by the command generator to establish a voltage-time trace that represents the
required position of the block at any time. The actual position of the engine
block is measured with a displacement transducer. The difference between the
command signal and the measured displacement signal is used by the first con¬
troller to generate a feedback signal that is proportional to the adjustment needed
to correct the position. The feedback signal is amplified and used to drive a
servo-control valve in the second controller. The servo-control valve adjusts the
flow of pressurized fluid to a hydraulic cylinder. The cylinder moves the engine
block and zeros the feedback signal. The block is then correctly positioned for
the machining operation.

Transducers

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of open-loop process control.

 1,5 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR 7
Transducers

Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram of closed-loop process control.

1.5 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR

Error is the difference between the true value and the measured value of
a quantity such as displacement, pressure, temperature, etc. The better electronic
instrumentation systems are designed to limit the error, which is inevitable in
any measurement, to a value that is acceptable in terms of the accuracies required
in an engineering analysis or in the control of a process. Errors can occur due
to the following causes:

1. Accumulation of accepted error in each element of the instrumentation

system.
2. Improper functioning of any element in the system.
3. Effect of the transducer on the process.
4 . Dual sensitivity of the transducer.
5. Other sources of error.

Each of these sources of error is described in terms of the general characteristics

of the elements of the instrumentation system in the following subsections.

Accumulation of Accepted Error

All elements of an instrumentation system have accuracy limits that are
specified by the manufacturer. For instance, a recorder may have a specified
accuracy of ±2 percent of full-scale values. The recorder can be expected to
operate within these limits if it is properly maintained and periodically calibrated.
Because of limits on accuracy, the recorder will introduce error in a measurement
8 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

when it is placed in an instrumentation system; however, this error is acceptable

or known provided the recorder is operating within specifications.
The specified accuracy limits should be clearly understood, since a recorder
accurate to within ±2 percent can introduce larger errors than these limits seem
to imply. Consider the input-output curve, shown in Fig. 1.4, that characterizes
the recorder. The deviation d is defined as the product of the accuracy and the
full-scale value of the response of the recorder. Lines drawn parallel to the true
response of the recorder, but displaced by ± d, form the upper and lower bounds
of the response of the instrument. The shaded area between these two bounds
gives the region where the recorder (or any other element) is operating within
the manufacturer’s specifications. If an instrument is operated at one-half scale,
the deviation d remains constant; however, the response (true value) is reduced
by a factor of 2. Thus, the error, which is defined as the deviation divided by
the true value, is doubled. This example indicates that errors of ±4 percent
would be within specifications if the recorder is operated at half scale. Operation
of instruments at less than full scale is sometimes convenient; however, any
reduction in scale should be carefully considered, since the error increases rapidly
as the percent of scale used is reduced. Instruments should not normally be used
at less than 5 to ^ of full scale without carefully considering the effect of the
errors involved in the measurement.
Since the usual instrumentation system contains several elements, and each
element introduces error even when its operation is within specifications, error

Figure 1.4 Accuracy bounds for an instrument operating within specification.

 1.5 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR 9
accumulates. It is possible to estimate the accumulated error^ for the system
as

(1.1)

where is the transducer error.

%sc is the signal conditioner error,
is the amplifier error,
is the recorder error.

It is evident from Eq. (1.1) that small but acceptable errors for each element
can accumulate and beome unacceptably large for critical measurements where
high accuracy is required.

Improper Functioning of Instruments

If any element in the instrumentation system is not properly maintained or
adjusted prior to use, calibration, zero offset, or range errors can occur. Before
discussing these errors, consider the typical response curve for an instrument
shown in Fig. 1.5. Here the output quantity is measured as the input quantity
Qi is varied. A significant portion of the response curve can be represented by
a straight line that is fit to the data using a least-squares method (i.e., the
instrument response is linear). The slope of the straight line is the calibration
constant or sensitivity S of the instrument. Thus,

5 = (1.2)

For a recorder, the sensitivity S is given in units of displacement per volt. For
a piezoelectric pressure gage, the sensitivity S is given as the voltage output per
unit of pressure.
If the response line does not pass through the origin, the deviation d meas¬
ured along the ordinate is called the zero offset Z^. It is evident from Fig. 1.5
that

e, = SQ, + Z„ (1.3)

Most instruments have a capability for adjusting the zero offset so that can
be set equal to zero. The relationship for the output quantity then reduces
to

Qo = SQ, (1.4)

^ See Section 10.9 for a discussion of error propagation. Compare Eq. (1.1) with Eq. (10.50).
10 APPLICATIONS OF ELEOTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Figure 1.5 Input-output response curve for a typical instrument element.

For large values of the input quantity, the typical response curve frequently
deviates from a straight line (linear relationship), as shown in the upper right
portion of Fig. 1.5. When this deviation becomes excessive, say 1 or 2 percent,
Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) are no longer valid and the range of the instrument has
been exceeded. If an allowable deviation is specified, a range line can be drawn
on the response graph and the range of the instrument Qf can be established
(see Fig. 1.5). The value Qf defines the upper limit of operation of the instru¬
ment. The lower limit of operation Qf is determined by excessive scale error
(operation of the instrument at less than full scale). The difference between the
upper limit of operation and the lower limit of operation defines the span s of
the instrument. Thus,

s = Qf - Qt (1.5)

Errors in the measurement of will occur if the instrument is not properly

calibrated and zeroed. Errors will also occur if the input Qj is greater than the
range of the instrument Qf. Illustrations of calibration error, zero-offset error,
and range error are presented in Fig. 1.6.
 1.5 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR 11

Figure 1.6 Illustration of {a) calibration, {b) zero-offset, and (c) range errors.

Effect of the Transducer on the Process

The transducer must be selected and placed in the process in such a manner
that it does not affect and/or change the process. If the installation of the trans¬
ducer does affect the process, serious errors can result and the measurements
may be misleading or meaningless. For most measurements, the size and weight
of the transducer should be small relative to the size and weight of the component
or process. Also, the transducer should require small forces or draw little energy
from the process for its operation.
To illustrate the errors that can occur as a result of the presence of the
transducer, consider an experiment designed to measure the frequency associ¬
ated with the fundamental mode of vibration of a circular plate with clamped
12 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

edges. The equation^ governing the frequency of the first mode of vibration of
a clamped circular plate with an additional concentrated mass at the center of
the plate is

(1.6)
a^y/pID

where oo is the circular frequency.

X is a constant that depends on the ratio of the concentrated mass to
the plate mass.
a is the radius of the plate,
p is the mass density per unit area of the plate.
D is the flexural rigidity of the plate. D = Eh^ll2(l -v^).
E is the modulus of elasticity of the plate material.
V is Poisson’s ratio of the plate material.
h is the thickness of the plate.

For the experiment under consideration, the value of the constant X^ de¬
pends upon the ratio of the concentrated mass of the accelerometer to the
mass of the plate trip. For mjnip equal to 0, 0.05, and 0.10, the constant X^
equals 10.214, 9.012, and 8.111, respectively. Thus, the error in this measure¬
ment of the first natural frequency, due to the mass of the accelerometer, will
be

/10.214 \ ftl
for ^ - 0.05

and

/10.214 \
for ^ - 0.10
rUp

It is clear from this example that the mass of the transducer has a profound
effect on the vibratory process and that significant errors may occur due to the
presence of the transducer. To avoid excessive errors, the mass of the transducer
in this case should not exceed 1 percent of the mass of the plate.

Dual Sensitivity Errors

Transducers are usually designed to measure a single quantity such as pres¬
sure; however, they often exhibit some sensitivity to other quantities such as
temperature or acceleration. If a transducer is employed to measure some quan-

^ A. W. Leissa, “Vibration of Plates,” NASA SP-160, 1969, p. 19.

 1.5 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR 13

tity, say pressure, in a process and if the temperature also changes as the meas¬
urement is made, error due to the dual sensitivity of the transducer will occur.
The effect of dual sensitivity is illustrated in the input-output response graph
of Fig. 1.7. As shown in this figure, two errors arise due to dual sensitivity when
both quantities that affect the transducer or instrument are changing simulta¬
neously during the time period of the measurement. First, a zero shift occurs
due to the change in the secondary quantity. Second, a change in the sensitivity
of the transducer occurs. These errors are illustrated in Fig. 1.7. Both can be
significant in poorly designed transducers.
In some experiments, the secondary quantity changes as a function of time.
In these cases, the zero offset and the sensitivity also vary as a function of time.
The changing zero offset is referred to as zero drift. The varying sensitivity is
termed sensitivity drift. It is very difficult to make accurate measurements under
these conditions, since the continuous changes in the zero base and calibration
constant of the instrument system preclude any possibility of making a single
correction for the effect of the secondary quantity. A better approach is to
carefully select the transducer so that its secondary sensitivity is negligible. Also,
the remaining elements of the instrumentation system should be housed, if
possible, in a temperature-controlled environment.
While the emphasis of this discussion has centered on the influence of dual
sensitivity of the transducer, it should be recognized that all elements in the

Figure 1.7 Change in response of an instrument due to dual sensitivity.

14 APPLICATIONS OF ELEOTRONIO INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

instrumentation system exhibit dual sensitivity. This dual sensitivity of the other
elements becomes particularly important if the study is of long duration (several
days or weeks). Time then becomes the secondary parameter and the stability
characteristics of the signal conditioner, power supply, amplifiers, and recorder
control the accuracy of the measurements. Since zero drift will occur in most
instruments, particularly amplifiers, provision must be made in any long-duration
experiment to periodically check and reestablish the zero base (rezero) or correct
for the zero shift.

Other Sources of Error

Other important sources of error include lead-wire effects, electronic noise,
and the human operator.
The effects of lead wires, used to connect the transducer to the instrumen¬
tation system, can be significant if the transducers contain resistive sensing ele¬
ments. Lead wires, which are long and of small gage, exhibit a resistance that
is not negligible relative to the transducer resistance. The added resistance of
the lead wires can change the sensitivity or calibration constant of the transducer.
The lead wires can also produce erroneous signals due to temperature-induced
resistance changes in the wires. When long lead wires are placed in the arms of
a Wheatstone bridge that is being used for strain measurements, the accuracy
of the measurements can be easily compromised.
Electronic noise usually results from spurious signals that are picked up by
the lead wires. When lead wires are positioned in close proximity to electrical
devices, such as motors or lights, the fluctuating magnetic fields in the vicinity
of the devices generate small voltages in the adjoining lead wires that super¬
impose on the measurement signal. Since the measurement signal is usually
small, the error produced by lead-wire noise can be significant. The noise picked
up by the lead wires can be minimized with proper shielding, which isolates the
leads from the effects of the fluctuating magnetic fields. In certain measurements,
where the measurement signal is very small, noise from a properly shielded lead-
wire installation may still be objectionable. In these cases, notched filters that
block passage of a narrow band of frequencies can be employed to eliminate
most of the noise, since it usually exhibits a power-line frequency of 60 Hz.
Another source of error is due to the operator. The operator must properly
record the sensitivity S of each element in the instrumentation system and he
must accurately zero each element. Finally, the output that is displayed on the
recorder must be read. Reading errors of 1 or 2 percent due to parallax and
tracewidth are common.

1.6 MINIMIZING EXPERIMENTAL ERROR

In the preceding section, the many sources of experimental error were

identified so that the reader would become aware of the difficulties commonly
encountered in conducting experiments. Measurement systems designed to yield
 1.6 MINIMIZING EXPERIMENTAL ERROR 15

accuracies of 0.1 or even 1 percent are usually unrealistic when the cost of the
system and the time required to make the measurements are considered. Ac¬
curacies of 2 to 5 percent can usually be achieved at reasonable cost; however,
procedures must be followed that minimize error at each step of the experiment.
A single mistake can easily degrade the system beyond acceptable limits of error.
In the worst case, the mistake will degrade the system to the point where the
data are misleading or meaningless. Accepted procedures for minimizing error
in a measurement system are:

1. Carefully select the transducer. Pay particular attention to its size, weight,
and energy requirements to ensure that it does not affect the variable being
measured.
2. Check the accuracy of each element in the instrumentation system. Compute
the accumulated “accepted” error.
3. Calibrate each instrument in the system to verify that it is operating within
specifications.
4. Examine the process and the environment in which the instrumentation
system must operate. Pay particular attention to temperature variations and
the time required for the measurement. Estimate the errors that will be
produced by dual sensitivity effects of all elements in the instrumentation
system.
5. Connect the system together with properly shielded and terminated lead
wires. Use wiring procedures that minimize lead-wire errors. Estimate the
errors that may be introduced by the lead wires.
6. Check the system for electronic noise. If necessary, reroute the lead wires
and/or insert suitable filters to minimize the noise.
7. Perform a system calibration by measuring the variable in a known process,
as illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
8. Estimate the total error in the system due to all known sources.

This procedure does not insure a perfect measurement since some error is
always inherent in any experimental determination of unknown quantities; how¬
ever, it does provide a systematic approach to minimizing error and to estimating
the error involved in the measurement.

Figure 1.8 System calibration.

16 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

1.7 SUMMARY

An electronic instrumentation system usually contains a transducer, a power

supply, a signal conditioner, an amplifier, and a recorder. Such a system is used
to experimentally determine unknown quantities, such as force, pressure, dis¬
placement, temperature, etc. The data or output from an instrumentation system
may also be used for an engineering analysis of machine components or struc¬
tures, for process monitoring, for open-loop process control, or for closed-loop
automatic control.
Error will always occur in an experimental determination of an unknown
quantity. The error, which accumulates, may be due to many causes, such as
summation of accepted error, improper functioning of an instrument, transducer
interaction with the process, or dual sensitivity of the transducer. Measurement
systems that yield accuracies of 0.1 to 1 percent are usually too costly for most
applications. Accuracies of 2 to 5 percent are more realistic and can be achieved
if careful procedures are employed in the design and installation of the instru¬
mentation system. It is imperative that meticulous attention to detail be observed
so that errors can be kept within acceptable bounds.

REFERENCES

1. Ambrosius, E. E., R. D. Fellows, and A. D. Brickman: Mechanical Meas¬

urement and Instrumentation, Ronald Press, New York, 1966.
2. Bartholomew, D.: Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation, Allyn &
Bacon, Boston, 1963.
3. Beckwith, T. G., W. L. Buck, and R. D. Marangoni: Mechanical Meas¬
urements, 3rd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1982.
4. Bendat, J. S., and A. G. Piersol: Measurement and Analysis of Random
Data, Wiley, New York, 1966.
5. Benedict, R. P.: Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Meas¬
urements, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1977.
6. Cerni, R. H., and L. E. Foster: Instrumentation for Engineering Measure¬
ment, Wiley, New York, 1962.
7. Considine, D. M., (Ed.): Process Instruments and Controls Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1957.
8. Cook, N. H., and E. Rabinowicz: Physical Measurement and Analysis,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1963.
9. Dally, J. W., and W. F. Riley: Experimental Stress Analysis, 2nd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978.
10. Doebelin, E. O.: Measurement Systems: Application and Design, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.
 1.7 REFERENCES 17

11. Dove, R. C., and P. H. Adams: Experimental Stress Analysis and Motion
Measurement, Merrill, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.
12. Frank, E.: Electrical Measurement Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
13. Holman, J. P.: Experimental Methods for Engineers, 3rd ed., McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1978.

14. Kallen, H. P. (Ed.): Handbook of Instrumentation and Controls, McGraw-

Hill, New York, 1961.
15. Keast, D. N.: Measurements in Mechanical Dynamics, McGraw-Hill New
York, 1967.
16. Lion, K. S.: Instrumentation in Scientific Research, McGraw-Hill New
York, 1959.
17. Malmstadt, H. V., and C. G. Enke: Digital Electronics for Scientists, Ben¬
jamin, New York, 1969.
18. Neubert, H. K. P.: Instrument Transducers, Oxford University Press, Fair
Lawn, New Jersey, 1963.
19. Schenck, H.: Theories of Engineering Experimentation, 2nd ed., McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1968.
20. Stein, P. K.: Measurement Engineering, Stein Engineering Services, Phoe¬
nix, Arizona, 1964.
21. Sweeney, R. J.: Measurement Techniques in Mechanical Engineering, Wiley,
New York, 1953.
22. Tuve, G. L., and L. C. Domholdt: Engineering Experimentation, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1966.
23. Wilson, E. B., Jr.: An Introduction to Scientific Research, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1952.

EXERCISES

1.1 List the elements that are used in an instrumentation system.

1.2 Give an example of an electronic instrumentation system employed in
engineering analysis.
1.3 Give an example of an electronic instrumentation system employed in
process monitoring.
1.4 Give an example of an electronic instrumentation system employed in
process control.
1.5 Why is it frequently necessary to conduct an experimental program in
conjunction with an analytical engineering analysis?
1.6 Why is a combined analytical/experimental approach preferred for an
engineering analysis?
18 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

1.7 Explain the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control.

1.8 List several sources of error that must be considered in the design of
an instrumentation system.
1.9 A recorder is specified accurate to ±2 percent of full scale and full
scale is set at 50 mV. Determine the deviation that can be anticipated.
Compute the probable percent error when the instrument is used at I,
5,5, and g scale. State the conclusion that can be drawn from the results

of your computation.
1.10 An instrumentation system that is composed of a transducer, power
supply, signal conditioner, amplifier, and recorder will exhibit what
accumulated error % if the accuracies of the individual elements are;

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Transducer 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.05

Power supply 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01
Signal conditioner 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.01
Amplifier 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01
Recorder 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.01

1.11 Define range and span of an instrument.

1.12 Determine the error produced by a zero offset if it is not taken into
account in determining the output quantity Q^.
1.13 Determine the error produced if an instrument sensitivity is instead
of the anticipated sensitivity S.
1.14 Determine the error produced if an instrument sensitivity is instead
of the anticipated sensitivity S and if a zero offset is not taken into
account in determining the output quantity Q^.
1.15 Give an example of a transducer that produces error because of its
influence on the quantity being measured.
1.16 Give an example of an instrument with dual sensitivity and explain how
it may produce unanticipated error in a measurement.
1.17 An amplifier in an instrumentation system exhibits a zero drift of 1
percent of full scale per hour. Determine the error if the measurement
of Qo is taken 2.4 hours after the initial zero was established and if the
amplifier is operated at one-half of full scale.
1.18 A pressure transducer exhibits a temperature sensitivity of 0.1 units per
degree Celsius and a pressure sensitivity of 2.5 units per megapascal.
If the temperature changes 20°C during a measurement of a pressure
of 120 MPa, determine the error due to the dual sensitivity of the
transducer.
 1.7 REFERENCES 19

1.19 The sensitivity of an electrical resistance strain gage is defined as

Where AJR is the resistance change of the gage due to an applied strain
e.
R is the resistance of the gage.

If the sensitivity S = 2.0 for a gage with a resistance of 120 11, compute
the sensitivity if the gage is connected to the instrument system with
lead wires having a total resistance of 12 fl.
1.20 Determine the apparent strain indicated by the strain gage lead-wire
system described in Exercise 1.19 if the lead wires are subjected to a
temperature change of 16°C after the initial zero is established for the
system. Note that the lead wires change resistance with temperature
according to:

= Ry AT

where y is the temperature coefficient of resistance (0.0039/°C for cop¬

per).
1.21 Describe a suitable transducer for measuring pressure in a shock tube.
1.22 Place a weight limit on a transducer used to determine the natural
frequency of a clamped circular plate fabricated from aluminum and
having a diameter of 250 mm and a thickness of 1 mm.
1.23 Describe calibration procedures for:
(a) A power supply
(b) A pressure transducer
(c) A Wheatstone bridge
(d) An amplifier
(e) A voltmeter

1.24 Describe a calibration procedure to check the entire instrumentation

system if the quantity being measured is:
(a) Strain
(b) Pressure
(c) Temperature
(d) Displacement
(e) Acceleration

1.25 How is it possible to reduce noise in an electronic measurement system?

 — TWO —
VOLTAGE
RECORDING
INSTRUMENTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Voltage recording instruments are used in an electronic measurement system

to display an output voltage £„ proportional to the quantity being measured 0,
in a form that may easily be read by an operator. If the quantity Q, is constant
with respect to time (static), voltmeters or ammeters are usually employed. Self¬
balancing potentiometers or a digital voltmeter with an output printer may be
used if the voltage varies slowly with time (quasi-static). Quantities that vary
rapidly with respect to time (dynamic signals) must be displayed with oscillo¬
graphs, oscilloscopes, or magnetic tape or disk recorders that can respond to
the dynamic input.
In the design of an instrumentation system, it is important that the correct
voltage recorder be selected so that the output displayed is first accurate and
second in a form that can be easily interpreted and processed. The general
characteristics of voltage recorders must be understood before the best recording
instrument can be specified for an instrumentation system.
 2.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 21

2.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RECORDING

INSTRUMENTS

The general characteristics that describe the behavior of a recording in¬

strument are input impedance, sensitivity, range, zero drift, and frequency re¬
sponse. Each of these characteristics is described in the following subsections.

Input Impedance
Input impedance Z controls the energy removed from the system by the
recording instrument in order to display the input voltage. Consider a simple
dc voltmeter used to measure the voltage E of a source. The power loss P
through the meter is given by

P = PIR„ (2.1)

where the resistance of the meter, is the input impedance.^ It is evident

from Eq. (2.1) that the ideal voltmeter should have an input impedance Z =
that approaches infinity to reduce the energy removed from the system to
zero. Unfortunately, it is impossible to achieve extremely high input impedances
in recording instruments at reasonable cost; therefore, some small power loss
through the meter must be accepted.
To determine the error produced by a finite input impedance, it is necessary
to consider the interaction between two adjacent elements in the instrumentation
system. Consider, for example, the Wheatstone bridge-voltage recorder com¬
bination shown in Fig. 2.1a. The Wheatstone bridge converts the resistance
change AEi to a voltage £, with a source resistance R,. By applying Thevenin’s
theorem to the bridge and the recording instrument, the equivalent circuit shown
in Fig. 2.1b is obtained. The Wheatstone bridge is replaced by a voltage gen¬
erator with a potential E, and a source resistance R, = R^. A current I flows in
the loop and the recorder input resistance R^ acts as a load on the source in
series with R,. The voltage displayed by the recorder is the IR^ drop across
the resistor R^. Thus,

E„ = IR„ (2.2)

' In general, the input impedance Z for elements in series is given by

2
Z =

where R is the resistance.

C is the capacitance.
L is the inductance.
o) is the circular frequency of the input signal.
22 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.1 (a) Combination of a Wheatstone bridge and voltage recorder, (b) Equiv¬
alent circuit by Thevenin’s theorem.

Since

I = (2.3)
Es + R,

it is evident that

Ej
Em (2.4)
1 + {RJR^)

Inspection of Eq. (2.4) shows that the meter indication will be less than the
source potential E,. The error % is

RsIRm
(2.5)
1 + {RsIRm)
The load error as a function of the ratio of source impedance to recorder imped¬
ance is shown in Fig. 2.2. Examination of Fig. 2.2 shows that a ratio RJR,^ <
 2.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 23

0.001 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0

^sl^m

Figure 2.2 Load error as a function of the ratio of source impedance to recorder imped¬
ance.

0.01 gives a load error of less than 1 percent. The rule that the input impedance
should be 100 times the source impedance is based on Eq. (2.5) and limits load
error to less than 1 percent.

Sensitivity
The sensitivity 5 of a voltage recording instrument is given by Eq. (1.2) as

5 = 1 (2.6)
E

where d is the displacement of the pointer or pen.

E is the voltage being measured.

Sensitivity of the recorder is important when measurements of small voltages

are to be made. High sensitivity is required to give a sufficiently large pen
displacement d for accurate readout.
From Eq. (2.6) it is clear that the voltage E is determined by measuring d
and dividing by S. Since division is more difficult than multiplication, most
manufacturers of recording instruments define a voltage sensitivity as

E = dSi, (2.7)

where Sj^ = I/S' is expressed in terms of volts per division of displacement.

24 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

High sensitivity S or low reciprocal sensitivity is usually achieved with

amplifiers that are incorporated in the recorder. The amplification factor of the
amplifier is varied to provide a recorder with several different sensitivities to
accommodate a wide range of input voltages.

Range
The range, which represents the maximum voltage that can be recorded, is
determined from Eq. (2.6) as

(2.8)

where E* is the maximum voltage or range.

d* is the width of the chart (fixed for a given instrument).

The form of Eq. (2.8) shows the trade-off that must be made between range
and sensitivity . When the sensitivity S is high, the range E* will be low; and
conversely, if the range is high, the sensitivity will be low. A voltage amplifier
with a variable amplification factor extends the applicability of a recorder by
matching appropriate sensitivity with the input voltage.

Zero Drift
Most voltage recorders have provisions for adjusting the zero offset so that
the pen (pointer) displacement or print out is zero when the input voltage is
zero. The position of the zero on the chart may change with time, however, due
to instabilities in one or more of the circuits in the recorder. Zero drift is usually
due to circuit changes in the amplifier that occur with temperature fluctuations,
variations in line voltage, and time.
Zero drift is specified for most recording instruments and can be minimized
by using a regulated line voltage, by turning instruments on for a suitable time
period before recording, and by controlling the temperature of the room in
which the instrument is housed. If measurements are to be made over a long
period of time, provisions should be made to periodically check to determine
the zero position, thereby accounting for the drift.

Frequency Response
If the voltage being recorded is dynamic, the recorder should reproduce
the transient input without amplitude or time distortion. The ability of a recorder
to respond to dynamic signals is determined by its frequency response, which is
based on the recorder s steady-state response to a sinusoidal input

E, = C, sin (Mt (2.9)

 2.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 25
The output of the recorder is of the form

= Q sin (cat + (j)) (2.10)

The amplitude of the output represented by may be different from the input
amplitude C,. A phase shift 4) may also occur. Both amplitude ratio Q/C, and
phase shift 4) change as the circular frequency w of the input is varied. Curves
such as those given in Fig. 2.3 for C^/Q and 4) as a function of w define the
frequency response of a recording system. A more complete discussion of the
frequency response of second-order systems is given in Section 2.5.
Frequently, specifications for recorders give the amplitude ratio C^/C, in
terms of decibels. It should be noted that

^dB = 20 10gio(Co/C,) (2.11)

where is the number of decibels.

Co and C, are voltages.

0.01 0.1 1.0 10

Frequency ratio cu/oj„

ib)
Figure 2.3 Response of a recorder to harmonic excitation, (a) Amplitude as a function
of frequency, (b) Phase shift as a function of frequency.
26 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Several values from Eq. (2.11) which are often useful are presented in Table
2.1.
Reference to Table 2.1 shows that significant errors result in recording dynamic
signals even for relatively small For instance, a recorder specification that
indicates that the frequency response is within ±3dB from direct current to 100
Hz implies an error of +41 percent (1.413) for +3dB and -30 percent (0.708)
for -3dB over the range of frequencies specified.

2.3 STATIC VOLTMETERS

There are four types of voltmeters in general use today for measurement
of static phenomena: the analog voltmeter, the amplified analog voltmeter, the
potentiometer, and the digital voltmeter. All but the digital voltmeter use the
D’Arsonval galvanometer to indicate the voltage.

The D’Arsonval Galvanometer

The D’Arsonval galvanometer illustrated in Fig. 2.4 is the basic device used
in detecting and measuring dc current. The galvanometer design incorporates a
coil of wire that is supported in a magnetic field with either jeweled bearings
or torsion springs. When a current 1 flows in the coil, it rotates in the magnetic
field until restrained by springs that are a part of the suspension system.
The torque Tj developed by the current flow in the coil is

Ti = NBIDI (2.12)

where N is the number of turns in the coil.

B is the flux density of the magnetic field.
/ is the axial length of the field.
D is the mean coil diameter.

TABLE 2.1 Conversion of Voltage Ratio Cq/Q to A/^b

c„/c, A^dB c„/c,. A^dB
1 0 1 0
1.01 0.086 0.99 -0.087
1.02 0.172 0.98 -0.175
1.05 0.424 0.95 -0.446
1.10 0.827 0.90 -0.915
1.20 1.583 0.80 -1.938
1.50 3.522 0.707 -3.012
2.00 6.020 0.500 -6.021
 2.3 STATIC VOLTMETERS 27

Figure 2.4 Construction details of a D’Arsonval galvanometer.

The torque T developed by the restraining springs is

2

T = KQ
2 (2.13)

where 0 is the angle of rotation of the coil.

K is the spring constant.

The equilibrium condition — T = 0 leads to

2

e = SI (2.14)
K

where S = {{NBID)IK) is the sensitivity or calibration constant for the galva¬

nometer.
The sensitivity of the galvanometer can be changed by varying the param¬
eters N, B, I, D, or K; however, for economic reasons, galvanometers are
designed to measure small currents. A typical D’Arsonval galvanometer will
exhibit a full-scale deflection at 20 |xA with a coil resistance of 30 D.

Ammeter
An ammeter consists of a D’Arsonval galvanometer with a shunt resistance
as shown in Fig. 2.5. The input current /, divides with passing through the
meter and 4^, passing through the shunt. It is clear that

/ . _^_ (2.15)
1 + {RJR,,)
28 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

D'Arsonval galvanometer

Figure 2.5 A D’Arsonval galvanometer being used as an ammeter.

A D’Arsonval galvanometer with a full-scale current capability of 1 mA and a

resistance of 50 fi can be used to measure any current greater than 1 mA
by properly selecting the shunt resistance from the expression

(2.16)

where I* and are full-scale input and meter currents, respectively. For ex¬
ample, the l-mA-50-n galvanometer can be used to measure 5 A (full scale) if
Rsh = 0.01 fl.
One difficulty encountered in using an ammeter of this type is the need to
cut or rearrange the wires in the circuit so that the ammeter may be placed in
the path of the current flow. To alleviate this problem, a clamp-like probe is
clipped over the wire in which the current is to be determined. The probe contains
a magnetic core that concentrates the magnetic field (which is proportional to
the current in the wire) around the wire. A Hall-effect transducer, mounted in
an air gap in the magnetic core, produces an output voltage that is directly
proportional to the magnetic field and, thus, to the current in the wire. A clip-
on-type ammeter, that can measure from 1 to 400 A over a frequency range
from dc to 1 KHz on conductors up to H in. (32 mm) in diameter is shown in
Fig. 2.6.

DC Voltmeters
A D’Arsonval galvanometer is converted to a dc voltmeter by using a series
resistor as shown in Fig. 2.7. The appropriate series resistor R^^ is determined
from the expression

Rsr m (2.17)

where E* is the full-scale voltage.

7)^ is the full-scale current for the meter.
 2,3 STATIC VOLTMETERS 29

Figure 2.6 An analog AC/DC ammeter with clamp-on probe. (Courtesy of Pacer In¬
dustries, Inc., Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin.)

For example, a 20-pLA-30-n galvanometer is converted to a 100-mV voltmeter

with a series resistor = 4970 fl.
A dc analog multimeter is illustrated in Fig. 2.8 where several different
series resistors are used with a single meter to give a multirange instrument.
Typical multimeters have approximately nine ranges with full-scale readings from
100 mV to 1000 V. Analog multimeters are low-cost instruments with accuracies
of ±2 to 3 percent of full scale. When operated on the lower voltage ranges,

Figure 2.7 A D’Arsonval galvanometer being used as a voltmeter.

30 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.8 Circuit diagram for a multi¬

range dc voltmeter.

the input impedance of the instrument is relatively low and loading errors due
to the voltmeter can occur. The impedance is often given in terms of ohms per
volt full scale with 20,000 H/V being common.

Voltmeter Loading Errors

Whenever a voltmeter draws current from the voltage source during a meas¬
urement, an error will result due to voltmeter load. To illustrate voltmeter load,
consider the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.9 that represents the voltage source and
the meter. Comparison of Figs. 2.1 and 2.9 shows the same equivalent circuit;
therefore, the error % due to voltmeter load is given by Eq. (2.5) as

eg ^ + Rsr)

1 + Rs/iRm + Rsr)

where R, is the output impedance of the voltage source and (R^ + R^^) replaces
R^ in Eq. (2.5). Since R^ « R^^

RJR^
% = (2.18)
1 + {RJR,,) 1 + {RJR^)

^sr

Figure 2.9 Equivalent circuit for a

voltage source and a voltmeter.
 2.3 STATIC VOLTMETERS 31

Reference to Fig. 2.2 shows that a ratio Rsr/Rs > 100 is required to reduce
voltmeter loading errors to less than 1 percent. Since R^^ decreases as the full-
scale range is reduced, the input impedance is low when the multimeter is used
on sensitive scales and the voltmeter readings must be adjusted for loading errors.

Amplified Voltmeters
Difficulties in measuring very small voltages while maintaining a high input
impedance can be resolved by using a high-gain amplifier in conjunction with
the D’Arsonval meter. A schematic of this circuit is shown in Fig. 2.10 where
an amplifier is used between the voltage source and the meter. The voltage
output from the amplifier is

= G£, (2.19)

where G is the gain of the amplifier.

Since R^^ » the effect of the amplifier is to permit an increase in R^^
by a factor equal to the gain G. Note that Eq. (2.17) becomes

Rsr = Gy (2.20)
■'m

Thus, the input impedance can be increased by a factor G while maintaining

the sensitivity of the meter.
The amplifier also permits the meter to be used to measure very small
voltages, since

E. - (2.21)

Thus, the meter sensitivity can be increased by a factor G while maintaining the
input impedance of the meter.
An example of a multimeter with high amplification is the Keithley Model
148, which has 18 ranges from 10-nV full scale to 100-mV full scale. The input

Figure 2.10 Equivalent circuit for a

voltage source and an amplified volt¬
meter.
 32 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

impedance varies from 1 kfl to 1 MH as the range is increased from 10 nV to

100 mV.

Potentiometric Voltmeters
Potentiometers are null-balance instruments in which an unknown voltage
is compared to a precision reference voltage E^. The basic potentiometer,
shown in Fig. 2.11, contains a reference source that energizes a slide-wire resistor
ot length /. As the wiper is moved along the slide-wire, an adjustable voltage
is obtained, which is given by

where x is the wiper position along the slide-wire resistor.

If E,^. E E,, the galvanometer deflects to indicate this out-of-balance. The
slide-wire wiper is then adjusted until the galvanometer returns to the null
position and

£ (2.22)

With the potentiometer balanced, no current flows; therefore, there is no voltage

drop across the instrument. The slide-wires used in these instruments exhibit a
uniform resistance (linear variation with wiper position); therefore, the scale
reading provides an accurate means of reading the voltage without a meter
movement and an associated load error. Since the galvanometer is used only to
indicate null or zero voltage, it can be very sensitive yet inexpensive. Extremely
accurate readings of voltage can be made with potentiometric voltmeters.
For example, the Leeds Northrup Model 7555 potentiometer covers the

Figure 2.11 Potentiometer circuit for measuring voltage.

 2.3 STATIC VOLTMETERS 33

range from —0.5 |jlV to +1.611050 V with six decimal precision. Accuracy of
±0.005 percent of full scale or ±0.1 pV can be achieved with this relatively
low-cost instrument.

Digital Voltmeters
Digital voltmeters (DVM) offer many advantages over the analog-type me¬
ter, such as speed in reading, increased accuracy, better resolution, and the
capability of automatic operation. Digital voltmeters display the measurement
with lighted numerals, as shown in Fig. 2.12, rather than as a pointer deflection
on a continuous scale as with analog meters. Digital multimeters are available
to read current, resistance, and ac and dc voltages. The DVM may be used
together with a multiplexer and a digital printer to provide simple but reliable
automatic data logging systems.
The range of a DVM is determined by the number of full digits in the
display. For example, a four-digit DVM can record a count of 9999. If the full
scale of the DVM is set at 1 V, the count of 9999 provided by the four digits
would register a reading of 0.9999 V. Some DVMs are equipped with partial
digits to extend the range. The partial digit can only display the numbers 0 and
1; nevertheless, it is very useful since it permits readings in the overrange region
beyond full scale. As an example, consider use of a four-digit DVM for measuring
10.123 V. Since only four digits are available, the meter set on the 10-V scale
would read 10.12 V. The last digit (3) would be truncated and lost. If a 4i-digit
DVM is employed for the same measurement, the extra partial digit permits
100 percent overranging and a maximum count of 19999. With the 4i-digit meter,
the voltage 10.123 would be accurately displayed.

Figure 2.12 A S'A-digit digital multimeter. (Courtesy of Keithley Instruments, Inc.)

 34 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Overranging may be expressed as a percentage of full scale. For instance,

a four-digit DVM with 100 percent overrange displays a maximum reading of
19999. Similarly, with a 20 percent overrange, the maximum display is 11999.
In some instances, the overrange capability of the DVM is expressed in terms
of the specified range. The four-digit DVM with 100 percent overrange, which
has a maximum display of 19999, could be specified with full-scale ranges of 2,
20, 200 V, etc., and with no overrange specification.
Resolution of a DVM is the ratio of the maximum number of counts that
can be displayed to the least number of counts. For the four-digit DVM, res¬
olution is 10,000 to 1 or 0.01 percent. Usually, the overrange capability is not
considered in determining resolution.
The sensitivity of a DVM is the smallest increment of voltage that can be
detected and is determined by multiplying the lowest full-scale range by the
resolution. Therefore, a four-digit DVM with a 100-mV lowest full-scale range
has a sensitivity of 0.0001 x 100 mV = 0.01 mV.
Accuracy of a DVM is usually expressed as ±x percent of the reading ±N
digits.
The simplified signal flow diagram for a digital multimeter, shown in Fig.
2.13, illustrates the overall features of integrating-type digital meters. The input
to the multimeter may be an ac voltage, a dc voltage, a current, or a resistance;

AC DIGITAL

Figure 2.13 Simplified signal flow diagram for a digital multimeter. (Courtesy of Keith-
ley Instruments, Inc.)
 2.3 STATIC VOLTMETERS 35

however, in all cases, the input is ultimately amplified or attenuated and con¬
verted to a dc voltage with variable gain amplifiers such as the ac amplifier/
attenuator and the chopper buffer/amplifier shown in Fig. 2.13. The gain of
these amplifiers is automatically adjusted by control logic so that the voltage
applied to the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is within specifications so as to
avoid an overload condition.
The A/D converter changes the dc voltage input to a proportional clock
count by using the dual-slope integration technique illustrated in Fig. 2.14. There
are three different operations in the dual-slope integration technique for A/D
conversion. First, during auto zero, the potential at the integrator output is
zeroed for a fixed time, say 100 ms. Second, the dc input is integrated with
respect to time for a fixed period, say 100 ms. The output of the integrator is
a linear ramp with respect to time, as shown in Fig. 2.14. At the end of the run
up, the dc input voltage is disconnected from the integrator and the third op¬
eration, run down, is initiated. Run-down time may vary from zero to, say, 200
ms and will depend on the charge developed on the integrating capacitor during
run up. Since the discharge rate is fixed during run down, the larger the charge
on the integrating capacitor, the longer the discharge time. Since both run up
and run down produce slopes on the voltage-time trace, this conversion method
from voltage to time is called dual-slope integration.
A counter is started at the beginning of run down and operates until the
output voltage from the integrator crosses zero. The accumulated time is pro¬
portional to the dc voltage applied to the integrator. This time count is then
displayed as the voltage. Polarity, range, and function information are provided
by the controller and are also displayed.
The characteristics of a digital voltmeter may be altered by changing the

Run-up
Auto zero integration for Run-down

Figure 2.14 Dual-slope integration technique for A/D conversion.

 36 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

number of digits, the time interval for integrator run up, and the frequency of
the clock. A typical bench-type DVM with 31 digits and a maximum count of
1999 is designed with five different ranges: ± 199.9 mV, ± 1.999 V, ± 19.99 V,
± 199.9 V, and ± 1999 V. The highest sensitivity is 100 p.V on the 200-mV range.
Accuracy is ±0.1 percent of the reading plus two digits. The clock frequency
is 200 kHz and the integration time is 100 ms. The reading rate varies from 2.4
to 4.7 readings per second, depending on the input.
System DVMs are more complex than bench-type DVMs, since the former
are provided with the digital control needed to interface with other components
of an automatic data processing system. A typical data processing system consists
of a scanner for switching input voltages into the DVM, a data log consisting
of a random access memory (RAM), where the output is stored, and special-
purpose calculators/computers that take the stored data and perform the required
reduction, manipulation, and analysis of data according to programed instruc¬
tions. System DVMs are higher performance devices than bench DVMs. The
number of digits is usually increased to 6l, which gives a resolution greater than
1 part in 10 . Clock frequencies are increased to 20 MHz to give a reading rate
of 20 readings per second while maintaining an integration time of 50 ms. Micro¬
processors are added to control the voltage measurement and to control the
interface with associated data processing instruments.

2.4 QUASI-STATIC VOLTMETERS

There are two different approaches used to record quasi-static voltages,

which are voltages that change relatively slowly with respect to time. The first
approach utilizes a servo-balanced potentiometric circuit where the null condi¬
tion is achieved automatically with servomotors that are driven by an amplified
error signal. The second approach utilizes a digital voltmeter and an associated
printer or data storage instrument. With the servo-balanced recorder, a pen is
driven over a paper chart to provide a continuous record of the voltage fluc¬
tuations with time. With DVM data logging, a number of voltage readings are
made over the period of voltage fluctuation, say 10 readings per second, so that
sufficient discrete points are available to establish the voltage-time trace.

Strip-Chart Recorders
A strip-chart recorder utilizes a servomotor-driven null-balance potentio¬
metric circuit similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 2.15. The input signal from
the transducer is amplified and used as a command signal for a servo amplifier.
The signal from the servo amplifier drives a servomotor that positions a wiper
along a slide-wire resistor. Since the slide-wire resistor is across a reference
voltage, the wiper picks up a feedback voltage from the slide wire that is pro¬
portional to the position of the wiper along the wire. The servo amplifier receives
 2,4 QUASI-STATIC VOLTMETERS 37

this feedback voltage and compares it to the command signal. The output from
the servo amplifier is proportional to the difference between the two signals.
When the servomotor has adjusted the wiper so that the difference or error
signal from the servo amplifier is zero, the system is in balance and the wiper
position provides an indication of the input voltage.
A permanent record of the input voltage is obtained by connecting a pen
to the wiper. As the wiper is positioned along the slide-wire resistor, the voltage
is recorded as an ink trace on a roll of chart paper. The chart paper is moved
at a constant velocity in a direction perpendicular to the wiper motion by a print
roller that is driven by a clock motor and a suitable gear train. Distance along
the length of the chart is then proportional to time.
A typical example of a commercial strip-chart recorder is illustrated in
Fig. 2.16. Chartwidths are from 5 to 10 in. (120 to 250 mm), and the response
time (the time required for the servomotor to move the pen across the width of
the chart) is typically 0.5 s. The sensitivity of strip-chart recorders can be varied
by attenuating the output from the first amplifier. Typical sensitivities range
from 5 mV to 100 V for the full width of the chart paper. Chart speeds can be
varied by changing the speed of the print roller. Speeds from 1 in./hr to 8 in./
min (25 mm/hr to 250 mm/min) are common. The input impedance will depend
on the details of the design and may be potentiometric (i.e., no current flow at
null balance) or about 1 MD, which corresponds to the input impedance of the
first amplifier. Accuracy of ±0.2 percent is typical.
Strip-chart recorders can be modified to permit intermittent multisignal
recording instead of continuous single-signal recording. With this modification,
the input from several transducers (say, thermocouples) are switched in sequence
into the servo system. Balance is achieved for each input in 2 to 5 s, and then
 38 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.16 A strip-chart recorder. (Courtesy of Soltec, Corporation.)

the corresponding voltage is printed as a single point on the chart with a rotary
printing mechanism instead of a pen. Each point on the chart is printed with a
channel number so that the outputs from individual transducers can be quickly
identified. Up to 24 input signals can be accommodated on a single strip chart;
thus, this type of recorder provides an extremely low-cost method of accurately
recording several voltages that are changing slowly with time.

X~Y Recorders
The x-y recorder is another type of instrument that utilizes servo-driven
motors and null-balance potentiometric circuits. The operation of the x-y re¬
corder IS similar to the strip-chart recorder, except that the x-y recorder simul¬
taneously records two voltages along orthogonal axes (usually referred to as the
X and y axes) as indicated in Fig. 2.17. The x-y recorder uses sheets of graph
paper (either 82 by 11 in. or 11 by 17 in.) for recording purposes instead of a
strip chart.
The sensitivities of an x-y recorder will depend on the design of the input
amplifiers. Some models have plug-in modules that permit the characteristics of
the recorder to be changed. A typical recorder has an attenuated input amplifier
with about 10 different sensitivities ranging from 0.5 mV/in. to 10 V/in. in
conventional models or 0.025 mV/mm to 0.5 V/mm in models with metric cal¬
ibration. The input impedance of both amplifiers is usually about 1 MO. The
deadband, that small zone about the balanee point where friction inhibits exact
zeroing of the error signal, is about 0.1 percent of full scale. Accuracy which
includes deadband error, is typieally 0.2 percent.
 2.4 QUASI-STATIC VOLTMETERS 39

Figure 2.17 An x-y recorder displaying one voltage along the x axis and another along
the y axis. (Courtesy of Soltec, Corporation.)

The dynamic recording characteristics of an x-y recorder depend upon the

amplitude of the quantity being measured, the acceleration capabilities of the
servodrives, and the slewing speed. The slewing speed is the maximum velocity
of the pen when it is being driven by both servodrives. Slewing speeds of 20 in./
s (500 mm/s), with peak accelerations of 1000 in./s^ (25 m/s^) of an individual
servodrive, are common. Typical dynamic performance is represented in Fig. 2.18,
where the linear region of operation is defined in terms of the amplitude and
frequency of the input signals.

NON-LINEAR
Z
<

LINEAR

<
LlI Figure 2.18 Dynamic frequency re¬
Q.
.2 .5 1.0 » '0
FREQUENCY (Hz)
sponse of a typical x-y recorder.
 40 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Many x-y recorders are equipped with a time base so that the recorder can
also be used to record the variable y as a function of time t instead of the variable
X. In this mode of operation, the x-y recorder (acting as a y-t recorder) is similar
to a very slow oscillograph. The time base provides the input signal for the x-
axis servo system. Sweep speeds of 0.5 to 100 s/in. (0.025 to 5 s/mm) are available
in eight calibrated ranges in a typical model.

Data Loggers
A basic data logging system consists of a scanner, a digital voltmeter, and
a recorder. Such a system can be employed to record the output from a large
number of transducers (as many as 1000) at a rate of approximately 15 readings
per second, or it can be used to continuously monitor a single channel. Since
data loggers are relatively fast (10 to 20 readings per second), a system controller
is needed to direct the scanner to each new channel, to control the integration
time for the DVM, and to transfer the output from the DVM to the recorder.
A block diagram of a typical multichannel data logging system is shown in
Fig. 2.19.
The system controller is a microprocessor that uses two separate busses_

Digital Communication Interface

Figure 2.19 Block diagram for a typical data logging system.

 2.4 QUASI-STATIC VOLTMETERS 41

one for data transfer and the other for memory addressing. The software, which
directs the operation of the controller, is stored in a read-only memory (ROM)
and a random-access memory (RAM). The system operating programs are per¬
manently stored in the ROMs, which are programed during manufacture of the
instrument. The operator uses a keyboard to enter individual channel parameters
and other program routines. The input is stored in the RAM.
The scanner contains a bank of switches (usually three pole) that serve to
switch the two leads and the shield from the input cable to the integrating digital
voltmeter. In most cases, high-speed (1000 channels per second) solid-state
switching devices (/ field-effect transistors) are employed. The scanner operation
is directed by the system controller, and several modes of operation are possible
that include single-channel recording, single scan of all channels, continuous
scan, and periodic scan. In the single-channel mode, a preselected channel is
continuously monitored at the reading rate of the system. In the single-scan
mode, the scanner makes a single sequential sweep through a preselected group
of channels. The continuous-scan mode is identical to the single-scan mode,
except that the system automatically resets and recycles on completion of the
previous scan. The periodic scan is simply a single scan that is initiated at
preselected time intervals such as 1, 5, 15, 30, or 60 min. The scanner also
provides a visual display of the channel number and a code signal to the controller
to identify the transducer being monitored.
The transducer signal is switched through the scanner to a high-quality
integrating digital voltmeter that serves as an A/D (analog-to-digital) converter.
The coverage of digital voltmeters beginning on page 33 describes the operation
of the DVM. Data loggers often incorporate digit DVMs capable of counting
between -i-19999 and —19999. With this type of DVM, the decimal is positioned
automatically, depending upon the range that has been selected. For example,
on the 20-mV range, a count of 09400 is automatically interpreted and stored
as 9.400 mV. With this type of DVM, resolution is ±1 |xV and accuracy is
typically ±0.5 percent of full scale. The time required for the DVM to measure
the voltage is about 0.05s. This required reading period establishes the speed
of the system at about 20 readings per second. Higher speeds are possible, but
resolution and accuracy of the readout are sacrificed. For example, a rate of
125 channels per second is possible with a 3j digit DVM that provides 100-p,V
resolution.
The output from a data logger is displayed with a digital panel meter that
indicates the voltage units, polarity, and channel number. A permanent record
is usually made with a line printer that records the output data and identification
on a paper tape. However, the output of most data logging systems can be
recorded with numerous other devices, such as magnetic tapes, auxiliary printers,
or disk memories. One of the principal advantages of a data logging system is
the capability for processing the data in real time with an on-line computer.

A modern data logging system is shown in Fig. 2.20.

 42 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Built-in noiseless thermal printer

provides a permanent record complete with Large, easy-to-read digital display gives the
date, time and engineering unit symbols. operator the necessary facts with 01° resolution.

Easy operation Is assured by

simple command sequences.
Pressing just seven keys logs CLEAR POINT RUN
points 1 through 9.

Figure 2.20 A data logging system. (Courtesy of Doric Scientific Division of Emerson
Electric Company.)

Data Acquisition Systems

Data acquisition systems are similar to data logging systems in that they
accept input from a large number of transducers and automatically process the
data. There are two principal differences between data logging and data acqui¬
sition systems. First, data acquisition systems are much faster (sample rates up
to 20,000 per second), and second, the computer architecture and software
available is different. The higher sampling rates are achieved by replacing the
integrating DVM with high-speed, successive-approximation, analog-to-digital
converters. These converters utilize sample and hold amplifiers which sample
and hold the data while the A-to-D converter is performing a previous conver¬
sion. Systems available today are based on 16-bit microprocessors and smart
terminals (terminals with auxiliary memory and control features) which permit
a significant amount of on-site processing. Also, software is available which
provides the operator with user friendly menus that guide and verify the setup
sequence. Many programs are also available for data analysis. A typical example
of a modern data acquisition system is shown in Fig. 2.21.
 9-Inch

r
CRT

Control
48 Bit Discrete In Keyboard

16 Bit Discrete Out Cartridge

Tape A
Cartridge
64 Tape B
Channels
9-Track Mag
Solid State Tape &
or Formatter
Relay
Transient
Multiplexer
Data
Excitation Memory

Strip
Excitation Printer
High Speed
or 132 Column
Bus for Printer
Integrating
up to
ADC High Speed
Data Link
Expansion
IEEE 488
Chassis
GPIB

Math
(a)
Packages

Figure 2.21 Microprocessor-based data acquisition system. (Courtesy of Cyber Systems,

Inc.) (fl) Input and output from a data acquisition system, {b) Data acquisition system
showing CRT, printer, key pad, and cartridge.
44 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Significant progress can be anticipated in the near future in the development

of data acquisition systems. Future models will incorporate the 32-bit micro¬
processor with 64k memory chips and thus provide a microcomputer with sub¬
stantial power at the test site. Future software developments, particularly those
related to graphics, will permit complete data acquisition, data processing, and
graphical display of results in essentially real time at the test location. These
advances will significantly enhance the value of developmental testing in pro¬
totype evaluations and will greatly reduce the time required in a product de¬
velopment cycle.

2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS

Measuring transient phenomena, where the signal from the transducer is a

rapidly changing function of time, is the most difficult and most expensive meas¬
urement in experimental work. Frequency response is the dominant character¬
istic required of the recording instrument in dynamic measurements and usually
accuracy and economy are sacrificed in order to improve the response capabil¬
ities. Four totally different instruments are used to record transient voltages;
namely, the oscillograph, the oscilloscope, the digital oscilloscope, and the mag¬
netic tape recorder. The oscillograph utilizes a galvanometer, which incorporates
a highly refined D’Arsonval movement, to drive a pen or a light beam over a
moving strip of chart paper. The oscilloscope utilizes a focused beam of electrons
to produce a voltage-time trace on a phosphor screen. The digital oscilloscope
utilizes an analog-to-digital converter to digitize the incoming signal, which is
then stored in a memory prior to display. With the magnetic tape recorder, the
dynamic signal is stored on high-speed magnetic tape for later playback and
display on either an oscillograph or an oscilloscope.

Oscillograph Recorders
Oscillograph recorders employ galvanometers to convert the dynamic input
signal to a displacement on a moving strip of chart paper. There are two types
of oscillographs: the direct-writing type, where the galvanometer drives the pen
or hot stylus used to write on a moving strip of chart paper, and the light-writing
type, where the galvanometer drives a mirror that deflects the light beam used
to write on a moving strip of photosensitive paper. The frequency responses of
the two different types of oscillographs differ markedly. The relatively high
inertia associated with the pen or hot stylus of the direct-writing type limits the
frequency response to about 150 Hz. The inertia of the mirror is much lower in
a light-writing type, and a frequency response as high as 13 kHz has been
achieved.
Both types of recorders can be used to record low-frequency signals; how¬
ever, the direct-writing oscillograph is usually preferred over the light-writing
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 45

type, since the records on chart paper with either the pen or hot stylus are less
expensive, more permanent, and of higher quality than comparable recordings
made on photosensitive paper. A modern, four-channel, pen-type, direct-writing
oscillograph is shown in Fig. 2.22.
The light-writing oscillograph is often used as the recording instrument for
dynamic signals that contain frequency components between zero and 13 kHz.
A schematic diagram illustrating the operating principle of the light-writing
oscillograph is shown in Fig. 2.23a. A typical oscillograph utilizes several gal¬
vanometers that are mounted in a row of holes in magnetic blocks. A mirror,
mounted on the moving member of the galvanometer, reflects a focused beam
of light onto a moving strip of photosensitive paper. The angular rotation of the
mirror produces a deflection of the light beam, which is amplified optically to
provide a trace on the photosensitive paper. The deflection of the trace from a
null position is proportional to the dynamic input voltage. The speed of the strip
of photosensitive paper is controlled by a motor and gear train. The paper speed
can be adjusted to give a specified time scale on the abscissa of the record (i.e.,
along the length of the strip of paper).
The galvanometer for an oscillograph is a highly refined version of the
D’Arsonval movement described in Section 2.3. The essential components of
this type of galvanometer (see Fig. 2.23b) include a filament suspension system,

Figure 2.22 Four-channel, pen-type, direct-writing, oscillographic recorder. (Courtesy

of Hewlett-Packard.)
46 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

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48 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.23(a) Schematic illustration of the components of a light-writing oscillograph.

a rotating coil, a mirror, and a pair of stationary pole pieces. The design features
of the components are varied to change the dynamic characteristics (sensitivity
and frequency response) of different galvanometers. The characteristics of a line
of commercially available galvanometers are presented in Table 2.2. A light¬
writing oscillograph is shown in Fig. 2.23c.

Transient Response of Galvanometers

Since the galvanometer is a highly refined version of a D’Arsonval move¬
ment, its transient response can be studied by considering the equation of motion
for the coil. Thus

r, - r, - r, = (2.23)

where is the applied torque (Eq. 2.12).

T2 is the opposing torque due to the restraining spring (Eq. 2.13).
73 is the opposing torque due to damping.

„ ^ dQ
7-3 - O. ^ (2.24)

Dj is the damping coefficient.

J is the moment of inertia of the rotating mass.
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 49

Substituting Eqs. (2.12), (2.13), (2.14), and (2.24) into Eq. (2.23) yields:

dQ
J , + Z)j—— + KQ = SKI (2.25)
dt^ dt
50 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.23(c) A light-writing oscillograph. (Courtesy of Consolidated Electrodynamics

Corporation.)

where I is the instantaneous current in the coil and 0 is small enough that the
approximation cos 0 ~ 1 is valid.
The dynamic response of a galvanometer can be determined by considering
the transient condition associated with a step-voltage input, which is applied as
indicated in Fig. 2.24. For a step-voltage input, the instantaneous current I in
the coil is given by

j V -
(2.26)
Rs + R-g

where V is the applied signal voltage (constant).

Rs is the resistance of the source.
Rc is the resistance of the galvanometer coil.
is the back electromotive force induced as the coil rotates in the
magnetic field. Thus
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 51

Switch

0 0
Time t —

io) ib)

Figure 2.24 Circuit for applying a step pulse of voltage to a galvanometer, (a) Step-
function input, {b) Galvanometer circuit.

NBID ^ = SK^
dt dt (2.27)

Substituting Eq. (2.27) into Eq. (2.26) and solving for the instantaneous current
/, gives

SK ^
/ = Is (2.28)
Us I^G

where 4 is the steady-state current 4 = ^/(^^ + ^c)- Substituting Eq. (2.28)

into Eq. (2.25) and simplifying gives

+ D — + KQ = SKI,
2 (2.29)
dt^ dt

where the damping coefficient D is a combination of fluid and electromagnetic

2

damping, which can be expressed as

D - D,+
2 (2.30)

It is important to note from Eq. (2.30) that the damping coefficient D can be 2

varied by changing the resistance of the source R,; thus, the dynamic response
of a galvanometer can be adjusted.
Equation (2.29) describes the angular movement of the pen arm or mirror
of a galvanometer with respect to time. Since this is a second-order differential
52 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

equation, the galvanometer is referred to as a second-order instrument. Second-

order systems are important in many aspects of measurements and in shock and
vibration studies in particular; therefore, the solution of Eq. (2.29) will be thor¬
oughly explored. Once it is recognized that Eq. (2.29) describes a damped sec¬
ond-order system, it is convenient to note that the undamped natural frequency
a)„ is given by

(2.31)

Also, the damping ratio d can be defined as

(2.32)
2VlO
By using Eqs. (2.31) and (2.32), Eq. (2.29) can be rewritten as

1
+ ^ ^ + e = 5/, (2.33)
(0^ dt^ co„ dt

The auxiliary equation associated with the complementary solution of Eq. (2.33)
is

2d
-I- k + 1 = 0 (2.34)

which exhibits roots of

\ = (o„(-d ± Vd^ - 1) (2.35)

Inspection of Eq. (2.35) shows that three different solutions of Eq. (2.33) must
be considered. These solutions are

Case 1. Overdamped when d > 1.

Case 2. Critically damped when d = \.
Case 3. Underdamped when d < 1.

The solutions of Eq. (2.33) for these three cases are as follows.

Case 1: Overdamped (d > 1).

e, 2 Vd^ - 1 ^
(2.36)
d + \/ d^ — 1 — (d- Vd2 - l)(u„f
e
2 - 1
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 53

where 0^ = Sl^ is the steady-state deflection of the galvanometer.

In the overdamped case, the response of the galvanometer is sluggish, as
indicated by the response curve of Fig. 2.25. The time required for the galva¬
nometer to reach the steady-state position where 0/0^ = 1 is quite long. In most
applications the overdamped condition is avoided, since the response time is
prohibitively long.

Case 2: Critically damped (d = 1).

^ = 1 - (1 + (2.37)
05

When the galvanometer is critically damped, the response of the galvanom¬

eter is improved with respect to the overdamped condition. The rotation 0
approaches the steady-state rotation 0^, but never exceeds this value. The re¬
sponse curve for a critically damped galvanometer is also shown in Fig. 2.25.

Case 3: Underdamped (cf < 1).

9
sin(Vl - <72 a)„r) -h cos(Vl - <7^ co„t) (2.38)
0. VI - d-

Underdamped galvanometers respond quickly to a transient signal, initially

overshoot the steady-state rotation, and then oscillate with decaying amplitude
about the steady-state rotation 0^ for some time. The response curve for an
underdamped galvanometer is also shown in Fig. 2.25.

The amount of overshoot in the underdamped case depends upon the damp¬
ing ratio used with the galvanometer. The damping ratio that reduces the re-

Time tlT„ = U)„tl2n

Figure 2.25 Response curves for underdamped, critically damped, and overdamped
galvanometers for a step-pulse input.
 54 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

sponse time of the galvanometer to a minimum is dependent on the overshoot

that is permitted. For example, if the accuracy required in a transient measure¬
ment is ±5 percent, a damping ratio is selected such that the overshoot gives
(0/0^.)max ~ 1.05. This example, which is illustrated in Fig. 2.26, shows that the
response curve for the underdamped galvanometer is tangent to the upper ac¬
curacy limit at point A. The response time is defined as the time when the
response curve first intersects the lower accuracy limit (see point B of Fig. 2.26).
For this example, the response time t equals 0.454r„, where the natural
period of oscillation, is given by the expression

T
• II
(2.39)

It should be noted that the response time for the critically damped galvanometer
(point C in Fig. 2.26) is considerably longer (/ = 0.754r„) than the response
time for the underdamped case.
In most applications, galvanometers are employed in an underdamped con¬
dition such that the first overshoot and the subsequent oscillations about 0^ do
not exceed the bandwidth imposed by the error bounds. The damping ratio
required is given by the expression

d = (2.40)

where % is the error associated with the accuracy limits.

Deflection QIB

Figure 2.26 Accuracy limits superimposed on the response curves of a galvanometer.

 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 55

Use of Eq. (2.40) ensures that the overshoot at the peak value of 0/9^ will
be tangent to the upper accuracy limit and that the response time is minimum
for this level of accuracy. Minimum response time as a function of percent
accuracy is shown in Fig. 2.27. Superimposed on this curve at selected points is
the damping ratio required to obtain the level of accuracy. Since galvanometers
are electromagnetically damped, the damping coefficient D2 and thus the damp¬
ing ratio can be varied by adjusting the source resistance R^.

Response of a Galvanometer to a Periodic Signal

When a galvanometer is used to monitor a periodic signal such as a sinusoidal
voltage, the initial transient response discussed in the previous subsection is not
a major consideration. Instead, it is more important to determine whether the
galvanometer is precisely following the input signal. In some cases, the galva¬
nometer will distort the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal and will introduce a
nonlinear phase shift.
The response of a galvanometer to a periodic input I, of the form

/, = sin wr (2.41)

can be studied by considering the equation of motion for the galvanometer

(Eq. 2.33), which has been modified to account for the periodic input. Thus

1 (7^6 2d d%
—; "tt ^--r 6 = 0,i< sin (or (2.42)
ol)„ dt (j)„ dt

where 0* = SI^ is the amplitude of the sinusoidal oscillation.

The particular solution of Eq. (2.42) is required since it describes the steady-
state response of the galvanometer to a periodic input. The particular solution

Percent accuracy

Figure 2.27 Response time as a function of accuracy for a step input.

56 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

of Eq. (2.42) is

0 1
9h< [1 — (co/(o„)^]^ + 4(5f^(a)/a)„)^

{[1 - (co/w„)^]sin 00? - 2of(a)/oo„)cos oo?} (2.43)

The results in Eq. (2.43) can be converted to a more useful form by letting

[1 - (co/oo„)^]sin 00? - 2tf(oo/oo„)cos oo?

sin(oo? — (f)) = (2.44)
V[1 - (w/oo„)2]2 + 4of2(a)/ooJ2

where 4) is a phase angle given by

2?/(oo/oo„)
(f) = arctan (2.45)
1 - ((0/(0„)^

Substituting Eq. (2.44) into Eq. (2.43) yields

0
— = a sin(oo? — of)) (2.46)
0*

where a is the nondimensional amplitude of the galvanometer response, which

can be expressed as

_1_
(2.47)
V[1 — (oo/o0„)2]2 +

The frequency response of a galvanometer is described by Eq. (2.47). The

amplitude a = 0/0* is a function of the frequency ratio (oo/oo„) and the damping
ratio d. The results of Eq. (2.47) are used in Fig. 2.28 to plot the amplitude a
as a function of oo/oo„ for different damping ratios. The frequency response of
the galvanometer depends upon the damping ratios and upon the accuracy re¬
quired. In Fig. 2.29, an error band of ±5 percent has been superimposed on a
response curve {d - 0.59) for a large range of frequencies. Inspection of the
response curve relative to the error bands shows that d = 0.59 optimizes the
frequency response of the galvanometer for these particular accuracy limits. As
illustrated in Fig. 2.29, the response curve stays within the error band for the
range of frequencies 0 < oj/(o„ < 0.87 and is tangent to the upper accuracy limit
at ol)/co„ = 0.60. As the allowable error band is decreased, the range of the
frequency response of the galvanometer also decreases, as indicated in Table
2.3.
=QjQ
V
ouej 0pnj!|dujv
2,5
DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS

Figure 2.28 Amplitude ratio as a function of frequency ratio.

57
58 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.29 Response curve for d = 0.59.

Accurate recording of a dynamic signal also depends upon the phase angle
4), which is given by Eq. (2.45). If the phase angle is a constant, it simply
represents a shift on the time scale of the oscillograph record; therefore, it is
not important when measuring a signal with a constant frequency w. However,
if the galvanometer is used to measure a transient pulse where the input /, is
composed of several frequencies

li ^ Asin k(Dt (2.48)

k=l

then the phase angle must be a linear function of oo to prevent distortion in the
recording.
To illustrate the requirement that cj) must be a linear function of oo, consider
the response of a galvanometer to an input of the form given by Eq. (2.48). For
this example, the output may be written as

9 = fli sin(a)r - ((>1) + 02 sin(2ojf - 4)2) + ^3 sin(3tor - 4)3) + • • • (a)

TABLE 2.3 Frequency Response, Accuracy, and Optimum Damping for

Galvanometers Responding to a Periodic Input

Frequency Response
Allowable Error (%) Optimum Damping d (“/Wjmax

±10 0.540 1.028

± 5 0.589 0.870
± 2 0.634 0.692
± 1 0.655 0.585
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 59

If the phase angle 4) is a linear function of the frequency, then

<^i = CO), 4)2 = 2cco, 4^3 = 3ca), • • • (b)

where c is a proportionality constant associated with the linear phase shift.

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) gives

0 = «! sin oi)(r — c) + ^2 sin 2 (jj(r — c) + ^3 sin 3a)(r — c) + • • • (c)

Examination of Eq. (c) indicates that the time shift c in the recording of each
harmonic is the same; therefore, the composite record of all of the harmonics
will be shifted in time by the amount c = 4^i/o). No distortion will occur, since
the time shift for all of the terms is the same.
Examination of the relationship for the phase angle 4>, Eq. (2.45), shows
that 4) is not, in general, linear with respect to co/to„. This nonlinearity is evident
in Fig. 2.30, where 4> is shown as a function of ol)/(j)„ and the damping ratio d.
Only in the special case when d = 0.64 is the phase angle linear with respect
to a)/oo„ over the range 0 < (co/to^) < 1. It is fortunate that the damping ratios
normally associated with extended frequency response (see Table 2.3) also pro¬
vide a linear or near linear phase angle with respect to frequency. This fact
means that the damping ratio for extended frequency recording and for distor¬
tion-free recording are approximately the same.

Figure 2.30 Phase shift as a function of frequency ratio.

60 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

In more modern high-frequency oscillographs, the galvanometers and as¬

sociated optical components illustrated in Fig. 2.23 have been replaced with a
fiber-optic cathode-ray tube. The face plate of this special-purpose tube consists
of approximately 10 x 10^ glass fibers which have been fused together to form
a 0.2 by 8-in. (5 by 200-mm) rectangular area. The fibers transmit light from
the phosphor coating on the inside surface of the cathode-ray tube to the pho¬
tosensitive direct-print paper which is driven past the face plate of the tube.
This arrangement provides excellent trace resolution (sharp traces) at fast writing
speeds.
Each input channel in this type of oscillograph contains a voltage to time
converter which produces a pulse having a duration proportional to the input
voltage. These pulses activate the beam of the cathode-ray tube which contin¬
uously sweeps at a fixed frequency of 50 kHz. A dotted-trace representation is
avoided at high frequencies by using a memory circuit to produce a continuous
trace.
This major advance in oscillographic recording, which replaces the galva¬
nometers and associated optical components with a special-purpose fiber-optic
cathode-ray tube, eliminates the need for impedance matching and current am¬
plifiers. Also, most of the concerns related to sensitivity and frequency response
are eliminated. The new systems can be used to record up to 18 channels of
data on an 8-in. (200-mm)-wide strip of photosensitive paper at speeds up to
120 in. per second (3000 mm/s). Frequency response is flat from dc to 5 kHz,
and with a high-gain differential amplifier, sensitivities as low as 1 mV per
division can be attained. A photograph of a modern fiber-optic cathode-ray
oscillograph is shown in Fig. 2.31.

Oscilloscopes
The cathode-ray-tube oscilloscope is a voltage measuring instrument that
is capable of recording extremely high-frequency signals. The cathode-ray tube
(CRT), which is the most important component in an oscilloscope, is illustrated
in Fig. 2.32. The CRT is an evacuated tube in which electrons are produced,
controlled, and used to provide a voltage-time record of a transient signal. The
electrons are produced by heating a cathode. Then, the electrons are collected,
accelerated, and focused onto the face of the tube with a grid and a series of
hollow anodes. The impinging stream of electrons forms a bright point of light
on a fluorescent screen at the inside face of the tube. Voltages are applied to
horizontal and vertical deflection plates in the CRT (see Fig. 2.32) to deflect
the stream of electrons and thus move the point of light over the face of the
tube. It is this ability to deflect the stream of electrons that enables the CRT to
act as a dynamic voltmeter with essentially an inertialess indicating system.
An oscilloscope can be used to record a signal y as a function of time, or
it can be used to simultaneously record two unknown signals x and y. A block
diagram of an oscilloscope, presented in Fig. 2.33, shows the inputs and the
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 61

Figure 2.31 A fiber optic cathode-ray oscillograph. (Courtesy of Honeywell Test In¬
struments Division, Denver, Colorado.)

connections to the deflection plates in the CRT. The y and the x inputs are
connected to the vertical and horizontal deflection plates through amplifiers.
Since the sensitivity of the CRT is relatively low (approximately 100 V are
required on the deflection plates to deflect the beam of electrons 1 in. (25 mm)
on the face of the tube), high gain amplifiers are used to increase the voltage
of the input signal.
When the oscilloscope is used as a y-t recorder, the input to the horizontal
amplifier is switched to a sawtooth generator. The sawtooth generator produces

Figure 2.32 Basic elements of a cathode-ray tube.

62 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

power

Figure 2.33 Block diagram for a typical oscilloscope.

a voltage-time output, having the form of a ramp function where the voltage
increases uniformly with time from zero to a maximum and then almost instan¬
taneously returns to zero so that the process can be repeated. When this ramp
function is imposed on the horizontal deflection plates, it causes the electron
beam to sweep from left to right across the face of the tube. When the voltage
from the sawtooth generator goes to zero, the electron beam is returned almost
instantaneously to its starting point. The frequency of the sawtooth generator
can be varied to give different sweep times. Typical sweep rates can be varied
from 10 ns/div to 5 s/div in calibrated steps in a 1-2-5-10 sequence. Since the
face of the CRT is divided into 10 divisions in the x or t direction, observation
times associated with a single-sweep range from 100 ns to 50 s.
Since the observation time can be relatively short, the horizontal sweep
must be synchronized with the event to ensure that a recording of the signal
from the transducer is made at the correct time. Three different triggering modes
are used to synchronize the oscilloscope with the event: the external trigger, the
line trigger, and the internal trigger. Trigger signals from any one of these three
sources activate the sawtooth generator and initiate the horizontal sweep. The
external trigger requires an independent triggering pulse from an external source
usually associated with the dynamic event being measured. A sharp front pulse
of about 2 to 5 V is recommended for the input to the external trigger.
The line trigger utilizes the signal from the power line to activate the saw¬
tooth generator. Since the line-trigger signal is repetitive at 60 Hz, the horizontal
sweep triggers 60 times each second; therefore, the trace on the CRT appears
continuous. The line trigger is quite useful when the oscilloscope is used to
measure periodic waveforms that exhibit a fundamental frequency of 60 Hz.
The internal trigger makes use of the y input signal to activate the sweep.
The level of the trigger signal required to initiate the sawtooth generator can
be adjusted to very low levels; therefore, only a small region of the record is
lost in measuring a transient pulse. If the y input signal is repetitive, the frequency
 2,5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 63

of the sawtooth generator can be adjusted to be nearly equal to some multiple

of the frequency of the input signal. The sawtooth generator is then synchronized
in both frequency and phase with the input signal, and the trace appears sta¬
tionary on the CRT screen.
The trace on the screen of the CRT is produced when the electron beam
impinges on a phosphor coating on the inside face of the tube. Of the total
energy of the beam, 90 percent is converted to heat and 10 percent to light. The
light produced by fluorescence of the phosphor has a degree of persistence that
enhances the visual observation of the trace. For instance, the phosphor iden¬
tified as P31 produces a yellowish-green trace that requires 38 ps to decay to
10 percent of its original intensity. Permanent records of the traces can be made
with special-purpose oscilloscope cameras (see Fig. 2.34) that attach directly to
the mainframe of the oscilloscope.
Many cathode-ray tubes are of the storage type and continue to display the
trace after the input signal ceases. The period of retention varies from a few
seconds to several hours, depending upon the type of phosphor used in fabri¬
cating the screen of the CRT. Most storage tubes utilize a bistable phosphor
that permits the tube to be used in both the storage mode and the conventional
(nonstorage) mode. The writing speed of early model storage oscilloscopes,
operating in the storage mode, was not as high as the writing speed in the
conventional mode. Modern models, however, have been improved and writing
rates now permit analysis of single-shot events without use of a camera. The
advantages of trace storage are numerous. Storage permits easy and accurate
evaluation of slowly changing events that would appear as slowly moving dots
on the conventional CRT. Storage is useful also in observing rapidly changing
nonrepetitive signals that would flash across the screen too quickly to be eval¬
uated on a conventional CRT. Operation in the storage mode also permits one
to carefully select the data to be recorded photographically. Unwanted displays
can be erased, and the expense of photographing is avoided. Finally, many
storage oscilloscopes have split-screen viewing, which allows each half of the
screen (top and bottom) to be used independently for stored trace displays. With
the split screen, a reference trace can be stored on one-half of the screen and
the other half can be used to display the unknown trace. In this manner, com¬
parisons can be made quickly and accurately.
The amplifier used in an oscilloscope is quite important since it controls the
sensitivity, bandwidth, rise time, input impedance, and the number of channels
that can be recorded with the instrument. Because of the importance of the
amplifier to the operational characteristics of the oscilloscope, many instruments
are designed to accept plug-in-type amplifiers (see Fig. 2.34). This arrangement
permits the amplifier to be changed quickly and easily to alter the characteristics
of the oscilloscope.
Bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over which signals are recorded
with less than a 3-dB loss compared to midband performance. Since modern
amplifiers perform very well at low frequencies (down to dc), bandwidth refers
64 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.34 A modern cathode-ray oscilloscope with auxiliary equipment. (Courtesy of

Tektronix, Inc.) (a) Modern cathode-ray oscilloscope with variable persistance storage.
(i>) Oscilloscope with plug-in amplifiers and cart, (c) Oscilloscope camera.

to the highest frequency that can be recorded with an error less than 3 dB (30
percent). Bandwidth and rise time are related such that

fbJr = 0.35 (a)

 2,5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 65

where fi,^ is the bandwidth expressed in megahertz.

is the rise time expressed in nanoseconds.

Since good practice dictates utilization of a vertical amplifier capable of re¬

sponding five times as fast as an applied step signal, Eq. (a) is modified in practice
to

hJr = 1.70 (2.49)

It is apparent from Eq. (2.49) that an amplifier-oscilloscope combination with

a bandwidth of 80 MHz is capable of recording signals with a rise time of
approximately 21 ns.
Sensitivity^ refers to the voltage input needed to produce a prescribed de¬
flection of the electron beam. The sensitivity is usually given in terms of millivolts
per division (mV/div). Sensitivity of a typical amplifier ranges from 5 mV/div
to 10 V/div in calibrated steps arranged in a 1-2-5 sequence. Higher sensitivity
can be achieved; however, a reduction in bandwidth is required. Increasing
bandwidth increases the noise pick-up, decreases sensitivity, and increases the
cost of the amplifier. For general-purpose mechanical measurements, rise times
shorter than 100 ns are seldom needed, therefore, low-performance amplifiers
(500-kHz bandwidth) are usually adequate. For very-high-speed electronic or
optic measurements, amplifiers with 18-GHz bandwidth may be required and
are available. With respect to sensitivity-bandwidth trade-off, it is advisable to
specify only the minimum bandwidth required and to work with the higher
sensitivity and lower noise amplifiers. The input impedance of most amplifiers
used with oscilloscopes is 1 MH paralleled by 20 to 50 pF of capacitance.
The input amplifier also controls the number of traces displayed on the
oscilloscope screen. In some models an electronic switch is housed in the am¬
plifier that alternately connects two input signals to the vertical deflection system
in the CRT. The principal advantages of using this feature to produce a dual¬
trace oscilloscope are lower cost and better comparison capabilities. Both of
these advantages are due to the fact that only one horizontal amplifier and one
set of deflection plates is used in making both traces. However, high-speed
transient events are difficult to record in this manner since a significant variation
might occur on one channel while the beam is tracing on the other channel.
Since the electronic switch operates at a frequency of approximately 250 kHz,
dynamic events with frequencies between 25 and 50 kHz (i^ to 5 of the switching
frequency) can be recorded. Whenever two nonrecurrent signals of very short
duration must be recorded together, dual-beam oscilloscopes are employed. A
dual-beam oscilloscope has independent deflection plates within the CRT for
each beam and employs independent horizontal and vertical amplifiers for each
beam. The dual-beam system is superior to the dual-trace system, since it can
display two signals separately and simultaneously; however, it is more costly.

^ Oscilloscope manufacturers use reciprocal sensitivity to describe the deflection voltage rela¬
tionship (see Eq. 2.7).
66 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Digital Oscilloscopes
The digital oscilloscope is identical to the conventional oscilloscope except
for the manipulation of the input signal prior to its display on the CRT and for
the permanent storage capabilities of the instrument. With a digital oscilloscope,
the input signal is converted to digital form, stored in a buffer memory, and
then transferred to a mainframe memory prior to display. A microprocessor
controls the storage, transfer, and display of the data. A photograph of a modern
digital oscilloscope is presented in Fig. 2.35.
Since the input data are stored in addition to being displayed, operation of
the digital oscilloscope differs from the operation of the conventional oscillo¬
scope. The display on the CRT of the digital oscilloscope is a series of points
produced by the electron beam at locations controlled by the data in storage.
Operation begins when a trigger signal is received. First, the input signal
is converted into digital form by an analog-to-digital converter that measures
the signal at preselected intervals. The converted signal is in binary form with
either 8- or 12-bit resolution. With 12-bit resolution, the voltage range is 4096
increments (from —2048 at the bottom of the screen to +2047 at the top of the
screen). Resolution with 12 bits is 0.025 percent; with 8 bits, it is 0.4 percent.
The analog-to-digital converter measures the signal periodically at preselected
sampling intervals (termed sweep speeds). Sampling intervals can be varied from
500 ns per point to 200 s per point in calibrated steps arranged in a 1-2-5-10
sequence. When a measurement is completed, the data are stored in a buffer
memory at an address that is proportional to the time at which the data were
taken. When all measurements have been made (usually 1024, 2048, or 4096
measurements), the sweep ends (the buffer memory is full) and the data are
transferred from the buffer memory to the mainframe memory. The micro¬
processor monitors the mainframe memory and produces the display of the

Figure 2.35 A digital oscilloscope with auxiliary-disk memory. (Courtesy of Nicolet

Instrument Corp.)
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 67

voltage-time trace on the CRT. The resolution of the trace is excellent since a
12-bit digital-to-analog converter gives 4096 vertical data locations on the screen
of the CRT.
The fact that the input signal has been stored in the mainframe or on an
auxiliary-disk memory offers many advantages for data display or data process¬
ing. The data are displayed on the CRT in a repetitive manner so that traces of
one-shot, transient events appear stationary. The trace can also be manipulated
by expanding either the horizontal or vertical scales or both. This expansion
feature permits a small region of the record to be enlarged and examined in
detail, as illustrated in Fig. 2.36. Readout of the data from the trace is also much
easier and more accurate with digital oscilloscopes. A pair of marker lines (one
vertical and the other horizontal) can be positioned anywhere on the screen.
The procedure is to position the vertical line at a time on the trace when a
reading of the voltage is needed. The horizontal marker (or cross hair) auto¬
matically positions itself on the trace. The coordinates of the cross-hair inter¬
section with the trace are presented as a numerical display on the screen, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.37.
The auxiliary storage is a magnetic disk with significant storage capacity.
In operation, data are transferred from the mainframe memory to the disk for
storage or from the disk to the mainframe memory for display.
There are several advantages of auxiliary-disk storage of data. The data can
be stored permanently on inexpensive disks and quickly recalled for display and
analysis. Signals occurring in sequence can be automatically recorded and stored.
The disk memory increases the mainframe memory size by a factor of 8, so that
an uninterrupted record 32 s long may be stored with 1-ms time resolution. The
data bus is compatible with computers and calculators; therefore, data from the
oscilloscope can be transmitted directly to the computer. Once the data are
processed, they can be transmitted back to the disk storage unit and then to the
mainframe storage for display of the externally processed results.
Digital oscilloscopes are relatively new; early models were introduced only
in 1972. Initially, performance of digital oscilloscopes was limited due to the
relatively low bandwidth capability (10 kHz or less). Recent improvements in
digital electronics (particularly high-speed analog-to-digital converters) and the
introduction of the microprocessor have greatly enhanced the speed of conver¬
sion and storage of the data. Today, plug-in units with 8-bit resolution are
available with a rise-time capability of 50 ns; with 12-bit resolution, the rise time
is 500 ns. Except for very high-speed transient signals, where rise times are less
than 50 ns, the digital oscilloscope is superior in every respect to the conventional
oscilloscope. As costs for the digital oscilloscope decrease, they should become
more widely used than the conventional oscilloscope for mechanical measure¬
ments.

Magnetic Tape Recorders

Magnetic tape recorders are used to store dynamic signals when the fre¬
quency components in the signals range from dc to approximately 40 kHz. The
 68
VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.36 Expansion of the display on the screen of a digital oscilloscope, (a) Unmagnified, {b) Both
axes expanded by a factor of 4. (c) Both axes expanded by a factor of 16. {d) Both axes expanded by a
factor of 64. (Courtesy of Nicolet Instrument Corp.)
 2,5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 69

Figure 2.37 Numeric display of data on the screen of a digital oscilloscope. (Courtesy
of Nicolet Instrument Corp.)

recording is accomplished by applying a magnetizing field to a magnetic film

coating on a Mylar tape. The recording process is illustrated in Fig. 2.38. The
magnetic flux in the record head fluctuates due to variations in the input signal
and a magnetic record of these variations is permanently imposed on the coating.
The data are retrieved by moving the tape under the reproduce head where the
variations in the magnetic field stored on the tape induce a voltage in the windings
of the reproduce head that produces the output signal.
In a magnetic tape recorder, the Tin. (12.7-mm)- or 1-in. (25.4-mm)-wide
tape is driven at a constant speed by a servo-type dc capstan motor over either
the record or reproduce heads, as shown in Fig. 2.39. The speed of the capstan
motor is monitored with a photocell and tone wheel. The frequency of the signal
from the photocell is compared with the frequency from a crystal oscillator to

Record head Reproduce head

Recording takes place

at trailing edge of gap

Figure 2.38 The magnetic recording process. (Courtesy of Ampex Corp.)

70 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2.39 Constant-speed tape drive. (Courtesy of Honeywell Test Instruments Di¬
vision, Denver, Colorado.)

produce a feedback signal that is used in a closed-loop servo system to maintain

a constant tape speed. Tape speeds have been standardized at if, 1§, 3|, 7\, 15,
30, 60, and 120 in./s (23.8, 47.6, 95.3, 191, 381, 762, 1524, and 3048 mm/s).
Tape with a thin base (2 mil) is available on lOi-in. (267-mm) reels to provide
7200 ft (2200 m) of tape, which is equivalent to over 24 h of recording time at
a tape speed of If in./s (23.8 mm/s).
Multichannel recorders employ four stacked-head assemblies that are pre¬
cisely positioned on a single base plate to ensure alignment of the tape. Two of
the heads are for recording and the other two are for reproducing as indicated
in Fig. 2.39. As the tape passes the first head assembly, odd-channel data are
recorded; as it passes the second head assembly, even-channel data are recorded.
This recording procedure minimizes interchannel cross talk by maximizing the
spacing between individual heads in the stacked-head assembly. Use of two
recording-head stacks permits seven channels to be recorded on l-in. (12.7-mm)
tape or 14 channels on 1-in. (25.4-mm) tape.
There are three different types of recording in common usage: direct or
AM, FM, and digital. The characteristics of each type of recording are shown
in Fig. 2.40. The direct or AM (amplitude modulation) recording method is the
most commonly used, since it is simple, low cost, and suitable for most audio
(speech and music) recordings. The signal to be recorded is amplified, mixed
with a high-frequency bias, and then used to drive the record head. In playback
or reproduction, the tape is driven under the reproduce head at the same speed
 2.5 DYNAMIC VOLTMETERS 71

that was used in recording. The output of the head is proportional to the fre¬
quency of the recorded signal. The output from the reproduce head is then fed
into a reproduce amplifier that must have a frequency response that is the inverse
of the frequency response of the reproduce head in order to obtain a flat fre¬
quency response for the system.
There are two very serious disadvantages to AM-type recording. First, the
lowest frequency that can be recorded is about 50 Hz; therefore, dc or slowly
varying signals cannot be stored. Second, imperfections in the coating on the
tape can produce significant reductions in signal levels for short periods, which
can cause serious errors in the recording of transient signals. This type of error
can be tolerated in speech or music recording, but not in data recording where
precision is critical. Because of these two limitations, AM or direct recording is
used only on one track of a multitrack recorder for voice commentary relative
to the event being recorded (identification and/or experimental description).
The method used most frequently to record data is the FM (frequency
modulation) method, since it overcomes both of the limitations of AM recording.

Direct AM FM carrier Digital

10 11 0 1

Low- to high-frequency DC to medium-high- Digitally-coded level-

data received by the frequency data as change signal from
recorder. received by the analog-to-digital
recorder. converter or from
computer.

- ► 10 110 1
No coding or Carrier signal is Record-current polarity
modulation is used. frequency modulated changes each time a
by the data. "one" is to be recorded.
This is non-return-to-
zero recording.

Data are recorded Modulated carrier is Signals are recorded at

recorded directly on tape-saturation level.
directly as a magnetic
signal on the tape. tape at near-saturation
level.

Figure 2.40 Features of direct AM, FM carrier, and digital methods for magnetic re¬
cording.
 72 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

With FM recording, the input signal is used to drive a voltage-controlled oscil¬

lator (VCO). The VCO outputs its center frequency with zero input voltage. A
positive dc input signal produces an increase in the frequency of the carrier signal
issued from the VCO, while an ac input signal produces carrier frequencies on
both sides of the center frequency. Thus, with frequency modulation (FM) the
voltage-time data are recorded on the tape in the frequency domain. Low-
frequency or dc input signals can be recorded and amplitude instabilities due to
imperfections in the coating on the tape do not markedly affect the output.
The signal is retrieved from the magnetic tape in a playback process that
includes filtering and demodulation. The signal from the reproduce head is
filtered to remove the carrier frequency and then demodulated to give the output
signal. This output signal is displayed on some other type of recorder, such as
an oscillograph or an oscilloscope. The magnetic tape system is used only to
record and store data. Display of the data can be enhanced, since the recording
can be reproduced at a different tape speed than that used for recording. This
procedure alters the time base; therefore, voltage-time traces can be stretched
or compressed. Data stored on magnetic tape can also be processed automatically

Figure 2.41 A modern magnetic tape recorder. (Courtesy of Honeywell Test Instru¬
ments Division, Denver, Colorado.)
 2.6 SUMMARY 73

without visual display. For FM records, the output signal can be fed into an
analog-to-digital converter. The digitized data can then be processed on a com¬
puter according to programmed instructions. A photograph of a modern, port¬
able, magnetic tape recorder is shown in Fig. 2.41.
Digital recording involves storing two-level data (0 and 1) and is accom¬
plished by magnetizing the tape to saturation in either one of the two possible
directions. In one type of digital recording (return to zero), the positive state
of saturation represents the binary digit 1 and the negative state of saturation
represents the digit 0. Data are recorded as a series of pulses that represent the
decimal number (expressed in binary code) of the voltage input averaged over
a sampling interval. Bits that express the number are recorded simultaneously
in parallel across the width of the tape, with each bit on a separate track.
While digital recording is sensitive to tape dropouts, thus requiring high-
quality tape and tape transports that ensure excellent head-to-tape contact, other
aspects of digital recording are easier than those associated with FM recording.
The output is not strongly dependent on tape speed and the record and reproduce
amplifiers are simple and therefore inexpensive. Also, since the output is in
digital form it can be processed directly on a computer.
The primary disadvantage of digital recording has been the need to digitize
the input data prior to recording. This disadvantage is currently being overcome,
since significant improvements are being made in high-speed analog-to-digital
converters. It is possible that developments in high-speed A-to-D converters will
permit digital recorders to replace FM recorders in the near future for dynamic
recording of long-term events.

2.6 SUMMARY

A voltage recording instrument, the final component in a measuring system,

is used to convert a voltage representing the unknown quantity into a display
for visual readout or into a digital code that is suitable for automatic data
processing. The instruments in use today (1983) range from simple analog volt¬
meters to complex digital oscilloscopes with auxiliary magnetic storage. While
all five of the general characteristics of a recording instrument (input impedance,
sensitivity, range, zero drift, and frequency response) are important, the single
characteristic that dominates selection of a recorder is frequency response.
Static measurements, where frequency response is not important and the
unknown is represented by a single number that is independent of time, can be
made quickly and accurately with relatively inexpensive voltmeters. When the
phenomena being studied begin to vary with time, the recording instrument
becomes more complex, less accurate, and more expensive. The major difficulty
experienced in measuring unknown parameters associated with time-dependent
phenomena is the need to display the data with respect to time.
Display of the data for quasi-static measurements, where the unknown is
varying with a frequency of less than a few hertz, can be accomplished with a
74 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

servo-driven potentiometer recorder. The servo-driven potentiometer provides

an accurate and inexpensive means of measuring and displaying a voltage; the
time display of the voltage is presented on a strip of chart paper that is driven
by a simple clock motor. For very slowly varying quantities (say one cycle every
few minutes), switching can be used with a single potentiometer recorder to
handle multiple inputs. However, for many studies, an independent channel is
needed for each unknown quantity being measured. This type of requirement
greatly increases the complexity and cost of the measurements.
As the frequency of the unknown quantity increases to about 10 kHz,
recording instruments with adequate frequency response must be used in the
measurement system. Oscillographs with galvanometer driven pens or hot stylus
are used for frequencies between 0 and 150 Hz. For frequencies between 0 and
10 kHz, light-writing oscillographs with galvanometer driven mirrors or fiber¬
optic cathode-ray tubes are used. Magnetic tape recorders are useful for fre¬
quencies up to about 50 kHz. Signals with frequencies above 50 kHz must be
recorded with either digital or conventional oscilloscopes. As the frequency
increases, it is evident that the recording instrument becomes more sophisticated,
more difficult to operate, less accurate, and more expensive. The data obtained
are usually in the form of voltage-time records or traces that require considerable
time for analysis.
Recent advances in digital electronics are resulting in new instruments that
offer significant advantages in making measurements at both ends of the fre¬
quency spectrum. Digital voltmeters and data acquisition systems are easy to
use and offer a relatively low-cost method for acquiring and processing large
amounts of low-frequency data. The digital oscilloscope has the capacity to store
high-speed transient signals that can be easily displayed, compared, and proc¬
essed externally on a computer. Perhaps in the near future a digital recorder
will be developed for the middle range of frequencies (10 Hz to 10 kHz) that
will offer advantages over the galvanometer type of oscillographic recorder.

EXERCISES

2.1 List the general characteristics of a recording instrument.

2.2 Determine the power loss in a voltmeter with an input impedance of
20,000 H if it is used to measure voltages of 1 mV, 5 mV, 10 mV, 50
mV, 100 mV, 500 mV, 1 V, 5 V, 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. ’
2.3 Prepare a graph showing power loss in a voltmeter as a function of
voltage with input impedance as a parameter. (Will the use of semilog
paper simplify this task?)
2.4 Determine the errors if the voltmeter in Exercise 2.2 is used to measure
voltages from sources with output impedances of 0.1 H, 0.5 H, 1 H, 5
a, 10 a, 50 a, loo a, 500 a, and 1000 a.
 2.6 SUMMARY 75

2.5 If a voltmeter load error of 2 percent is acceptable, what limit must be

placed on the resistance ratio RJR^l
2.6 An oscilloscope being used to measure a voltage-time function exhibits
a deflection of 3.6 divisions. The sensitivity of the oscilloscope is 0.2
div/V. Determine the reciprocal sensitivity and the voltage represented
by the deflection.
2.7 The oscilloscope described in Exercise 2.6 has eight divisions in the
vertical direction on the face of the tube. For the sensitivity given in
Exercise 2.6, determine the range. If the sensitivity is increased to 0.5
div/V, determine the new range. Can both sensitivity and range be
increased simultaneously?
2.8 An amplifier that is being used in an instrumentation system to measure
a voltage of 9 mV over a period of two weeks exhibits a drift of 0.1
mV/h. Determine the error that may result from zero drift.
2.9 Specifications for a recorder indicate that it is down 2 dB at 100 Hz.
Determine the error if the recorder is used to measure a signal with a
frequency of 100 Hz.
2.10 Tests with a recorder at frequencies of 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 Hz
provided the following output-to-input ratios Co/C,: 1.01, 1.03, 1.05,
1.00, 0.93, and 0.80. Determine the amplitude ratio in terms of decibels
at each frequency.
2.11 The sensitivity of a galvanometer is listed by the manufacturer as 20-
pA full scale. The full-scale rotation of the pointer is 60 degrees. De¬
termine the sensitivity S of the galvanometer by using the definition of
sensitivity given in Eq. (2.14).
2.12 A galvanometer with a 40-fl coil is rated at 10-mA full scale. Determine
the required shunt resistance if it is to be used to measure a 20-A current.
2.13 Determine the series resistors needed to convert a 50-pA full-scale
galvanometer to a multimeter with full-scale voltages of 10 mV, 30 mV,
50 mV, 100 mV, 300 mV, 500 mV, 1 V, 3 V, 5 V, and 10 V. The coil
of the galvanometer has a resistance of 35 ft.
2.14 Determine the loading error for the multimeter of Exercise 2.13 if it is
used to measure voltage from a source with a lOOO-H output resistance.
Determine the error for each of the 10 scales. Why does this error differ
and for what scale is it the largest?
2.15 Outline the advantages of the amplified voltmeter when compared to
the conventional voltmeter.
2.16 What is the most significant advantage of a null-balance instrument?
2.17 A potentiometer with a slide-wire resistor 10 in. (254 mm) long is
balanced with the wiper at the 4.5-in. (114-mm) position. If the ref¬
erence voltage is 2 mV, determine the input voltage.
76 VOLTAGE RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

2.18 Define resolution for a digital voltmeter (DVM).

2.19 Determine the resolution for three-, four-, five-, and six-digit digital
voltmeters.
2.20 Describe how a single-channel strip-chart recorder can be converted so
that it can record data from several different sources.
2.21 Define the terms deadband and slewing speed as they apply to an x-y
recorder.
2.22 List the advantages of a data logging system over a strip-chart recorder
for the following types of recording:

(a) Single-channel (b) Multiple-channel

2.23 List the disadvantages of a data logging system over a strip-chart re¬
corder for the following types of recording:

(a) Single-channel (b) Multiple-channel

2.24 Verify Eq. (2.36).

2.25 Verify Eq. (2.37).
2.26 Verify Eq. (2.38).
2.27 For an error band of ±5 percent, show that the response time of a
critically damped galvanometer to a step-function input is tlT„ = 0.754.
2.28 Verify Eq. (2.39).
2.29 Determine the degree of damping d to be specified for a galvanometer
measuring step-type transients if the specified error band is ± 1 percent,
±2 percent, ±5 percent, and ±10 percent.
2.30 Beginning with Eq. (2.43), verify Eqs. (2.44) and (2.45).
2.31 Verify the results presented in Table 2.3.
2.32 A current represented by

/ = 10 sin 400r + 2 sin 800r + sin 1200t

is recorded by a galvanometer, with d = 0.55 and = 1200 rad/s.

Determine the output. Compare the input and output signals and de¬
termine amplitude and time distortion of the recorded pulse.
2.33 Describe measurements that would be made with each of the follow¬
ing trigger modes:

(a) Internal
(b) Line
(c) External

2.34 Outline the differences between conventional and storage cathode-ray

tubes.
 2.6 SUMMARY 77

2.35 Define bandwidth and describe its importance in measuring transient

signals.
2.36 Prepare a graph showing rise time as a function of bandwidth for use
with oscilloscopes.
2.37 Outline the differences between dual-trace and dual-beam oscillo¬
scopes.
2.38 Describe measurements where a dual-trace oscilloscope would be ad¬
equate.
2.39 Describe measurements where a dual-beam oscilloscope would be nec¬
essary.
2.40 What are the essential differences between digital and conventional
oscilloscopes?
2.41 Tabulate the counts associated with signal conversion in binary form
for 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 bits.
2.42 How many data locations are possible on a CRT screen if an eight-bit
analog-to-digital converter is used with an eight-line data bus?
2.43 List the advantages of a digital oscilloscope when compared to a con¬
ventional oscilloscope.
2.44 List the disadvantages of a digital oscilloscope when compared to a
conventional oscilloscope.
2.45 What is the role of auxiliary storage in applying digital oscilloscopes to
transient measurements?
2.46 If the sweep rate is as shown below, determine the observation period
with a digital oscilloscope having eight data lines:

(a) 500 ns/point (c) 10 ms/point

(b) 2 |i,s/point (d) 200 s/point

2.47 If the sweep rate is as shown below, determine the observation period
with a digital oscilloscope having 12 data lines:

(a) 500 ns/point (c) 10 ms/point

(b) 2 |jLs/point (d) 200 s/point

2.48 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the direct or AM method

of recording.
2.49 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the FM method of re¬
cording.
2.50 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the digital method of re¬
cording.
 THREE
SENSORS FOR
TRANSDUOERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Transducers are electromechanical devices that convert a change in a me¬

chanical quantity such as displacement or force into a change in an electrical
quantity that can be monitored as a voltage after signal processing. A wide
variety of transducers are available for use in measuring mechanical quantities.
Transducer characteristics include range, sensitivity, linearity, and operating
temperature limits. Transducer characteristics are determined primarily by the
sensor that is incorporated into the transducer to produce the electrical output.
For example, a set of strain gages on a tension link provides a transducer that
produces a resistance change ^RIR that is proportional to the load applied to
the tension link. The strain gages serve as the sensor in this force transducer
and play a dominant role in establishing the characteristics of the transducer.
Many different sensors are utilized in transducer design, such as potentiom¬
eters, differential transformers, strain gages, capacitor sensors, piezoelectric
elements, piezoresistive crystals, thermistors, etc. The important features of
 3,2 POTENTIOMETERS 79
sensors that are commonly used either directly for measurements or as a part
of a transducer are described in this chapter.

3.2 POTENTIOMETERS

The simplest form of potentiometer is the slide-wire resistor shown sche¬

matically in Fig. 3.1. The sensor consists of a length I of resistance wire attached
across a voltage source £,. A wiper moves along the length of the wire. The
relationship between the output voltage and the position x of the wiper can
be expressed as

(3.1)

Thus, the slide-wire potentiometer can be used to measure a displacement x.

Straight-wire resistors are not feasible for most applications, since the resistance
of a short length of wire is low and low resistance imposes excessive power
requirements on the voltage source.
High-resistance wire-wound potentiometers are obtained by winding the
resistance wire around an insulating core, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The unit illus¬
trated in Fig. 3.2a is used for linear displacement measurements. Cylindrically
shaped potentiometers similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 3.2b are used for
angular displacement measurements. The resistance of wire-wound potentiom¬
eters ranges between 10 and 10^ Cl, depending upon the diameter of the wire
used to wind the coil, the length of the coil, and the material used for the coil.
The resistance of the wire-wound potentiometer increases in a stepwise
manner as the wiper moves from one turn to the adjacent turn. This step change
in resistance limits the resolution of the potentiometer to Lin, where n is the
number of turns in the length L of the coil. Resolutions from 0.05 to 1 percent
are common, with the lower limit obtained by using many turns of very small
diameter wire.
The range of the potentiometer is controlled by the active length L of the
coil. Linear potentiometers are available in many lengths up to about 1 m. The
range of the angular displacement potentiometer can be extended by arranging

■O

Slide wire

X E,o
O

Figure 3.1 Slide-wire resistance potentiometer.

80 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

Figure 3.2 (a) Wire-wrapped resistance potentiometer for longitudinal displacements.

(b) Wire-wrapped resistance potentiometer for angular displacements.

the coil in the form of a helix. Helical potentiometers are commercially available
with as many as 20 turns; therefore, angular displacements as large as 7200
degrees can be measured quite easily.
In recent years, potentiometers have been introduced that utilize a film of
conductive plastic instead of a wire-wound coil. The film resistance on the in-

Figure 3.3 (a) Precision wirewound and (b) precision conductive-plastic linear poten¬
tiometers. (Courtesy of Maurey Instrument Corp.)
 3.3 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS 81

Figure 3.4 Precision conductive-plastic angular potentiometers. (Courtesy of Maurey

Instrument Corp.)

sulating substrate exhibits essentially infinite resolution together with lower noise
and longer life. A resistance of 50 to 100 fi/mm can be obtained with the
conductive plastics. Potentiometers with a resolution of 0.001 mm are commer¬
cially available. Photographs of linear and angular potentiometers are shown in
Figs. 3.3 and 3.4, respectively.
The dynamic response of the linear potentiometer is limited by the mass of
the wiper. The response of the circular potentiometer is limited by the inertia
of the shaft and wiper assembly.
Electronic noise often occurs as the brush on the wiper moves from one
turn to the next. Much of the noise can be eliminated by ensuring that the coil
is clean and free of oxide films and by applying a light lubricating film to the
coil. Under ideal conditions, the life of a wire-wound potentiometer exceeds 1
million cycles; the life of a conductive-plastic potentiometer exceeds 10 million
cycles.
Potentiometers are used primarily to measure relatively large displacements,
that is, 10 mm or more for linear motion and 15 degrees or more for angular
motion. Potentiometers are relatively inexpensive d'nd accurate; however, their
main advantage is simplicity of operation, since only a voltage source and a
simple voltmeter comprise the instrumentation system. Their primary disadvan¬
tage is limited frequency response which precludes their use for dynamic meas¬
urements.

3.3 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

Differential transformers, based on a variable-inductance principle, are also

used to measure displacement. The most popular variable-inductance transducer
for linear displacement measurements is the linear variable differential trans¬
former (LVDT). The LVDT illustrated in Fig. 3.5fl consists of three symmet¬
rically spaced coils wound onto an insulated bobbin. A magnetic core, which
moves through the bobbin without contact, provides a path for magnetic flux
82 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

Coil 1, secondary Coil 2, secondary

Difference voltage

ia)

Figure 3.5 (a) Sectional view of a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).
(b) Schematic diagram of the LVDT circuit.

linkage between coils. The position of the magnetic core controls the mutual
inductance between the center or primary coil and the two outer or secondary
coils.
When an ac carrier excitation is applied to the primary coil, voltages are
induced in the two secondary coils that are wired in a series-opposing circuit,
as shown in Fig. 3.5b. When the core is centered between the two secondary
coils, the voltages induced in the secondary coils are equal but out of phase by
180 degrees. With the series-opposing circuit, the voltages in the two coils cancel
and the output voltage is zero. When the core is moved from the center position,
an imbalance in mutual inductance between the primary and secondary coils
occurs and an output voltage develops. The output voltage is a linear function
of core position, as shown in Fig. 3.6, as long as the motion of the core is within
the operating range of the LVDT. The direction of motion can be determined
from the phase of the output voltage.
The frequency of the voltage applied to the primary winding can range from
50 to 25,000 Hz. If the LVDT is to be used to measure dynamic displacements,
the carrier frequency should be 10 times greater than the highest frequency
component in the dynamic signal. Highest sensitivities are attained with exci¬
tation frequencies between 1 and 5kHz. The input voltage ranges from 5 to 15
V. The power required is usually less than 1 W. Sensitivities of different LVDTs
vary from 0.02 to 0.2 V/mm of displacement per volt of excitation applied to
 3.3 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS 83

Core at A Core at null Core at B

ib)

Figure 3.6 Output voltage as a function of LVDT core position, {a) Magnitude of the
output voltage, {b) Phase-referenced output voltage.

the primary coil. At rated excitation voltages, sensitivities vary from 0.16 to 2.6
V/mm of displacement. The higher sensitivities are associated with short-stroke
LVDTs, with an operating range of ±2 mm; the lower sensitivities are for long-
stroke LVDTs, with a range of ±150 mm.
Since the LVDT is a passive sensor requiring ac excitation at a voltage and
84 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

Figure 3.7 Block diagram of a signal conditioning circuit for an LVDT.

frequency not commonly available, signal conditioning circuits must be employed

in its operation. A typical signal conditioner (see Fig. 3.7 for a block diagram)
provides a power supply, a frequency generator to drive the LVDT, and a
demodulator to convert the ac output signal from the LVDT to a dc output
voltage. Finally, a dc amplifier is incorporated in the signal conditioner to provide
a higher output voltage than can be obtained directly from the LVDT.
During the past decade, solid-state electronic devices have been developed
that permit production of miniature signal conditioning circuits that can be
packaged within the cover of an LVDT. The result is a small self-contained
sensor known as a direct current differential transformer (DCDT). A DCDT
operates from a battery or a regulated power supply and provides an amplified
output signal. The output impedance of a DCDT is relatively low (about 100
a).
The LVDT and the DCDT are both used to measure linear displacement;
however, an analogous device known as a rotary variable differential transformer
(RVDT) has been developed to measure angular displacements. As shown in
Fig. 3.8, the RVDT consists of two primary coils and two secondary coils wound
symmetrically on a large-diameter insulated bobbin. A cardioid-shaped rotor,
fabricated from a magnetic material, is mounted on a shaft that extends through
the bobbin and serves as the core. As shaft rotation turns the core, the mutual
inductance between the primary and secondary windings varies and the output
voltage-versus-rotation response curve shown in Fig. 3.9 is produced.
Although the RVDT is capable of a complete rotation (360 degrees), the
range of linear operation is limited to ±40 degrees. The linearity of a typical
RVDT having a range of ± 40 degrees is about 0.5 percent of the range. Reducing
the operating range improves the linearity, and an RVDT operating within a
range of ±5 degrees exhibits a linearity of about 0.1 percent of this range.
The LVDT, DCDT, and RVDT have many advantages as sensors for meas¬
uring displacement. There is no contact between the core and the coils; therefore,
friction is eliminated, thereby giving infinite resolution and no hysteresis. Non-
contact also ensures that life will be very long with no significant deterioration
of performance over this period. ^ The small core mass and freedom from friction
give the sensor some capability for dynamic measurements. Finally, the sensors
are not damaged by overtravel; therefore, they can be employed as feedback

‘ Mean time between failures for a typical DCDT is 33,000 h.

 3.4 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES 85

Figure 3.8 Simplified cross section of a rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT).

transducers in servo-controlled systems where overtravel occasionally may occur.

Typical performance characteristics for LVDTs, DCDTs, and RVDTs are listed
in Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, respectively.

3.4 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Electrical resistance strain gages are thin metal-foil grids (see Fig. 3.10) that
can be adhesively bonded to the surface of a component or structure. When the
component or structure is loaded, strains develop and are transmitted to the foil
grid. The resistance of the foil grid changes in proportion to the load-induced
strain. The strain sensitivity of metals (copper and iron) was first observed by
Lord Kelvin in 1856. The effect can be explained by the following simple analysis.
The resistance R of a uniform metallic conductor can be expressed as

R = ^ (3.2)

Figure 3.9 Output signal as a function of angular displacement for a typical RVDT.
86 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

TABLE 3.1 Performance Characteristics of Linear Variabie Differentiai Trans¬

formers (LVDTs)
[Courtesy of Schoevitz Engineering]

Linearity Impedance
Nominal ± Percent (XI)
Linear Sensitivity
Percent of Full Range
Model Range _ ^ (1:mV/V)/0.001
Number (in.) 50 100 125 150 in.) Primary Secondary

050 HR 0.050 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.50 6.3 430 4000

100 HR 0.100 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.50 4.5 1070 5000
200 HR 0.200 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.50 2.5 1150 4000
300 HR 0.300 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 1.4 1100 2700
400 HR 0.400 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.60 0.90 1700 3000
500 HR 0.500 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.75 0.73 460 375
1000 HR ± 1.000 0.25 0.25 1.00 1.30“ 0.39 460 320
2000 HR ± 2.000 0.25 0.25 0.50“ 1.00“ 0.24 330 330
O
O

3000 HR ± 3.000 0.15 0.25 0.50“ 0.27 115 375

4000 HR 4.000 0.15 0.25 0.50“ 1.00“ 0.22 275 550
O
O

5000 HR 5.000 0.15 0.25 — 0.15 310 400

10000 HR 10.000 0.15 0.25 1.00“ — 0.08 550 750

® Requires reduced core length.

Figure 3.10 Electrical resistance strain gages. (Courtesy of BLH Electronics.)

 3.4 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES 87

where p is the specific resistance of the metal.

L is the length of the conductor.
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Differentiating Eq. (3.2) and dividing by the resistance R gives

dR dp dL dA
(a)
R p L A

The term dA represents the change in cross-sectional area of the conductor

resulting from the applied load. For the case of a uniaxial tensile stress state,
recall that

dL
ea
L (b)
dL
er = - ve„ =

where is the axial strain in the conductor.

Ef is the transverse strain in the conductor.
V is Poisson’s ratio of the metal used for the conductor.

TABLE 3.2 Performance Characteristics of Direct-Current Differentiai Trans¬

formers (DCDTsj
[Courtesy of Sohoevifz Engineering]

Model Nominal Scale Response

Number Linear Range (in.) Factor (V/in.) -3 dB (Hz)

050 DC-D ± 0.050 200 500

100 DC-D ± 0.100 100 500
200 DC-D ± 0.200 50 500
500 DC-D ± 0.500 20 500
1000 DC-D ± 1.000 10 200
2000 DC-D ± 2.000 5.0 200
3000 DC-D ± 3.000 3.3 200
5000 DC-D ± 5.000 2.0 200
10000 DC-D ±10.000 1.0 200

If the diameter of the conductor before application of the axial strain is d„, the
diameter of the conductor after it is strained df is given by

dj^ (c)
88 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

TABLE 3.3 Performance Characteristics of Rotary Variable Differential

Transformers (RVDTs]
[Courtesy of Schaevitz Engineering]

Linearity
Impedance (H)
± Percent
Sensitivity
Model Number ±30° ±40° ±60° ((mV/V)/degree) Primary Secondary

(@ 2.5 kHz)
R30A 0.25 0.5 1.5 2.3 125 500
R36A 0.5 1.0 3.0 1.1 750 2000
(@ 10 kHz)
R30A 2.5 0.5 1.5 2.9 370 1300
R36A 0.5 1.0 3.0 1.7 2500 5400

From Eq. (c) it is clear that

2
dA
2v (d)
~A

Substituting Eq. (d) into Eq. (a) and simplifying yields

dp dL,
+ 2v) (3.3)
R p + “T
^ 1
which can be written as

dR/R
(1 + 2v) (3.4)

The quantity is defined as the sensitivity of the metal or alloy used for the
conductor.
It is evident from Eq. (3.4) that the strain sensitivity of a metal or alloy is
due to two factors; namely, the changes in dimensions of the conductor as
expressed by the term (1 + 2v) and the change in specific resistance as repre¬
sented by the term (dp/p)/e. Experimental studies show that the sensitivity
ranges between 2 and 4 for most alloys used in strain-gage fabrication. Since
the quantity (1 + 2v) is approximately 1.6 for most of these materials, the
contribution due to the change in specific resistance with strain varies from 0.4
to 2.4. The change in specific resistance is due to variations in the number of
free electrons and their increased mobility with applied strain.
A list of the alloys commonly employed in commercial strain gages together
with their sensitivities is presented in Table 3.4. The most commonly used strain
gages are fabricated from the copper-nickel alloy known as Advance or Con-
stantan. The response curve for this alloy (AR/R as a function of strain) is shown
in Fig. 3.11. This alloy is widely used because its response is linear over a wide
range of strain, it has a high specific resistance, and it has excellent thermal
stability.
 3,4 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES 89

Figure 3.11 Change of resistance AR/R as a

function of strain for an Advance alloy.

Most resistance strain gages are of the metal-foil type, where the grid con¬
figuration is formed by a photoetching process. Since the process is very versatile,
a wide variety of gage sizes and grid shapes can be produced. Typical examples
are shown in Fig. 3.12. The shortest gage available is 0.20 mm; the longest is
102 mm. Standard gage resistances are 120 and 350 fl; however, special-purpose
gages with resistances of 500 and 1000 Cl are available.
The etched metal-film grids are very fragile and easy to distort, wrinkle, or
tear. For this reason, the metal grid is bonded to a thin plastic film that serves
as a backing or carrier before photoetching. The carrier film, shown in Fig. 3.10,
also provides electrical insulation between the gage and the component after
the gage is mounted.
A strain gage exhibits a resistance change AR/R that is related to the strain
e in the direction of the grid lines by the expression

f = V (3-5)

TABLE 3.4 Strain Sensitivity for Common Strain-Gage Alloys

Material Composition (%)

Advance or Constantan 45 Ni, 55 Cu 2.1

Nichrome V 80 Ni, 20 Cr 2.1
Isoelastic 36 Ni, 8 Cr, 0.5 Mo, 55.5 Fe 3.6
Karma 74 Ni, 20 Cr, 3 Al, 3 Fe 2.0
Armour D 70 Fe, 20 Cr, 10 Al 2.0
Platinum-Tungsten 92 Pt, 8 W 4.0
90 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

Figure 3.12Configurations of metal-foil resistance strain gages. (Courtesy of Micro-

Measurements.)
(a) Single-element gage.
(b) Single-element gage.
(c) Single-element gage.
(d) Two-element rosette.
(e) Two-element rosette.
(f) Two-element stacked rosette.
(g) Three-element rosette.
(h) Three-element rosette.
(i) Three-element stacked rosette.
(j) Torque gage.
(k) Diaphragm gage.
(m) Stress gage.
(n) Single-element gage for use on concrete.
 3,5 CAPACITANCE SENSORS 91

where Sg is the gage factor or calibration constant for the gage. The gage factor
Sg is always less than the sensitivity of the metallic alloy because the grid
configuration of the gage is less responsive to strain than a straight uniform
conductor.
The output AR/R of a strain gage is usually converted to a voltage signal
with a Wheatstone bridge, as illustrated in Fig. 3.13. If a single gage is used in
one arm of the Wheatstone bridge and equal but fixed resistors are used in the
other three arms, the output voltage is

£„ = I (A£,/«,) (3.6)

Substituting Eq. (3.5) into Eq. (3.6) gives

£„ = i £,5,e (3.7)

The input voltage is controlled by the gage size (the power it can dissipate) and
the initial resistance of the gage. As a result, the output voltage usually ranges
between 1 and 10 fxV/microunit of strain (fxm/m or ixin./in.).

3.5 CAPACITANCE SENSORS

The capacitance sensor, illustrated in Fig. 3.14, consists of two metal plates
separated by an air gap. The capacitance C between terminals is given by the
expression

kKA
C = (3.8)
h

Figure 3.13 Wheatstone bridge circuit used to convert resistance change A.R/R of a
strain gage to an output voltage E„.
92 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

Figure 3.14 Flat-plate capacitance sensor.

where C is the capacitance in picofarads (pF).

K is the dielectric constant for the medium between the plates.
A is the overlapping area for the two plates.
h is the thickness of the gap between the two plates.
A: is a proportionality constant (k = 0.225 for dimensions in inches,
and k — 0.00885 for dimensions in millimeters).

Capacitanee sensors are used to measure displacement in one of two different

ways; namely, by changing the plate separation h or by changing the overlapping
area A.
If the plate separation is changed by an amount A/z, then the capacitance
can be expressed as

kKA
C + AC = (a)
h + Lh

which, after substituting Eq. (3.8) and simplifying, yields

kKA
AC (b)
/z + A/z \ /z /

Equation (b) indicates that the response of this type of capacitance sensor is
nonlinear because of the presence of the A/z term in the denominator.
The sensitivity 5 of the capacitance sensor is defined as

S ^ — =
A/z “ h(h + A/z)

Unfortunately, the sensitivity S of the capacitance sensor is also a function of

A/z. This fact severely limits the useful range of the sensor.
For those cases where the change in spacing is a very small fraction of the
original spacing (A/z «h), the response and sensitivity of the capacitance sensor
 3.5 CAPACITANCE SENSORS 93

can be approximated by

(3.9)
C h
kKA
S (3.10)

The error % associated with the assumption of linearity implied by the use of
Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) can be determined from the expression

A/i
% = 1100 (3.11)

A capacitance sensor having the overlapping area change is illustrated in

Fig. 3.15. In this case, the capacitance can be written as

kKlw
C = (3.12)
h

where / and w are the length and width of the overlapping area of the capacitor
plates. As the movable plate displaces an amount A/ relative to the fixed plate,
the capacitance changes such that

kKw
C + AC = (/ + A/) (d)
h

Substituting Eq. (3.12) into Eq. (d) and simplifying gives

^ _ M
(3.13)
C ~ I

Figure 3.15 Capacitance sensor with changing area.

 94 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

It is evident from Eq. (3.13) that the response of this type of capacitance sensor
is linear; therefore, the range of the sensor is not limited by linearity restrictions.
The sensitivity S of this type of capacitance sensor is

AC _ kKw
(3.14)
M ~ h

The sensitivity of capacitance-type sensors is inherently low. For example, a

sensor with w = 10 mm and h = 0.2 mm has a sensitivity S = 0.4425 pF/mm.
Theoretically, the senstivity can be increased without limit by decreasing the
airgap /i; however, there are practical electrical and mechanical limits that pre¬
clude high sensitivities.
One of the primary advantages of the capacitance transducer is that the
forces involved in moving one plate relative to the other are extremely small.
A second advantage is stability. The sensitivity of the sensor is not influenced
by pressure or temperature of the environment.
Many types of circuits can be used to measure the change in capacitance
associated with these sensors. The circuit shown in Fig. 3.16 is capable of re¬
solving changes as small as 0.00001 pF. The system consists of a capacitive
potentiometer circuit driven with an ac carrier (3.4 kHz). The output from this
circuit goes to a charge amplifier that is used to accommodate the high output
impedance of the circuit and to reduce the detrimental effects of the cable
between the sensor and the charge amplifier. The signal is amplified prior to
demodulation and a dc voltmeter is used for the readout.

3.6 EDDY CURRENT SENSORS

An eddy current sensor measures distance between the sensor and an elec¬
trically conducting surface, as illustrated in Fig. 3.17. Sensor operation is based
on eddy currents that are induced at the conducting surface as magnetic flux

Ballast capacitor

Charge
amplifier Amplifier Demodulator

Capacitance sensor

Figure 3.16 Circuit for measuring small changes in capacitance.

 3.6 EDDY CURRENT SENSORS 95
Target
1 MHz magnetic field

Figure 3.17 Eddy current sensor.

lines from the sensor pass into the conducting material being monitored. The
magnetic flux lines are generated by the active coil in the sensor, which is driven
at a very high frequency (1 MHz). The eddy currents produced at the surface
of the conducting material are a function of distance between the active coil and
the surface. The eddy currents increase as the distance decreases.
Changes in the eddy currents are sensed with an impedance (inductance)
bridge. Two coils in the sensor are used for two arms of the bridge. The other
two arms are housed in the associated electronic package illustrated in Fig. 3.17.
The first coil in the sensor (active coil) is wired into the active arm of the bridge,
which changes inductance with target movement. The second coil is wired into
an opposing arm of the bridge, where it serves as a compensating coil to balance
and cancel most of the effects of temperature change. The output from the
impedance bridge is demodulated and becomes the analog signal, which is lin¬
early proportional to distance between the sensor and the target.
The sensitivity of the sensor is dependent upon the target material with
higher sensitivity associated with higher conductivity materials. The output for
a number of materials is shown as a function of specific resistivity in Fig. 3.18.
For aluminum targets, the sensitivity is typically 100 mV/mil (4 V/mm). Thus,
it is apparent that eddy current sensors are high-output devices.
For nonconducting or poorly conducting materials, it is possible to bond a
thin film of aluminum foil to the surface of the target at the location of the
sensor to improve the conductivity. Since the penetration of the eddy currents
into the material is minimal, the thickness of the foil can be as small as 0.7 mil
(ordinary kitchen aluminum foil).
The effect of temperature on the output of the eddy current sensor is small.
The sensing head with dual coils is temperature compensated; however, a small
signal can be produced by temperature changes in the target material since the
resistivity of the target material is a function of temperature. For instance, if
the temperature of an aluminum target is increased by 500°F, its resistivity
increases from 0.03 to 0.06 ixH • m. Figure 3.19 shows that the bridge output is
reduced by about 2 percent for this change in resistivity, which is equivalent to
a temperature sensitivity of 0.004 percent/°F.
96 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

Figure 3.18 Relative output from an eddy current sensor as a function of resistivity of
the target material.

The range of the sensor is controlled by the diameters of the coils with the
larger sensors exhibiting the larger ranges. A typical range to diameter ratio is
0.25. Linearity is typically better than ±0.5 percent and resolution is better than
0.05 percent of full scale. The frequency response is typically 20 kHz, although
small-diameter coils can be used to increase this response to 50 kHz.
The fact that eddy current sensors do not require contact for measuring
displacement is quite important. As a result of this feature, they are often used
in transducer systems for automatic control of dimensions in fabrication proc¬
esses. They are also applied extensively to determine thicknesses of organic
coatings that are nonconducting. A modern portable eddy-current tester is shown
in Fig. 3.19.

3.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS

A piezoelectric material is, as its name implies, a material that produces an
electric charge when subjected to a force or pressure. Piezoelectric materials,
such as single-crystal quartz or polycrystalline barium titanate, contain molecules
with asymmetrical charge distributions. When pressure is applied, the crystal
deforms and there is a relative displacement of the positive and negative charges
within the crystal. This displacement of internal charges produces external eharges
of opposite sign on two surfaces of the crystal. If these surfaces are coated with
metallic electrodes, as illustrated in Fig. 3.20, the charge q that develops can be
 3.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS 97

Figure 3.19 A portable eddy-current tester. (Courtesy of Nortec Corp.)

Figure 3.20 Piezoelectric crystal deforming under the action of applied pressure.
98 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

determined from the output voltage since

q - EX (3.15)

where C is the capacitance of the piezoelectric crystal.

The surface charge q is related to the applied pressure p by the equation

q = S^Ap (3.16)

where is the charge sensitivity of the piezoelectric crystal.

A is the area of the electrode.

The charge sensitivity is a function of the orientation of the sensor (usually

a cylinder) relative to the axes of the piezoelectric crystal. Typical values of 5^
for common piezoelectric materials are given in Table 3.5.

TABLE 3.5 Typical Charge and Voltage Sensitivities Sq and Se of Piezo¬

electric Materials

s, 5^
Material Orientation (pC/N) (V-m/N)

Quartz X-cut 2.2 0.055

Si02 length longitudinal
Single X-cut -2.0 -0.05
crystal thickness longtudinal
Y-cut 4.4 0.11
thickness shear

Barium titanate Parallel to polarization 130 0.011

BaTiOj
Ceramic, poled Perpendicular to polarization -56 - 0.004
polycrystalline

The output voltage E„ developed by the piezoelectric sensor is obtained by

substituting Eqs. (3.8) and (3.16) into Eq. (3.15). Thus,

E O (3.17)

The voltage sensitivity S^: of the sensor can be expressed as

 3.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS 99

The output voltage of the sensor is then

Eo SeHp (3.19)

Again, the voltage sensitivity of the sensor is a function of its orientation

relative to the axes of the crystal. Typical values of are also presented in
Table 3.5.
Most piezoelectric transducers are fabricated from single-crystal quartz,
since it is the most stable of the piezoelectric materials. Mechanically and elec¬
trically it is nearly loss free. Its modulus of elasticity is 86 GPa; its resistivity is
about 10^^ n • m; and its dielectric constant is 40.6 pF/m. It exhibits excellent
high-temperature properties and can be operated up to 550°C. The charge sen¬
sitivity of quartz is low when compared to barium titanate; however, with high-
gain charge amplifiers available for processing the output signal, the lower sen¬
sitivity is not a serious disadvantage.
Barium titanate is a polycrystalline material that can be polarized by ap¬
plying a high voltage to the electrodes while the material is at a temperature
above the curie point (125°C). The electric field aligns the ferroelectric domains
in the barium titanate and it becomes piezoelectric. If the polarization voltage
is maintained while the material is cooled well below the Curie point, the pie¬
zoelectric characteristics are permanent and stable after a short aging period.
The mechanical stability of barium titanate is excellent; it exhibits high
mechanical strength and has a high modulus of elasticity (120 GPa). It is more
economical than quartz and can be fabricated in a wide variety of sizes and
shapes. While its application in transducers is second to quartz, it is frequently
used in ultrasonics as a source. In this application, a voltage is applied to the
electrodes and the barium titanate deforms and delivers energy to the work piece
or test specimen.
Most transducers exhibit a relatively low output impedance (from about
100 to 1000 n). When piezoelectric crystals are used as the sensing elements in
transducers, the output impedance is extremely high. The output impedance of
a small cylinder of quartz depends upon the frequency co associated with the
applied pressure. Since the sensor acts like a capacitor, the output impedance
is given by

Z = (3.20)
(oC

Thus, the impedance ranges from infinity for static applications of pressure to
about 10 kn for very high-frequency applications (100 kHz). With this high
output impedance, care must be exercised in monitoring the output voltage;
otherwise, serious errors can occur.
A circuit diagram of a measuring system with a piezoelectric sensor is shown
in Fig. 3.21. The piezoelectric sensor acts as a charge generator. In addition to
100 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

the charge generator, the sensor is represented by a capacitor Cp (from 10 to

1000 pF) and a leakage resistor Rp (about lO*'* fi). The capacitance of the lead
wires must also be considered, since even relatively short lead wires have a
capacitance larger than the sensor. The amplifier is either a cathode follower or
a charge amplifier with sufficient impedance to isolate the piezoelectric sensor.
If a pressure is applied to the sensor and maintained for a long period of time,
a charge q and an output voltage is developed by the piezoelectric material;
however, the charge q leaks off by way of a small current flow through Rp and
the amplifier resistance R^. The time available for readout of the signal depends
upon the effective time constant of the circuit which is given by

’’’ = g (C„ + Q + C^) (3.21)

where R^ is the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

Q is the equivalent capacitance of the circuit.

Time constants ranging from 1000 to 100,000 s can be achieved with quartz
sensors and commercially available charge amplifiers. These time constants are
sufficient to permit measurement of quantities that vary slowly with time or
measurement of static quantities for short periods of time. Problems associated
with output voltage measurements diminish as the frequency of the mechanical
input increases.
The inherent dynamic response of the piezoelectric sensor is very high, since
the resonant frequency of the small cylindrical piezoelectric element is very large.
The resonant frequency of the transducer depends upon the mechanical design
of the transducer as well as the mass and stiffness of the sensor. For this reason,
specification of frequency response will be deferred to later sections on force,

To voltage
recorder

Transducer Amplifier
1 I-1
I I

Figure 3.21 Schematic diagram of a measuring system with a piezoelectric sensor.

 3.8 PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS 101

pressure, and acceleration measurements. It should be noted here, however,

that one of the primary advantages of the piezoelectric sensor is its very high-
frequency response.

3.8 PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS

Piezoresistive sensors, as the name implies, are materials that exhibit a

change in resistance when subjected to a pressure. The development of piezo¬
resistive materials was an outgrowth of research on semiconductors by Bell
Telephone Laboratories in the early 1950s that eventually led to the transistor.
Piezoresistive sensors are fabricated from semiconductive materials—usu¬
ally silicon containing boron as the trace impurity for the P-type material and
arsenic as the trace impurity for the N-type material. The resisdvity of the
semiconducting materials can be expressed as

1
(3.22)
eN\x

where e is the electron charge, which depends on the type of impurity.

N is the number of charge carriers, which depends on the concentration
of the impurity.
|JL is the mobility of the charge carriers, which depends upon strain and
its direction relative to the crystal axes.

Equation (3.22) shows that the resistivity of the semiconductor can be adjusted
to any specified value by controlling the concentration of the trace impurity.
The impurity concentrations commonly employed range from 10^^ to 10^° atoms/
cm^, which permits a wide variation in the initial resistivity. The resistivity for
P-type silicon with a concentration of 10^° atoms/cm^ is 500 [xfl • m, which is
about 30,000 times higher than the resistivity of copper. This very high resistivity
facilitates the design of miniaturized sensors.
Equation (3.22) also indicates that the resistivity changes when the piezo¬
resistive sensor is subjected to either stress or strain. This change of resisitivity
is known as the piezoresistive effect and can be expressed by the equation

Pi] = 5yp + TTij-kiTk! (3.23)

where the subscripts i, j, k, and / range from 1 to 3.

is a fourth rank piezoresistivity tensor.
Tki is the stress tensor.
8,y is the Kroneker delta.
102 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

Fortunately, silicon is a cubic crystal; therefore, the 36 piezoresistive coefficients

reduce to 3 and Eq. (3.23) can be expressed as

Pll = p[l + TTnO-n '^12(^22 -F

P22 = p[l + XT11CT22 -P '^12(o’33 -F O-ll)]

-F

-1-
-F

b
P33 ~ XTi2(0'ii ^22)]

P12 “ PXT44X12

P23 ~ PXT44X23

P31 = PXT44X31

where the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 identify the axes of the crystal.

These equations indicate that the piezoresistive crystal, when subjected to
a state of stress, becomes electrically anisotropic. The resistivity depends upon
both direction and the stresses in each direction. Because of this electrical an¬
isotropy, Ohm’s law must be written as

E; = p,,i; (3.25)

where E' is the potential gradient.

r is the current density.

Substituting Eqs. (3.24) into Eq. (3.25) gives

E'
~ = /i[l + 'TTiiCTii -I- '^12(^22 + O'ss)]

+ 1X44

£'
~ — I2LI + '^11(^22 + '^12(o'33 + cr^i)]

+ 1744(73X23 -I- /1X12)

^3
— = /3[1 + xriiCT33 + XTi2(o-n + CT22)]

+ XT44(/iX3i 4- /2X23) (3.26)

These results show that the voltage drop across a sensor will be dependent
upon the current density I', the state of stress x, and the three piezoresistive
coefficients. The piezoresistive coefficients can be adjusted by controlling the
concentration of the impurity, and by optimizing the direction of the axis of the
sensor with respect to the crystal axes. As a consequence, the sensitivity of a
 3.8 PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS 103

typical sensor is quite high (for example, a piezoresistive strain gage exhibits a
gage factor of 100, while a conventional metal-foil strain gage exhibits a gage
factor of 2).
The high sensitivity and high resistivity of piezoresistive sensors have fos¬
tered the design of miniaturized transducers that respond to small mechanical
inputs with high electrical outputs. Examples of a miniature pressure transducer
and a miniature accelerometer are shown in Fig. 3.22.

Pressure Transducer

Figure 3.22 Miniaturized transducers that use piezoresistive sensing elements. (Cour¬
tesy of Kulite Semiconductor Products.)
104 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

3.9 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS

In certain applications where contact cannot be made with the test specimen,
a photoelectric sensor can be used to monitor changes in light intensity, which
can be related to the quantity being measured. Three different types of pho¬
toelectric detectors (photocells) are used to convert a radiation input to a voltage
output. These include photoemissive cells, photoconductive cells, and photo¬
voltaic cells.
The photoemissive cell, illustrated in Fig. 3.23, contains a cathode C and
an anode A mounted in a vacuum tube. Incident radiation impinging on the
cathode material frees electrons that flow to anode A to produce an electric
current. The photoelectric current / is proportional to the illumination ij; imposed
on the cathode. Thus

1 = Si\) (3.27)

where S is the sensitivity of the photoelectric cell. The sensitivity S depends

primarily upon the photoemissive material deposited on the cathode surface.
Photoemissive materials are usually compounds of the alkali metals. One com¬
mon photoemissive material consists of silver, oxygen, and cesium. The cathode
is plated with a layer of silver that is oxidized and covered with a layer of cesium.
The sensitivity S is strongly dependent upon the wavelength \ of the radiation.
For this reason, photoemissive sensors should be employed with monochromatic
light; otherwise, a careful calibration must be performed to account for the
variation of sensitivity with wavelength.
Photoconductive cells are fabricated from semiconductor materials, such as
cadmium sulfide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe), which exhibit a strong
photoconductive response. The electrical resistivity of these materials decreases
when they are exposed to light. A typical circuit diagram for a photoconductive
cell is shown in Fig. 3.24. Photoconduction in these semiconducting materials
is due to the absorption of incident photons that excite electrons to the level of
the conduction band. These electrons are then free to move through the crystal
lattice to produce a current /„.
When the photoconductor is maintained in a dark environment, its resist¬
ance is high and only a small dark current is produced. If the sensor is exposed

Figure 3.23 Photoemissive-type photocell

and associated circuit.
 3.9 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS 105

Figure 3.24 Photoconductor-type photocell and associated circuit.

to light, the resistance decreases significantly (the ratio of maximum to minimum

resistance ranges from 100 to 10,000 in common commercial sensors); therefore,
the output current /„ can be quite large. The sensitivity of photoconductive
sensors, which depend upon the power dissipation capability of the cell and the
applied voltage £,, varies from about 0.00001 to 10 A/lm (amperes per lumen).
Photoconductors respond to radiation ranging from long thermal radiation
through the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spec¬
trum. The sensitivity S, which is not constant with wavelength, drops sharply at
the longer wavelengths; consequently, photoconductive cells exhibit the same
disadvantage as photoemissive cells when they are exposed to radiation that
undergoes a change in wavelength (high-temperature radiation).
In photoconductive cells, the photocurrent requires some time to develop
after the excitation is applied and some time to decay after the excitation is
removed. The rise and fall times for commercially available photoconductors
range from 10"^ to 10 s. Therefore, in dynamic applications, frequency response
of the photoconductor being used must be given careful consideration.
Photovoltaic cells have improved significantly in the past decade with the
advent of transistor technology. The photovoltaic cells in common use today are
P-N-type diffused-silicon guard-ring photodiodes (see Fig. 3.25). Operating fea¬
tures of these devices include a wide spectral range, fast response time, high
sensitivity, excellent linearity, low noise, and simplicity of circuit design.
When the active area of a photodiode is illuminated and a connection is
made between the P- and N-diffused regions, a current flows during the period
of illumination. This phenomenon is the well-known photovoltaic effect, which
is the operating mechanism for solar cells. For sensor usage, an external bias
(voltage) Eh is applied in the reverse direction between the P and N regions and
the photodiode becomes a photoconductor. In the photoconductive mode, the
photodiode acts similarly to a current generator and, unlike a photovoltaic cell,
will deliver a constant current into any load Ri^ at a fixed level of illumination.
This current is composed of photocurrent and dark (reverse leakage) current.
The dark current remains constant, provided the external bias and ambient
temperature are fixed. The photocurrent varies linearly with illumination inten-
 GUARD RING
FIELD OXIDE—\ ACTIVE CONTACT- -CONTACT

n+ 1 n+ 1 1 n-i- 1 1
\
\ DEPLETION REGION \
_

Tt -DIFFUSION

p-f-

(b)

Rf

O
-Vo'IxRf

Vo = IxRl

106
 3.10 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs) 107

sity. An advantage of operating in the photoconductive mode is that the sen¬

sitivity is higher than that for a photovoltaic cell of the same size.
The recommended circuit for use with a photodiode is shown in Fig. 3.25c.
Connection 1 is used for best noise performance in applications which do not
require wide bandwidth; otherwise, connection 2 is used.
The frequency response of a photodiode is excellent (a bandwidth of 45
MHz and a rise time of approximately 5 ns). Linearity of ± 1 percent can be
achieved over a range of seven decades.

3.10 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)

The change in resistance of metals with temperature provides the basis for
a family of temperature measuring sensors known as resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs). The sensor is simply a conductor fabricated either as a wire-
wound coil or as a film or foil grid. The change in resistance of the conductor
with temperature is given by the expression

AR
TT = - O + 7a(r - + ■■■ + y^(T - r„)" (3.28)

where is a reference temperature.

Rg is the resistance at temperature T^.
7i, 72> • • •> 7n ^re temperature coefficients of resistance.

Resistance temperature detectors are often used in ovens and furnaces

where inexpensive but accurate and stable temperature measurements and con¬
trols are required.
Platinum is widely used for sensor fabrication since it is the most stable of
all the metals, is the least sensitive to contamination, and is capable of operating
over a very wide range of temperatures (4°K to 1064°C). Platinum also provides
an extremely reproducible output; therefore, it has been selected for use in
interpolating instruments for the measurement of the International Practical
Temperature Scale (1968) over the range from 13.81°K to 630.74°C.
The performance of platinum RTDs depends strongly on the design and
construction of the package containing the sensor. The most precise sensors are
fabricated with a minimum amount of support; therefore, they are fragile and
will often fail if subjected to rough handling, shock, or vibration. Most sensors
used in trandsucers for industrial applications have platinum coils supported on
ceramic or glass tubes. These fully supported sensors are quite rugged and will
withstand shock levels up to 100 g’s. Unfortunately, the range and accuracy of
such sensors are limited to some degree by the influence of the constraining

Figure 3.25 (p. 106) Diffused-silicon photodiode with guard-ring construction. (Cour¬
tesy of EG&G Electro-Optics.) (a) Selection of Diffused Silicon Photodiodes, (b) Con¬
struction details, (c) Recommended circuit.
108 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

package. More information on the performance characteristics of packaged RTDs

and the circuits used for their application is presented in Chapter Eight.
The sensitivity of a platinum RTD is relatively high (Sj^ - 0.39 Cl/°C at
0°C); however, the sensitivity varies with temperature, as indicated by Eq. (3.28),
and 5^ decreases to 0.378, 0.367, 0.355, 0.344, and 0.332 n/°C at temperatures
of 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500°C, respectively.
The dynamic response of an RTD depends almost entirely on construction
details. For large coils mounted on heavy ceramic cores and sheathed in stainless
steel tubes, the response time may be several seconds or more. For film or foil
elements mounted on ceramic or polyimide substrates, the response time can
be less than 0.1 s.

3.11 THERMISTORS

A second type of temperature-measuring sensor based on the fact that the

resistance of a material may change with temperature is known as a thermistor.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that they
are fabricated from semiconducting materials instead of metals. The semicon¬
ducting materials, which include oxides of copper, cobalt, manganese, nickel,
and titanium, exhibit very large changes in resistance with temperature. As a
result, thermistors can be fabricated in the form of extremely small beads as
shown in Fig. 3.26.

Figure 3.26 Miniature bead-type thermistors. (Courtesy of Dale Electronics, Inc.)

 3.12 THERMOCOUPLES 109

Resistance change with temperature can be expressed by an equation of

the form

1 A 1 ^2
\np = AQ + — + — + + (3.29)

where p is the specific resistance of the material.

A^, A2, . . ■, A„ are material constants.
T is the absolute temperature.

The temperature-resistance relationship as expressed by Eq. (3.29) is usually

approximated by retaining only the first two terms. The simplified equation is
then expressed as

In p - Ao + I (3.30)

Use of Eq. (3.30) is convenient and acceptable when the temperature range is
small and the higher-order terms of Eq. (3.29) are negligible.
Thermistors have many advantages over other temperature sensors and are
widely used in industry. They can be small (0.005-in. diameter) and, conse¬
quently, permit point sensing and rapid response to temperature change. Their
high resistance minimizes lead-wire problems. Their output is more than 10
times that of a resistance temperature detector (RTD) as shown in Fig. 3.27.
Finally, thermistors are very rugged, which permits use in those industrial en¬
vironments where shock and vibrations occur. The disadvantages of thermistors
include nonlinear output with temperature, as indicated by Eqs. (3.29) and
(3.30), and limited range, unless the output is processed in accordance with
Eq. (3.29). Significant advances have been made in thermistor technology over
the past decade, and it is now possible to obtain stable, reproducible, inter¬
changeable thermistors that are accurate to 0.5 percent over a specified tem¬
perature range.

3.12 THERMOCOUPLES

When two dissimilar materials are brought into contact, a potential develops
as a result of an effect known as the Seebeck effect. A thermocouple is a tem¬
perature-measuring device whose operation depends upon the Seebeck effect.
Many pairs of metals can be used for thermocouples. Thermoelectric sensitivities
(|xV/°C) for a number of different materials in combination with platinum are
listed in Table 3.6.
 110 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

The data of Table 3.6 can be used to determine the sensitivity of any junction
by noting, for example, that

5 chrorael/alumel "^chromel/platinum ‘^alumel/platinum

+ 25.8 - (-13.6) = 39.4 jxVrC

TABLE 3.6 Thermoelectric Sensitivities for Different Materiois Junctioned with

Platinum

Sensitivity Sensitivity
Material (liivrc) Material (ixy/x)
Constantan -35 Copper + 6.5
Nickel -15 Gold + 6.5
Alumel -13.6 Tungsten + 7.5
Carbon + 3 Iron + 18.5
Aluminum + 3.5 Chromel + 25.8
Silver + 6.5 Silicon + 440
 3.12 THERMOCOUPLES 111

Commonly employed thermocouple material combinations include iron/con-

stantan, chromel/alumel, chromel/constantan, copper/constantan, and platinum/
platinum-rhodium.
The output voltage from a thermocouple junction is measured by connecting
the junction into a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.28. The output voltage from
such a circuit is related to temperature by an expression of the form

E.o Sa,b{T, - T^) (3.31)

where S^/gis the sensitivity of material combination A and B.

Tj is the temperature at junction 1.
T2 is the temperature at junction 2.

In practice, junction J is a reference junction that is maintained at a carefully

2

controlled reference temperature T . The junction /j is placed in contact with

2

the body at the point where a temperature is to be measured. When a meter is

inserted into the thermocouple circuit, junctions J^, and J are created. If the
4

input terminals of the meter are at the same temperature (T3 = TJ, these added
junctions {J^ and J4) do not affect the output voltage E^.
The use of thermocouples in temperature measurement is covered in much
more detail in Chapter Eight. As a sensor, the thermocouple can be made quite
small (wire diameter as small as 0.0005 in. is available); therefore, the response
time is rapid (milliseconds) and essentially point measurements are possible.
The thermocouple can cover a very wide range of temperatures; however, the
output is nonlinear, and calibration charts are required to convert output voltage
E^ to temperature. In addition to nonlinear output, thermocouple sensors suffer
the disadvantage of very low signal output and the need for a very carefully
controlled reference temperature.

Meter

Matr-'-' ° J Material B

Figure 3.28 A typical thermocouple circuit.

112 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

3.13 SENSORS FOR TIME AND FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS

Time can be defined as the interval between two events. Measurements of

this interval are made by making comparisons with some reproducible event,
such as the time required for the earth to orbit the sun or the time required for
the earth to rotate on its axis. Ephemeris time is based on astronomical meas¬
urements of the time required for the earth to orbit the sun. Sidereal time is
earth rotation time measured with respect to a distant star. Solar time is earth
rotation time measured with respect to the sun. Sidereal time is used primarily
in astronomical laboratories. Solar time is used for navigation on earth and for
daily living purposes.
The fundamental unit of time in both the English and International Systems
of units is the second. Prior to 1956, the second was defined as 1/86,400 of a
mean solar day (the average period of revolution of the earth on its axis). This
definition was satisfactory for most engineering work; however, the earth’s ro¬
tation is somewhat irregular and is slowing at a rate of approximately 0.001 s
per century, therefore, a more precise definition was needed for some exact
scientific work. In 1956, the International Committee on Weights and Measures
redefined the second as 1/31,556,925.9747 of the time required for the earth to
orbit the sun in the year 1900. This definition had the desired high degree of
exactness required for some scientific work; however, it suffers from the limi¬
tation that direct comparison of a time interval with the standard requires as¬
tronomical observations extending over a period of several years. In the late
1950s, atomic research revealed that certain atomic transitions can be measured
with excellent repeatability. As a result, the Thirteenth General Conference on
Weights and Measures, which was held in Paris in 1967, redefined the second
as “the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the fundamental state of the atom
of Cesium-133.” The estimated accuracy of this standard is two parts in 10®.
Currently, standards laboratories throughout the world have cesium-beam os¬
cillators that agree in frequency to within a few parts in 10“.
Precise time and frequency standards are available in the United States
through National Bureau of Standards radio transmissions from Fort Collins,
Colorado. Station WWVB is a low-frequency station that transmits at 60 kHz.
Station WWVL is a very-low-frequency station that transmits at 20 kHz. Fre¬
quencies, as transmitted, are accurate to one part in 10®. Time intervals are
accurate to within a microsecond.
Any device that is used to indicate passage of time is referred to as a clock.
Reproducible events commonly used as sensing mechanisms for clocks include
the swing of a pendulum, oscillation of a torsional pendulum, oscillation of a
spiral spring and balance wheel, vibration of a tuning fork, and oscillation of a
piezoelectric crystal. The time required for one of these devices to complete one
cycle of motion is known as the period. The frequency of the motion is the
 3.13 SENSORS FOR TIME AND FREQUENOY MEASUREMENTS 113

number of cycles occurring in a given unit of time. Thus, the frequency/is the
reciprocal of the period T.

Physical Pendulum
A rigid object oscillating about a fixed horizontal axis under the action of
its own weight is known as a physical pendulum. As an example, consider the
body shown in Fig. 3.29 which is constrained to oscillate in a vertical plane about
the horizontal axis that passes through point P. The center of mass B of the
body is located a distance b from point P. If the body is displaced from its
position of equilibrium, the weight W = mg acting through the center of mass
together with the support reaction R at P provides a restoring couple C that
tends to return the body to its equilibrium position once it is released in the
displaced position. Summation of moments about the fixed axis of rotation at
P, with 0 positive in the counterclockwise direction, yields

d^Q
C = -Wb sin 0 = -mgb sin 0 = /— (3.32)

or

d^Q mgb sin 0

—r = a =- (3.33)
dP I

where I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation.
m is the mass of the body.
b is the distance from the center of mass to the axis of rotation.
g is the local acceleration of gravity.
0 is the angular displacement of the body from its equilibrium position.
a is the angular acceleration of the body about the axis of rotation.
R

W=mg Figure 3.29 Physical pendulum.

114 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

If the angular displacement 0 is small (less than 10 degrees), sin 6 ~ 6 and

Eq. (3.33) becomes

mgbQ
(3.34)
^ ~di^ ^ T~
Equation (3.34) indicates that the motion associated with a physical pendulum
is angular simple harmonic motion if the angular displacements are small. For
this motion, the period T and the frequency /can be expressed as

(3.35)

Simple Pendulum
Pendulums used in timing devices often consist of a concentrated mass (bob)
on the end of a cord or a slender rod. This form, known as a simple pendulum,
can be idealized as a point mass on the end of a weightless rod of length L.
Thus, / = mL^ and b — L. Equation (3.35) then reduces to

Torsional Pendulum
A torsional pendulum consists of a disk or other body with a large amount
of inertia supported by a torsionally flexible rod, as shown in Fig. 3.30. If the
disk is given an angular displacement 0 from its position of equilibrium, a re¬
storing couple C ^ develops (depends on the size and elastic properties of
the supporting rod) that tends to return the disk to its equilibrium position once

y///////////////////////////////////^^^

Figure 3.30 Torsional pendulum.

 3,13 SENSORS FOR TIME AND FREQUENOY MEASUREMENTS 115

it is released in the displaced position. Summation of moments about the axis

of rotation of the disk yields

(3.37)

or

(3.38)
dt^ ~ ^ ~ ~ I

where I is the moment of inertia of the disk about the axis of rotation.
K is the torsional spring constant of the supporting rod.
0 is the angular displacement of the disk from its equilibrium position.
a is the angular acceleration of the disk about the axis of rotation.

Equation (3.38) indicates that the motion associated with the torsional pendulum
is angular simple harmonic motion. The magnitude of the angle 0 is restricted
only by the requirement that the stress level in the supporting rod remain below
the proportional limit for the material used in its fabrication. Also, gravitation
plays no role in the motion of the torsional pendulum. The period T and the
frequency / of the torsional pendulum are

T = (3.39)

In the previous discussions of motion associated with the different types of

pendulums the effects of friction were neglected. This is never true; therefore,
means must be provided to introduce energy into the systems. Weights and coil
springs are commonly used in pendulum clocks to provide the driving forces.
Simple ratchet and pawl mechanisms together with gear trains convert the vi¬
brational motions of the pendulums into the rotary motion of the hands of the
clock that provide the time indications.

Tuning Fork
A simple mechanical device consisting of two prongs and a handle, as shown
in Fig. 3.31fl, is known as a tuning fork. The frequency of vibration of a specific
tuning fork depends on the exact geometry of the instrument; however, an
approximate value can be obtained from the exact solution for a cantilever beam
116 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUOERS

(see Fig. 3.31^), which can be expressed as

/
f=
/ Fk^
= 0.55% /- (3.40,

where E is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) of the material used

in the fabrication of the beam.
p is the density of the material.
L is the length of the beam.
I is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the beam about
a centroidal axis perpendicular to the direction of vibration.
A is the cross-sectional area of the beam.
k is the radius of gyration of the cross section k = yUA. For a rec¬
tangular cross section, k = tlvT2.
t is the thickness of the beam in the direction of the vibrations.

Thus, for a tuning fork with a rectangular cross section, the frequency depends
directly on the thickness of the prongs in the direction of the vibrations and
inversely on the square of the length.
Tuning forks are widely used as standards of frequency in musical appli¬
cations. In electrically driven forms, tuning forks are used to control electric
circuits that require stable and accurate frequencies. Tuning forks have been
constructed for frequencies ranging from 20 to 20,000 Hz. In the Accutron type
of watch or clock, a precision tuning fork, driven with energy from a small
battery, replaces the balance wheel and mainspring of a conventional watch or
clock. The tuning fork vibrates at 360 Hz. The vibrations of the tuning fork
ratchet a fine-toothed index wheel that drives the gear train used to turn the
hands.

(b)
(a) Figure 3.31 Tuning fork and cantilever beam.
 3,13 SENSORS FOR TIME AND FREQUENOY MEASUREMENTS 117

Electromagnetic Oscillator
An electrical circuit consisting of an inductor L and a capacitor C, as shown
in Fig. 3.32, exhibits an oscillatory electrical behavior that is similar to the
oscillatory mechanical behavior exhibited by the physical or torsional pendulum.
If the capacitor C in Fig. 3.32 is given an initial charge by connecting a charging
battery across its terminals, a fixed amount of energy is stored in the electric
field of the capacitor when the battery is removed. At any instant of time after
the switch S is closed, this total energy in the system will be divided between
the electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor. Thus,
the total energy U can be expressed as

\ 1
f/ = - ^ + -L/2 (3.41)
2 C 2 ^ ^

For an ideal circuit with zero resistance (equivalent to no friction in the me¬
chanical systems), this energy must remain constant; therefore, dU/dt = 0 and
Eq. (3.41) yields

q dq dl
+ L/ — = 0 (3.42)
dt C dt dt

Recall, however, that

Therefore, from Eq. (3.42)

d^q
(3.43)
dt^

Equation (3.43) describes the behavior of the ideal LC circuit. Since this equation
is similar in form to Eqs. (3.33) and (3.38), the period and frequency of oscil¬
lation can be expressed as

2irVLC (3.44)

Battery

Figure 3.32 Electromagnetic oscillator.

118 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

Once started, such LC oscillations would continue indefinitely if no resistance

was present to remove energy from the system. Sustained electromagnetic os¬
cillations are maintained by supplying enough energy from an outside source,
automatically and periodically, to compensate for the energy lost from the sys¬
tem.

Piezoelectric Crystal Oscillators

As discussed in Section 3.7, a piezoelectric crystal has the ability to develop
a difference in electric potential between two of its faces when it is deformed
by being subjected to a force or pressure. Conversely, application of a voltage
across the two faces produces a mechanical deformation of the crystal. These
properties have proved to be useful in the development of dynamic force and
pressure transducers (see Chapters Six and Seven), accelerometers (see Chapter
Seven), and crystal oscillators for use in electronic counters (see Chapter Four).
Since a piezoelectric material such as quartz or barium titanate is an elastic
material, it has a natural frequency of vibration that depends on its size and
shape. For example, as a bar, it may exhibit either longitudinal or flexural
vibrations. Similarly, as a plate, it may exhibit either longitudinal, flexural, or
thickness vibrations. Frequencies from about 5 kHz to about 10 MHz can be
obtained by using these different vibration modes.
When a piezoelectric crystal is introduced into an oscillating electric circuit
having nearly the same frequency as the natural frequency of the crystal, the
crystal vibrates at its natural frequency and the frequency of oscillation of the
circuit becomes the same as the natural frequency of the crystal. The long-term
frequency stability obtained by using the crystal to control the frequency of the
circuit is about one part in 10®. In a quartz clock, for example, the accumulated
error in time after one year is about 0.1 s.

3.14 SUMMARY

A wide variety of basic sensors have been described in this chapter. These
sensors are sometimes used directly to measure an unknown quantity (such as
use of a thermocouple to measure temperature); however, in many other in¬
stances the sensors are used as the critical element in a transducer (such as use
of a piezoelectric crystal in a force gage or accelerometer). Important charac¬
teristics of each sensor that must be considered in the selection process include:

1. Size—with smaller being better because of enhanced dynamic response.

2. Range—with extended range being preferred so as to increase the latitude
of operation.
3. Sensitivity—with the advantage to higher output devices that require less
amplification.
 3.14 SUMMARY 119

4. Accuracy—with the advantage to devices exhibiting errors of 1 percent or

less after considering zero shift, linearity, and hysteresis.
5. Frequency Response—with the advantage to wide-response sensors that
permit application in both static and dynamic loading situations.
6. Stability—with very low drift in output over extended periods of time and
with changes in temperature and humidity preferred.
7. Temperature Limits—with the ability to operate from cryogenic to elevated
temperatures considered advantageous.
8. Economy—with reasonable costs preferred.
9. Ease of Application—with reliability and simplicity always a significant ad¬
vantage.

EXERCISES

3.1 Briefly describe the difference between a transducer and a sensor.

3.2 A slide-wire potentiometer having a length of 200 mm is fabricated by
winding wire having a diameter of 0.25 mm around a cylindrical insu¬
lating core. Determine the resolution limit of this potentiometer.
3.3 If the potentiometer of Exercise 3.2 has a resistance of 1000 H and can
dissipate 4 W of power, determine the voltage required to maximize
the sensitivity. What voltage change corresponds to the resolution limit?
3.4 A 10-turn potentiometer with a calibrated dial (100 divisions/turn) is
used as a balance resistor in a Wheatstone bridge. If the potentiometer
has a resistance of 10 kil and a resolution of 0.1 percent, what is the
minimum incremental change in resistance AR that can be read from
the calibrated dial?
3.5 Why are potentiometers limited to static or quasi-static applications?
3.6 List several advantages of the conductive-film type of potentiometer.
3.7 A new elevator must be tested to determine its performance charac¬
teristics. Design a displacement transducer that utilizes a 20-turn po¬
tentiometer to monitor the position of the elevator over its 50-m range
of travel.
3.8 Compare the potentiometer and LVDT as displacement sensors with
regard to the following characteristics: range, accuracy, resolution, fre¬
quency response, reliability, complexity, cost.
3.9 List the basic elements of the electronic circuit associated with an LVDT.
3.10 Prepare a sketch of the output signal as a function of time for an LVDT
with its core located in a fixed off-center position if:

(a) The demodulator is functioning

(b) The demodulator is removed from the circuit
120 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

3.11 Prepare a sketch of the output signal as a funciton of time for an LVDT
with its core moving at constant velocity from one end of the LVDT
through the center to the other end if:

(a) The demodulator is functioning

(b) The demodulator is removed from the circuit

3.12 Describe the basic differences between an LVDT and a DCDT.

3.13 Design a 5()-mm strain extensometer to be used for a simple tension
test of mild steel. If the strain extensometer is to be used only in the
elastic region and to detect the onset of yielding, specify the maximum
range. What is the advantage of limiting the range?
3.14 Compare the cylindrical potentiometer (helipotentiometer) and the RVDT
as sensors for measuring angular displacement.
3.15 What two factors are responsible for the resistance change dRIR in an
electrical resistance strain gage? Which is the most important for gages
fabricated from constantan?
3.16 What function does the thin plastic film serve for an electrical resistance
strain gage?
3.17 A 120-fI strain gage with a gage factor Sg = 2.05 is used as a sensor
for a strain of 800 ixm/m. Determine A/? and ^R/R.
3.18 For the situation described in Exercise 3.17, determine the output volt¬
age Eo from an initially balanced Wheatstone bridge if £, = 9 V.
3.19 If the strain on the gage of Exercises 3.17 and 3.18 is reduced until
= 2.0 mV, determine the new strain.
3.20 A short-range displacement transducer utilizes a cantilever beam as the
mechanical element and a strain gage as the sensor. Derive an expres¬
sion for the displacement 5 of the end of the beam in terms of the
output voltage E„.
3.21 Consider the flat-plate capacitance sensor shown in Fig. 3.14. If h is
initially 1 mm, determine the maximum change in spacing A/j that can
be tolerated if the linearity of the sensor is to be rated at
(a) 0.1 percent
(b) 1.0 percent
(c) 2.0 percent

3.22 Determine the sensitivity of an overlap-type capacitance sensor if air

is the dielectric medium, w = 4 mm, and h = 0.5 mm. If one plate
moves a distance A/ = 2 mm, what is the change in capacitance AC?
3.23 An eddy current sensor is calibrated for use on a 304 stainless steel
target material. The gage is then used to monitor the displacement of
a specimen fabricated from aluminum. Is an error produced? If so,
estimate the magnitude of the error.
 3,14 SUMMARY 121

3.24 Determine the charge q developed when a piezoelectric crystal having

= 20 mm^ and /z = 10 mm is subjected to a pressure p = 10 MPa
if the crystal is

(a) X-cut, length-longitudinal quartz

(b) Parallel to polarization barium titanate

3.25 Determine the output voltages for the piezoelectric crystals described
in Exercise 3.24.

3.26 Compare the use of quartz and barium titanate as materials for

(a) Piezoelectric sensors

(b) Ultrasonic signal sources

3.27 If the equivalent circuit (see Fig. 3.21) for a measuring system incor¬
porating a piezoelectric crystal consists of the following: Rp = 10 Tfl,
= 10 MD, Cp = 30 pF, Ci^ = 10 pF, and = 20 pF, determine
the effective time constant for the circuit. If the error must be limited
to 5 percent, determine the time available for measurement of the
magnitude of a step pulse of unit magnitude.

3.28 Compare the characteristics of a piezoresistive sensor with those of a

piezoelectric sensor.

3.29 What advantages does the piezoresistive sensor have over the common
(metal) electrical resistance strain gage? What are some of the disad¬
vantages?
3.30 What are some of the advantages of a photodiode (a photovoltaic device
operated with a reverse bias) over a photoemissive device or a pho-
toconductive device?
3.31 A large plate 25 in. wide by 60 in. long is supported as a physical
pendulum that is constrained to oscillate in a vertical plane by drilling
a hole 3 in. from the narrow edge along the centerline of the plate and
inserting a circular rod to serve as a pivot. The weight of the plate is
100 lb. What is the natural frequency for small oscillations?
3.32 A clock is to have a pendulum consisting of a thin wire with a weight
at its end. If the weight of the wire is negligible, what weight must be
placed at the end of the wire and what length of wire must be used if
the pendulum is to complete one cycle in 1 s?
3.33 A simple pendulum has a period of 1.95 s at a point on the surface of
the earth where g = 32.17 ft/s^. What is the value of g at another point
on the surface of the earth where the period is 1.97 s?
3.34 A pendulum clock keeps correct time at a location where g = 32.17
ft/s^ but loses 10 s/day at a higher altitude. Find the value of g at the
new location.
122 SENSORS FOR TRANSDUCERS

3.35 The moment of inertia of the propeller on a large ship is 2000 lb • s^ •

in. The propeller shaft is 5 in. in diameter, is 40 ft long, and is made
of steel having a shear modulus of 12(10^) psi. A very large flywheel is
present on the engine end of the propeller shaft. Determine the natural
frequency of vibration of this system.
3.36 An oscillating LC circuit has an inductance L = 20 mH and a capac
itance C = 2.0 p,F. What is the frequency of oscillation of this circuit
 _FOUR_
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
CIRCUITS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

An instrumentation system, as noted in Chapter One, contains many ele¬

ments that are used either to supply power to the transducer or to condition the
output from the transducer so that it can be displayed by a voltage measuring
instrument. Such elements are common to instrumentation systems designed to
measure acceleration, displacement, flow, force, strain, etc.; therefore, each
type of element will be discussed in this chapter independent of its application
in a particular measuring system.
A wide variety of signal conditioning circuits are available today; thus, a
complete coverage of the subject is beyond the scope of this text. However, it
will be possible to cover the general characteristics of those circuits that are
frequently encountered in engineering measurements.
124 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRCUITS

4.2 POWER SUPPLIES

With few exceptions, transducers are driven (provided the energy required
for their operation) with either a constant-voltage or a constant-current power
supply. The simplest and least expensive constant-voltage power supply is the
common battery that can provide a reasonably constant voltage with large current
flow for short periods of time. The difficulty experienced with batteries is that
the voltage decays with time under load; therefore, they must be replaced or
recharged periodically.
The problem of voltage decay can be easily solved by using a simple reg¬
ulating circuit. A circuit containing Zener diodes will maintain the voltage output
at a constant value for long periods of time. Regulated battery-type power
supplies, which can be recharged, are often superior to much more expensive
and complex power supplies that convert an ac line voltage to a dc output voltage,
since problems of noise and ripple are eliminated.
The use of general-purpose power supplies that convert an ac line voltage
(either 110 V or 220 V) to a lower dc output voltage (often variable) is quite
common. A block diagram for a simple dc power supply, which is capable of
delivering nearly constant voltage, is shown in Fig. 4.1. This power supply uses
a full-bridge diode rectifier to convert the ac line voltage to a dc output voltage
and a filter to reduce the ripple. The ripple and regulation are further improved
by incorporating a voltage regulator between the filter and the output. Perform¬
ance characteristics of a typical high-performance power supply that is capable
of providing either a dc voltage from 0 to 40 V or a current from 0 to 3 A is
described in the following paragraphs to indicate the important features of a
power supply.
The load effect (formerly known as the load regulation), which is the voltage

O,

/?2 is used to adjust the level of the output voltage. C, = C2 = lOpF

D, protects regulator from C,, and protects regulator “ 240n, R2 = 5 kH

D, = D, = 1N4002 diodes
from C2 during shorts of the output. ^

Figure 4.1 Typical elements for a simple regulated dc power supply with adjustable
output voltage.
 4.3 THE POTENTIOMETER OIROUIT (Oonstant Voltage] 125

drop from an initial setting as the current is increased from zero to the maximum
rated value, is 0.01 percent plus 200 |xV when the unit is operated as a constant-
voltage source. When operated as a constant-current source, the current in¬
creases 0.02 percent plus 500 fxA as the voltage is increased from zero to its
maximum rated value.
The source effect (formerly known as the line regulation), which is the
change in output for a change in line voltage (between 104 and 127 V for 110-
V units), is 0.01 percent plus 200 |jlV for the voltage and 0.02 percent plus 500
|jlA for the current. The ripple and noise, which is a small ac signal superimposed
on the dc output, is 10 mV peak to peak and 3 mA rms.
The temperature effect coefficient, which is the change in output voltage
or current per degree Celsius following a warm-up period of 30 min, is 0.01
percent plus 200 |jlV for the voltage and 0.01 percent plus 1 mA for the current.
The drift stability, which is the change in output under constant load over
an 8-h period following a 30-min warm-up period, is 0.03 percent plus 500 jxV
and 0.03 percent plus 3 mA for the voltage and current, respectively.
The output impedance of the power supply can be represented by a resistor
and an inductor in series. Low output impedances are usual for voltage supplies;
2 mfl and 1 |jlH can be considered typical.

4.3 THE POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT (Constant Voltage)

The potentiometer circuit, which is often employed with resistance-type

transducers to convert the transducer output AR/R to a voltage signal AE, is
shown in Fig. 4.2. With fixed-value resistors in the circuit, the open-circuit output
voltage can be expressed as

1
(4.1)
Ry + R2 ‘ 1 + r ‘

where E^ is the input voltage.

r is the resistance ratio RJRi-

1
E.
J Figure 4.2 The constant-voltage potentiometer circuit.
126 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

If the resistors and Rj are varied by AR^ and AR2, the change AE„ in
the output voltage can be determined from Eq. (4.1) as

A/?i
E + AE = - (a)
" /?i + AR, + R2 + AR2

Solving for AE^ gives

/? I + A/?]
AE O E. (b)
/?[ + A/?| + /?2 "T A/?2 /?! + /?2

This equation can be reduced and expressed in a more useful form by introducing
the resistance ratio r. Thus

r /A/?i _
(1 + rf \R, R2) ‘
AE O (4.2)

I + r \ R,

Equation (4.2) indicates that the change in output voltage AE„ for the poten¬
tiometer circuit is a nonlinear function of the inputs ARJR^^ and A/?2/^2- The
nonlinear effects associated with the circuit can be expressed as a nonlinear term
T|, where

\
TH = 1 - (4.3)
1 AR,
1 +
]~r7
Ri

Equation (4.2) then becomes

r AR,
AE O - f])Ei (4.4)
(1 + Rr

The nonlinear effects of the potentiometer circuit can be evaluated by con¬

sidering a situation that is typical of many applications (r = 9 and AR2 = 0).
For this simplified case the nonlinear term iq can be expressed as

= 1 -

A/?i
1+ 0.1

2 3
AR, AR,
= 0.1 0.1 + (4.5)
Ri . Rr . Ri )
 4.3 THE POTENTIOMETER CIROUIT (Oonstant Voltage) 127

Values from Eq. (4.5) are plotted in Fig. 4.3. Note that linearity within 1 percent
can be obtained if AR^/R^ <0.1.
The range of the potentiometer circuit is defined as the maximum AR^/R^
that can be recorded without exceeding some specified value of the nonlinear
term (usually 1 or 2 percent). In the special case with r = 9 and ARj = 0, the
range is 0.101 for linearity within 1 percent and 0.204 for linearity within 2
percent.
The sensitivity of the potentiometer circuit is defined for a case where AR.
= 0 as

AE.
5. = :E, (4.6)
AR, (1 + r)

Equation (4.6) indicates that the sensitivity can be increased without limit simply
by increasing the input voltage E,; however, all transducers have limited power-
dissipation capabilities that restrict the input voltage. The power dissipated
by a transducer in a potentiometer circuit is given by the expression

Pt —
El (4.7)
Rt

where Ej- is the voltage across the transducer.

Ej- is the transducer resistance.

From Eq. (4.1)

(4.8)

Resistance change AR-^/Rf

Figure 4.3 Nonlinear term n as a function of resistance change ARJR^ for a constant-
voltage potentiometer circuit with r = 9 and AR2 = 0.
128 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

The upper limit of the voltage that can be applied to the potentiometer circuit
as obtained from Eqs. (4.7) and (4.8) is

E,
*max
- (1 + r)VP7RT (4-9)

A realistic expression for the sensitivity of the constant-voltage potentiometer

circuit is obtained by substituting Eq. (4.9) into Eq. (4.6). Thus

^ \/PfRj with A/?2 = (4.10)

It is clear from Eq. (4.10) that maximum sensitivity is achieved with large
r, with a high-resistance transducer, and with a transducer capable of dissipating
a large amount of power. In practice, sensitivity is usually limited by voltage
requirements. For r > 9, the higher voltages required cannot be justified by the
small additional gains in sensitivity.
The preceding equations for the potentiometer circuit have been based on
the assumption that the input impedance of the voltage recording instrument is
infinite (open-circuit voltage) and that no power is required to measure +
AEo- Ill practice, recording instruments have a finite resistance, and some power
is drawn from the circuit.
The effect of input impedance of the recording instrument on the quantity
being measured AE^ can be determined by considering the circuit shown in Fig.
4.4a, which incorporates a transducer with a resistance in position and a
fixed or ballast resistor in position R2. Also, the recording instrument is
shown with a resistance R,^. This circuit can be reduced to an equivalent circuit
where the parallel resistances R^ and R^ are replaced by a single resistance Rg,
having the value

RtRm
Re (a)
Rt + Rm

Figure 4.4 Constant-voltage potentiometer circuit with a recording instrument, (a) Re¬
sistive load associated with the recording instrument, (b) The equivalent circuit.
 4.3 THE POTENTIOMETER OIRCUIT (Constant Voltage] 129

The change in output voltage from this circuit with === 0 and iq ~ 0 is given
by Eq. (4.4) as

r
(1 + rf

(b)
{R, + R,y R, ‘

Equation (b) can be expressed in terms of R^ and Rj^ by substituting Eq. (a)
into Eq. (b). Thus

RhRi ARj
-E, (4.11)
Rt
Rt + Rh + Rh
M/

A similar expression for the open-circuit voltage (R^ = °°) is

RjyRr ^Rj ^ (4.12)

{Rr + Rbf '

Equation (4.11) can be expressed in terms of Eq. (4.12) and a loss factor ££ as

_ (1 - it) (4.13)
M

where is the loss in output due to the presence of R^. It can be shown that

/ 1 Rt
M/

=
9 (4.14)

1 + A- 1 +
R Ml

The loss factor ^ depends upon the resistance ratios Rt/Rm and r -
Rf^lRj- as shown in Fig. 4.5. It is evident that the loss factor is very small for
Rt/Rm < 0.005; therefore, load effects can be neglected in this range, irrespective
of the magnitude of r. Load effects become more significant for Rt/Rm > 0.01
and exceed practical limits (say 2 percent) when Rt/Rm ^ 0.0111 for r — 10
and when Rt/Rm ^ 0.0203 for r = 1.
130 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Resistance ratio R j IR^

Figure 4.5 Loss factor as a function of resistance ratio Rj-IR/^ for a potentiometer
circuit loaded with a voltage measuring instrument.

4.4 THE POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT (Constant Current)

The potentiometer circuit described in Section 4.3, which was driven with
a constant-voltage power supply, exhibited a nonlinear output voltage when
the input AR/R exceeded certain limits. In many applications, this nonlinear
behavior limits the usefulness of the circuit; therefore, means are sought to
extend the linear range of operation.
Constant-current power supplies with sufficient regulation for instrumen¬
tation systems have been made possible by recent advances in solid-state elec¬
tronics. The constant-current power supply automatically adjusts the output
voltage with a changing resistive load to maintain the current at a constant value.
A potentiometer circuit with a constant-current power supply is shown
schematically in Fig. 4.6a. The open-circuit output voltage (measured with
a very-high-impedance recording instrument so that loading errors are negligible)

iRi (4.15)

When the resistances R^^ and /?2 are changed by the amounts and AR2, the
output voltage becomes

Eo + ^Eo ^ + ARi) (a)

From Eqs. (4.15) and (a).

AR,
AE, = lAR, - IR, (4.16)
 4.5 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (Constant Voltage] 131

Figure 4.6 Constant-current potentiometer circuits, (a) Two-element circuit, (b) Single¬
element circuit.

Equation (4.16) indicates that neither R nor AR influences the output of the
2 2

constant-current potentiometer circuit; therefore, it is possible to eliminate R 2

and use the simple circuit shown in Fig. 4.66. It should also be observed that
the change in output voltage is a linear function of the input AR^/R^,
regardless of the magnitude of AR^. This linear behavior extends the usefulness
of the potentiometer circuit for many applications.
The circuit sensitivity for the constant-current potentiometer circuit is

5 cc IR, (4.17)
AEi

If the constant-current source is adjustable so that the current / can be increased

to the power-dissipation limit of the transducer, then

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (4.17) yields

A,, = VP^ (4.18)

Equations (4.10) and (4.18) indicate that the sensitivity of the potentiometer
circuit is improved by a factor of (1 + r)/r by using the constant-current source.

4.5 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (Constant Voltage)

The Wheatstone bridge (see Fig. 4.7) is a second type of circuit that is
commonly used to convert a change in resistance to an output voltage. The
output voltage of the bridge shown in Fig. 4.7 can be determined by treating
132 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

the top and bottom parts of the bridge as individual voltage dividers. Thus

^AB ~ (a)
R, +

Ead — E, (b)
R-, + R,

The output voltage of the bridge is

Eq ~ EgD = — E^i (c)

Substituting Eqs. (a) and (b) into (c) yields

£■ = ^1^3 ~ R2R4 E; (4.19)

° + R,){R, + R,)

Equation (4.19) indicates that the initial output voltage will vanish (£„ = 0) if

RiR^ = (4.20)

When Eq. (4.20) is satisfied, the bridge is said to be balanced. The ability to
balance the bridge (set E„ = ) represents a significant advantage, since it is
0

much easier to measure small values of AE„ from a zero voltage base than from
a base E„, which may be as much as 1000 times greater than AE„.
With an initially balanced bridge, an output voltage AE„ develops when
resistances R^, R , R^, and R^ are varied by amounts AR^, AR , AR^, and AR^,
2 2

respectively. From Eq. (4.19), with these new values of resistance

AE _ (^1 + A/?0(E3 + AE ) - (R 3 2 + AR )(R, + AR,)

2

(R, + AR, + R 2 + AR2)iR3 + AR + R 2 4 + AR^y'

 4.5 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE [Constant Voltage) 133

Expanding, neglecting higher-order terms, and substituting Eq. (4.20) yields

^ ^ ^1^2 — 2 ^ ^R?,
(4.21)
° {R, + Rif R, R, R.

Another form of the equation for the output voltage is obtained by substituting
r = R /R in Eq. (4.21). Thus
2 1

r /AEi _ ^ ^ ^ _ AEA^
AE O (4.22)
(1 + r)2 V R, R2 R3 rJ ‘

Equations (4.21) and (4.22) indicate that the output voltage from the bridge
is a linear function of the resistance changes. This apparent linearity results from
the fact that the higher-order terms in Eq. (d) were neglected. If the higher-
order terms are retained, the output voltage AE^ is a nonlinear function of the
AE/E’s, which can be expressed as

r AEi AE, AE 3

AE O -^ H-^ - ^)£, (4.23)

{TTff Rr Ri R3
(1

where

1
(4.24)

^ + Ml + + M3\
El E4 A ^2 R3/

In a widely used form of the bridge, Ri = R 2 - R 3 = ^ - In this case, Eq.

4

(4.24) reduces to

y M
A El
■h (4.25)
^ AE, ^
S ^ + 2

(= E,
1

The error in percent (100t|) due to the nonlinear effect is shown as a function
of AEi/Ei in Fig. 4.8 for a bridge with one active transducer in arm Ei and
fixed-value resistors in the other three arms. From these results it is clear that
AEj/Ei must be less than if the error due to the nonlinear effect is not to
0.02

exceed 1 percent. While this may appear quite restrictive, the Wheatstone bridge
is usually employed with transducers that exhibit very small changes in AE/E.
The sensitivity of a Wheatstone bridge with a constant-voltage power supply
134 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

0.001 0,01 0.1 1

Resistance change A/?, /W,

Figure 4.8 Nonlinear term t] as a function of resistance change A/?,//?, for a constant-
voltage Wheatstone bridge circuit with one active gage.

and a single active arm is determined from Eq. (4.22) as

c _
(1 + r)- ■ Ei
^ r'\> (4.26)

Again it is clear that increasing produces an increase in sensitivity; however,

the power Pj that can be dissipated by the transducer limits the bridge voltage
£, to

£, = It{Ri + R ) - ItRtO^ + r) = (1 + r)VP7R^

2 (4.27)

Substituting Eq. (4.27) into Eq. (4.26) gives

^cv \ y ^EjRt (4.28)

Equation (4.28) indicates that the circuit sensitivity of the constant-voltage

Wheatstone bridge is due to two factors—a circuit efficiency r/(l -i- r) and the
characteristics of the transducer as indicated by Py and R-y. Increasing r increases
circuit efficiency; however, r should not be so high as to require unusually large
supply voltages. For example, a 500-0 transducer capable of dissipating 0.2 W
£ ^ ^ 50^V percent circuit efficiency) will require a supply voltage

The selection of a transducer with a high resistance and a high power

dissipating capability is much more effective in maximizing circuit sensitivity
 4.6 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (Constant Current) 135

than increasing the circuit efficiency beyond 80 or 90 percent. The product P^Rj
for commercially available transducers can range from about 1 W • ft to 1000
W • ft; therefore, more latitude exists for increasing circuit sensitivity by
transducer selection than by increasing circuit efficiency.
Circuit sensitivity can also be increased, as indicated by Eq. (4.22), by
using multiple transducers (one in each arm of the bridge). In most cases,
however, the cost of the additional transducers is not warranted. Instead, it is
usually more economical to use a high-gain differential amplifier to increase the
output signal from the Wheatstone bridge.
Load effects in a Wheatstone bridge are usually negligible if a high-imped-
ance voltage measuring instrument (such as a DVM for static signals or an
oscilloscope for dynamic signals) is used with the bridge. The output impedance
Eg of the bridge can be determined by using Thevenin’s theorem. Thus

^1^2 ^ ^3^4
(4.29)
R-y -\- R2 R^ R4

In most bridge arrangements, Rg rarely exceeds 10“* ft. Since the input impedance
of most modern voltage recording devices is at least 10^ ft, the ratio RglR^
< 0.01; therefore, loading errors are usually very small. Furthermore, circuit
calibration (discussed in Section 5.6) will automatically include any bridge-load¬
ing effects.

4.6 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (Constant Current)

Use of a constant-current power supply with the potentiometer circuit im¬

proved the circuit sensitivity and eliminated nonlinear effects. The effects of
using a constant-current power supply with the Wheatstone bridge can be de¬
termined by considering the circuit shown in Fig. 4.9. The current / delivered
to the bridge by the power supply divides at point A into currents and 4 where

I = I\ + I2 (^)
B
136 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

The voltage drop across resistance is

= IiRi (b)

Similarly, the voltage drop across resistance R^ is

Ead ~ ^2^4 (c)

Thus, the output voltage from the bridge is

Eo ~ Egp = E^g — E^d = — I2R4 (4.30)

From Eq. (4.30) it is clear that the bridge will be balanced (£„ = 0) if

IiRi = I2R4 (d)

This balance equation is not in a useful form, since the currents /j and I2 are
unknowns. The magnitudes of these currents can be determined by observing
that the voltage E^^ can be expressed in terms of /j and 4 as

Eac ~ A(^i + Ri) ~ ^2(^3 + ^4) (e)

From Eqs. (a), (d), and (e),

^ ^ _^3 + R4_j
Rl + R2 +

r El + El
L — —- -1 ('ft
R^ + R2 + R2 + R4

Substituting Eqs. (f) into Eq. (4.30) gives

" R2 + R2 + R2 + R4

Thus, the balance requirement for the constant-current Wheatstone bridge is

R1R2 = R2R4 (4.32)

This is the same condition as that required for balance of the constant-voltage
Wheatstone bridge.
 4.6 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (Constant Current) 137

The open-circuit output voltage from an initially balanced bridge (£„ = 0)

due to resistance changes A/?i, and is given by Eq. (4.31) as

I
A£, [(R, + AR,)iR, + A7?3)
XR + lAR

- (/?2 + AR2)iR, + Ai?4)]

IR1R3 [a/?! A/?2 A7?3

IR + l^R ^ ^

AR4 A/?1 A/?3 A/?2 A/?4

/?4 /?3 /?2 ^4

where XR = R^ + R2 + R3 + R4-

SA/? = A/?]^ + A/?2 + A/?3 + A/?4.

Equation (4.33) shows that the constant-current Wheatstone bridge exhibits a

nonlinear output voltage AE„. The nonlinearity is due to the SAi? term in the
denominator and to the two second-order terms within the bracketed quantity.
For a typical application with a transducer in arm R^ and fixed-value resistors
in the other three arms of the bridge such that

R, = R^ = Rj., R^ = R^ = rRr, A/?2 = Ai ?3 = Ai?4 = 0 (g)

Eq. (4.33) reduces to

AE, (4.34)

which can also be expressed as

(4.35)

where

^Rt

(4.36)
 138 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRGUITS

It is clear from Eq. (4.36) that the nonlinear effect can be reduced by increasing
r. Percent error (lOOiq) as a function of and r are shown in Fig. 4.10.
A comparison of the errors illustrated in Figs. 4.8 and 4.10 clearly shows the
advantage of the constant-current power supply in extending the range of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
The circuit sensitivity as obtained from Eq. (4.35) is

- -JEiL_ (4.37)
ARt ~ 2(1 + r)
Ry

For the example being considered, the bridge is symmetric; therefore, the current
It = //2. The power dissipated by the transducer is

Pt — IjRt — (h)

Substituting Eq. (h) into Eq. (4.37) yields

(4.38)

Equations (4.28) and (4.38) show that the circuit sensitivity is the same for
constant-voltage and constant-current Wheatstone bridges.
The principal advantage of a Wheatstone bridge over a potentiometer circuit
is related to the fact that the Wheatstone bridge can be initially balanced to

1—1 1 1 1 111 1 1 rr MU' ^ r-TTTTTT

1 1 I i /

1
1
-1-1-
1
1
i
1
1
1 -1-f-
Nonlinearity 100 77,

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
J
1 /

-^^
1 1 -tT-
1 i
1 1
/ 1 r= 5 ,
1 1
! ! 1 1 / 1 /

1
I 1
1
1
1
1
1
10
-^
-^-1 1 1 1 114- -1 ii 4-rca: -1—1 1 MIL
0.001 0.01 0.1
Resistance change AR, IR,

Figure 4.10 Nonlinear term ti as a function of resistance change A/?,//?, for a constant-
current Wheatstone bridge circuit with one active gage.
 4,7 AMPLIFIERS 139
produce a zero output voltage (£„ — 0). A second advantage is realized when
the bridge is used in a null-balance mode (see Section 5.5). This capability
eliminates the need for a precise voltage measuring instrument and, therefore,
offers the advantage of high accuracy at relatively low cost.

4.7 AMPLIFIERS

An amplifier is one of the most important components in an instrumentation

system. It is used in nearly every system to increase low-level signals from a
transducer to a level sufficient for recording with a voltage measuring instrument.
An amplifier is represented in schematic diagrams of instrumentation systems
by the triangular symbol shown in Fig. 4.11. The voltage input to the amplifier
is the voltage output is E^. The ratio E^/E, is the gain G of the amplifier.
As the input voltage is increased, the output voltage increases in the linear range
of the amplifier according to the relationship

(4.39)

The linear range of an amplifier is finite since the output voltage is limited by
the supply voltage and the characteristics of the amplifier components. A typical
input-output graph for an amplifier is shown in Fig. 4.12. If the amplifier is
driven beyond the linear range (overdriven) serious errors can result if the gain
G is treated as a constant.
If the gain from a single amplifier is not sufficient, two or more amplifiers
can be series connected (cascaded), as shown in Fig. 4.13. Such an amplifier
system has an output voltage E^ given by the expression

(4.40)

where Z, is the amplifier input impedance.

Zo is the amplifier output impedance.
Zi is the internal impedance of the source.
Z2 is the input impedance of the voltage recorder.

Ej (Input
voltage) Eg (Output voltage)
o- ■o

(Supply voltage)
■o

Figure 4.11 Symbol for an amplifier.

140 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIROUITS

Figure 4.12 A typical voltage-input/voltage-output curve for an amplifier.

In properly designed voltage amplifiers Z, » and Z, >> Z^; therefore, Eq.

(4.40) reduces to

- (a)
, Z„ + Z,

The term Z /(Zo + Z ) in Eq. (a) represents the voltage attenuation due to the
2 2

current required to drive the voltage recorder. This topic was discussed in Section
4.3. By maintaining Z » Z, (using a recorder with a high input impedance),
2

this attenuation term approaches unity and Eq. (a) becomes

Eo = (4.41)

Figure 4.13 A high-gain amplifer system consisting of three amplifiers in a cascade

arrangement.
 4.7 AMPLIFIERS 141

With proper selection of Z„, Z„ Z^, and Z , the overall gain of a cascaded
2

amplifier system equals the product of the gains of the individual stages.
Frequency response of an amplifier must also be given careful consideration
during design of an instrumentation system. The gain of an amplifier is a function
of the frequency of the input voltage; therefore, there will always be some high
frequency at which the gain of the amplifier will be less than its value at the
lower frequencies. This frequency effect is similar to inertia effects in a me¬
chanical system. A finite time (transit time) is required for current entering the
input terminal of an amplifier to pass through all of the components and reach
the output terminal. Also, time is required for the output voltage to develop,
since some capacitance will always be present in the recording instrument.
The frequency response of an amplifier-recorder system can be illustrated
in two different ways. First, the output voltage can be plotted as a function of
time for a step input as shown in Fig. 4.14fl. The rise in output voltage for this

Figure 4.14 Frequency response of an amplifier-recorder system, (a) Amplifier response

to a step-input voltage, {b) Gain as a function of frequency of the input voltage.
142 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

representation can be approximated by an exponential function of the form

E, = G(1 - (4.42)

where t is the time constant for the amplifier.

The second method of illustrating frequency effects utilizes a graph showing
gain plotted as a function of frequency as shown in Fig. 4.146. The output of
the amplifier is flat between the lower and upper frequency limits f, and /„.
Thus, a dynamic signal with all frequency components within the band between
fi and /„ will be amplified with a constant gain. Amplifiers can be designed with
coupling circuits that maintain a constant gain down to zero frequency. These
amplifiers are known as dc or dc-coupled amplifiers. In some cases, a capacitor
is placed in series with the input to the amplifier to block the dc components of
the input signal. These ac-coupled amplifiers exhibit a gain G = 0 when the
frequency of the input signal drops to zero.
Two very simple single-stage amplifiers, which utilize field-effect transistors,
are illustrated in Fig. 4.15. The dc-coupled amplifier, shown in Fig. A.\5a, ex¬
hibits a gain of 15, while the ac-coupled amplifier, shown in Fig. 4.156, exhibits
a gain of 8. The field-effect transistor, with its high input resistance, low noise.

Field-effect transistor

Field-effect transistor Cq-O.OI^F

Figure 4.15 Single-stage amplifiers incorporating field-effect transistors (from data by

Brophy). (a) DC-coupled amplifier. (6) AC-coupled amplifier.
 4.7 AMPLIFIERS 143

and high stability, is used extensively in amplifiers designed to accommodate

low-level signals from a wide variety of transducers.
The amplifiers illustrated in Fig. 4.15 can be classified as single-ended am¬
plifiers since both the input and output voltages are referenced to ground. Single-
ended amplifiers can be used only when the output from the signal conditioning
circuit is referenced to ground, as is the case for the potentiometer circuit de¬
scribed in Section 4.3. Since the output from a Wheatstone bridge is not ref¬
erenced to ground, single-ended amplifiers cannot be used, so differential am¬
plifiers must be employed. In a differential amplifier (see Fig. 4.16b), two separate
voltages, each referenced to ground, are connected to the input. The output is
single-ended and referenced to ground. The output voltage from the differential
amplifier is

Ej2) (4.43)

As a result of the form of Eq. (4.43), the differential amplifier rejects common¬
mode signals (those voltages that are identical on both inputs). Common-mode
signals include spurious pickup (noise), temperature-induced drift, and power
supply ripple. The ability of the differential amplifier to essentially eliminate
these undesirable components of the input signal is an extremely important
feature. The differential amplifier can be used with all signal conditioning cir¬
cuits.
Differential amplifiers of excellent quality are readily available today thanks
to recent developments in solid-state electronics. Typical specifications for a
high-quality differential amplifier are

Frequency response: DC to 1-MHz bandwidth

Gain: from 1 to 10"^ in calibrated steps in a 1, 2, 5, sequence.
Input impedance: R = 1 Mil and C = 47 pF
Common-mode rejection ratios: 100,000 to 1
DC stability: 10 fxV over a 1-h period

Figure 4.16 Single-ended and differential amplifiers, (a) Single-ended input and output.
(b) Double-ended input and single-ended output.
144 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

4.8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a complete amplifier circuit (an in¬

tegrated circuit where components such as transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.,
have been miniaturized into a single element) that can be employed in a number
of different ways by adding a small number of external passive components,
such as resistors or capacitors. Operational amplifiers have an extremely high
gain (G = 10^ is a typical value), which can be considered infinite for the purpose
of analysis and design of circuits containing the op-amp. The input impedance
(typically R = A Mfl and C = 8 pF) is so high that circuit loading usually is

(«)

Figure 4.17 Schematic circuit diagram and photographs of operational amplifiers, (a)
An operational amplifier circuit, {b) An operational amplifier. (Courtesy of Teledyne
Philbrick.) (c) A selection of operational amplifiers. (Courtesy of Burr-Brown Research
Corp.)
 4.8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 145

not a consideration. Output resistance (of the order of 100 fl) is sufficiently low
to be considered negligible in most applications.
Figure 4.17 shows the symbols used to represent the internal op-amp circuit
m schematic diagrams and the physical size of a typical op-amp. The two input
terminals are identified as the inverting (-) terminal and the noninverting ( + )
terminal. The output voltage of an op-amp is given by the expression

Eo = G(£,.2 - (4.44)

It is evident from Eq. (4.44) that the op-amp is a differential amplifier; however,
it is not used as a conventional differential amplifier because of its high gain
and poor stability. The op-amp can be used effectively, however, as a part of a
larger circuit (with more accurate and more stable passive elements) for many
applications. Several applications of the op-amp, including inverting amplifiers,
voltage followers, summing amplifiers, integrating amplifiers, and differentiating
amplifiers, will be discussed in subsequent subsections.

Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier with single-ended input and output can be built with
an op-amp and resistors, as shown in Fig. 4.18. In this circuit, the input voltage
El is applied to the negative terminal of the op-amp through an input resistor
Ri- The positive terminal of the op-amp is connected to the common ground
bus. The output voltage is fed back to the negative terminal of the op-amp
through a feedback resistor Rf.
The gain of the inverting amplifier can be determined by considering the
sum of the currents at point A in Fig. 4.18. Thus

f + If - 4 (a)

If Ea is the voltage drop across the op-amp.

h
Ri

If
Rf

I (b)
Ra
146 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRGUITS

Figure 4.18 An inverting amplifier with

single-ended input and output.

The voltage drop across the op-amp is related to the output voltage Eg by
the gain relation. Therefore,

Ea = (c)

From Eqs. (a), (b), and (c),

Eo Ef 1
(4.45)
Ei

As an example, consider a typical op-amp with a gain of 106 dB (2 x 10^)

and = 4 Mil, with = 0.1 MH and R^ = I MO. Substituting these values
into Eq. (4.45) yields

^ = -10(t-
£,
^
-7^) - -9.999 - -10
\1 + 5.6 X 10-7

Thus, it is obvious that the op-amp gain can be neglected without introducing
appreciable error (0.1 percent in this example), and the gain of the circuit
can be accurately approximated by

Gc El (4.46)
Ri

Op-amps can also be used to design noninverting amplifiers and differential

amplifiers in addition to the inverting amplifiers. The circuits for each of these
amplifiers are shown in Fig. 4.19. The governing equations for each of these
circuits are as follows:
 4,8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 147

Figure 4.19 Instrument amplifiers that use

operational amplifiers as the central circuit
element, {a) Inverting amplifier; {b) nonin¬
verting amplifier; (c) differential amplifier.

Inverting Amplifier: (4.45)

E, R,

^1 ^a/

G - - (4.46)

G
Noninverting Amplifier: ——— (4.47)
E: GRi
1 +
Ri + Rf
G„ — 1 +
R, (4.48)
Ri
148 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Differential Amplifier: (4.49)

If RflR^ = R^IR2.

(4.50)

The circuits shown in Fig. 4.19 have been simplified to illustrate the concept
of developing an amplifier with a gain that is essentially independent of the
op-amp gain G. In practice, these circuits must be modified to account for zero-
offset voltages since, ideally, the output voltage of the amplifier should be
zero when the inputs (-I-) and (-) of the op-amp are connected to the common
bus (i.e., grounded). In practice, this does not occur automatically, since the
op-amps exhibit a zero-offset voltage; therefore, it is necessary to add a biasing
circuit to the amplifier that can be adjusted to restore the output voltage to zero,
otherwise, serious measurement errors can occur. Since the magnitude of the
offset voltage changes (drifts) as a result of temperature, time, and power-supply
voltage variations, it is advisable to adjust the bias circuit periodically to restore
the zero output conditions.
A biasing circuit for an inverting amplifier with single-ended input and
output is shown in Fig. 4.20. Common values of resistances R2, R3, and R^ are
Rj = Ri, R2 ^ 10 n and R4 = 25 kil. A voltage £1 = ± 15 V is often used,
since the zero-offset voltage of the op-amp can be either positive or negative.
The magnitude of the bias voltage that must be applied to the op-amp seldom
exceeds a few millivolts.
The frequency response of instrument amplifiers constructed with op-amps
depends upon the frequency response of the op-amp and the feedback fraction.
Since the gain of an op-amp depends on frequency (decreases with increasing
frequency), the gain of the circuit also decreases with increasing frequency. The
frequency responses of op-amps vary appreciably (depending upon design char¬
acteristics); however, a frequency response of 10 kHz or above is common. This
is sufficient frequency response for most mechanical measurements.

The Voltage Follower

An op-amp can also be used to construct an instrument with a very high
input impedance for use with transducers that incorporate piezoelectric sensors.
This high-impedance circuit, shown in Fig. 4.21, is known as a voltage follower
and has a circuit gain of unity {G^ = 1). The purpose of the voltage follower is
 4.8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 149

Figure 4.20 Biasing circuit for a single-

ended input and output amplifier.

to serve as an insulator between the transducer and the voltage recording in¬
strument. The voltage follower is also known as a unity-gain buffer amplifier.
The gain of the voltage follower can be determined from Eq. (4.44).
Thus,

= G(£,2 - £a) - G(£, - £.) (a)

Solving Eq. (a) for the circuit gain gives

G
Gc (4.51)
1 + G

When the gain G of the op-amp is very large, the gain G^ of the circuit becomes
unity.
The input resistance of the voltage follower circuit is given by Ohm’s law
as

The input current can be expressed in terms of the input and output voltages
of the op-amp and the input resistance of the op-amp as

Figure 4.21 A high-impedance

voltage follower circuit.
150 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Combining Eqs. (a), (b), and (c) gives

EM.
R = (1 + G)R, (4.52)
GEj
Ei
1 + G

Since both G and are very large for op-amps (i.e., G = 10^ and jR, = 1 to
10 MH), the input impedance of the voltage follower circuit is of the order of
10“ to 10“ n. This input impedance is sufficient to minimize any drain of charge
from a piezoelectric transducer during a readout period of short duration.
The output resistance of the voltage follower circuit is extremely low
and is given by the expression

Rq (4.53)
R CO
1 -f G

where R^ is the output resistance of the op-amp.

Summing Amplifiers
In some data analysis applications, signals from two or more transducers
must be added to obtain an output signal that is proportional to the sum of the
input signals. This can be accomplished with the op-amp circuit, known as a
summing amplifier, shown in Fig. 4.22.
Operation of the summing amplifier can be established by considering cur¬
rent flow at point A of Fig. 4.22, which can be expressed as

f -\- I2 I-i If — 0 (a)

Applying Ohm’s law to Eq. (a) yields

= 0 (b)
Ri R2 R3 Rf

Figure 4.22 A summing amplifier incorporating an op-amp circuit.

 4.8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 151
Solving Eq. (b) for gives

E o (4.54)

Equation (4.54) indicates that the input signals E^, E,- , and E are scaled by
2 ,3

ratios RfIRi, RflR2, and Rf/R^, respectively, and then summed. If R^ = R2 =

R3 ~ Rfj the inputs sum without scaling and Eq. (4.54) reduces to

= -(E,i + + E,3) (4.55)

If the gain G and the input impedance are finite, the analysis of the
circuit illustrated in Fig. 4.22 is more involved; however, it can be shown that

to =---
Ri R2 Rj
^ ^ ^ J_ J_

Rf^ G Ui ^ R2^ R3^ Rf^ Ri

Equations (4.54) and (4.56) indicate that the term

G [r, ^ R2^ R^^ Rf^ rJ

represents an error in the scaling and summing operation. The magnitude of the
error is small if G and R^ are large.
The circuit shown in Fig. 4.22 can be modified to produce an adding¬
subtracting amplifier if the positive terminal of the op-amp is used. The adding¬
subtracting amplifier circuit is shown in the figure associated with Exercise 4.28.

Integrating Amplifiers
An integrating amplifier utilizes a capacitor in place of the feedback resistor
of Fig. 4.22 as shown in Fig. 4.23. An expression for the output voltage from
the integrating amplifier can be established by following the procedure used for

^ Figure 4.23 An integrating amplifier

incorporating an op-amp circuit.
152 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

the summing amplifier. Thus, by considering current flow at point A of Fig.

4.23,

A + /, = 0 (a)

If Ohm’s law is applied, Eq. (a) can be written as

(b)

where

(c)

The voltage E/ 0 when the gain G is large and Eq. (b) becomes

(d)

The charge q on the capacitor is given by the expression

(e)

Substituting Eq. (d) into Eq. (e) and solving for the output voltage yields

(4.57)

It is clear from Eq. (4.57) that the output voltage from the circuit of Fig.
4.23 is the integral of the input voltage E, with respect to time multiplied by the
constant —HR^Cf.

Differentiating Ampiifier
The differentiating amplifier is similar to the integrating amplifier except
that the positions of the resistor and capacitor of Fig. 4.23 are interchanged, as
shown in Fig. 4.24. An expression for the output voltage E„ of the differentiating
amplifier can be developed by following the procedure outlined for the inte¬
grating amplifier. The results are

(4.58)
 4.9 FILTERS 153
If Rf

Figure 4.24 A differentiating amplifier

incorporating an op-amp circuit.

Considerable care must be exercised to minimize noise when the differentiating

amplifier is used, since noise is simply superimposed on the input voltage and
differentiated in such a way that it contributes to the output voltage and produces
error. The effects of high-frequency noise can be suppressed by placing a ca¬
pacitor across resistance Rf, however, the presence of this capacitor affects the
differentiating process, and Eq. (4.58) must be modified to account for its effects.

4.9 FILTERS

In many instrumentation applications, the signal from the transducer is

combined with noise or some other undesirable voltage. These parasitic voltages
can often be eliminated with a filter that is designed to attenuate the undesirable
signals, but transmit the transducer signal without significant attenuation or
distortion. Filtering of the signal is possible if the frequencies of the parasitic
and transducer signals are different. Some of the different filters that are em¬
ployed in signal conditioning include: the RL filter, the RC high-pass filter, the
RC low-pass filter, and the Wein-bridge notched filter. Schematic diagrams of
these filters are shown in Fig. 4.25.

The RL Filter
A schematic diagram of the resistance-inductance {RL) filter is shown in
Fig. 4.25a. The performance characteristics of this filter can be established by
using the Kirchhoff voltage law, which can be expressed as

^f
For a current I that is sinusoidal and can be expressed as

I ^ lo sin lot (b)

where co is the circular frequency of the input signal, Eq. (a) becomes

E, = /„ (R sin lot + loL cos cot) (c)

154 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Figure 4.25 Filters commonly used for signal

conditioning, (a) The RL filter; (b) the high-
pass RC filter; (c) the low-pass RC filter; (d)
{d) the Wein-bridge notched filter.

Equation (c) can be expressed in a more convenient form by introducing a phase

angle <\>, which is defined as

coL
4) = tan (d)
~R

Thus,

E, = IoVR^ + (coL)2 sin (tot + cj)) (e)

The output voltage is the voltage drop across the resistance E; therefore,
from Eq. (b)

= IR ^ I^R sin oit (f)

 4,9 FILTERS 155

The ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltages EJEi is obtained
from Eqs. (e) and (f) as

Equation (4.59) indicates that EJE^ -> 1 as (stLIR 0. Thus, the RE filter
transmits the low-frequency components (o) ^ 0) of an input signal without
significant attenuation. The amount by which a filter attenuates a particular
frequency is given by the response curve or transfer function for the filter. A
response curve showing E^IE^ as a function of (oL/R for the RE filter is presented
in Fig. 4.26fl. This curve shows that the transfer function decreases from 0.995
for (x}L/R = 0.10 to 0.01 for o)L/R = 100. Both ends of this response curve are
important. The low-frequency end, which is presented in expanded form in Fig.
4.26h, is important since it controls the attenuation of the transducer signal.
Note that a 2 percent attenuation of the transducer signal occurs when oi^LIR
= 0.203 (wj is the circular frequency of the transducer signal). To avoid errors
greater than 2 percent, L and R must be selected when designing the filter such
that oijLIR ^ 0.203.
The high-frequency response of the filter is also important since it controls
the attenuation of the parasitic or noise signal. A reduction of 90 percent in the
noise signal can be achieved if tOpL/R = 10 (co^ is the circular frequency of the
parasitic signal). It is not always possible to simultaneously limit the attenuation
of the transducer signal to 2 percent while reducing the parasitic voltages by 90
percent, since this requires that 00^/00^ 5= 20. If cOp/Wf < 20, it will be necessary
to accept a higher ratio of parasitic signal.

High-Pass RC Filter
A simple yet effective high-pass resistance-capacitance (RC) filter is illus¬
trated in Fig. 4.25b. The behavior of this filter in response to a sinusoidal input
voltage of the form

Ei = E^ sin (Jit (a)

can be determined by summing the voltage drops around the loop of Fig. 4.25b.
Thus,

Ei - ^ - RI = 0 (b)
C
156
Voltage ratio EglE^ SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Figure 4.26 Response curve for a low-pass RL filter, {a) Complete response curve, (b)
Low-frequency end of response curve.

where q is the charge on the capacitor. Current I and charge q are related by
the expression

1 =
(c)
dt

Equation (b) can be expressed in a more useful form by differentiating with

respect to time and substituting Eqs. (a) and (c). Thus,
 4.9 FILTERS 157

Solving Eq. (d) for the instantaneous current I yields

I = sin((t>t + c}))
Vl + {o)RCf

sin((ot + <t>) (e)

+
,coCy

where the phase angle cf) is given by the expression

1
c() = tan -1 (f)
(iiRC

The output voltage is the voltage drop across the resistance R; therefore,
from Eq. (e)

OiRCEa
EO IR = sin(oot + 4))
Vl + (ioRCy

REa
= sin(oL)t + 4)) (g)
2

The ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltages E^IEi is obtained
from Eqs. (a) and (g) as

Eg oiRC
(4.60)
E, ~ Vl + (ioRCy

Equation (4.60) indicates that E^IEi ^ 1 as the frequency becomes large; thus,
this filter is known as a high-pass filter. The response curve for a high-pass RC
filter is shown in Fig. 4.27. At zero frequency (dc), the voltage ratio EJE^
vanishes, which indicates that the filter completely blocks any dc component of
the output voltage. This dc blocking capability of the high-pass RC filter can be
used to great advantage when a low-amplitude transducer signal is superimposed
on a large dc output voltage (see, for example, the potentiometer circuit of
Section 4.3). Since the RC filter eliminates the dc voltage, the low-magnitude
dynamic transducer signal can be amplified to produce a satisfactory display.
158 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

0.01 0,1 1 10
coRC

Figure 4.27 Response curve for a high-pass RC filter.

When a high-pass RC filter is used, care must be exercised to ensure that

the transducer signal is transmitted through the filter without significant atten¬
uation. Figure 4.27 indicates that the attenuation will be less than 2 percent if
i^RC ^ 5.

Low-Pass RC Filter
A low-pass RC filter is produced by interchanging the positions of the
resistor and capacitor of the high-pass RC filter shown in Fig. 4.25b. This mod¬
ified RC circuit, shown in Fig. 4.25c, has transmission characteristics that are
opposite to those of the high-pass RC filter; namely, it transmits low-frequency
signals and attenuates high-frequency signals.
The output voltage for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.25c is measured across
the capacitor; therefore.

E
1
O (a)
c

The charge q can be determined by using Eq. (e) from the high-pass RC filter
section for the current /. Thus,

^ = / 1 dt - sin(ojr -f (})) dt (b)

 4.9 FILTERS 159

and

cos((o/ + 4))
Eo = -

(oC + (—
V \^C

The ratio of the amplitudes of the output and input voltages for this filter is

io _ 1
Ei Vl + {ijiRCf

Equation (4.61) has the same form as Eq. (4.59), except that the term coi?C
appears instead of oiLIR; therefore, the modified RC circuit is also a low-pass
filter. The response curve for this filter, shown in Fig. 4.28, indicates that a
transducer signal can be transmitted with an attenuation of less than 2 percent
if co/?C < 0.203.

Wein-Bridge Notched Filter

The Wein-bridge filter, shown in Fig. A.25d, is a notched filter that produces
high attenuation at a selected filter frequency The voltage ratio for this filter
can be expressed as

1
(4.62)
Et
3 -F /

0.1 1 10 100
loRC

Figure 4.28 Response curve for a low-pass RC filter.

160 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

where i is the imaginary number V — 1-

The critical frequency o)/ for this filter is

If the Wein-bridge filter is tuned to the frequency of a parasitic signal {(x>f = o)^),
the reactive term in Eq. (4.62) vanishes and the voltage ratio equation reduces
to

= i_ for cOp (jif (4.63)

£, [3 R, + R2

For the special case where R2 = 2/?i, the voltage ratio EJE^ = 0, which indicates
that the noise or parasitic signal is completely eliminated at the critical frequency
of the filter. This high attenuation at a selected filter frequency can be used very
effectively to eliminate 60-Hz noise that is difficult to handle by other means;
however, this benefit is not gained without a penalty. The Wein-bridge filter
will always attenuate the transducer signal; therefore, a correction must be
introduced to compensate for the attenuation. The response curve for the filter,
shown in Fig. 4.29, indicates that the magnitude of the correction will, in general,
be large and will be a function of frequency. For this reason, the Wein-bridge
filter should be used only when the transducer signal is a pure sinusoid with a
known frequency co.

0.1 1 10

Frequency ratio cu/toy

Figure 4.29 Response curve for a Wein-bridge filter.

 4.10 AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 161
4.10 AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Amplitude modulation is a signal conditioning process in which the signal

from a transducer is multiplied by a carrier signal of constant frequency and
amplitude. The carrier signal can have any periodic form, such as a sinusoid,
square wave, sawtooth, or triangle. The transducer signal can be sinusoidal,
transient, or random. The only requirement for mixing carrier and transducer
signals is that the frequency of the carrier signal must be much higher than
the frequency co, of the transducer signal. Reasons for using amplitude modu¬
lation in instrumentation systems include better stability of ac carrier amplifiers
and lower power requirements associated with transmission of high-frequency
signals over long distances.
The significant aspects of data transmission with amplitude modulation can
be illustrated by considering a case where both the carrier and transducer signals
are sinusoidal. The output voltage is then given by the expression

= (£■„ sin o),t)(Ei^ sin oij)

E^E
"" 2 [cos(o)^ - w,)r - cos(co^ -L wjr] (4.64)

where £„ is the amplitude of the transducer signal,

is the amplitude of the carrier signal.

An amplitude-modulated output signal E„ is illustrated in Fig. 4.30.

Equation (4.64) indicates that the output signal is being transmitted at two
discrete frequencies (co^ — co,) and (co^ -I- cOf). The amplitude associated with
each frequency is the same. This data transmission at the higher frequencies
permits use of high-pass filters to eliminate noise signals that usually occur at
much lower frequencies. For example, consider use of a carrier frequency of
4000 Hz with a transducer signal frequency of 50 Hz. Normally any 60-Hz noise
would be difficult to eliminate because of the small difference between the
frequencies of the transducer signal and the noise. However, with amplitude
modulation, the data in this example are transmitted at frequencies of 3950 and
4050 Hz; therefore, any 60-Hz noise superimposed onto the transmission signal
can be easily eliminated with a high-pass filter. Thus, a 50-Hz signal can be
successfully transmitted over lines with 60-Hz noise; in fact, even a 60-Hz signal
can be transmitted in the presence of 60-Hz noise.
While amplitude modulation offers several advantages in data transmission
(stability, low power, and noise suppression), the output signal is not suitable
for display and interpretation until the transducer signal is separated from the
carrier signal. The process of separating the transducer signal from the carrier
signal is known as demodulation. The demodulation process is illustrated in
block diagram form in Fig. 4.31a.
162 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRGUITS

Figure 4.30 Carrier, transducer, and amplitude-modulated output signals.

The first step in the demodulation process involves rectifying the signal.
This is usually accomplished with a full-wave, phase-sensitive rectifier. The out¬
put from this type of rectifier is a series of half-sine waves with amplitude and
sense corresponding to the output signal from the transducer. The frequency
spectrum associated with a rectified signal is shown in Fig. 4.31b. The frequency
spectrum contains the transducer signal frequency as a single line at co, and four
other lines for the carrier frequencies. There are many other carrier lines at
higher frequencies; however, these have been omitted since they can be easily
eliminated. The transducer signal is separated with a low-pass filter that transmits
CO, and severely attenuates the frequencies 2(0^ ± co„ 4co,. ± co„ etc. If the carrier
frequency is ten times the highest transducer signal frequency, the rejection of
the carrier frequency can be accomplished with a minimum of distortion of the
transducer signal.

4.11 A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS

The output from a transducer is usually an analog signal that varies linearly
and continuously with the quantity being measured. With the larger and more
complex instrumentation systems, it is often useful to convert this analog signal
to a digital signal so that it can be analyzed or processed with a computer or
microprocessor. The device employed to perform this function is an analog-to-
digital (A/D) converter. A schematic illustration of the analog-to-digital con¬
version process is shown in Fig. 4.32.
 4.11 A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS 163

ia)
Magnitude of the output signal

(b)

Figure 4.31 {a) Amplitude modulation and demodulation, {b) Frequency spectrum for
the output from a full-wave, phase-sensitive rectifier.

A/D Converters
Many types of A/D converters are produced and marketed today; however,
two types dominate the market: the shift-programmed, successive-approximation
A/D converter (for use in high-speed applications) and the dual-slope, integrating
A/D converter (for use in lower speed, low-cost applications).
The principle of operation of the successive-approximation A/D converter
is illustrated in block-diagram form in Fig. 4.33. This A/D converter operates
164 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Figure 4.32 The analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion process. (Courtesy of Analog De¬
vices.)

by successively comparing the analog input voltage with programmed fractions

of a reference voltage (which is larger than any analog input voltage expected
from the instrumentation system). The reference voltage E, is divided into 2^
parts, where N is the converter resolution expressed in terms of binary bits (for
a 10-bit converter, the reference voltage is divided into = 1024 parts) and
each one of the parts (£,/2^, AEJl^, • • •, EJl) is assigned to a different
bit position.
As each comparison is made, the output of the comparitor is monitored to
determine whether the analog signal is greater or less than the fraction of the
reference voltage assigned to the bit position. The comparison process proceeds
rapidly through the TV-bit positions until the least significant bit has been iden¬
tified in the comparitor. The digital word in the digital-to-analog (D/A) converter
at this instant is the digital representation of the analog signal in binary code
(see Fig. 4.34). At this point, an end-of-conversion signal is issued that indicates
that the conversion is complete and that the digital signal can be recorded or
observed with an LED display. In a continuous mode of operation, the next
clock pulse would clear and reset the output register, enable the busy signal (an
indicator that shows the converter is working), and begin the next conversion.
The speed of the successive-approximation A/D converters is amazing. State-
of-the-art models exhibit a conversion time of 2.5 |jls with 10-bit resolution. Since
 4,11 A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS 165

PARALLEL
CODED
OUTPUT
WORD

EOC

Figure 4.33 Block diagram for a shift-programed, successive-approximation A/D con¬

verter. (Courtesy of Analogic Corporation.)

the error involved is ± Vi of the least significant bit, accuracies of ±0.05 percent
can be achieved with this very-high-speed A/D converter.
The principle of operation of the dual-slope integrating A/D converter is
illustrated in Fig. 4.35. The conversion from analog to digital is accomplished
by first charging a capacitor integrator with the analog input voltage F, for a
fixed period of time /,. The time interval is established from considerations of
the converter’s clock rate and the counter capacity. Next, the counter is reset
and an internal reference voltage is substituted for the input signal. The
reference voltage causes the capacitor integrator to discharge to zero over a

B
QUANTIZING ERROR
a: + 1/2 LSB
O
a. 0-
a.
LU - 1/2 LSB

Figure 4.34 Digital code representation of an

ANALOG INPUT VOLTAGE-» analog ramp function. (Courtesy of Analogic
Corporation.)
166 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRCUITS

TRIGGER n

(a)

Figure 4.35 A dual-slope, integrating A/D converter. (Courtesy of Analogic Corp.) (a)
Block diagram, (b) Photograph of an A/D converter.
 4.11 A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS 167
time that is related to the input voltage the reference voltage E^, and the
initial charging time t, by the expression

Ejtj
tr =
Er

Since and are constants,

E. = \ = a (4.65)
h

The constant C can be scaled so that the counter reading of gives a direct
reading of E^.
The integrating converter is preferred over the successive-approximation
converter, except in those applications that require high speed. The integrating
converter has the advantages of true averaging of the analog input signal during
conversion, autozeroing, lower cost for a given resolution, higher accuracy, and
linear stability. A high-performance integrating A/D converter exhibits a con¬
version time of 4 ms with 17-bit resolution. With 17-bit resolution, the full-scale
analog signal can be divided into 2^^ = 131,072 parts and if the error is ± 1 least
significant bit (£',,/2^^), an accuracy of 0.000763 percent is achieved. An addi¬
tional significant feature associated with the dual-slope method is that 60-cycle
noise is averaged out when the integration period is l/60th of a second.

D/A Converters
Digital-to-analog (DIA) converters are electronic devices that accept digital
signals at their input terminals and generate an analog output voltage corre¬
sponding to the digital input word. Digital-to-analog converters are often em¬
ployed in digital control systems between a computer or microprocessor and the
process control element. For example, parameters that control a process are
usually monitored with transducers. In general, signals from a transducer are
passed through an A/D converter so that they can be used as input to a control
program stored in a computer or microprocessor. After executing the program
for each input of transducer data, the computer issues digital signals that are to
be used to adjust control elements (servovalves, heaters, motors, etc.) in the
process. These control elements are usually analog devices that will not respond
to digital commands; therefore, a D/A converter must be used between the
computer and the control elements to provide the required analog signal.
A block diagram for a popular type of D/A converter is shown in Fig. 4.36.
The digital word, in this case consisting of 16 bits, is parallel bussed into an
input register. The digital word in the register activates a series of switches that
connect a precisely controlled voltage E, to a precision resistor network. The
 168 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

CUR OUT

AMP IN
GAIN 5K
GAIN 2 5K
AMP OUT

OFFSET

INT REF

(a)

Figure 4.36 A 16-bit D/A converter. (Courtesy of Analogic Corp.) (a) Block diagram.
(b) Photograph of a D/A converter.

resistor network is connected to a summing amplifier (see Section 4.8) that sums
the analog voltage contribution from each of the bits.
A simple schematic for the process for a 16-bit D/A converter is shown in
Fig. 4.37. In this case, the analog output voltage E„ is given by Eq. (4.54) as

E O -E,Rf *
(4.66)

where the symbol * indicates that the following term is to be added if the switch
is closed and deleted if the switch is open. The resistors to R^^^ are used to
proportion the contribution of a particular bit to the output voltage according
 4.11 A/D AND D/A CONVERTERS 169

Figure 4.37 Schematic diagram for a summing amplifier in a D/A converter.

to the weight of the bit. For instance, the least significant bit in a 16-bit digital
word has a weight of 1/2^^ = 1/65,536 and would require a resistance ratio

Rf k
65,536

where A: is a proportionality constant. For the most significant bit in the digital
word
170 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRCUITS

The performance of high-quality D/A converters is outstanding. The devices

are linear to within 0.001 percent of full scale, are virtually noise-free, and have
conversion times of a few microseconds.

4.12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT

CIRCUITS

Time, frequency, count, and phase are important engineering measure¬

ments. The digital electronic counter, which is used to make several of these
measurements, has become a common instrument in all laboratories and on
many production lines. These counters are versatile, accurate, and relatively
inexpensive; thus, their use is being extended to many new applications as more
and more digital instrumentation is incorporated into new and existing systems.
The different kinds of time-related quantities that can be measured with a digital
electronic counter and their symbolic names are;

1. EPUT (events per unit time) is the number of events that occur in a precisely
determined interval of time. FREQUENCY is a special case of EPUT where
the events are equally spaced over the time interval.
2. TIM (time-interval measurement) is the time between two events. PERIOD
is a special case of TIM where the time interval is between two identical
points on a periodic signal, such as the time required for a sinusoidal signal
to complete one cycle.
3- GATE (totalize and count) is a basic measurement technique where events
are counted during a time interval that is started by one event and stopped
by a second event. RATIO is a special case of GATE where the ratio of
two input frequencies is measured directly (the number of A events per B
event).

The digital electronic counter consists of a number of fundamental com¬

ponents that are arranged in different ways to perform the different measure¬
ments. The major components are:

1. A digital counting unit (DCU) that counts the events and displays the results.
2. A quartz controlled oscillator (CLOCK) that provides a precise time base.
3. An electronic device (GATE) that controls when counting is to take place.
4. Electronic units (AMPLIFIERS AND SCHMITT TRIGGERS) that con¬
dition the signal and generate pulses to either control the gate unit or register
that an event has occurred.

In the subsections that follow, the operation of each of these major components
and arrangements for performing the different measurements are described.
 4,12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS 171

Digital Counting Unit

A typical digital counting unit is shown schematically in Fig. 4.38. The event
pulses pass through the gate that is connected to the clock (CLK) input of the
counter unit. The counter unit shown is a binary ^ 16 type that can be reset to
zero whenever the reset line is toggled. Each counter has four outputs that
correspond to dividing the input pulses by 2, 4, 8, and 16, as shown. The divide-
by-16 line of the first counter is connected to the clock input of the second
counter and so forth down the line. Thus, a binary sequence of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, . . ., 2048 is formed by using this cascaded arrangement of counters. When
the gate stops passing the event pulses, the number of events is present on the
counter output lines in binary form. This number, ranging from the least sig¬
nificant bit (LSB) to the most significant bit (MSB), can be held by the latch
unit when the latch switch is toggled. The data, in 12-bit binary form, are then
available for use by a computer or to drive a printer or visual display.
The major differenee among digital counting units is in the type of counter
used to process the input data. Currently, binary counters, binary-coded-decimal
(BCD) counters, and decade (divide-by-10) counters are widely used. For ex-

Voltage

In n Time

Figure 4.38 Typical binary digital counting unit (DCU).

 172 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRCUITS

ample, decade counters are often cascaded and used to control the gate function
for EPUT-type measurements. In this application, the time base clock pulses
(either 1 MHz or 10 MHz are common) are counted to give 0.001-, 0.01-, 0.1-,
1-, and 10-s gate times.

The Gate Process

The gate process controls the time during which pulses can be counted by
the digital counting unit (DCU). First, the DCU is cleared by toggling the counter
reset line. The gate (an AND gate) can then be activated by switching the gate
signal to the high state (Pin A at 1) so that the event pulses are passed to the
DCU in accordance with the truth table and timing diagram illustrated in Fig. 4.39.
When the measuring time elapses, the gate signal returns to the low state (Pin
A at 0) and the event pulses are blocked from the DCU. Toggling the latch line
holds the data in the latch unit where they are available for display. A display
time control normally holds the display for a controlled amount of time or, in
some instances, until the process repeats itself.
As illustrated in Fig. 4.39, the event duration does not have to be constant.
Also, the DCU can be set to count ether the positive edge of a pulse (the O’s)
or the negative edge of a pulse (the X’s of Fig. 4.39). In either case, the unit
would count six events during the gate period shown in the figure. In all counting
measurements, the count uncertainty is ± 1 count.

Input Amplifiers and Schmitt Triggers

Analog-type input signals must be converted to pulses before they can be
processed with a digital electronic counter. A circuit that is often used to make
this conversion consists of a Schmitt trigger (inverting type) and several oper¬
ational amplifiers (op-amps) as shown in Fig. 4.40.
The Schmitt trigger is an electronic device that snaps from a high state to
a low state when the input voltage exceeds an upper trip level and snaps from
a low state to a high state when the input level falls below a lower trip level.

- Gate period -»-

Gate A AND gate

signal c

Event
pulses
JiihJTjnjmfu A
Truth table
B C

DCU
pulses
t
Uli UUli 0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
Figure 4.39 The basic gate operation.
 4.12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS 173

The characteristics of a Schmitt trigger are illustrated in Fig. 4.41. The difference
in trip voltages, known as hysteresis, prevents signal noise from generating pulses
that should not exist.
The first op-amp shown in Fig. 4.40 is used to attenuate the input signal to
a range suitable for use with the Schmitt trigger. This attenuation is accomplished
by providing a wide range of feedback resistors for use with the op-amp, as
shown in the figure. The second op-amp inverts the signal and provides a means
(through the trigger-level adjustment) for offsetting (positioning) the input signal
voltage levels with respect to the trigger levels of the Schmitt trigger.
A typical conversion of an analog input signal to pulses is illustrated in
Fig. 4.42. The trigger trips from the high to the low state at points and A ,2

and from the low to the high state at points and B . This snap action of the
2

trigger produces the voltage pulses Vg shown in the figure. The voltage pulses
Vc are obtained by passing the signals from the Schmitt trigger through the
second inverting amplifier. In some applications, the polarity of the output pulses
is important. In these instances, the polarity switch D of Fig. 4.40 provides the
option for selecting a signal with the proper polarity.
The effects of trigger-level adjustment and hysteresis on pulse formation is
illustrated in Fig. 4.43. With the trigger levels set for a low level of hysteresis,
the trigger will trip at points Aj, B^, A , B , A3, Bj, A4, and B^; therefore, four
2 2

pulses will form for the digital counting unit to count. If the trigger levels are

-Hysteresis-
H

1
1^^-
Lower Upper
trip trip
point point

Figure 4.41 Schmitt trigger characteristics.

174 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

^■4 + Trigger level

Figure 4.43 Effect of trigger level and hysteresis on the conversion of analog signals to
digital pulses.
 4.12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS 175

set for a higher level of hysteresis, the trigger will trip only at points A-^, C^,
Aj, and C ; therefore, only two pulses will be formed for the DCU to count.
2

Thus, it is obvious that increasing hysteresis reduces the effects of noise in the
signal, but it also increases the uncertainty of pulse formation due to small but
significant voltage variations in the input signal.

EPUT, TIM, and GATE Measurements

The components required for EPUT, TIM, and GATE measurements in¬
clude input amplifiers, a gate, a time base, and a digital counting unit. The input
amplifers will be referred to in the different circuit arrangements that follow as
the A-Amplifier, the B-Amplifier, and the STOP-Amplifier. The B-Amplifier
and the STOP-Amplifier are identical and have all of the features described in
the previous subsection (“Input Amplifiers and Schmitt Triggers”) that are needed
to convert analog input signals to pulses. Usually, the A-Amplifier does not
have the polarity switch, since it is used only to generate start and stop pulses
for the gate.

EPUT Measurements
The arrangement for EPUT (events per unit time or frequency) measure¬
ments is shown in Fig. 4.44. In this case, the time base controls the gate duration.
Pulses from the time base clock drive a decade counter that holds the gate open
for a predetermined number of counts corresponding to times of 0.001, 0.01,
0.1, 1, or 10 s. The A-Amplifier converts the analog input signal into a pulse
train that is counted by the DCU while the gate is open. The count is accurate
to ± 1 count.

TIM Measurements
Component arrangement for TIM (time-interval or period) measurements
is shown in Fig. 4.45. In this case, signal 1, through the B-Amplifier, generates
the start pulse. The time base provides precision pulses that are counted by the
digital counting unit (DCU). Signal 2, through the STOP-Amplifier, generates
the stop pulse. The attenuators and trigger levels of the B- and STOP-Amplifiers
must be set the same in order to obtain accurate TIM measurements. The DCU
reads directly in microseconds when the clock rate is 1 MHz.
The period measurement arrangement, shown in Fig. 4.46, is a special case

Figure 4.44 Component arrangement for EPUT measurements.

176 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Figure 4.45 Component arrangement for TIM measurements.

of TIM measurement where both the start and the stop pulses come from the
same input signal through the B-Amplifier. In this case, signal noise can cause
significant period measurement error as illustrated in Fig. 4.47. In Fig. 4.47, the
envelopes for input signal ± peak noise are shown for a typical period of the
signal. With the trigger level set near the midrange of the signal, the start and
stop pulses may each be formed in such a way (start early and stop late) that
the maximum error shown in the figure is produced. The exact amount of error
depends on the precise character of the signal and its noise.

GATE Measurements
Component arrangements for GATE measurements and the two simpler
cases of RATIO and COUNT are shown in Fig. 4.48. In the GATE arrangement,
signal 2, through the B-Amplifier, generates the start pulse while signal 3, through
the STOP-Amplifier, generates the stop pulse. Signal 1, through the A-Ampli-
fier, provides the pulses to be counted. A precision time base is not used in any
of the GATE measurements. The start and stop attenuation and trigger levels
must be carefully adjusted in order to obtain an accurate GATE time interval.
Component arrangement for the simpler case of RATIO measurement is
shown in Fig. 4.48/?. For this measurement, signal 2, through the B-Amplifier,
provides both the start pulse and the stop pulse. Signal 1, through the A-Am-

Figure 4.46 Component arrangement for period measurements.

 4.12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS 177
Start trigger at Stop trigger at

Figure 4.47 Effect of noise on period measurement when the trigger level is near mid¬
point and hysteresis is small.

Pulses to

Pulses to

(b)

Pulses to

ic)

Figure 4.48 Component arrangement for GATE, RATIO, and COUNT measurement,
(fl) General GATE arrangement; {b) RATIO arrangement; (c) COUNT arrangement.
178 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRCUITS

plifier, provides the pulses to be counted. Thus, the digital counting unit meas¬
ures the number of A (signal 1) events per B (signal 2) event (i.e., the ratio A/
B). This measurement can be used for digital-data-transmission monitoring and
for reliability assurance studies. For example, during digital data transmission,
sending and receiving stations can each count the number of bits sent and re¬
ceived. Agreement indicates a high probability that the data were properly
received.
The COUNT mode of operation, shown in Fig. 4.48c, is a completely man¬
ual mode of operation. A manual start-stop switch both initiates and terminates
the counting process. The digital counting unit is also manually reset to zero.

Period and Frequency Measurement by Comparison

Methods
When a universal electronic counter is not available, the engineer often
makes period and frequency measurements by comparing his signal with the
output from a calibrated oscillator or clock. The clock rate of any oscillator can
be subdivided by using decade counters to generate a lower clock rate (as low
as 10“*’ times the clock rate of the oscillator).
Typical examples of the use of timing signals for period and frequency
measurements are illustrated in Fig. 4.49. The timing method often used with
strip-chart recorders is shown in Fig. 4.49fl. Here, the timing signal consists of
a series of rectangular or triangular pulses having a known period. The timing
signal provides a time base for the data and a means for checking the paper
speed of the recorder.
A second method, illustrated in Fig. 4.49b, utilizes an electronic switch to
periodically switch the signal being recorded to ground. Thus, the segmented
signal contains both the information being recorded and the time base.
A third method, also illustrated in Fig. 4.49b, applies the square-pulse out¬
put signal from a calibrated oscillator or clock to the Z-modulated input terminal
of the oscilloscope. Periodic trace intensity variations induced by the clock signal
cause the oscilloscope trace to appear dashed, as indicated on the lower trace
of Fig. 4.49b. Since the time from dash to dash is equal to the period of the
clock signal, the oscilloscope trace contains both the information being recorded
and the time base.
A major disadvantage of the second two methods is loss of signal. In order
to adequately define a sinusoidal input, the clock rate should be at least 10 times
the frequency of the input signal. With transient signals, the possibility of losing
a signal peak also exists. Fortunately, improved accuracy and reliability of os¬
cilloscope time bases has virtually eliminated the need for this type of timing
signal. The methods currently find some use for trace identification in complex
multitrace applications and in the periodic calibration of the time base of the
oscilloscope.
 4.12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS 179
-<- Chart motion

Figure 4.49 Use of timing signals for period and frequency measurement, (a) Strip chart
record with timing signal, {b) Oscilloscope trace with electronic switch and Z-axis mod¬
ulation.
180 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Phase Measurement with Lissajous Figures

The phase angle between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency can
be obtained from an oscilloscope trace known as a Lissajous figure or diagram.
Such figures are obtained by connecting the input (reference) signal to the
horizontal amplifier input of the oscilloscope and the phase-shifted output signal
to the vertical amplifier input, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.50. The resulting
figure can be analyzed as follows.
For the reference signal, let

X = A cos iiit (4.67)

For the phase-shifted output signal

y = B cos{ix)t -t- 0) (4.68)

= B cos 0 cos (Jit — B sin 0 sin wt

When 0 = 0, Eqs. (4.67) and (4.68) become

X = A cos (ot
y = B cos (Ot
or

B
(4.69)

Oscillator Oscilloscope

Figure 4.50 System used to obtain Lissajous figures.

 4.12 TIME-, FREQUENCY-, COUNT-, AND PHASE-MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS 181

which is the equation of the straight line shown in Fig. 4.51a. When 0 = 1x12,
Eqs. (4.67) and (4.68) become

X ^ A cos cot

y = — 5 sin tot

2
X
(4.70)

which is the equation of the ellipse shown in Fig. 4.51h. For this case, point P
travels around the elliptical path in a clockwise direction. Similarly, when 0 =
— (Tr/2), point P travels around the elliptical path in a counterclockwise direction.
Finally, when 0 = ±tt, Eqs. (4.67) and (4.68) reduce to

X = A cos tot

y ^ —B cos tot

or

(4.71)

which is the equation of the straight line shown in Fig. 4.51c. Equations (4.69),
(4.70), and (4.71), together with the oscilloscope traces of Fig. 4.51, suggest
that the phase angle 0 can be measured with Lissajous figures provided — tt ^
0 ^ 77.
For the general case of an arbitrary phase angle 0, Eqs. (4.67) and (4.68)
can be combined to yield

2 cos 0
xy = sin^ 0 (4.72)
AB

Figure 4.51 Three basis Lissajous figures.

182 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

which is the equation of the ellipse shown in Fig. 4.52. When x = 0, Eq. (4.72)
indicates that

(4.73)

The construction shown in Fig. 4.52 illustrates the method used to obtain _yo ^nd
B, which are required for the determination of 0. The sign of the phase angle
is determined by observing the motion of F (+ clockwise and — counter-
clockwse) as it generates the elliptical trace of Fig. 4.52.

Direct Phase-Angle Measurement

The phase angle between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency can
most easily be measured by observing the two signals on a common time base,
as illustrated in Fig. 4.53. The phase angle 0 in terms of the measurements
indicated on Fig. 4.53 is

(4.74)

where Tp is the period of the reference signal.

Ts is the time shift associated with the phase-shifted signal.

When a time shift Ts to the left is considered positive (a shift to the right is then
considered negative), Eq. (4.74) provides both the magnitude and direction
(leading -h or lagging -) of the phase angle.
Vertical centerline

Horizontal centerline

Figure 4.52 Construction used for the determination of an arbitrary phase angle.
 4.13 SUMMARY 183
Reference signal

Leading signal

Figure 4.53 Phase-angle determination between two sinusoidal signals.

4.13 SUMMARY

Many different signal conditioning circuits are employed in instrumentation

systems and the performance of a system can be markedly affected by the
behavior of any or all of these circuits. Power supplies, both constant voltage
and constant current, are commonly used in several different elements of an
instrumentation system. It is imperative that the power supplies be stable over
long periods of time and that noise and/or ripple be suppressed.
Both the potentiometer circuit and the Wheatstone bridge circuit convert
resistance change to a voltage variation. The potentimeter circuit can utilize
either a constant-voltage or a constant-current power supply. The significant
characteristics of each type of circuit are described by the following equations:

Constant-Voltage Potentiometer Circuit

Output voltage: (4.4)

1
Nonlinear term: t] 1 - (4.3)

^ _
Circuit sensitivity: j-— \/PyRt (4.10)

Loss factor: 2
(4.14)
184 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

Constant-Current Potentiometer Circuit

A/?i
Output voltage; — IR^- (4.16)

Circuit sensitivity: S^c — \/PtRt (4-18)

The Wheatstone bridge is widely used for converting resistance change to

voltage, since it can be employed for both static and dynamic measurements.
The Wheatstone bridge can also be driven with either a constant-voltage or a
constant-current power supply. The equations describing the behavior of the
Wheatstone bridge are:

Constant-Voltage Wheatstone Bridge

r (L
Output voltage: AEq (1 - ti)£, (4.23)
(l + r)AP, /?2 P3 R4 .

1
Nonlinear term; t| (4.24)
r+1
1 +-
A/?, A7?4 / A/?2 ^R
+ r
R\ R4 R2 R3

Circuit sensitivity: 5^ -VPtRi (4.28)

1 + r
Constant-Current Wheatstone Bridge
IRj^r ARj
Output voltage: = (1 - Tn) (4.35)
2(1 + r) Rr

Ry.
Nonlinear term: ti = (4.36)
ARj^
2(1 + r) +
Rt

Circuit sensitivity: S^c - -—— VP^j- (4.38)

1 +r

The constant-current Wheatstone bridge is superior because of its extended

range; however, the availability of high-performance constant-current power
supplies often limits its application.
Amplifiers are used in most instrumentation systems to increase the low-
level output signal from a transducer to a level sufficient for recording with a
voltage measuring instrument. Ideally, the output and input signals for the am¬
plifier are related by the expression

Eo = GE, (4.39)

Frequency response and linearity are two important characteristics of instrument

amplifiers that must be adequate if signal distortion is to be avoided. A popular
 4.13 SUMMARY 185

amplifier in instrumentation systems is the differential amplifier because it rejects

common-mode signals. Instrument amplifiers that employ op-amps with resistor
feedback are commonly employed because of their stability, low cost, and fa¬
vorable operating characteristics.
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are the basic circuit element in signal
conditioning circuits, such as voltage followers, summing amplifiers, integrating
amplifiers, and differentiating amplifiers. The voltage follower exhibits a gain
of unity and is used because of its high input impedance. Summing, integrating,
and differentiating amplifiers, as the names imply, are used to add (or subtract)
two or more input signals, integrate an input signal with respect to time, or
differentiate an input signal with respect to time. Equations describing important
characteristics of each are as follows:

Voltage Follower
Input resistance: (1 + G)R, (4.52)

Output resistance:
Rq
(4.53)
1 + G.
Summing Amplifier

Output voltage: (Ell ^ ^ (4.54)

\Ri R
Integrating Amplifier
1
Output voltage: E„ (4.57)
R,Cf

Differentiating Amplifier

Output voltage: F _ _D r^ (4.58)

Filters are used to eliminate undesirable signals such as noise from trans¬
ducer signals. Voltage ratios EJEi for four commonly used filters are given by
the following expressions:

RL Filter—Low Pass

Voltage ratio: (4.59)

Ei

RC Filter—High Pass
io 1 oiRC
Voltage ratio: (4.60)
Ei 2

1 + (o)Rcy
186 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

RC Filter—Low Pass
1
Voltage ratio: (4.61)
E. Vl + {oiRCf

Wein-Bridge Filter—Notched
1 1
Voltage ratio: (4.62)
E> O) Ri
3 +

Filters must be selected very carefully; otherwise, the filter may attenuate
both the noise signal and the transducer signal (if the frequencies are similar)
and produce serious error.
Amplitude modulation is a signal conditioning process in which the signal
from a transducer is multiplied by a carrier signal of much higher frequency and
constant amplitude. The resulting output voltage is given by the expression

E E
[cos(w^ - w,)t - cos(a)<, + co,)t] (4.64)

The higher frequencies associated with Eq. (4.64) require less power for long¬
distance transmissions and permit use of high-pass filters to eliminate low-fre¬
quency noise.
Analog-to-digital (A/D) converters are electronic devices that digitize an
analog transducer signal at a very high conversion rate so that it can be processed
with a computer or microprocessor. Conversion rates of 2.5 |jls are possible with
10-bit resolution and an accuracy of 0.05 percent. Two types of A/D converters
are widely used. The successive-approximation type is used when a high con¬
version speed is essential. The dual-slope integrating converter is used for most
other applications because of its lower cost, better accuracy, and linear stability.
Digital-to-analog (D/A) converters are electronic devices that accept digital
signals at their input terminals and then generate an analog output voltage
corresponding to the digital input word. Conversion rates of a few microseconds
are possible and accuracies of 0.001 percent of full scale can be achieved.
Time, frequency, count, and phase are important engineering measure¬
ments. The digital electronic counter, which is used to make several of these
measurements, has become a common instrument in all laboratories and on
many production lines. These counters are versatile, accurate, and relatively
inexpensive; therefore, their use is being extended to many new applications as
more and more digital instrumentation is being incorporated into new and ex¬
isting systems.
 EXERCISES 187

REFERENCES

1. Lenk, J. D.; Manual for Operational Amplifier Users, Reston Publishing

Company, Reston, Virginia, 1976.
2. Ahmed, H., and P. J. Spreadbury: Electronics for Engineers, Cambridge
University Press, London, 1973.
3. Brophy, J. J.; Basic Electronics for Scientists, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1977.
4. Malmstadt, H. V., and C. G. Enke; Digital Electronics for Scientists, Ben¬
jamin, Menlo Park, California, 1969.
5. Doebelin, E. O.: Measurement Systems: Application and Design, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.
6. 1980 Design Engineers Handbook & Selection Guide for AID and DIA Con¬
verter Modules, Signal Conditioners, and Control Modules, Analogic Corp.,
Wakefield, Massachusetts.
7. Teledyne Philbrik Product Guide, Dedham, Massachusetts, 1978.

EXERCISES

4.1 A strain gage with Rg = 350 Cl and Sg = 2.00 is used to monitor a

sinusoidal signal with an amplitude of 1500 |xin./in. and a frequency of
200 Hz. Determine the output voltage E^ if a constant-voltage poten¬
tiometer circuit is used to convert the resistance change to voltage.
Assume E, = 22 V and r = 5.
4.2 Determine the magnitude of the nonlinear term t| for the data of Ex¬
ercise 4.1.
4.3 If the strain gage described in Exercise 4.1 can dissipate 0.5 W, deter¬
mine the input voltage E, required to maximize the output voltage E^.
4.4 Determine the circuit sensitivity S^„ for the constant-voltage potentiom¬
eter circuit described in Exercise 4.1.
4.5 Determine the load error ^ if the output voltage E„ of Exercise 4.1 is
monitored with:

(a) An oscilloscope having an input impedance of 10^ H

(b) An oscillograph having an input impedance of 350 Cl

4.6 If a constant-current potentiometer circuit was used in Exercise 4.1 in

place of the constant-voltage potentiometer circuit, determine the out¬
put voltage Eo if / = 5 mA.
188 SIGNAL CONDITIONING GIRCUITS

4.7 Determine the magnitude of the nonlinear term ti for the data of Ex¬
ercise 4.6.

4.8 If the strain gage described in Exercise 4.1 can dissipate 0.5 W, deter¬
mine the current / that should be used with a constant-current poten¬
tiometer circuit to maximize the output voltage E„.

4.9 Determine the circuit sensitivity for the constant-current potentiom¬

eter circuit of Exercise 4.6.
4.10 Determine the circuit sensitivity for the constant-current potentiom¬
eter circuit of Exercise 4.8.

4.11 Determine the load error ^ if the output voltage of Exercise 4.6 is
monitored with:

(a) An oscilloscope having an input impedance of 10^ fi

(b) An oscillograph having an input impedance of 350 Q

4.12 A constant-voltage Wheatstone-bridge circuit is employed with a dis¬

placement transducer (potentiometer type) to convert resistance change
to output voltage. If the displacement transducer has a total resistance
of 1000 n, then A/? = ±500 fl if the wiper is moved from the center
position to either end. If the transducer is placed in arm of the bridge
and, if ^ R —
2 = R - 500 fl:
4

(a) Determine the magnitude of the nonlinear term t] as a function

of AR.
(b) Prepare a graph of r] versus AR as AR varies from -500 fl to
±500 fl.

4.13 Determine the output voltage as a function of AR for the displace¬

ment transducer and Wheatstone bridge described in Exercise 4.12 if
£, = 12 V.
4.14 The nonlinear output voltage of Exercise 4.13 makes data interpretation
difficult. How can the Wheatstone-bridge circuit be modified to improve
the linearity of the output voltage £„?

4.15 A strain gage with R^ = 120 fl, = 0.2 W, and Sg == 2.00 is used in
arm R^ of a constant-voltage Wheatstone bridge. Determine:

(a) Values of R , R , and R needed to maximize E„ if the available

2 3 4

power supply is limited to 36 V

(b) The circuit sensitivity of the bridge of Part (a)

4.16 If the strain gage of Exercise 4.15 is subjected to a strain of 900 ixin./
in., determine the output voltage

4.17 Four strain gages are installed on a cantilever beam as shown in Fig. E4.17
to produce a displacement transducer.
 EXERCISES 189
s\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^

1/4"

6 1/4"

Aluminum 2024 T4

Figure E4.17

(a) Indicate how the gages should be wired into a Wheatstone bridge
to produce maximum signal output.
(b) Determine the circuit sensitivity if Rg = 350 Ct, = 0.10 W,
and Sg = 2.00.
(c) Determine the calibration constant c = h/E„ for the transducer.

4.18 If the cantilever beam of Exercise 4.17 is used as a load transducer,

determine the calibration constant C = P/E^.

4.19 A strain gage with Rg = 120 D, = 0.2 W, and Sg = 2.00 is used in

arm R^ of a constant-current Wheatstone bridge. Determine:

(a) Values of R , Rj, and R^ needed to maximize E„ if the available

2

power supply can deliver a maximum of 20 mA.

(b) The circuit sensitivity of the bridge of Part (a)
(c) The output voltage E^ if the gage is subjected to a strain of 900
[xin./in.

4.20 If the displacement transducer of Exercise 4.12 is used with a constant-

current Wheatstone bridge:

(a) Determine the magnitude of the nonlinear term t) as a function

of ^R.
(b) Prepare a graph of iq versus AP as AP varies from -500 D to
+ 500 a.

4.21 Determine the output voltage E„ as a function of AR for the displace¬

ment transducer and Wheatstone bridge described in Exercise 4.20 if I
= 20 mA.

4.22 Use an op-amp with a gain of 100 dB and R^ = 1 Mfl to design an

inverting amplifier with a gain of 20.

4.23 Use an op-amp with a gain of 100 dB and R^ ^ 1 Mfi to design a

noninverting amplifier with a gain of 20.
190 SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS

4.24 Use an op-amp with a gain of 100 dB and = 7 Mfl to design a

differential amplifier with a gain of 20.
4.25 Determine the input and output impedances for a voltage follower that
incorporates an op-amp having a gain of 120 dB and = 7 Mfl.
4.26 Verify Eq. (4.56).
4.27 Three signals En, E,2> and are to be summed so that the output
voltage E„ is proportional to E^ + 2£',2 + 2^/3- Select resistances R^,
R , R , and Rfto accomplish this operation.
2 3

4.28 Show that the op-amp circuit shown in Fig. E4.28 is a combined adding/
scaling and subtracting/scaling amplifier by deriving the following equa¬
tion for the output voltage E^:

Rf Rf Rf Rf Rf
E. = - 7rE,3
R R. Ri Ro R.

_|_
1
- 1
- -

El R2 R-i Rf
where R* Rf
1 1 1
4--h
E. E. E J

4.29 The signals shown in Fig. E4.29 are to be used as input to an integrating
amplifier having Ej = 1 Mfi and Ci = 0.5 jjlF. Sketch the output signal
corresponding to each of the input signals.
4.30 Discuss potential problem areas associated with the output voltages
from signals (a) and (c) of Exercise 4.29.
4.31 Repeat Exercise 4.29 with a differentiating amplifier in place of the
integrating amplifier.

Figure E4.28
 EXERCISES 191
Voltage £,•

(a)
Voltage £,■
Voltage E,-
Voltage £■,-

Figure E4.29

4.32 Select L and R for a low-pass filter, so that a 10-Hz transducer signal
will be transmitted with less than 2 percent attenuation, while a 60-Hz
noise signal will undergo at least a 90 percent attenuation.
4.33 Select R and C for a high-pass filter so that the dc component of the
output from a potentiometer circuit will be blocked, while the 20-Hz
ac signal from a transducer will be transmitted with less than 2 percent
attenuation.
4.34 Determine the voltage ratio E^IE^ as a function of the frequency ratio
for a Wein-bridge filter having R IR = 2.
2 1

4.35 If the data signal is a triangular wave and the carrier signal is a square
wave, sketch the amplitude modulated signal.
4.36 Prepare a table showing resolution as a function of the number of bits
in a digital word.
4.37 Select values for the resistances shown in Fig. 4.37 if = 1 Mfi, E^
= 10 V, and the maximum output voltage for the 16-bit digital word
1111111111111111 is 20 V.
4.38 Review binary code and word representation in an appropriate text¬
book. Determine the binary representation for the following numbers:

(a) 4 (d) 137

(b) 26 (e) 2752
(c) 43
4.39 Show that Eqs. (4.67) and (4.68) can be combined to yield Eq. (4.72).
4.40 Show that Eq. (4.72) reduces to Eq. (4.70) when 0 = ixll and to Eq.
(4.69) when 0 = 0.
 FIVE
RESISTANCE-TYPE
STRAIN GAGES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Historically, the development of strain gages has followed many different

approaches, and gages have been based on mechanical, optical, electrical, acous¬
tical, and pneumatic principles. A strain gage has several characteristics that
should be considered in judging its adequacy for a particular application. These
characteristics are;

1. The calibration constant for the gage should be stable with respect to both
temperature and time.
2. The gage should be capable of measuring strains with an accuracy of ± 1
|xin./in. (|xm/m) over a range of ±5 percent strain (±50,000 fxin./in.).
3. The gage length and width should be small so that the measurement ap¬
proximates strain at a point.
4. The inertia of the gage should be minimal to permit the recording of high-
frequency dynamic strains.
 5.2 ETCHED-FOIL STRAIN GAGES 193

5. The response or output of the gage should be linear over the entire strain
range of the gage.
6. The gage and associated electronics should be economical.
7. Installation and readout of the gage should require minimal skills and under¬
standing.

While no single gage system can be considered optimum, the electrical resistance
strain gage very nearly meets all of the required characteristics listed above.

5.2 ETCHED-FOIL STRAIN GAGES

The sensitivity of a metallic conductor to strain was developed in Section

3.4 and it is evident from Eq. (3.4)

dR/R dp/p
+ (1 + 2v) (3.4 bis)
8 e

that it is possible to measure strain with a straight length of wire if the change
in resistance is monitored as the wire is subjected to a strain. However, the
circuits required to measure dR (in practice AR) have power supplies with limited
current capabilities and the power dissipated by the gage itself must be limited.
As a result, strain gages are usually manufactured with a resistance of 120 H or
more. These high values of gage resistance, in most cases, preclude fabrication
from a straight length of wire, since the gage becomes too long.
When electrical resistance strain gages were first introduced (1936-1956),
the gage element was produced by winding a grid with very-fine-diameter wire.
Since the late 1950s, most gages have been fabricated from ultra-thin metal foil
by using an advanced photoetching process. Since this process is quite versatile,
a wide variety of gage sizes and grid shapes are produced (see Fig. 3.12). Gages
as small as 0.20 mm in length are commercially available. Standard gage resist¬
ances are 120 Cl and 350 Cl; but in some configurations, resistances of 500 fl
and 1000 fi are available. The foil gages are normally fabricated from Advance,
Karma, or Isoelastic alloys (see Table 3.1). In addition, high-temperature gages
are available in several of the heat-resistant alloys.
The etched metal-film grids are very fragile and easy to distort or tear. To
avoid these difficulties, the metal film is bonded to a thin sheet of plastic (see
Fig. 3.10), which serves as a backing material and carrier before the photoetching
process is performed. The carrier contains markings for the centerlines of the
gage length and width to facilitate installation and serves to electrically insulate
the metal grid from the specimen once it is installed.
For general-purpose strain-gage applications, a polyimide plastic that is
tough and flexible is used for the carrier. For transducer applications, where
precision and linearity are extremely important, a very thin, brittle, high-modulus
194 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

epoxy is used for the carrier. Glass-reinforced epoxy is used when the gage will
be exposed to high-level cyclic strains or when the gage will be employed at
temperatures as high as 750°F (400°C). For very-high-temperature applications,
a gage with a strippable carrier is available. The carrier is removed during
installation of the gage. A ceramic adhesive is used to maintain the grid config¬
uration and to electrically insulate the grid from the specimen.

5.3 STRAIN-GAGE INSTALLATION

The bonded type of electrical resistance strain gage is a high-quality pre¬

cision resistor that must be attached to a specimen by utilizing the correct ad¬
hesive and by employing proper mounting procedures. The adhesive serves a
vital function in the strain-measuring system, since it must transmit the surface
displacement from the specimen to the gage grid without distortion. At first it
may appear that this function can be accomplished with almost any strong ad¬
hesive; however, experience has shown that improperly selected and cured ad¬
hesives can seriously degrade a gage installation by changing the gage factor
and/or the initial resistance of the gage. Improperly cured or viscoelastic ad¬
hesives also produce gage hysteresis and signal loss due to stress relaxation. Best
results are obtained with a strong, viscous-free, well-cured adhesive that forms
a very thin bond line.
The surface of the component in the area where gages are to be positioned
must be carefully prepared before the gages are installed. This preparation
consists of paint and/or rust removal followed by sanding to obtain a smooth
but not highly polished surface. Solvents are then used to eliminate all traces
of grease and oil. Finally, the surface should be treated with a basic solution to
give it the proper chemical affinity for the adhesive.
Next, the gage location is marked on the specimen with a very light scribe
line and the gage, without adhesive, is positioned by using a rigid transparent
tape in the manner illustrated in Fig. 5.1. The position and orientation of the
gage are maintained by the tape as the adhesive is applied and as the gage is
pressed into place by squeezing out the excess adhesive.
Once the gage is positioned, the adhesive must be subjected to a proper
combination of pressure and temperature for the period of time needed to ensure
a complete cure. The curing process is quite critical since the adhesive will expand
during heating, experience a volume change during polymerization, exhibit a
contraction while cooling, and sometimes exhibit a postcure shrinkage. Since
the adhesive is strong enough to control deformation of the gage, changes in
the volume of the adhesive influence the resistance of the gage. Of particular
importance is postcure shrinkage, which can influence gage resistance long after
the adhesive is supposed to be completely cured. If a long-term measurement
of strain is made with a gage having an adhesive that has not completely poly¬
merized, the signal from the gage will drift with time and accuracy of the data
will be seriously impaired.
 5.3
STRAIN-GAGE INSTALLATION

Figure 5.1 Tape method for installing an electrical resistance strain gage on a specimen. (Courtesy of Micro-
Measurements.)
196 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

For most strain-gage applications, either cyanoacrylate or epoxy adhesives

are used. The cyanoacrylate adhesive (Permabond 910) has the advantage of
being easier to apply, since it requires no heat, requires only a gentle pressure
that can be applied with one’s thumb, and requires only about 10 min for
complete polymerization. Its disadvantages include a deterioration with time,
water absorption, and elevated temperatures. The epoxy adhesives are superior
to cyanoacrylates; however, they are more difficult to apply since they require
a pressure of 5 to 20 psi (35 to 140 kPa) and often require application of heat
for an hour or more while the pressure is applied. After the adhesive is com¬
pletely cured, the gage should be waterproofed with a light overcoating of crys¬
talline wax or a polyurethane.
Lead wires are attached to the terminals of the gage so that the change in
resistance can be monitored with a suitable instrumentation system. Since the
foil strain gages are fragile even when bonded to a structure, care must be
exercised as the lead wires are attached to the soldering tabs. Intermediate
anchor terminals, which are much more rugged than the strain gage tabs, are
used to protect the gage from damage, as shown in Fig. 5.2. A small-diameter
wire (32 to 36 gage) is used to connect the gage terminal to the anchor terminal.
Three lead wires are soldered to the anchor terminal, as shown in Fig. 5.2, to
provide for temperature compensation of the lead wires in the Wheatstone bridge
(see Section 5.4).

5.4 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE FOR STRAIN-GAGE SIGNAL

CONDITIONING

The basic equations governing balance condition, output voltage, nonlin¬

earity, and sensitivity of Wheatstone bridges with constant-voltage and constant-
current power supplies were developed in Sections 4.4 and 4.5. Since the Wheat¬
stone bridge is the most commonly employed circuit to convert the resistance
change AR/R from a strain gage to an output voltage E„, its application for this

Figure 5.2 A strain-gage installation with anchor terminals. (Courtesy of Micro-Meas¬

urements.)
5.4 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE FOR STRAIN-GAGE SIGNAL CONDITIONING 197

purpose is considered in detail in this section. One of the first questions that
arises pertaining to use of the Wheatstone bridge for strain measurements con¬
cerns location of the gage or gages within the bridge. An answer to this question
can be provided by considering the four common bridge arrangements shown
in Fig. 5.3.

Case 1: This bridge arrangement utilizes a single active gage in position

and is often employed for both static and dynamic strain-gage measurements
where temperature compensation is not required. The resistance equals Rg
and the other three resistances are selected to maximize the circuit sensitivity
while maintaining the balance condition RiR^ = /?2^4-
The sensitivity of the strain-gage Wheatstone-bridge system is defined as
the product of the sensitivity of the gage Sg and the sensitivity of the bridge
circuit S^. Thus,

5^ — S Sc (5.1)
ARg/Rg

Figure 5.3 Four common strain-gage arrangements in a Wheatstone bridge.

198 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

From Eqs. (3.5) and (4.28),

(5.2)

Equation (5.2) indicates that the sensitivity of the system is controlled by the
circuit efficiency r/(l + r) and the characteristics of the strain gage Sg, Pg, and
Rg. The most important of the two factors is the characteristics of the strain
gage that vary widely with gage selection. The gage factor Sg is about 2 for gages
fabricated from Advance or Karma alloys and about 3.6 for Isoelastic alloys.
Resistances of 120 and 350 fl are available for most grid configurations; resist¬
ances of 500 and 1000 fl can be obtained for a few configurations. Power dis¬
sipation Pg is more difficult to specify since it depends upon the conductivity
and heat-sink capacity of the specimen to which the gage is bonded. Power
density P^ is defined as

(5.3)
A

where Pg is the power that can be dissipated by the gage.

A is the area of the grid of the gage.

Recommended power densities for different materials and different test con¬
ditions are given in Table 5.1.
A graph showing bridge supply or input voltage E, as a function of grid
area for a large number of different gage configurations is shown in Fig. 5.4.
The bridge voltage E, specified in Fig. 5.4 is for a four-equal-arm bridge with r
= 1. In this case, the bridge voltage is given by

E, = 2VAPj,Rg (5.4)

When r ^ 1, the bridge voltage is given by

E, = (1 + r)VAP^Rg (5.5)

TABLE 5.1 Recommended Po\A/er Densities

Power Density

W/mm^ Specimen Conditions

5-10 0.008-0.016 Heavy aluminum or copper sections

2-5 0.003-0.008 Heavy steel sections
1-2 0.0015-0.003 Thin steel sections
0.2-0.5 0.0003-0.0008 Fiberglass, glass, ceramics
0.02-0.05 0.00003-0.00008 Unfilled plastics
 5.4

(j'ui/M) A;!suap jsMOjj

■g
'86bi|Oa aepjjq 0|qBMO||v
aouBisjsaa u oz L
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE FOR STRAIN-GAGE SIGNAL GONDITIONING

Grid area (in,^) (gage-length X grid width)

199

Figure 5.4 Allowable bridge voltage as a function of grid area for different power densities. (Courtesy of Micro-
Measurements.)
 200 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

The power that can be dissipated by a gage will vary over very wide limits. A
small gage with a grid area of 0.001 in.^ bonded to an insulating material such
as a ceramic (P^, = 0.2 W/in.^) can dissipate 0.2 mW. On the other hand, a
large strain gage with A = 0.2 in.^ mounted on a heavy aluminum section (P^
= 10 W/in.^) can dissipate 2 W.
System sensitivity can be maximized by selecting high-resistance gages with
the largest grid area consistent with allowable errors due to gage-length and
gage-width effects. Specification of Isoelastic alloys to obtain Sg = 3.6 should
be limited to dynamic strain measurements where temperature stability of the
gage is not a consideration.
The second factor controlling system sensitivity is circuit efficiency r/(l -I- r).
The value of r should be selected to increase circuit efficiency, but not so high
that the bridge voltage given by Eq. (5.5) increases beyond reasonable limits.
Values of r between 4 and 9 give circuit efficiencies between 80 and 90 percent;
therefore, most bridges should be designed to fall within this range.

Case 2: This bridge arrangement contains a single active gage in arm R^, a
dummy gage in arm R , and fixed-value resistors in arms P3 and R^. The active
2

gage and the dummy gage must be identical (preferably two gages from the
same package), must be applied with the same adhesive, and must be subjected
to the same curing cycle. The dummy gage can be mounted in a stress-free region
of the specimen or on a small block of specimen material that is placed in the
same thermal environment as the specimen. In the Wheatstone bridge, the
dummy gage output serves to cancel any active gage output due to temperature
fluctuations during the test interval. The manner in which this bridge arrange¬
ment compensates for temperature changes can be illustrated by considering the
resistance changes experienced by the active and dummy gages during a test.
Thus

(a)

(b)
AT

In Eqs. (a) and (b) the subscripts a ands d refer to the active and dummy gages,
respectively, while the subscripts e and AT refer to the effects of strain and
temperature. Substituting Eqs. (a) and (b) into Eq. (4.22) and noting that AP3
= A/?4 = 0 (fixed-value resistors) gives

AP„
+ (5.6)
(1 + r)2 Rg / AT Rg / AT-.
5.4 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE FOR STRAIN-GAGE SIGNAL CONDITIONING 201

Since the last two terms in the bracketed quantity cancel, the output A£:„ is due
only to the strain applied to the active gage, and temperature compensation is
achieved.
With this bridge arrangement, r must equal 1 to satisfy the bridge balance
requirement; therefore, the system sensitivity obtained from Eq. (5.2) is

= (5.7)

Equation (5.7) indicates that placement of a dummy gage in arm R of the 2

Wheatstone bridge to effect temperature compensation reduces the circuit ef¬

ficiency to 50 percent. This undesirable feature can be avoided by use of the
bridge arrangement described under Case 3.

Case 3: In this bridge arrangement, the dummy gage is inserted in arm of

the bridge instead of in arm R . The active gage remains in arm R^ and fixed-
2

value resistors are used in arms R and R^. With this positioning of the dummy
2

gage r is not restricted by the balance condition and the system sensitivity is the
same as that given by Eq. (5.2). Temperature compensation is achieved in the
same manner that was illustrated in Case 2, but without loss of circuit efficiency.
Thus, if a dummy gage is to be used to effect temperature compensation, arm
R of the bridge is the perferred location for the gage.
4

Case 4: Four active gages are used in this Wheatstone-bridge arrangement:

one active gage in each arm of the bridge (thus, r = 1). When the gages are
placed on a specimen such as a cantilever beam in bending with tensile strains
on gages 1 and 3 (top surface of the beam) and compressive strains on gages 2
and 4 (bottom surface of the beam), then

_ A/?3 _ A7?2 _
(c)
R^ /?3 /?2 ^4

Substituting Eqs. (c) into Eq. (4.22) gives

^E O = E: (5.8)
R.

The Wheatstone bridge has added the four resistance changes to increase the
output voltage; therefore, the system sensitivity is

s. - \ = 2S^Vp;r, (5.9)
202 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

This arrangement (with four active gages) has doubled the system sensitivity of
Cases 1 and 3 and has quadrupled the sensitivity of Case 2. Also, this bridge is
temperature compensated. The use of multiple gages to gain sensitivity is not
usually recommended because of the costs involved in the installation of the
extra gages. High-quality, high-gain differential amplifiers can be used more
economically to increase the output signal.
Examination of the four bridge arrangements shows that the system sen¬
sitivity can be varied from 1/2 to 2 times Temperature compensation
is best achieved by placing the dummy gage in position R to avoid loss of system
4

sensitivity. System sensitivity can be improved by using multiple gages; however,

the costs involved for the added gaging is usually not warranted except for
transducer applications, where the additional gages serve other purposes (see
Chapter Six).

5.5 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR STRAIN-GAGE

APPLICATIONS

The selection of a recording system for strain-gage applications depends

primarily upon the nature of the strain to be measured (static or dynamic) and
upon the number of strain gages to be monitored. Static recording of short-term
strain data is generally the easiest and least expensive. Static recording of long¬
term strain data can be very difficult when it is impossible to return to a bench¬
mark zero strain condition and long-term stability is required. Dynamic recording
is difficult and much more expensive because of noise problems that arise as a
result of the higher levels of signal amplification needed for dynamic recording
devices and because of the increased complexity of multichannel dynamic re¬
corders.
Many different recording instruments can be used to monitor the output of
the Wheatstone bridge. The reader is referred to Chapter Two where these
recorders are described in considerable detail. In this section, four different
instrumentation systems that have been adapted for strain-gage applications and
are frequently used in industry will be described.

Direct-Reading Strain Indicator

A strain indicator that employs an integrating digital voltmeter to record
the system output is shown in Fig. 5.5. This system contains a Wheatstone bridge
that is initially balanced by a potentiometer that serves as a parallel-balance
resistor. The voltage output from the bridge is amplified and then displayed on
a digital voltmeter. A constant-current power supply that can be adjusted to
match the power limit Pg of the gage is used to drive the bridge. System cali¬
bration is accomplished with shunt resistors. The output of the amplifier is
attenuated so that the digital voltmeter directly displays the strain.
 5.5 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR STRAIN-GAGE APPLICATIONS 203

Figure 5.5 A direct-reading digital strain indicator. (Courtesy of Vishay Instruments.)

Several strain gages can be monitored with this indicator if a separate par¬
allel-balance resistor is provided for each gage and if a switch is provided so
that each gage and balance resistor can be switched, in sequence, into the bridge.
The switching operation can be performed either manually or automatically with
a multiplexer. A digital voltmeter with a multiplexer is capable of providing 10
to 20 readings per second.
The direct-reading indicators can also be used to log data automatically,
since the output from the digital voltmeter can be either printed or recorded in
digital form on punched tape or magnetic tape. A typical data logger for re¬
cording the output of 25 gages automatically is shown in Fig. 5.6. The main
advantage of recording in a digital format is the capability provided for computer
processing of the data that results in a considerable savings in both costs and
time when a large number of gages must be monitored.

Null-Balance Bridges
The Wheatstone bridges described previously have all been direct-reading
types where a recording device is used to measure the output voltage of
the bridge. For static measurements of strain, it is possible to employ a null-
balance bridge where the resistance in a nonactive arm is changed to match the
resistance change AR/R of the active gage. The null-balance approach is much
 204 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Figure 5.6 Data logger for automatic recording of static strain-gage signals and the
outputs from other sensors. (Courtesy of Soltec Corp.)

slower than the direct-reading methods because of the time required to balance
the bridge for each reading; however, this approach provides accurate strain
data with low-cost instruments.
The reference bridge, illustrated in Fig. 5.7, is a measuring device that
utilizes the null-balance principle. Here, two bridges are used in combination
to achieve the null-balance condition. The strain-gage bridge on the left is used
for the active gages (one to four), while the reference bridge on the right is used
for the variable resistors needed to effect the balance condition. When gages
and fixed-value bridge-completion resistors are inserted in the strain-gage bridge,
an initial unbalance occurs between the two bridges. This unbalance produces
a voltage difference that, after amplification, causes the galvanometer to deflect.
The variable resistor in the reference bridge is then adjusted to effect a balance
between the bridges (indicated by a zero or null reading on the galvanometer).
A reading on the scale associated with the variable resistor (after initial balance
is achieved) provides a datum or base reading for subsequent strain measure¬
ments. If strains are applied to the gages, an unbalance again occurs and is
eliminated by changing the setting of the variable resistor. The difference be¬
tween the two readings from the scale of the variable resistor provides a measure
of the resistance change ^RIR experienced by the active gage as a result of the
applied strain. The scale on the variable resistor can be constructed to read
strain directly.
In actual instruments, the circuits are more complex than the schematic
arrangement shown in Fig. 5.7. The bridges are powered by a common oscillator
with a 1000-Hz square-wave output of 1.5 V (rms). The voltage to the reference
bridge is adjusted with a potentiometer (calibrated by introducing a gage factor
setting) so that readout from the scale of the variable resistor is direct in terms
of strain.
The null-balance type of strain indicator will function over a range of gage
resistances from 50 H to 2000 H. With gage resistances less than 50 H, the
 5.5 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR STRAIN-GAGE APPLICATIONS 205

Oscillator

Figure 5.7 Schematic diagram of a reference bridge that is commonly used for the
measurement of static strains.

oscillator is overloaded; with gage resistances greater than 2000 fi, the load on
the amplifier becomes excessive. The gage factor adjustment will accommodate
gages with the range 1.5 ^ ^ 4.5. The scale on the variable resistor can be
read to ±2 pm/m, and is accurate to ±0.1 percent of the reading or 5 |xm/m
whichever is greater. The range of strain that can be measured is ±50,000 [am/
m. The null-balance instrument shown in Fig. 5.8 is small, light weight, and
portable. It is easy to operate and is adequate for all static measurements of
strain except those requiring a very large number of gages with extensive data
analysis.

The Wheatstone Bridge and the Oscilloscope

When strain gages are used to measure dynamic strains at only a very few
locations, the oscilloscope is probably the best recording instrument. A typical
Wheatstone bridge-oscilloscope arrangement is shown schematically in Fig. 5.9.
206 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Figure 5.8 A null-balance type of static strain indicator. (Courtesy of Vishay Instru¬
ments.)

The connection from the bridge to the oscilloscope can be direct if a differential
amplifier with sufficient gain is available as a plug-in unit for the oscilloscope.
Some single-ended amplifiers and power supplies cannot be used, since they
ground point D of the bridge. This grounding seriously affects the output voltage
of the bridge and thus introduces errors in the strain measurements.
 5.5 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR STRAIN-GAGE APPLICATIONS 207

Figure 5.9 A Wheatstone bridge-oscilloscope strain-measurement system.

The input impedance of an oscilloscope is quite high (about 1 Mfi) and as

a consequence, Rs/R„i < 0.001 for the Wheatstone bridge-oscilloscope combi¬
nation and loading errors (see Fig. 2.2) are negligible. The frequency response
of an oscilloscope is extremely high and even low-frequency models (1-MHz
bandwidth) greatly exceed the requirements for mechanical strain measure¬
ments, which rarely exceed 50 kHz. The observation interval depends upon the
sweep rate and can range from about 1 ps to 50 s.
Strain as a function of time is displayed as a trace on the face of the cathode-
ray tube (CRT). The trace can be photographed, or if a storage or memory
oscilloscope is used, readings of voltage and/or strain can be taken directly from
the CRT. With a conventional oscilloscope, strain e is computed from the height
of the strain-time pulse, as illustrated in Fig. 5.10, and the distance between
two calibration lines produced by shunt calibration (see Section 5.6) of the
bridge. The strain experienced by the gage is

where is the equivalent strain produced by shunt calibration.

If the shunt calibration technique is not used, the strain must be computed
by using the output voltage from the bridge. For example, consider a single

Figure 5.10 Determining strain from an oscilloscope trace.

208 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

gage. From Eqs. (4.22) and (3.5), the output voltage from the bridge will be

(a)

This output voltage can be expressed in terms of oscilloscope parameters as

A£, = (b)

where is the height of the strain-time pulse (in CRT divisions, see Fig.
5.10).
S,^ is the sensitivity of the oscilloscope in volts per division.

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) and solving for the strain gives

(1 + rf S^d, (5.11)
e
r

The Wheatstone Bridge and the Oscillograph

The oscillograph (see Section 2.5) is also used with the Wheatstone bridge
for dynamic strain measurements. The oscillograph is preferred over the
oscilloscope* when large numbers of strain gages must be monitored and when
the observation period is relatively long. When an oscillograph is used for dy¬
namic strain measurements, care must be exercised in selection of the galva¬
nometers, since many galvanometers are satisfactory only for low-frequency
signals.
When a galvanometer of the type used in an oscillograph is connected
directly to a Wheatstone bridge, the output voltage of the bridge is seriously
affected. These galvanometers have a very low input impedance (between 30
and 300 fl); therefore, the equations developed previously, which were based
upon use of a high-impedance recorder, must be modified to account for the
characteristics of the galvanometer. A circuit diagram for an oscillograph con¬
nected directly to a Wheatstone bridge is shown in Fig. 5.11a. An equivalent
circuit (obtained by using Thevenin’s theorem), consisting of an equivalent re¬
sistance Rb and a voltage source replacing the bridge, is shown in Fig.
5.11h. The Wheatstone bridge-oscillograph circuit must be designed such that
the equivalent resistance Rg provides the external damping resistance R^ re¬
quired by the galvanometer to maintain frequency response. Also, the bridge
should be designed to produce the largest possible output current per unit
strain in order to maximize the deflection 6 of the galvanometer.

' Memory oscilloscopes with magnetic storage also provide very long observation periods together
with a capability for expanding the time scale to improve resolution; however, these oscilloscopes
are relatively new and quite expensive. Until costs are reduced, oscillographs will continue to be
widely used for dynamic recording of strain.
 5,5 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR STRAIN-GAGE APPLICATIONS 209

Figure 5.11 A Wheatstone bridge-oscillograph strain measurement system, (a) Sche¬

matic diagram with representing the input impedance of the galvanometer, (b) Equiv¬
alent circuit for determining 7^.

The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 5.116 can be used to determine the
current Iq passing through the galvanometer in terms of strain gage and circuit
parameters. Consider an initially balanced bridge where RiRj, = R2R4, and
define resistance ratios r and q as

r = and (a)
R^

The value of the equivalent resistance Rg can be obtained from Eq. (4.29) if
the resistance of the voltage supply is small {Ry ~ 0). Substituting Eq. (a) into
Eq. (4.29) gives

1 + q
Rb Ri (5.12)
,1 + rj

If the bridge contains one active gage in arm 7?i, Eqs. (4.22) and (3.5) can be
combined to give

Since the voltage E,- is limited by the power Pg, that can be dissipated by the
gage, E, is given by Eqs. (5.3) and (5.5) as

E, = (1 + r)VP;Rg (b)
 210 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (5.13) gives

(5.14)

For the equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.116, the current Iq is given by

A£. R,
Ir: = (C)
T" f^B ^B T"

If Eqs. (5.12) and (5.14) are now substituted into Eq. (c), the current Iq is given
by the expression

R.
A„e (5.15)
' 1 + gV + Rg

The deflection 0 of the galvanometer is given by Eq. (2.14) as

0 ~ ^G^G (2.14)

where Sq is the galvanometer sensitivity. System sensitivity is defined as

A. = - (5.16)
e

Therefore,

A. = Ac
1 + <7 V Rg ^ Rb R(

or

(5.17)

Equation (5.17) shows that the system sensitivity is controlled by

1. Circuit efficiency [ql{l + q)].

2. Gage selection (VPg/RgS^).
 5.5 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS FOR STRAIN-GAGE APPLICATIONS 211

3. The ratio of galvanometer resistance to equivalent bridge resistance {Rq!

4. Galvanometer sensitivity (5g).

The constraint that must provide the required external resistance for proper
damping of the galvanometer limits the options available for maximizing system
sensitivity. Most galvanometers used for strain measurement are designed (see
Table 2.2) so that the required external resistance R^ equals 120 or 350 fl. The
equivalent resistance of a four-equal-arm bridge (i.e., /?, = /?2 = R^, = ^4)
with 120- or 350-ft gages is 120 and 350 fl, respectively. Thus, Rg = R^ and q
is limited to a value of 1. Under these conditions, Eq. (5.17) reduces to

(5.18)

If the equivalent resistance of the bridge is less than the required external
resistance for the galvanometer, which is often the case, a series resistor R, must
be added to the circuit between the bridge and the galvanometer. The value of
the series resistor is given by

R, = R_, - Rs

When the series resistor is added, the circuit sensitivity given by Eq. (5.17)
becomes

(5.19)

If the external resistance is maintained at the value specified in Table 2.2, the
frequency response of the system will be flat within a ± 5 percent accuracy band
over the frequency range 0 ^ 00 ^ 0.87 w,,.
In many cases, the system sensitivity achieved by connecting a galvanometer
with adequate frequency response to the Wheatstone bridge is too low to provide
sufficient galvanometer deflection. In these instances, a current amplifier must
be inserted between the bridge and the galvanometer to provide the current
required for adequate response. Such amplifiers are designed to provide an
output impedance equal to or less than the required external resistance for most
galvanometers. When the output impedance is less than a series resistor is
used on the output of the amplifier for proper matching.
Strain is determined from the oscillograph record by using Eq. (5.10). In
all instances, the system is calibrated either by applying a known strain to a gage
212 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

in arm of the Wheatstone bridge or by applying an equivalent strain with a

shunt resistor across arm Rj of the bridge. Calibration methods are described
in Section 5.6.

5.6 CALIBRATION METHODS

A strain-measurement system (see Fig. 5.12) usually includes one or more

strain gages, a power supply, circuit-completion resistors, an amplifier, and a
voltage or current measuring instrument. It is possible to calibrate such a system
by precisely measuring R^, R2, R^, R4, sensitivity or gain of the amplifier,
and sensitivity of the recorder. The calibration constant C for the system can
then be computed by using the expression

^ (1 + 0%
(5.20)
rE,Sfi

where G is the gain of the amplifier.

Sj^ is the recorder sensitivity (volts per division).

The strain recorded with the system is given in terms of the calibration constant
as

8 - Cd, (5.21)

where d, is the deflection of the recorder in divisions. This procedure is time

consuming and is subject to measurement errors in each of the quantities ap¬
pearing in Eq. (5.20). A more direct, less time-consuming, and more accurate

Figure 5.12 A schematic diagram of a strain-measurement system.

 5.6 CALIBRATION METHODS 213

may be accomplished by introducing a known strain in the bridge (either me¬

chanically or electrically), measuring d, resulting from this strain, and computing
C by using Eq. (5.21).
Mechanical calibration is performed by mounting a strain gage (which must
have the same gage factor as the gages being employed for the measurements)
on a calibration specimen (usually a cantilever beam), connecting this calibration
gage into arm of the Wheatstone bridge, and observing the deflection of the
trace on the recorder as a known strain is applied to the gage. If the free end
of a cantilever beam is deflected a distance 8, the calibration strain induced
in the calibration gage is

36/jx
Ec (5.22)

where h is the depth of the cantilever beam.

/ is the length of the cantilever beam.
X is the distance from the load point to the center of the gage.

The voltage output from an initially balanced bridge is recorded before and after
the beam is deflected (for example, note the two horizontal traces shown in Fig.
5.10). The distance between these two lines is used with the calibration strain
Ec to determine the calibration constant C. Thus,

C = v (5.23)
dc

Electrical calibration is performed in a similar manner, except that the

calibration strain is induced by shunting a calibration resistor across arm R^
of the Wheatstone bridge, as shown in Fig. 5.12. The effective resistance of arm
R2 with R^ in place is

R 2e (5.24)
R2 + Rc

The change of resistance AR2IR2 is then given by

^Rj _ ^2e ~ ^2 _ R. (5.25)

R2 ~ R2 R-, + Rr

The output voltage produced by shunting R across R2 of the bridge is obtained

by substituting Eq. (5.25) into Eq. (4.21). Thus

R1R2_^2
A£„ = E, (a)
(R, + R2f R2 + Rc
214 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

The output from a single active gage in arm of a bridge due to a strain equal
to the calibration strain is given by Eq. (4.21) as

R1R2
A£. = E (b)
' (Ri + R2) 2 g

Equating Eqs. (a) and (b) and solving for gives

(5.26)
S^{R, + /?,)

Once is known (calculated), the calibration constant C can be determined by

following the procedure outlined previously for mechanical calibration.
This technique of shunt calibration is accurate and simple to use. It provides
a single calibration constant for the complete system, which incorporates the
sensitivities of all components. The calibration strain produces a deflection
on the recording instrument that is used to determine the calibration constant
C. All other deflections on the recording instrument are linearly related to the
unknown strains that produced them by this calibration constant as indicated in
Eq. (5.21).

5.7 EFFECTS OF LEAD WIRES, SWITCHES, AND SLIP RINGS

The resistance change from a strain gage is small; therefore, any disturbance
that produces a resistance change within the bridge circuit is extremely impor¬
tant, since it also affects the output voltage. Components within the bridge
typically include gages, soldered joints, terminals, lead wires, and binding posts.
Frequently, switches and slip rings are also included. The effects of lead wires,
switches, and slip rings are the most important; therefore, they will be covered
individually in this section. The effects of soldered joints, terminals, and binding
posts must not be neglected since they can also produce significant errors; how¬
ever, if cold-soldered connections are avoided and if binding posts are tight,
joint resistance will be constant and negligibly small.

Lead Wires
Frequently, a strain gage is mounted on a component that is located a
considerable distance from the bridge and recording system. The gage must be
connected to the bridge with two long lead wires, as shown in Fig. 5.13. With
this arrangement, two detrimental effects occur: signal attenuation and loss of
temperature compensation. Both can seriously compromise the accuracy of the
measurements.
 5.7 EFFECTS OF LEAD WIRES, SWITCHES, AND SLIP RINGS 215

Signal attenuation or loss due to the resistance of the two lead wires can
be determined by noting in Fig. 5.13 that

R, ^ Rg + 2Ri^ (a)

where is the resistance of a single lead wire. The added resistance in arm R^
of the bridge (due to the lead wires) leads to the expression

R, Rg + 2R^ Rg Rg + 27?^

(b)
Rg 1 + i2RJRg)

Equation (b) can be rewritten in terms of a signal loss factor as

A7?i A7?„
(1 - i£) (c)
R.

where

2Rl 2RJRg (5.27)

=
Rg + 2.Ri^ 1 + {2RJRg)

Signal loss factor is shown as a function of resistance ratio RJRg in Fig. 5.14.
Error due to lead wires can be reduced to less than 1 percent if RJRg ^ 0.005.
The resistance of a 100-ft (30.5-m) length of solid copper lead wire as a function
of gage size is listed in Table 5.2. It is obvious from the data in Table 5.2 that
long lengths of small-diameter wire (large gage numbers) must be avoided m
strain-gage measurements.
216 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Figure 5.14 Loss factor as a function of resistance ratio RJRg for two- and three-
lead-wire systems.

The second detrimental effect resulting from long lead wires is loss of tem¬
perature compensation. As an example, consider a Wheatstone bridge with an
active gage and two long lead wires in arm and a dummy gage with two short
lead wires in arm R^. If both gages and all lead wires are subjected to the same
temperature change AT during the time interval when strain is being monitored,
the output of the bridge is given by Eq. (4.22) as

AE„
AE. - E. -I-
' (1 + rf .R. 2R L/ AT

I ILR^
-t-
(5.28)
^Rg -t- 2Ri^/ Rg / A7-.

TABLE 5.2 Resistance of Solid-Conductor Copper Wire

Ohms per 100 ft (30,5 m]
Gage Size Resistance Gage Size Resistance

12 0.159 28 6.490
14 0.253 30 10.310
16 0.402 32 16.41
18 0.639 34 26.09
20 1.015 36 41.48
22 1.614 38 65.96
24 2.567 40 104.90
26 4.081
 5.7 EFFECTS OF LEAD WIRES, SWITCHES, AND SLIP RINGS 217

The first term in the brackets is the resistance change in the active gage
due to the strain.
The second term is the resistance change in the active gage resulting from
the temperature change.
The third term is the resistance change in the lead wires of arm resulting
from the temperature change.
The fourth term is the resistance change in the dummy gage resulting from
the temperature change.
The resistance change in the lead wires of arm is negligible.

In this example, temperature compensation is not achieved, since the second

and fourth terms do not cancel. Significant additional error due to resistance
changes in the lead wires is represented by the third term in Eq. (5.28).
The detrimental effects of long lead wires can be reduced by employing the
simple three-wire system illustrated in Fig. 5.15. With this three-wire arrange¬
ment, both the active gage and the dummy gage are located at the remote site.
One of the three wires is not considered a lead wire, since it is not within the
bridge (not in arm R^ or R^) and serves only to transfer point A of the bridge
to the remote location. The active and dummy gages each have one long lead
wire with resistance 7?^ and one very short lead wire with negligible resistance.
The signal loss factor i£ for the three-wire system is

Sf. = (5.29)
1 + (RJR,)

A comparison of Eqs. (5.27) and (5.29) indicates that signal attenuation due to
lead-wire resistance is reduced by a factor of approximately 2 by using the three-
wire system (also see Fig. 5.14).
The temperature-compensating feature of the Wheatstone bridge is retained

Figure 5.15 Gage connections to the bridge with the three-lead-wire system.
218 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

when the three-wire system is used. In this case, Eq. (5.28) becomes

' (1 + L\«, + \Rg + RlJ AT

( AE, \ _ / ARg \ _ / A/?, \

(5.30)
\Rg + RlJ at \^g R/J AT + RlJ AT

It is clear from Eq. (5.30) that temperature compensation is achieved since all
of the temperature-dependent terms in the bracketed quantity cancel.
In all cases where lead-wire resistance causes measurable signal attenuation,
the calibration resistor should be applied at the remote active gage in order to
establish experimentally the effects of the lead wires. Once this effect is estab¬
lished, the calibration resistor can be inserted as shown in Fig. 5.12 to check
overall system performance.

Switches
Frequently, a large number of gages are used to evaluate a component or
structure and the output of each gage is read several times during a typical test.
In this type of application, the number of gages is too large to employ a separate
recording system for each gage. Instead, a single recording system is used and
the gages are switched in and out of the system according to some schedule.
Two different switching arrangements are commonly used today for multiple-
gage installations.
The most common and least expensive arrangement is illustrated in Fig.
5.16. Here, one side of each active gage is switched, in turn, into arm R^ of the
bridge, while the other side of each active gage is connected to terminal A of
the bridge with a common lead wire. This arrangement places the switch in arm
of the bridge; therefore, a high-quality switch with a small reproducible
resistance (less than 500 ixH) must be employed. Low resistance is achieved by
using silver-tipped contacts and two or more parallel contacts per switch. If the
switch resistance is not reproducible, the change in switch resistance AR, adds
to the strain-induced change in gage resistance ARg to produce an apparent
strain e', which can be expressed as

ARJRg
8 = (5.31)

The quality of a switch can be easily checked, since a nonreproducible switch

resistance results in a shifting of the zero reading. Switches must be cleaned
regularly, since even high-quality switches will begin to perform erratically when
the contacts become dirty or oxidized.
 5.7 EFFECTS OF LEAD WIRES, SWITCHES, AND SLIP RINGS 219

Figure 5.16 Switching a large number of individual gages into arm of the Wheatstone
bridge with a single-pole switch.

A second switching arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.17. Here, a three-pole

switch is used to transfer terminals A, B, and D to the power supply and the
recording instrument. Terminal C of each bridge is grounded in common with
the power supply with a single common lead wire. Since none of the switches
are located within the bridge, switch resistance is not important; however, switch¬
ing the complete bridge is more expensive, since separate dummy gages and two
bridge completion resistors are required for each bridge.
A major disadvantage of all switching schemes is the thermal drift induced
by heating of the gages and resistors when power is suddenly applied to the
system. Depending upon the application, this drift may continue for a minute
or more after the switch is closed.

Slip Rings
When strain gages are used on rotating members, slip rings are often used
to complete the lead-wire connections, as shown in Fig. 5.18. The slip rings are
usually mounted on a shaft that can be attached to the rotating member so that
the axes of rotation of the shaft and member coincide. The outer shell of the
slip ring assembly is stationary and carries several brushes per ring to transfer
the signal from the rotating rings to terminals on the stationary shell. Satisfactory
operation up to speeds of 24,000 rpm is possible with a properly designed slip
ring assembly.
Brush movement and dirt collecting on the slip rings due to brush wear
tend to produce a change in resistance that can be reduced by using multiple
brushes in parallel. Even with multiple brushes, however, changes in resistance
between rings and brushes tend to be large; therefore, slip rings should not be
placed within the arms of the bridge. Instead, a complete bridge should be
assembled for each active gage on the rotating member, as shown in Fig. 5.18.
The slip rings should be used only to connect the bridge to the power supply
and the recording instrument. This arrangement minimizes the effect of resist-
 220 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Figure 5.17 Switching several complete bridges into the power supply and recording
instrument with a three-pole switch.

ance change due to the slip rings and provides a means for accurately
recording strain-gage signals from rotating members.

5.8 ELECTRICAL NOISE

The output voltage from a Wheatstone bridge due to the resistance change
^R/R of a strain gage (or other transducer) is usually quite small (a few milli¬
volts). Because of this very small output voltage electrical noise is fre¬
quently a problem. Electrical noise occurs as a result of magnetic fields generated
by current flow in wires in close proximity to the lead wires or bridge, as shown
in Fig. 5.19. When an alternating current flows in an adjacent wire, a cyclic
magnetic field (frequently 60 Hz) is produced, which cuts both wires of the signal
circuit and induces a voltage (noise) in the signal loop. The magnitude of this
induced voltage (noise) is proportional to the current / flowing in the disturbing
Figure 5.18 Signal transfer from rotating members with slip rings. (Courtesy of Michigan
Scientific Corp.) (fl) Construction details of a slip ring unit, (b) Schematic diagram of a
strain measurement system with slip rings, (c) Several slip-ring units.

221
222 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Figure 5.19 Schematic diagram showing generation of electrical noise.

wire and the area enclosed by the signal loop, and inversely proportional to the
distance between the disturbing wire and the strain-gage lead wires (see Fig.
5.19). In some cases, the voltage induced by the magnetic field is so large that
it is difficult to separate the noise from the strain-gage signal.
Three precautions can be taken to minimize noise. First, all lead wires
should be twisted or placed adjacent to each other to minimize the area of the
signal loop. Second, only shielded cables should be used, and the shields should
be grounded only at the negative terminal of the power supply to the bridge,
as shown in Fig. 5.20. With this arrangement, the shield is grounded without
forming a ground loop and any noise voltage generated in the shield is maintained
at nearly zero potential. The power supply itself should be floated relative to

Recorder chassis
 5.9 TEMPERATURE-COMPENSATED GAGES 223

the system ground (the third conductor in the power cord) to avoid a ground
loop at the supply. The third method for reducing noise is by common-mode
rejection. If the lead wires are twisted, any noise developed will be equal and
will occur simultaneously in both lead wires. If a differential amplifier is used
with the Wheatstone bridge, the noise signals are rejected (canceled by the
amplifier) and only the strain signal is amplified. Unfortunately, common-mode
rejection even for very-high-quality differential amplifiers is not perfect, and a
small portion of the noise voltage is transmitted by the amplifier. Common¬
mode rejection for good-quality, low-level data amplifiers is about 10^ to 1 at
60 Hz; therefore, most of the noise is suppressed.
If the three previously listed precautions are followed, the signal-to-noise
ratio can be maximized and clean data can be recorded even under adverse
electrical conditions.

5.9 TEMPERATURE-COMPENSATED GAGES

Temperature compensation in the Wheatstone bridge was discussed in Sec¬

tion 5.4; however, temperature compensation of the gage itself is possible and
in practice both the bridge and the gage should be compensated to nullify any
signal due to temperature variations during the readout interval. When the
ambient temperature changes, four effects occur that influence the signal
AR/R from the gage:

1. The gage factor Sg changes with temperature.

2. The grid undergoes an elongation or contraction (A/// = aAT).
3. The specimen elongates or contracts (A/// = (BAT).
4. The resistance of the gage changes {AR/R = yAT).

The strain sensitivities of the two most commonly used alloys (Advance and
Karma) are linear functions of temperature as shown in Fig. 5.21. These plots
indicate that AA^/AT equals 0.00735 and -0.00975 percent per Celsius degree
for Advance and Karma alloys, respectively. Since these changes are small (less
than 1 percent for AT = 100°C), variations in with temperature are usually
neglected in routine stress analysis work; however, in thermal stress studies
where temperature variations of several hundred degrees are common, changes
in become significant and must be considered.
Effects 2, 3, and 4 are much more significant and combine to produce a
change in resistance of the gage with temperature change {AR/R)^t, which can
be expressed as

(5.32)
 224 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Temperature (°C)

-50 0 50 100 150 200 250

Temperature (°F)

Figure 5.21 Alloy sensitivity as a function of temperature for Advance and Karma
alloys.

where a is the thermal coefficient of expansion of the gage alloy.

(S is the thermal coefficient of expansion of the specimen material.
Sg is the gage factor.
7 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity of the gage alloy.

A differential expansion between the gage grid and the specimen due to a
temperature change (a ^ (S) subjects the gage to a thermally induced mechanical
strain Cy- = O — a)AT, which does not occur in the specimen. The gage re¬
sponds to the strain ey in the same way that it responds to a load-induced strain
e in the specimen. Unfortunately, it is impossible to separate the component of
the response due to temperature change from the response due to the load.
If the gage alloy is matched to the specimen (a = p), the first term in Eq.
(5.32) will not produce a response; however, the second term will produce a
response that indicates an apparent strain that does not exist in the specimen.
A temperature-compensated gage is obtained only if both terms in Eq. (5.32)
are zero or if they cancel.
The values of a and 7 are quite sensitive to the composition of the alloy
and to the degree of cold working imparted during the rolling of the foil. It is
common practice for the strain-gage manufacturers to measure the thermal-
response characteristics of a few gages from each roll of foil that they use in
manufacturing the gages. Because of variations in a and 7 between melts and
rolls of foil, it is possible to select gages that are temperature compensated for
almost any specimen material. These gages are known as selected-melt or tem¬
perature-compensated gages.
Unfortunately, selected-melt gages are not perfectly compensated over a
wide range of temperature because of nonlinear terms that were omitted in Eq.
(5.32) . A typical selected-melt strain gage exhibits an apparent strain with tem¬
perature as shown in Fig. 5.22. The apparent strain produced by a temperature
5.10 ALLOY SENSITIVITY, GAGE FACTOR, AND CROSS-SENSITIVITY FACTOR 225

-100 0 100 200 300 400 500

Temperature T (°F)

Figure 5.22 Apparent strain as a function of temperature for Karma and Advance alloys.

change of a few degrees in the neighborhood of 75°F (24°C) is quite small (less
than 0.5 p.m/m/°C); however, when the temperature change is large, the apparent
strain generated by the gage becomes large and corrections to account for ap¬
parent strain must be made.

5.10 ALLOY SENSITIVITY, GAGE FACTOR, AND CROSS¬

SENSITIVITY FACTOR

The sensitivity of a single, uniform length of conductor to strain was defined

(see Section 3.4) as

dR/R _ AR/R
(3.4 bis)
e e

where is the alloy sensitivity. In a typical strain gage, the conductor is formed
into a pattern (commonly referred to as the grid) to keep the gage length short.
Also, the conductor is usually not uniform over its entire length. As a result,
the alloy sensitivity 5'^ is not a true calibration constant for a strain gage.
A better understanding of the response of a grid-type strain gage can be
obtained by considering a gage mounted on a specimen that is subjected to a
biaxial strain field. For this situation,

(5.33)

where is the normal strain along the axial direction of the gage.
e, is the normal strain along the transverse direction of the gage.
226 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

is the shearing strain associated with the a and t directions.

Sa is the sensitivity of the gage to axial strain.
S, is the sensitivity of the gage to transverse strain,
is the sensitivity of the gage to shearing strain.

In general, the gage sensitivity to shearing strain is small and can be neglected.
The gage sensitivity to transverse strain may or may not be small. A transverse
sensitivity factor K, is provided by the manufacturer for each gage and is defined
as

y (5.34)

If Eq. (5.34) is substituted into Eq. (5.33) and if = 0,

A/?
— = A,(e„ + (5.35)

The sensitivity of strain gages is usually expressed in terms of a gage factor Sg

as previously indicated in Eq. (3.5).

= SgE^ (3.5 bis)

This gage factor Sg is determined by the manufacturer for each lot of gages by
mounting sample gages drawn from the lot on a calibration beam having a
Poisson’s ratio = 0.285. With this method of calibration, the transverse strain
present during the determination of Sg is

Er = (5.36)

The response of the gage in calibration is obtained by substituting Eq. (5.36)

into Eq. (5.35). Thus

— = A„e,(l - v,K,) (5.37)

A comparison of Eqs. (5.37) and (3.5) indicates that the gage factor Sg can be
expressed in terms of S^ and K, as

= A„(l - v,K,) (5.38)

The simplified form of the AR/R versus relationship given by Eq. (3.5)
5.10 ALLOYSENSmVITY, GAGE FACTOR, AND CROSS-SENSITIVITY FACTOR 227
is usually used to interpret strain-gage response. It is very important to recognize
that this equation is approximate unless either X, = 0 or e, = 0. The magnitude
of the error incurred by using Eq. (3.5) (the approximate relationship) can be
determined by considering the response of a gage in a general biaxial strain
field. If Eq. (5.38) is substituted into Eq. (5.35), the gage response is given as

A/?
1 + K, (5.39)
~R ^ 1 - v,K,

The true value of strain can then be written as

^R/R 1 -

(5.40)
A, [l +

The apparent strain obtained by using Eq. (3.5) (approximate relationship)

is

AR/R
S

Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (5.40) gives

1 - VqK,
8a (5.41)
1 -h K,(eilEa)

The percent error % incurred by neglecting the transverse sensitivity of a strain

gage in a general biaxial strain field is obtained from Eqs. (5.40) and (a) as

% = ^^-^-^(100) = + ^^\ioo) (5.42)

1 -

Some representative values of 'g as a function of Ki for different biaxiality ratios

are illustrated in Fig. 5.23.
Two different procedures are used to correct for the error involved with
the use of Eq. (3.5). First, if the biaxiality ratio is known (in a thin-walled
cylinder or sphere under internal pressure, for example), the bracketed term in
Eq. (5.41) can be viewed as a correction factor Q that modifies the apparent
strain e' to give the true strain e,,. The factor by which all apparent strain values
must be multiplied to give true strains is
228 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Transverse sensitivity factor

Figure 5.23 Percent error as a function of transverse sensitivity factor for different ratios
of transverse to axial strain.

Alternatively, a corrected gage factor S* can be used in place of Sg to adjust

the bridge before readings are taken. The corrected gage factor as determined
from Eqs. (3.5) and (5.41) is

C* 1 +
(5.44)
1 -

The second correction procedure is used when the biaxiality ratio Cf/e^ is
not known. If apparent strains and are recorded in orthogonal directions,
then from Eqs. (5.39) and (3.5)

1
( ^ JTAT T" Ki Eyy )
1 - VoK

1
■'yy (e T Kj E ) (5.45)
1 - VoK

Solving Eqs. (5.45) for the true strains and yields

. _ 1 - . ,
( ^ jrjf ^yy )
1 - Kf

_ 1-^2^ - K e' )
■'yy (5.46)
 5,11 THE STRESS GAGE 229

5.11 THE STRESS GAGE

While the transverse sensitivity of a strain gage is detrimental in that it

complicates the analysis of strain-gage response, it can be used to advantage in
the design of another related transducer known as the stress gage. The stress
gage, shown in Fig. 5.24, looks like a strain gage; however, its grid is designed
to give a predetermined value of transverse sensitivity K, so that the gage output
^.RIR is proportional to the stress along the axis of the gage rather than the
strain.
The principle of operation of the stress gage can be illustrated by considering
the output of a grid-type strain gage bonded to the free surface of a specimen
that is being subjected to a biaxial state of stress. The relationship between stress
and strain at the free surface of a specimen is given by generalized Hooke’s law
as

Ec = ^ (o-a - VO-,)

e, = ^ K - vo-J (5.47)

(a)

Figure 5.24 {a) A stress-strain gage. (Courtesy of BLH Electronics.) {b) A stress gage.
(Courtesy of Micro-Measurements.)
230 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

The output of the gage in terms of the stresses and a, is obtained by substituting
Eqs. (5.47) into Eq. (5.35). Thus,

(1 - vK,) + v) (5.48)
R E

The second term of Eq. (5.48) will vanish if K, = v; therefore, the output of
the gage ^R/R will be proportional only to a„. For this special type of gage
(stress gage with K, = v), Eq. (5.48) can be written as

AR
(5.49)

where is the sensitivity or gage factor for the stress gage. Equation (5.48)
indicates that the stress-gage sensitivity (gage factor) depends upon the gage
alloy, the gage configuration, and the elastic constants E and v of the specimen
material; and since K, — v, can be expressed as

^ (1 ~ (5.50)

5.12 DATA REDUCTION METHODS

Strain gages are normally used on the free surface (cr^^ = = 0)

of a specimen to determine the stresses at a particular point (or points) when
the specimen is subjected to a specified system of loads. The conversion from
strain data to stresses requires knowledge of the elastic constants E and v of the
material and, depending upon the state of stress at the point, from one to three
normal strains. Three different stress states are considered in the following
subsections. Data analysis methods and special-purpose strain gages are de¬
scribed for each stress state.

The Uniaxial State of Stress ^ 0)

In a uniaxial state of stress (encountered in tension members and in beams

in pure bending, for example), the stress is the only nonzero component and
the direction of is known. In this case, a single-element strain gage (see Fig.
3.12a, b, or c) mounted with its axis in the x direction can be used to determine
the strain The stress is then given by the uniaxial form of generalized Hooke’s
law as

^xx ^^xx (5.51)

 5.12 DATA REDUCTION METHODS 231
One principal direction is coincident with the x axis for this special case of uniaxial
stress. Any direction perpendicular to the x axis is also a principal direction for
the uniaxial state of stress.

The Biaxial State of Stress (o-^ and (Tyy ^ 0)

If the directions of the principal stresses are known at the point of interest
(on an axis of load and geometric symmetry, for example), two strain measure¬
ments in perpendicular directions provide sufficient data to determine the stresses
at the point. Special strain gages known as two-element rectangular rosettes (see
Fig. 5.25) are available for this purpose. The two-element rosette should be
mounted on the specimen with its axes coincident with the principal stress di¬
rections in order to determine the two principal strains Ej and Ej. The stresses
are then given by the biaxial form of generalized Hooke’s law as

CTi = -i (ei + vej)

1 — V

02 = ^ 2 (^2 + VEl) (5.52)

1 — V

Recall that principal planes are free of shear stress.

The General State of Stress <Tyy, j^y ^ 0)

In the most general case, the principal stress directions are not known;
therefore, three unknowns Oi, 02, and the principal angle 4)1 must be determined
in order to specify the state of stress at the point. Three-element rosettes (see
Fig. 5.26) are used in these cases to obtain the required strain data. The fact
that three strain measurements are sufficient to determine the state of strain at

HH

|HV1

25C)WT 250TM

Figure 5.25 Two-element rectangular rosettes. (Courtesy of Micro-Measurements.)

 232 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

1
T
250YA
Rectangular rosettes Delta rosettes

Figure 5.26 Three-element rectangular and delta rosettes. (Courtesy of Micro-Mea¬

surements.)

a point on the free surface of a specimen can be demonstrated by considering

three gages aligned along axes A, B, and C, as shown in Fig. 5.27. From the
equations of strain transformation

= ^xx cos^ 0^ + Byy sin^ 0^ + sin 0^ cos 0^

- ^xx cos^ 03 + Eyy sin^ 03 + y^y sin 03 cos 03

Ec = cos^ 0c + Eyy sin^ 0^ + y^y sin 0^ cos 0^ (5.53)

The cartesian components of strain and y^y can be determined by solving

Eqs. (5.53) if e^, £3, and Ec are known. The principal strains Ej and E2 and the
principal direction ((>1 can then be determined from

_ 1 , ,1 ^_
El 2 + 2 '^(^XX ~ ^yyV + yly
 5,12 DATA REDUCTION METHODS 233

Figure 5.27 Three gages oriented at

angles 0^, Gg, and G,- with respect to the

2cJ) = tan-» —^ (5.54)

where <}) is the angle between the principal direction for and the x axis.

Two of the most commonly employed rosettes are the delta rosette and the
three-element rectangular rosette. The three-element rectangular rosette will be
discussed here; the analysis of the delta rosette is left as an exercise for the
student (see Exercise 5.29). The three-element rectangular rosette is constructed
with

0^ = 0°, 0B = 45°, 0c = 90° (5.55)

With these fixed angles, Eqs. (5.53) reduce to

^xx

1 /
2 ^yy ^ yxy)

Be - B,, (5.56)

From Eqs. (5.56)

Jxy = 2eg - - Be (5.57)

234 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

The principal strains Ej and 82 and the principal angle cj) are obtained in terms
of e^, Efl, and by substituting Eqs. (5.56) into Eqs. (5.54). Thus

1 ^1 ,-
El (e^ + Ec) + ^ V(e^ - Ecf + (2efl - e,, - t-.^ y

^2 (e^ + Ec) V(e^ - Ecf + (2Efl - Ea - E()^

Itan-' - (5.58)
2 E. - Er

Equation (5.58) yields two values for the angle 4). One value chi refers to the
angle between the x axis and the axis of e,, while the second value (h2 refers to
the angle between the x axis and the axis of 82. It can be shown (see Exercise
5.38) that the following classification procedure will define the angle chi:

1
0° < chi < 90° when Es > 2 + Ec)

-90° < chi < 0° when Efi

< 5 + Ec)

chi = 0 when E>1 > Ec and E,4

chi ±90 when E^ < Ec and E.4 (5.59)

Finally, the principal stresses can be expressed in terms of e^, e^, and e^ by
substituting Eqs. (5.58) into Eqs. (5.52). The results are

E^ -I- Ec 1 /--^_-
cr^ = E
2(1 - v) 2(1 + v) ^ ~ E^ - EcV

E/i + Ec 1 , r.-^_—
(T2 = E (5.60)
2(1 - v) ~ 2(1 + v) ^ - E^ - Ecf

While derivation of these equations may appear tedious, their application

is simple and rapid. As a result, rosettes are widely used to establish the complete
state of stress at a point on the free surface of a general three-dimensional body.

5.13 SUMMARY

The electrical resistance strain gage nearly meets the optimum requirements
for a strain gage; therefore, it is widely employed in stress analysis and as the
sensing element in other transducers, such as load cells and pressure gages.
 5.13 SUMMARY 235

While the gage is inexpensive and relatively easy to use, care must be exercised
in its installation to ensure that it is properly bonded to the specimen, water¬
proofed, and wired correctly into the Wheatstone bridge.
The voltage that can be applied to a Wheatstone bridge having a single
active gage is limited by the power the gage can dissipate. Proper input voltage
is obtained from Eq. (5.5). Thus,

£, = (1 -t- r)VAPoR^ (5.5)

With this voltage applied, the system sensitivity is given by Eq. (5.2) as

(5.2)

The bridge can provide temperature compensation if a temperature-com¬

pensating gage (dummy gage) is used in arm of the bridge.
Digital voltmeters and oscilloscopes are high-impedance recording instru¬
ments that can be used with the Wheatstone bridge to measure the output voltage
A£„ without introducing significant loading errors. When the Wheatstone bridge
is used with a low-impedance oscillographic recording system, however, loading
effects are significant and system sensitivity is reduced to

= 1 _ (5.18)
2 y £, 1 + (Rg/r,)

Also, care must be exercised to ensure that the specified external resistance is
provided in the circuit in order for the galvanometer to maintain its range of
frequency response.
Both electrical and mechanical procedures are used to calibrate a strain¬
measuring system. For electrical calibration, the calibration strain is simulated
by shunting a calibration resistor R^ across arm £2 of tho bridge. The magnitude
of the calibration strain is given by Eq. (5.26) as

Ri
(5.26)
S,iR2 + Rc)

The strain being measured is then obtained by comparing deflections of the

recorder trace induced by the calibration strain and the load-induced strain.
From Eq. (5.21),

e Cd, (5.21)
236 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Lead wires, slip rings, and switches, which are commonly employed with
strain gages, can in some cases seriously degrade the instrumentation system.
The detrimental effects of long lead wires can be significantly reduced by using
a three-wire system. Signal loss due to long lead wires, is given by the
expression

RiJRg
= (5.29)
1 + (RJR^)

The signal loss can be accounted for during calibration if the calibration resistor
is introduced into the circuit at the remote strain gage.
Only high-quality switches should be used in the arms of a Wheatstone bridge;
otherwise, errors due to changes in switch resistance will occur. Slip rings should
not be used within the arms of the bridge to transmit signals from rotating
members. Instead, a complete bridge should be assembled on the rotating mem¬
ber and the supply voltage and output voltage should be transmitted with the
slip rings.
Noise in strain-gage circuits is common and can be minimized by employing
twisted leads with a properly grounded shield. Also, common-mode rejection
by well-designed amplifiers further reduces the noise-to-signal ratio.
Temperature-compensating gages are available for a wide range of specimen
materials and should be used for all tests where large temperature changes are
expected to occur.
Strain gages exhibit a sensitivity to both axial and transverse strains, which
can be expressed as

SgEa
A/? _
~R ^ 1 -
1 + K, (5.39)

If the transverse sensitivity of the gage is neglected, the response from the gage
is related to the axial strain by the simple (approximate) expression

A/?
g^a (3.5)

The percent error resulting from use of the approximate equation is

Kt{e,le^ + Vq)

(100) (5.42)
1 -

If the ratio 8,/e„ is known, a corrected gage factor can be used to eliminate
error due to the transverse sensitivity of the gage. The corrected gage factor
 5.13 SUMMARY 237

S* is given by the expression

1 +
5g* (5.44)
1 -

If the ratio is not known, transverse sensitivity errors are eliminated by

measuring two orthogonal apparent strains and with a two-element rec¬
tangular rosette and computing true strains by using the equations

_ J^2 ^t^yy)
(5.46)

j _ j^2 ^t^xx)

A stress gage (a strain gage designed with a transverse sensitivity such that
the output is proportional to the stress along the axis of the gage) is available
for special situations where a single stress component in a specific direction is
required.
Strain measurements can be converted to stresses for the uniaxial state of
stress by using the simple expression

^xx = (5.51)

In more complex situations, where a three-element rectangular rosette is used

to record e^, e^, and ec, the principal stresses Oj and CT2 ^nd their directions ((>
are obtained from these three strains by using the equations

Ec
(Jt — E
2(1 — v)
1
+ V(e/i - + (2eB - - ScY
2(1 + v)
-f- Ec
(Tj = E (5.60)
[2(1 — v)

1
2(1 -1- - ^cY + (2eB - - ^cY
, 1 , 2eg — 8^ Ec
4) = - tan ^- (5.58)
2 ^
238 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

REFERENCES

1. Thomson, W. (Lord Kelvin): On the Electrodynamic Qualities of Metals,

Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1856.
2. Tomlinson, H.: The Influence of Stress and Strain on the Action of Physical
Forces, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society {London), vol. 174,
1883, pp. 1-172.
3. Simmons, E. E., Jr.: Material Testing Apparatus, U.S. Patent 2,292,549,
February 23, 1940.
4. Maslen, K. R., and I. G. Scott: Some Characteristics of Foil Strain Gauges,
Royal Aircraft Establishment Technical Note Instruction 134, 1953.
5. Micro-measurements, Strain Gage Installations, Instruction Bulletin B-130-
2, July 1972.
6. Stein, P. K.: Advanced Strain Gage Techniques, Chapter 2, Stein Engi¬
neering Services, Phoenix, Arizona, 1962.
7. Perry, C. C., andH. R. Lissner: The Strain Gage Primer, 2nded., McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1962, pp. 200-217.
8. Measurements Group, Inc., Noise Control in Strain Gage Measurements,
Technical Note 501, 1980, pp. 1-5.
9. Measurements Group, Inc., Optimizing Strain Gage Excitation Levels,
Technical Note 502, 1979, pp. 1-5.
10. Measurements Group, Inc., Temperature-Induced Apparent Strain and
Gage Factor Variation in Strain Gages, Technical Note 504, 1976, pp. 1-
9.
11. Measurements Group, Inc., Strain Gage Selection Criteria, Procedures, &
Recommendations, Technical Note 505, 1976, pp. 1-12.
12. Measurements Group, Inc., Fatigue Characteristics of Micro-Measure¬
ments Strain Gages, Technical Note 508, 1982, pp. 1-4.
13. Measurements Group, Inc., Errors Due to Transverse Sensitivity in Strain
Gages, Technical Note 509, 1982, 1-8.
14. Measurements Group, Inc., Errors Due to Misalignment of Strain Gages,
Technical Note 138, 1979, pp. 1-7.
15. Measurements Group, Inc., Errors Due to Wheatstone Bridge Nonline¬
arity, Technical Note 139, 1974, pp. 1-4.
16. Dally, J. W., and W. F. Riley: Experimental Stress Analysis, 2nd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, pp. 153-336.
 EXERCISES 239

EXERCISES

5.1 A strain gage is to be fabricated from Advance wire having a diameter

of 0.001 in. and a resistance of 25 fi/in. The gage is to have a gage
length of 4 in. and a resistance of 200 fl. Design a grid configuration.
5.2 Plot a family of curves showing bridge voltage E, as a function of r for
a Wheatstone bridge with a single active 350-fl gage on a material with
Pd = 0.002 W/mm^. Use the area of the gage as a parameter and vary
A in increments between 0.0005 mm^ to 0.5 mm^. From these results,
indicate the value of r that should be used in the design of the bridge.
5.3 Repeat Exercise 5.2 for a 120-11 gage.
5.4 Determine the system sensitivity for a bridge with a single active gage
having = 350 D and Sg = 2.05, if r = 4 and if the bridge voltage
is 6 V.
5.5 If the gage in Exercise 5.4 can dissipate 0.05 W, is the bridge voltage
correct? If not, what is the correct voltage?
5.6 Determine the voltage output from a Wheatstone bridge if a single
active gage is used in an initially balanced bridge to measure a strain
of 600 p,m/m. Assume that a digital voltmeter will be used to measure
the voltage and that Sg = 2.06, r = 1, and E, = 9 V.
5.7 Determine the loading error produced by connecting an oscilloscope
with an input impedance of 10^ 11 to a Wheatstone bridge with one
active gage. Use Rg = 350 11, r = 5, and q ^ 1.
5.8 The bridge in Exercise 5.7 is powered with a 9-V constant-voltage supply
and the strain gage has a gage factor Sg = 3.35. If the gage responds
to a dynamic strain pulse having a magnitude of 1200 lam/m, determine
the sensitivity setting on the oscilloscope that will give a trace deflection
of four divisions.
5.9 If the bridge and gage of Exercise 5.8 respond to a strain of 1000 |xm/
m, determine the trace deflection if an oscilloscope having a sensitivity
of 1 mV/div is used for the measurement.
5.10 If the bridge, gage, and oscilloscope of Exercise 5.9 record a trace
deflection of 3.7 divisions, determine the strain at the gage location.
5.11 Determine the sensitivity of a gage-bridge-galvanometer system if a
four-equal-arm bridge (R^ = R ^ R = R = Rg) is used and if Rg
2 3 4

= 350 D, = 2.07, Pg = 0.1 W, Rg = 100 D, and = 0.003 mm/

|jlA.

5.12 Would the sensitivity of the system described in Exercise 5.11 be im¬
proved by replacing the 350-12 gage with a 120-11 gage? Explain.
5.13 An oscillograph chart shows a calibration displacement = 30 mm.
240 RESISTANCE-TYPE STRAIN GAGES

Determine the strain corresponding to a trace displacement — 26

mm if the calibration constant C = 50 |xm/m per millimeter of dis¬
placement.
5.14 Determine the value of the calibration constant C for a gage-bridge-
amplifier-recorder system if - 2.04, r = 4, = 12 V, G = 50,
and = 10 mV/div.
5.15 Determine the resistance that must be shunted across arm /?2 of a
Wheatstone bridge to produce a calibration strain = 600 |xm/m if r
= 4, (in arm R^) = 350 fi, and = 2.05.
5.16 Design a displacement fixture to be used with a strain gage mounted
on a cantilever beam to mechanically produce a calibration strain
ranging from 0 to 1500 |j.m/m in 500 |xm/m increments.
5.17 Determine the error that results if a strain gage compensated for alu¬
minum (a == 13 X 10“^/°F) is used on steel (a = 6 x 10“'’/°F). The
total response of the gage was 200 fcm/m and the temperature change
between the zero and final reading was 40°F. Assume that a dummy
gage was not used in the bridge.
5.18 Determine the axial sensitivity of a strain gage if = 2.04 and K,
= 0.03.
5.19 Determine the error involved if transverse sensitivity is neglected in a
measurement of hoop strain in a thin-walled steel cylindrical pressure
vessel when K, for the gage is 0.02.
5.20 If strain gages with Sg = 2.03 and K, = 0.04 are used to determine the
apparent strains and e'yy, determine the true strains and
/
Case ^xx EyV

1 1000 |jLin./in. 1000 (xin./in.

2 800 -600
3 1400 -200
4 -700 2000
5 300 1200

5.21 Determine the error produced by ignoring transverse sensitivity effects

if strain gages with K, = 0.03 are employed in a simple tension test to
measure Poisson’s ratio of a material.
5.22 Assume that K, for an ordinary strain gage is zero. Show how this gage
could be used to measure stress in a specified direction. Clearly indicate
all assumptions made in your derivation.
5.23 A stress gage is fabricated with two grids each of which exhibit an axial
sensitivity = 2.00. Determine the output from the gage in terms of
^R/R if it is mounted on a steel specimen and subjected to a stress
= 60,000 psi.
 EXERCISES 241

5.24 Determine the uniaxial state of stress associated with the following strain
measurements:

El Material
650 lain./in. Steel {E = 29,000,000 psi, V 0.29)
900 Aluminum {E = 10,000,000 psi, V 0.33)
1410 Titanium (E = 14,000,000 psi, V 0.25)
5.25 Determine the biaxial state of stress associated with the following strain
measurements:

El £2 Material
—100 lain./in. — 400 lain./in. Aluminum
900 — 300 Titanium
700 600 Steel

5.26 Determine the general state of stress associated with the following strain
measurements made with a 0°, 45°, 90° rosette.

Material
400 lain./in. 800 lain./in. — 200 lain./in. Aluminum
700 700 700 Steel
300 600 900 Titanium

5.27 Verify Eqs. (5.56), (5.57), and (5.58) for a three-element rectangular
rosette with 0^ = 0°, 0^ = 45°, and 0^ = 90°.
5.28 Use Mohr’s strain circle to verify the classification procedure for a three-
element rectangular rosette described in Eqs. (5.59).
5.29 Consider a delta rosette with 0^ = 0°, 0g = 120°, and 0^ = 240°.
Derive:

(a) The equations for the cartesian components of strain—similar to

Eqs. (5.56) and (5.57)
(b) The equations for the principal strains—similar to Eqs. (5.58)
(c) The classification procedure for the principal angles—similar to
Eqs. (5.59)
(d) The equations for the principal stresses—similar to Eqs. (5.60)
 _SIX_
FORCE, TORQUE,
AND PRESSURE
MEASUREMENTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Transducers that measure force, torque, or pressure usually contain an

elastic member that converts the quantity to be measured to a deflection or
strain. A deflection sensor or, alternatively, a set of strain gages can then be
used to measure the quantity of interest (force, torque, or pressure) indirectly.
Characteristics of the transducer, such as range, linearity, and sensitivity, are
determined by the size and shape of the elastic member, the material used in
its fabrication, and the sensor.
A wide variety of transducers are commercially available for measuring
force (load cells), torque (torque cells), and pressure. The different elastic mem¬
bers employed in the design of these transducers include links, columns, rings,
beams, cylinders, tubes, washers, diaphragms, shear webs, and numerous other
shapes for special-purpose applications. Strain gages are usually used as the
sensor; however, linear variable-differential transformers (LVDTs) and linear
potentiometers are sometimes used for static or quasi-static measurements. A
selection of force transducers (load cells) and a torque transducer are shown in
Fig. 6.1.
 6.2 FORCE MEASUREMENTS (LOAD CELLS) 243

Figure 6.1 Transducers for measuring force and torque.

(fl) A selection of force transducers. (Courtesy of Hottinger-Baldwin Meas¬
urements, Inc.)
(b) A shaft torque sensor for general applications. (Courtesy of Lebow
Products, Eaton Corp.)

6.2 FORCE MEASUREMENTS (Load Cells)

The elastic members commonly used in load cells are links, beams, rings,
and shear webs. The operating characteristics for each of these transducer types
are developed in the following subsections.
244 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Link-Type Load Cell

A simple uniaxial link-type load cell with strain gages as the sensor is shown
in Fig. 6.2a. The load P can be either a tensile load or a compressive load. The
four strain gages are bonded to the link such that two are in the axial direction
and two are in the transverse direction. The four gages are wired into a Wheat¬
stone bridge with the axial gages in arms 1 and 3 and the transverse gages in
arms 2 and 4, as shown in Fig. 6.2b.
When the load P is applied to the link, axial and transverse strains and
e, develop in the link and are related to the load by the expressions

P vP
(a)
AE ~ ~AE

where A is the cross-sectional area of the link.

E is the modulus of elasticity of the link material.
V is Poisson’s ratio of the link material.

The response of the gages to the applied load P is given by Eqs. (3.5) and (a)
as
S,P
Ri ~ ~ ~ AE

A/?2 ^^4
(b)
~R^ ~ ^ ^ “ AE

Figure 6.2 Link-type load cell, (a) Elastic element with strain gages, (b) Gage positions
in the Wheatstone bridge.
 6.2 FORCE MEASUREMENT (LOAD CELLS) 245

The output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge can be expressed in terms
of the load P by substituting Eqs. (b) into Eq. (4.22). If it is assumed that the
four strain gages on the link are identical, then = R and Eq. (4.22) yields
2

E O
(6.1)
2AE

or

2AE
P = Eo = CE^ (6.2)
5,(1 + v)E,

Equation (6.2) indicates that the load P is linearly proportional to the output
voltage Eg and that the constant of proportionality or calibration constant C is

2AE
(6.3)
5, (1 + v)£,

The sensitivity of the load cell-Wheatstone bridge combination is given by

Eq. (1.2) as 5 = EJP\ therefore, from Eq. (6.3)

^ ^ ^ ^ 5,(1 + v)E,
(6.4)
P C 2AE

Equation (6.4) indicates that the sensitivity of the link-type load cell depends
upon the cross-sectional area of the link {A), the elastic constants of the material
used in fabricating the link {E and v), the strain gages used as sensors (5,), and
the input voltage applied to the Wheatstone bridge (E,).
The range of a link-type load cell is determined by the cross-sectional area
of the link and by the fatigue strength Sf of the material used in its fabrication.
Thus

P max 5^21 (6.5)

Since both sensitivity and range depend upon the cross-sectional area A of the
link, high sensitivities are associated with low-capacity load cells, while low
sensitivities are associated with high-capacity load cells.
The voltage ratio at maximum load {EJE^^^^ for the link-type load cell is
obtained by substituting Eq. (6.5) into Eq. (6.1). Thus

/^\ ^ 5,5^(1 -h v)
(6.6)
Ujmax 2E

Most load-cell links are fabricated from AISI 4340 steel {E = 30,000,000 psi
and V = 0.30), which is heat treated to give a fatigue strength Sf ~ 80,000 psi.
246 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Since Sg ~ 2 for the strain gages used in load cells, Eq. (6.6) indicates that

^ 2(80.000)(1 + 0.30) ^
2(30,000,000)

Most link-type load cells are rated at (E^IE,)* = 3 mV/V at the full-scale value
of the load (P = Pmax)- With this full-scale specification of voltage ratio {E^l
E,)*, the load P on the load cell is given by

Eq/E,
P = (6.7)
{EoiE.y

The voltage E, is typically about 10 V; therefore, the output voltage of a link-

type load cell at the maximum rated load is approximately 30 mV. This output
can be monitored with a digital voltmeter or if the signal is dynamic, it can be
displayed on an oscillographic recorder or an oscilloscope.

Beam-Type Load Cell

Beam-type load cells (see Fig. 6.3a) are commonly employed for measuring
low-level loads where the link-type load cell is not effective. A simple cantilever
beam (see Fig. 6.3b) with two strain gages on the top surface and two strain
gages on the bottom surface (all oriented along the axis of the beam) serves as
the elastic member and sensor for this type of load cell. The gages are wired
into a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 6.3c.
The load P produces a moment M = Px at the gage location x that results
in the following strains:

_ 6M 6Px
ei (a)
~ Ebh^ ~ Ebh^

where b is the width of the cross section of the beam.

h is the height of the cross section of the beam.

The response of the strain gages is obtained from Eqs. (3.5) and (a). Thus

APi ^2 _ AP3 AP4 6SgPx

El El ~ R3 ~ ~ Ebh^

The output voltage E„ from the Wheatstone bridge, resulting from application
of the load P, is obtained by substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (4.22). If the four
 6,2 FORCE MEASUREMENT (LOAD CELLS] 247

Figure 6.3 Beam-type load cells, (a) A selection of beam-type load cells. (Courtesy of
BLH Electronics.) (b) Elastic element with strain gages, (c) Gage positions in the Wheat¬
stone bridge.

strain gages on the beam are assumed to be identical

GSgPxE^
=
(6.8)
Ebh}
or

Ebh^
Eo = CE, (6.9)
6SgXEi
248 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Equation (6.9) indicates that the load P is linearly proportional to the output
voltage and that the constant of proportionality or calibration constant C is

Ebh^ (6.10)
6SgXEi

The sensitivity of the load cell-Wheatstone bridge combination is given by

Eq. (1.2) as 5 = EJP-, therefore, from Eq. (6.10)

1 bS.xE,
(6.11)
=c=W

Equation (6.11) indicates that the sensitivity of the beam-type load cell depends
upon the shape of the beam cross section {b and h), the modulus of elasticity
of the material used in fabricating the beam (E), the location of the load with
respect to the gages (x), the strain gages (5^), and the input voltage applied to
the Wheatstone bridge (£,).
The range of a beam-type load cell depends upon the shape of the cross
section of the beam, the location of the point of application of the load, and
the fatigue strength of the material from which the beam is fabricated. If it is
assumed that the gages are located at or near the beam support, then ~
Mn,ax and

Sfbh^
(6.12)
6x

Equations (6.11) and (6.12) indicate that both the range and the sensitivity of
a beam-type load cell can be changed by varying the point of load application.
Maximum sensitivity and minimum range occurs as x approaches the length of
the beam. The sensitivity decreases and the range increases as the point of load
application moves nearer the gages.
The voltage ratio at maximum load (Eo/^i)max is obtained by substituting
Eq. (6.12) into Eq. (6.8). Thus,

I) = '-f
A comparison of Eq. (6.13) with Eq. (6.6) indicates that the beam-type load
cell is approximately 50 percent more sensitive than the link-type load cell.
Beam-type load cells are commercially available with ratings of {EJE)* between
4 and 5 mV/V at full-scale load.
 6.2 FORCE MEASUREMENT (LOAD CELLS) 249

Ring-Type Load Cell

Ring-type load cells incorporate a proving ring (see Fig. 6.4) as the elastic
element. The ring element can be designed to cover a very wide range of loads
by varying the diameter D (or radius R), the thickness t, or the depth w of the

(h)

Figure 6.4 Ring-type load cell, {a) Elastic element with strain-gage sensors, {b) Gage
positions in the Wheatstone bridge, (c) Elastic element with an LVDT sensor.
250 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

ring. Either strain gages or a linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT)

can be used as the sensor.
If an LVDT is used to measure the diametric compression or extension 8
of the ring, the relationship between displacement 8 and load P is given by the
following approximate expression:

5=1.79-^ (6.14)
Ewr

Equation (6.14) is approximate since the reinforced areas at the top and bottom
of the ring that accommodate the loading attachments have not been considered
in its development. The output voltage of an LVDT can be expressed as

= ShE, (6.15)

where S is the sensitivity of the LVDT.

E, is the voltage applied to the primary winding of the LVDT.

Expressions relating output voltage E^ and load P are obtained by substituting

Eq. (6.14) into Eq. (6.15). Thus

SPR^E,
Eo =
1.79 (6.16)
EwE

or

Equation (6.17) shows that the load P is linearly proportional to the output
voltage Eg and that the constant of proportionality or calibration constant C will
be approximately equal to

EwE
C = 0.56 (6.18)
s¥e,

The sensitivity of the ring-LVDT combination S, is given by Eqs. (1.2) and

(6.18) as

1 ^ SR^E,
S = — = — =179-- (6.19)
'PC EwE

Thus, it is seen that the sensitivity of the ring-type load cell with an LVDT
 6.2 FORCE MEASUREMENT (LOAD CELLS) 251

sensor depends upon the geometry of the ring (R, t, and w), the material from
which the ring is fabricated (E), and the characteristics of the LVDT (5 and Ei).
The range of a ring-type load cell is controlled by the strength of the material
used in fabricating the ring. If the load cell is to be used to measure cyclic loads,
the fatigue strength is important. If the load cell will be used only to measure
static loads, the proportional limit of the material can be used to establish the
range of the load cell. The maximum stress in a ring element, reinforced at the
top and the bottom, is highest on the inside surface of the ring on a diameter
perpendicular to the line of the loads. The approximate value for the stress at
this location is

0-0 1.09^ (6.20)

wE

Thus, from Eq. (6.20), for cyclic load measurements

wESf
P max 0.92 (6.21)
R

The voltage ratio at maximum load (EJE,)^^^ is obtained by substituting

Eq. (6.21) into Eq. (6.16). Thus

SR^S,
1.64 (6.22)
Et

The rated voltage ratio {E^IE)* for most ring-type load cells will be slightly less
than the value established by Eq. (6.22), since the ring will not be operated at
a stress level equal to the fatigue strength of the material. Once the rated voltage
ratio (E„/£■,)* and maximum load for ^ particular load cell are known,
Eq. (6.7) can be used to establish the load corresponding to a measured output
voltage.

EqIE,
P = (6.7)
(EJEd*

A typical short-range LVDT (±1.25 mm), used for the load-cell sensor,
will exhibit a sensitivity of 250 mV/V • mm. If the ring element of the load cell
is designed to have a maximum deflection = 1-25 mm at P^^, then Eq. (6.15)
indicates that

58^ax = 250(1.25) = 313 mV/V

252 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Ring-type load cells rated at {EJE,)* « 300 mV/V are available and have the
capability of measuring both tensile and compressive loads (universal load cells).
The rated output of a ring-type load cell with an LVDT sensor is significantly
higher than the output achieved with load cells with strain-gage sensors.

Shear-Web-Type Load Cell

The shear-web-type load cell (also known as a low-profile or a flat load
cell) is useful for applications where space is limited along the line of application
of the load. The flat load cell consists of an inner loading hub and an outer
supporting flange connected by a continuous shear web (see Fig. 6.5). Shear-
type strain gages installed in small holes drilled into the neutral surface of the
web (see Fig. 6.56) are used as the sensor. Some characteristics of a line of flat
load cells are shown in Table 6.1.
The flat load cell is compact and stiff; therefore, it can be used for dynamic
applications where measurement of load at a high frequency is required. The
effective weight of a flat load cell is relatively small (see Table 6.1), since
only the inner hub and the inboard parts of the shear web vibrate at or near
full amplitude when the transducer is dynamically excited. The outer rim and
the outer region of the shear web do not contribute to the effective weight since
they remain essentially motionless. The frequency limit of a load cell in a dynamic
application is determined by the effective weight w^, the weight of any moving
attachments and the stiffness of the load cell. The natural frequencies of the
flat load cells listed in Table 6.1 have been determined by the manufacturer to

TABLE 6.1 Mechanical Properties of Flat Load CellSo

Force Capacity Spring Rate Effective Weight Natural Frequency

pm k (Ib/in.) tr, (lb) L (kHz)

250 920,000 0.028 18

500 920,000 0.028 18
1,000 1,220,000 0.023 22.8
2,500 2,200,000 0.040 23.3
5,000 6,600,000 0.135 22.0
10,000 8,500,000 0.34 15.7
25,000 11,700,000 0.69 13.0
50,000 20,400,000 1.58 11.3
100,000 28,600,000 4.50 7.9
200,000 35,800,000 10.0 5.9
500,000 65,000,000 33.0 4.4

" Courtesy of Strainsert Company (from technical bulletin No. 365-4MP).

 6.2 FORCE MEASUREMENT (LOAD CELLS] 253

be given by the following expression:

(6.23)

(a)

Figure 6.5 Universal flat load cell, (a) Universal flat load cell, {b) Construction details.
(Courtesy of Strainsert Company.)
254 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

where k is the spring rate or stiffness of the load cell.

is the effective weight of the active portion of the load cell.
is the external weight attached to the moving portion of the load
cell.

The natural frequencies listed in Table 6.1 were calculated under the assumption
that no external weight (w^ = 0) was attached to the load cell. With external
weight attached to the load cell, Eq. (6.23) indicates that the frequency limit
will be lower than the values listed in Table 6.1. A complete discussion of the
performance characteristics of dynamic force transducers and their application
to dynamic loading situations is presented in Section 7.6.

6.3 TORQUE MEASUREMENT (Torque Cells)

Torque cells are transducers that convert torque to an electrical signal. The
two types of torque cells in common usage include those installed on fixed shafts
and those installed on rotating shafts. The latter type is more difficult to utilize,
since the electrical signal must be transmitted from the rotating shaft to a sta¬
tionary assembly of recording instruments. The problem of signal transmission
will be considered after design concepts associated with torque cells are dis¬
cussed.

Torque Cells—Design Concepts

Torque cells are very similar to load cells; they consist of a mechanical
element (usually a shaft with a circular cross section) and a sensor (usually
electrical resistance strain gages). A circular shaft with four strain gages mounted
on two perpendicular 45-degree helixes is shown in Fig. 6.6a. Gages 1 and 3,
mounted on the right-hand helix, sense a positive strain, while gages 2 and 4,
mounted on the left-hand helix, sense a negative strain. The two 45-degree
helixes define the principal stress and strain directions for a circular shaft sub¬
jected to pure torsion.
The shearing stress t in the circular shaft is related to the applied torque T
by the equation

TD _ 16r
(6.24)
2/ “ ttD^

where D is the diameter of the shaft.

J is the polar moment of inertia of the circular cross section.
 6.3 TORQUE MEASUREMENT (TORQUE OELLS) 255

Since the normal stresses cr^ = = o for a circular shaft subjected to

pure torsion, Mohr’s circle, shown in Fig. 6.7, indicates that

i6r
0-1 = -0-2 = =
(6.25)

Principal strains Ej and 62 are obtained by using Eqs. (6.25) and Hooke’s law
for the plane state of stress. Thus,

1, , I6T/I + v\
e. = -(a, - vex,) = j

1, , 167 /l + v'
e, = -(.x, - va.) = — (6.26)

The response of the strain gages is obtained by substituting Eqs. (6.26) into
Eq. (3.5).

Ai?2 _ A/?3 _ A/?4 167 /l + v\

Rx R2 ~ R, ~ R, ~ V E

Figure 6.6 Torque cell, (a) Elastic element with strain-gage sensors, (b) Gage positions
in the Wheatstone bridge.
256 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6.7 Mohr’s circle for the state of

stress in a circular shaft subjected to a pure
torque.

If the gages are connected into a Wheatstone bridge, as illustrated in Fig. 6.6b,
the relationship between output voltage and torque T is obtained by substi¬
tuting Eq. (a) into Eq. (4.22). The results are

(6.27)

or

ttD^E
T = (6.28)
16(1 + v)SgE, "

Equation (6.28) indicates that the torque T is linearly proportional to the output
voltage E„ and that the constant of proportionality or calibration constant C is
given by

ttD^E
(6.29)
16(1 -I- v)SgEj

The sensitivity of the torque cell-Wheatstone bridge combination is given

by Eq. (1.2) as

^ ^ 16(1 + v)SgE,
(6.30)
T C ttD^E

Equation (6.30) shows that the sensitivity of a torque cell depends upon the
diameter of the shaft (D), the material used in fabricating the shaft (E and v),
the strain gages (5^), and the voltage applied to the Wheatstone bridge (E,).
 6.3 TORQUE MEASUREMENT (TORQUE CELLS) 257

The range of the torque cell depends upon the diameter D of the shaft and
the yield strength of the material in torsion S^. For static applications, the range
is given by Eq. (6.24) as

T
* rr (6.31)
16

The voltage ratio at maximum torque is obtained by substituting

Eq. (6.31) into Eq. (6.27). Thus,

5,5g(l + v)
(6.32)
E

If the torque cell is fabricated from heat-treated steel (^t. ~ 60,000 psi).

_ 60,000(2)(1 + 0.30)
5.2 mV/V
UJmax “ 30,000,000

Typically, torque cells are rated at values of (E^/E,)* between 4 and 5 mV/V.
The torque T corresponding to an output voltage E„ is then given by Eq. (6.7)
as

EqIE,
(6.7)
(E„/E,)*

Torque Cells—Data Transmission

Frequently, torque must be measured on a rotating shaft, which necessitates
signal transmission between a Wheatstone bridge on the rotating shaft and a
stationary instrumentation center. Signal transmission under these circumstances
is usually accomplished with either slip rings or telemetry.

Signal Transmission with Slip Rings

A schematic illustration of a slip-ring connection between a Wheatstone
bridge on a rotating shaft and a recording instrument at a stationary location is
shown in Fig. 6.8. The slip-ring assembly contains a series of insulated rings
mounted on a shaft and a companion series of insulated brushes mounted in a
case. High-speed bearings between the shaft and the case permit the case to
remain stationary while the shaft rotates with the torque cell. A commercial
slip-ring assembly is shown in Fig. 6.9.
The major problem associated with slip-ring usage is noise (generated by
contact resistance variations between the rings and brushes). These contact
258 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6.8 Schematic illustration of a

slip-ring connection between a rotating
member and a fixed instrumentation sta¬
tion.

resistance variations can be kept within acceptable limits if the rings are fabri¬
cated from monel metal (a copper-nickel alloy), if the brushes are fabricated
from a silver-graphite mixture, and if the ring-brush contact pressure is main¬
tained between 50 and 100 psi. Rotational speed limits of slip-ring assemblies
are determined by the concentricity that can be maintained between the shaft
and the case and by the quality of the bearings. Slip-ring units with speed ratings
of 6000 rpm are available.

Signal Transmission with Telemetry

In many applications, the end of the shaft is not accessible for mounting of
the slip-ring unit; therefore, direct connection through slip rings is not possible
and telemetry must be used to transmit the signal from the rotating shaft to the

Silver ring embedded in epoxy High -temperature epoxy

Figure 6.9 Slip-ring assembly, (a) Brush housing and shaft, (b) Construction details.
(Courtesy of Lebow Products, Eaton Corp.)
 6.3 TORQUE MEASUREMENT (TORQUE OELLS) 259

recording instrument. In a relatively simple telemetry system, the output from

the Wheatstone bridge is used to modulate a radio signal. The strain gages,
bridge, power supply, and radio transmitter are mounted on the rotating shaft,
while the receiver and recorder are located at a stationary instrumentation cen¬
ter. In most applications, the distance over which the signal must be transmitted
is only a few feet; therefore, low-power transmitters, which do not need to be
licensed, can be used.
A commercially available short-range telemetry system, designed to meas¬
ure torque on a rotating shaft, is shown in Fig. 6.10. The system utilizes a split
collar that fits over the shaft. The collar contains a power supply for the bridge,
a modulator, a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), and an antenna. The signal
from the bridge is used to pulse-width modulate a constant-amplitude 5-kHz
square wave (i.e., the width of the square wave is proportional to the voltage
output from the bridge). The square wave is used to vary the frequency of the
VCO, which is centered at 10.7 MHz. The VCO signal is transmitted at a very
low power level by the rotating antenna in the split collar. The signal is received
by a stationary loop antenna that encircles the split collar, as shown in Fig. 6.10.
The transmitting unit is completely self-contained, since the power to drive the
bridge, modulator, and voltage-controlled oscillator is obtained by inductively
coupling a 160-kHz signal to the power supply through the stationary loop
antenna.
For longer-range, multiple-transducer applications, a much more complex
telemetry system must be used. Also, licensing is required, since the frequencies
available for transmissions are limited and crowded. In the United States, te¬
lemetry transmissions are restricted to two frequency bands: 1435 to 1535 MHz
and 2200 to 2300 MHz. As the number of transducers is increased in an appli¬
cation where telemetry must be employed for signal transmission, it becomes
less and less practical to have a separate transmitter and receiver for each signal.
Instead, the long-range, multiple-transducer systems combine signals from a
number of transducers into a single signal for transmission. The process for
combining individual signals from several transducers into a composite signal is
called multiplexing; the two types of multiplexing commonly used frequency-
division multiplexing and time-division multiplexing. At the radio reciever, the
individual signals are separated from the composite signal and recorded on
individual recording instruments.
As an example of frequency-division multiplexing, consider the system shown
schematically in Fig. 6.11 where three transducer outputs are used to frequency
modulate three subcarrier frequencies that are then combined and transmitted
as a single signal. As shown in Fig. 6.11, the oscillator for one transducer is
centered at 400 Hz, and the output signal from the transducer produces a max¬
imum deviation from this frequency of ±30 Hz. Similarly, the oscillator for
transducer 2 is centered at 560 Hz with a maximum deviation of ±42 Hz, and
the oscillator for transducer 3 is centered at 730 Hz with a maximum deviation
of ±55 Hz. Note that there is no overlapping between channels and that guard
260 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

(0

Figure 6.10 Telemetry system for data transmission, {a) Rotating collar and stationary
loop antenna, (b) Read-out and display unit, (c) Torsion-measuring system on a shaft.
(Courtesy of Acurex Corporation.)
 6.3 TORQUE MEASUREMENT (TORQUE OELLS] 261

bands lie between them to ensure separation. When the signals from the three
channels are mixed, they form a composite signal having a frequency range from
370 Hz to 785 Hz. The composite signal is then transmitted over a radio link at
a transmitting frequency of 2200 Mhz. At the receiving station, bandpass filters
are used to separate the channels. The recovered frequency bands are then sent
to individual discriminators for demodulation and recovery of the individual
transducer signals for display on recording instruments.
With time-division multiplexing, all channels use the same portion of the
frequency spectrum, but not at the same time. Each channel is sampled in a
repeated sequence to give a composite signal consisting of time-spaced segments
of the signals from each transducer. Since the individual channels are not mon¬
itored continuously, the sampling rate must be sufficient to ensure that the
individual signal amplitudes do not change significantly during the time between
samples. Sampling rates about five times greater than the highest frequency
component in any transducer signal are used in most telemetry systems that
utilize time-division multiplexing.

785 Hz

Figure 6.11 Schematic diagram of a data transmission system that utilizes frequency-
division multiplexing.
262 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

6.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (Pressure Transducers)

Pressure transducers are devices that convert pressure into an electrical

signal through a measurement of either displacement, strain, or piezoelectric
response. The operating characteristics for each of these transducer types are
covered in the following subsections.

Displacement-Type Pressure Transducer

A common type of pressure transducer in which a measurement of dis¬
placement is used to convert pressure to an electrical output voltage is illustrated
in Fig. 6.12. This transducer utilizes a bourdon tube as the elastic element and
a linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) as the sensor. The bourdon
tube is a C-shaped pressure vessel with a flat-oval cross section that tends to
straighten as internal pressure is applied. In the displacement-type pressure
transducer, one end of the bourdon tube is fixed, while the other end is free to
displace. The core of the LVDT is attached to the free end of the bourdon tube
and to a small cantilever spring that maintains tension on the core assembly.
The coil of the LVDT is attached to the housing that anchors the fixed end of
the tube (see Fig. 6.12).
As pressure is applied to the bourdon tube, the core of the LVDT is pulled
through the coil and an output voltage develops. The output voltage is a linear
function of the pressure provided the displacement of the bourdon tube is kept

Pressure line

Spring

Figure 6.12 Pressure transducer that utilizes a bourdon tube as the elastic element and
a linear variable-differential transformer as the sensor.
 6.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS) 263

small. Displacement-type transducers of this type provide stable and reliable

measurements of pressure over extended periods of time. Such transducers are
excellent for static or quasi-static applications; however, they are not suitable
for dynamic measurements of pressure, since the mass of the tube and core
limits frequency response to approximately 10 Hz.

Diaphragm-Type Pressure Transducers

A second general type of pressure transducer utilizes either a clamped
circular plate (diaphragm) or a hollow cylinder as the elastic element and elec¬
trical resistance strain gages as the sensor. Diaphragms are used for the low-
and middle-pressure ranges (0 to 30,000 psi), while cylinders are mostly used
for the high- and very-higti-pressure ranges (30,000 to 100,000 psi). The strain
distribution resulting from a uniform pressure on the face of a clamped circular
plate of constant thickness is given by the following expressions:

,J,2 _ 3,2)
3p(l - v2)
^ee (Rl - r^) (6.33)
8ER

where p is the pressure.

t is the thickness of the diaphragm.
is the outside radius of the diaphragm.
r is a position parameter.

Examination of Eqs. (6.33) indicates that the circumferential strain 8ee is always
positive and assumes its maximum value at r = 0. The radial strain is positive
in some regions but negative in others and assumes its maximum negative value
at r = R„. Both distributions are shown in Fig. 6.13.
A special-purpose diaphragm strain gage, which has been designed to take
advantage of this strain distribution, is widely used in diaphragm-type pressure
transducers. Circumferential elements are employed in the central region of the
diaphragm where is a maximum. Similarly, radial elements are employed
£00

near the edge of the diaphragm where e,, is a maximum. Also, the circumferential
and radial elements are each divided into two parts, as shown in Fig. 6.14, so
that the special-purpose gage actually consists of four separate gages. Terminals
are provided that permit the individual gages to be connected into a Wheatstone
bridge with the circumferential elements in arms Ri and Rj and the radial ele¬
ments in arms R and R . If the strains are averaged over the areas of the
2 4

circumferential and radial elements, and if the average values of AR/R (with a
gage factor = 2) obtained from Eq. (3.5) are substituted into Eq. (4.22), the
264 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

output voltage is given by

(6.34)

Similarly, the pressure p is given in terms of the output voltage as

EE
P = 1.22 E„ = (6.35)
Rl{\ - v2)£,

Equation (6.35) indicates that the pressure p is linearly proportional to the output
voltage £„ and that the constant of proportionality or calibration constant C is
given by

C = 1.22 (6.36)

Special-purpose diaphragm strain gages are commercially available in seven

sizes, ranging from 0.187 to 1.25 in. (4.75 to 31.8 mm). The gage factors for
these gages is approximately 2.

Figure 6.13 Strain distribution in a thin clamped circular plate (diaphragm) due to a
uniform lateral pressure.
 6.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS] 265

Figure 6.14 Special-purpose four-element strain gage for diaphragm-type pressure

transducers. (Courtesy of Micro-Measurements.)

The sensitivity of the diaphragm pressure transducer-Wheatstone bridge

combination is given by Eq. (1.2) as

, PC
,i . 0.B2
Et
(6.37)

The voltage £, that can be applied to the Wheatstone bridge is controlled by

the power Py, which can be dissipated by the gage elements. The voltage-power
relationship for a four-equal-arm Wheatstone bridge is given by Eq. (4.27) as

E, = IVP^t (a)

Substituting Eq. (a) into Eq. (6.37) gives

Rl{l - v^)Vp7Rt
S = 1.64-—;- (6.38)

It is clear from Eq. (6.38) that the sensitivity of a diaphragm-type pressure gage
can be varied over a very wide range by adjusting the geometry (Ro/t) of the
diaphragm. Maximum sensitivity will occur at (Po/Omax- Unlike most other trans¬
ducers, diaphragm deflection rather than yield strength determines the limit of
(P./Omax- ^ ^
The relationship between pressurep and output voltage E„, given by Eq. (6.35)
is linear; however, this relationship is valid only if the deflection of the diaphragm
266 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

is small. As the deflection of the diaphragm become large, the diaphragm begins
to act like a pressurized shell rather than a laterally loaded plate, and strain is
no longer a linear function of the pressure. The relationship between pressure
and output voltage will be linear to within 0.3 percent if the deflection 8^ at the
center of the diaphragm is less than t/4. The deflection at the center of the
diaphragm 8,, can be expressed in terms of the pressure as

8 C
(6.39)
\6t^E

With the restriction that 8^ ^ r/4,

(6.40)
3 \rJ 1 - v2

The maximum sensitivity is also controlled by the deflection at the center of the
diaphragm. Substituting Eq. (6.40) into Eq. (6.38) yields

VPtRt
5 max 2.19 (6.41)
p.
Several diaphragm-type pressure transducers are shown in Fig. 6.15. The
units are all small and compact and exhibit a relatively high frequency response.

(a) 0 — 5000 psi (b)0- 10,000 psi

Figure 6.15 Diaphragm-type pressure transducers. (Courtesy of BLH Electronics.)

 6.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS) 267

The frequency limits of the diaphragm-type pressure transducer depends pri¬

marily upon the degree of damping provided by the fluid in contact with the
diaphragm. A general rule often followed in determining the frequency limit is
that the resonant frequency of the diaphragm should be three to five times higher
than the highest frequency associated with the applied dynamic pressure. The
resonant frequency for a diaphragm is expressed as

gE
(6.42)
w(l — v^)

where is the resonant frequency in hertz.

g is the gravitational constant (386.4 in./s^ or 9815 mm/s^).
w is the specific weight of the diaphragm material (Ib/in.^ or N/mm^).

Typical values of range from 10 to 50 kHz depending on the material and the
ratio t/R^. Thus, the diaphragm-type pressure transducer can be utilized over a
wide range of frequencies from static measurements to dynamic measurements
involving frequencies as high as 10 kHz.

Piezoelectric-Type Pressure Transducers

The piezoelectric-type of pressure transducer uses a piezoelectric crystal
(see Section 3.7) as both the elastic element and the sensor. Quartz is the most
widely used piezoelectric material because of its high modulus of elasticity, high
resonant frequency, linearity over several decades, and very low hysteresis.
Resonant frequencies of 0.25 to 0.50 MHz can be achieved while maintaining
relatively high sensitivity.
Construction details of a piezoelectric pressure transducer are shown in
Fig. 6.16. The quartz crystal is enclosed in a cylindrical shell that has a thin
pressure-transmitting diaphragm on one end and a rigid support base for the
crystal on the other end. As pressure is applied to the face of the crystal in
contact with the diaphragm, an electrostatic charge is generated. The magnitude
of the charge depends upon the pressure, the size of the crystal, and the ori¬
entation of the crystal axes as indicated by Eq. (3.16). Miniature pressure trans¬
ducers that utilize a quartz crystal having a diameter of 6 mm and a length of
6 mm exhibit a sensitivity of approximately 1 pC/psi. Pressure transducers with
larger crystals (11-mm diameter and 12-mm length) often exhibit sensitivities of
5 pC/psi.
Piezoelectric transducers all exhibit an extremely high output impedance
that depends upon the frequency of the applied pressure as indicated by Eq. (3.20).
Because of this high output impedance, a charge amplifier must be inserted
between the transducer and any conventional voltage measuring instrument.
The charge amplifier converts the charge to a voltage, amplifies the voltage.
268 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Quartz pressure transducers consist basi¬

cally of three parts (see sectional drawing):

1. Transducer housing, which serves for

mounting and encloses the quartz ele¬
ments hermetically at the same time.
2. Quartz elements, yielding an electrical
charge proportional to the pressure.
3. Diaphragm, welded tightly with the trans¬
ducer housing and transmitting to the
quartz elements the pressure exerted by
the medium.

(b)

Figure 6.16 A piezoelectric pressure transducer. (Courtesy of Kistler Instrument Corp.)

(a) Pressure transducer with its connector adaptor, {b) Construction details.
 6.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS (PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS) 269

and provides an output impedance of approximately 100 fl, which is satisfactory

for most voltage measuring instruments.
A schematic diagram that illustrates the operating principle of a charge
amplifier is shown in Fig. 6.17. The first component in the circuit is a high-
impedance operational amplifier (op-amp) with capacitive feedback. This com¬
ponent serves as an integrator and converts the charge to a voltage. The second
op-amp, with an adjustable feedback resistor, is used to amplify the voltage by
specified amounts. The input voltage £, is very small because of the high open-
loop gain of the first op-amp and the capacitive feedback; therefore, the charge
from the crystal is simply transferred to the capacitor Cj. The feedback resistor
/?! is placed in parallel wth capacitor Cj to control the time constant and eliminate
drift. The charge amplifier is zeroed by shorting (closing the switch) across the
integrating capacitor C^.
Charge amplifiers are commercially available with input impedances of 10^"*
n and maximum output voltages of 10 V. Charge ranges can vary from 10 to
500,000 pC. Time constants depend upon the resistance and for high values
of time constants of 100,000 s are possible. Thus, piezoelectric transducers
can be used for both dynamic and quasi-static pressure measurements. Since the
voltage Ei is small, the capacitance of the cable (up to 1000 pF) does not affect
the measurement of the charge q.
A complete discussion of the performance characteristics of dynamic pres¬
sure transducers and the circuits used in their application is presented in Sections 7.6
and 7.7.
Piezoelectric transducers can also be used for very-high-pressure (up to
100,000 psi) measurements and for pressure measurements at temperatures as
high as 350°C. If water cooling is used to protect the crystal and its insulation,
the temperature range can be extended.

Figure 6.17 Schematic circuit for a charge amplifier.

270 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

6.5 COMBINED MEASUREMENTS

In some applications, two or more quantities must be measured simulta¬

neously. This can be accomplished by using two or more separate strain-gage
bridges on a single elastic element or by using selected combinations of gages
from a single bridge on the elastic element. The combinations that can be de¬
signed are unlimited (for example, six component systems are commercially
available for wind tunnel measurements of the three force components P^, Py,
and P^ simultaneous with the three moment components M^, My, and M^). In
order to illustrate the concepts while restricting the treatment to a reasonable
length, only two different combined-measurement transducers will be discussed;
namely, the force-moment transducer and the force-torque transducer.

Force-Moment Measurements
A transducer for measuring both force and moment can be designed by
using a simple link as the elastic member as shown in Fig. 6.18. For simplicity,
consider the link to have a square cross section (A = h^) and assume that the
strain gages are mounted on the centerline of each side in the longitudinal or
load P^ direction. The force P^ is measured by wiring gages A and C into positions
1 and 3 of a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 6.19a. Resistances Rj and
are fixed-value resistors, with R = R^ ^ Rg. Under these conditions, Eq. (4.22)
2

reduces to

1 ARi
E O
-I- (a)
4

The response of the strain gages is given by Eq. (3.5) as

^ ^ ^ ^ c ^ Vi (b)
R, R3 AE

Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) and solving for P^ yields

2AE
Pz = Y~E ^

The sensitivity of this combined force-moment transducer to the force P^ is

given by Eq. (1.2) as

Eq 1 _ SgE,
(6.44)
P, C 2AE
 6.5 COMBINED MEASUREMENTS 271

Figure 6.18 Combined-measurement trans¬

ducer used to measure axial load and mo¬
ments and M^. (a) Elastic element with
strain gages, {b) Developed surface showing
ib) strain-gage orientations.

A comparison of this sensitivity with that of the four-gage force transducer given
by Eq. (6.4) shows that there has been a loss in sensitivity of v/(l -I- v) or
approximately 25 percent. This loss of sensitivity is the price paid for reserving
gages B and D for moment measurements.
The moment is measured by wiring gages B and D into the Wheatstone
bridge as shown in Fig. 6.196. With gages B and D in arms Ri and of the
bridge and with fixed resistors of equal value in arms R and R^, the output of
2

the bridge is given by Eq. (4.22) as

AR, Ai?4
(c)
272 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

The response of the strain gages is given by Eq. (3.5) as

A/?i A/?4 ^ 6SgM^

(d)
■ Eh^

Substituting Eq. (d) into Eq. (c) and solving for gives

Eh^
(6.45)

(b) (c)

Figure 6.19 Wheatstone-bridge arrangements used with a combined-measurement

transducer to measure an axial force and moments and My. (a) Bridge arrangement
for measuring force F^. (b) Bridge arrangement for measuring moment M^. (c) Bridge
arrangement for measuring moment My.
 6.5 COMBINED MEASUREMENTS 273

Similarly, the moment My can be measured by wiring gages C and A into

arms R]^ and respectively, and using fixed-value resistors of equal value in
arms and R^, as indicated in Fig. 6.19c. Thus

Eh^
Mv = ^ E, = CE, (6.46)

Transducers designed for combined measurements are usually equipped

with switch boxes that contain the bridge completion resistors and the wiring
needed to position the gages in the proper bridge positions. Care must be ex¬
ercised during certain measurements, since temperature compensation is not
maintained within the Wheatstone bridge.

Force-Torque Measurements
A transducer designed to measure both force and torque is shown
in Fig. 6.20. For the force measurment, gages A and C are wired into arms R^
and /?3 of the Wheatstone bridge, and fixed resistors of equal value are used in
the other two positions. This arrangement is identical to that shown in Fig. 6.19fl;
therefore, Eq. (6.43) applies.
A torque measurement is made by connecting gages B and D into arms R^
and of the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 6.21. With fixed resistors of
equal value in the other two arms of the bridge, Eq. (4.22) reduces to

A/? I AR,
E,
4 El R. (e)

The gage response for this transducer can be expressed as follows:

AR, Ai?4 ^ 16(1 + v)SgM,

(f)

Substituting Eq. (f) into Eq. (e)

_ ^D^E ^ _ rr7 (6.47)

8Ag(l + v)E,

A comparison of Eq. (6.47) with Eq. (6.28) for the standard torque cell indicates
that the sensitivity of the combination transducer is lower by a factor of 2. The
loss of sensitivity is due to the fact that gages A and C have been reserved for
measurement of the axial load P^.
274 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6.20 Combined-measurement transducer used to measure axial load and mo¬
ment (a) Elastic element with strain gages, (b) Developed surface showing strain-
gage orientations.

6.6 MINIMIZING ERRORS IN TRANSDUCERS

Most transducers, designed to measure force, torque, or pressure, utilize

electrical resistance strain gages as sensors because they are inexpensive, easy
to install, and provide an output voltage E„ (when used as elements of a Wheat¬
stone bridge) that can be related easily to the load, torque, or pressure. In
applications of strain gages to stress analysis, accuracies of ±2 percent are
acceptable. When strain gages are used as sensors in transducers, however.

Figure 6.21 Wheatstone-bridge arrangement for

torque measurements with a force-torque trans¬
ducer.
 6,6 MINIMIZING ERRORS IN TRANSDUCERS 275

accuracy requirements are an order of magnitude more stringent; therefore,

more care must be exercised in the selection and installation of the gages and
in the design of the Wheatstone bridge. Typical performance specifications for
general-purpose, improved-accuracy, and high-accuracy load cells are listed in
Table 6.2.
Errors that degrade the accuracy of a transducer include dual sensitivity,
zero shift with temperature change, bridge balance, span adjust, and span change
with temperature change. Each of these sources of error is discussed in the
following subsections together with procedures for minimizing error.

Dual Sensitivity
All transducers exhibit a dual sensitivity, to some small degree, which means
that the output voltage is due to both a primary quantity, such as load, torque,
or pressure, and a secondary quantity, such as temperature or a secondary load.
Provision must be made during design of the transducer to minimize the sec¬
ondary sensitivity.

Dual Sensitivity—Temperature
As an example of dual sensitivity due to temperature, consider a link-type
load cell subjected to both a load and a temperature change AT during the
readout period. The strain gages on the link will respond to both the strain e

TABLE 6.2 Specifications for Load-Cell Accuracies

Characteristic General-Purpose Improved-Accuracy High-Accuracy

Load Cell Load Cell Load Cell

Calibration inaccu- 0.5% PS'' 0.25% FS 0.1% FS

racy
Temperature effect ±0.005%/°F FS ±0.0025%/°F FS ±0.0015%/°F FS
on zero
Zero-balance error ±5% FS ±2\% FS ±1% FS
Temperature effect ±0.01%/°F OE- ±0.005%/°F OL ±0.008%/°F OL
on span
Nonlinearity 0.25% FS 0.1% FS 0.05% FS
Hysteresis 0.1% FS 0.05% FS 0.02% FS
Nonrepeatability 0.1% FS 0.05% FS 0.02% FS
System inaccuracy‘s 1% FS i% FS 0.15% FS

“ Full scale.
* Of load.
^ Combined effects, but not including temperature.
276 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

produced by the load and the apparent strain e' produced by the temperature
change. The total response of each gage will appear as

A/?,
+ Agcj (a)
/ Pz ) AT

Similar expressions will apply for the other three gages. If the strain gages are
identical and if the temperature change for each gage is the same, Eq. (4.22)
indicates that the response of the gages due to temperature will cancel and the
output of the Wheatstone bridge will be a function only of the load-induced
strains in the elastic element (link) of the transducer. In this example, the signal
summing property of the Wheatstone bridge provides temperature compensation
of the load cell.

Dual Sensitivity—Secondary Load

When link-type load cells are used for force measurements, it is usually
difficult to apply the load exactly on and parallel to the centroidal axis of the
link. As a consequence, both the load and a bending moment M are imposed
on the link and it is necessary to design the transducer with a very low sensitivity
to M while maintaining a high sensitivity to P^. This objective is accomplished
in the link-type load cell by proper placement of the strain gages.
As an example, consider that an arbitrary moment M is being applied to
the cross section of the elastic element of the load cell as shown in Fig. 6.22. If
the moment M is resolved into cartesian components and M^, the effect of
will be to bend the element about the x axis such that

(a)

Figure 6.22 An arbitrary moment applied to a cross section of the elastic element in a
link-type load cell.
 6.6 MINIMIZING ERRORS IN TRANSDUCERS 277
Since the transverse gages are on the neutral axis for bending about the x axis,

e,2 = 6,4 = 0 (b)

Equations (a) and (b) indicate that the response of the gages to a moment
will be

AR.
(c)
R.
A/?2 AR,
0 (d)
R. R. =

When Eqs. (c) and (d) are substituted into Eq. (4.22), the output resulting from
strain-gage response to the moment vanishes. It is easy to show in a similar
way that output resulting from the moment My also vanishes. Since neither
nor A/,, produce an output, any arbitrary moment M can be applied to the load
cell without influencing the measurement of the toad P^. In this example, proper
placement of the strain gages eliminates any sensitivity to the secondary load.

Zero Shift with Temperature Change

It was shown in Section 5.9 that some electrical resistance strain gages are
temperature compensated (resistance changes due to temperature change are
minimized through proper selection of the gage alloy) over a limited range of
temperature. When temperature variations are large, small changes in resistance
occur and zero output under zero load is not maintained.
Zero shift with temperature change is reduced by using either half or full
Wheatstone bridges as discussed previously. Here, temperature-induced resist¬
ance changes are partially canceled by the summing properties of the Wheatstone
bridge. However, since the strain gages are never identical, some zero shift
persists.
A third compensation procedure for reducing zero shift in transducers is
illustrated in Fig. 6.23. Here, a low-resistance copper ladder gage is inserted
between arms 3 and 4 of the Wheatstone bridge. Since the ladder gage is a part
of both arms, it makes a positive contribution to both AR^ and AR^ when the
temperature is increased. During calibration (which involves temperature cycling
of the transducer over its specified range of operation), the ladder gages are
trimmed (ARj and AR due to temperature change are adjusted) until the zero
4

shift for this particular transducer is within acceptable limits.

Bridge Balance
In general, transducers should exhibit zero output under no-load conditions.
Unfortunately, the strain gages employed as sensors are not perfectly matched
(do not have exactly the same resistance); therefore, the Wheatstone bridge is
278 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6.23 Compensation resistors that can be introduced into the Wheatstone bridge
of a transducer to minimize the effects of temperature change. (After Dorsey.)

usually out-of-balance under the no-load condition. Balance can be achieved by

inserting a compensation resistor between arms 1 and 2 of the bridge, as shown
in Fig. 6.23. The compensation resistor is a double-ladder gage that can be
trimmed to add either AT?, or AR until nearly perfect balance is achieved.
2

Span Adjust
Span refers to the sensitivity of the transducer. In large instrumentation
systems, where transducers are often interchanged or replaced, it is important
to have transducers whose span can be adjusted to a preselected level. The span
or sensitivity is usually adjusted by using a temperature-insensitive resistor (lad¬
der gage) in series with the voltage supply, as indicated in Fig. 6.23. As the
ladder gage reduces the supply voltage applied to the bridge, the span of the
transducer is reduced to the specified value (usually 3 mV/V full scale).

Span Change with Temperature

Compensation of span change with temperature is difficult because the
procedure involves simultaneous application of load and cycling of temperature.
Usually, temperature compensation of span is achieved by inserting a resistor
 6,7 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF TRANSDUOERS 279
that changes with temperature (a nickel-iron alloy known as Balco) in the second
lead from the voltage supply, as shown in Fig. 6.23. This resistor (also of the
ladder type) can be trimmed to give a resistance change with temperature that
compensates for changes in sensitivity with temperature.
Considerable fine tuning of a transducer is required to achieve the accuracies
specified in Table 6.2. Also, periodic recalibration is needed to ensure that the
transducer is operating within specified limits of accuracy. If these high accuracies
are not required, then some of the compensation procedures will not be necessary
and lower cost transducers can be specified.

6.7 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF TRANSDUCERS

Static or quasi-static (vary slowly with time) measurements are relatively

simple to make when compared to dynamic measurements. Dynamic measure¬
ments are difficult to make because of the effects of frequency response of each
element in the instrumentation system on the amplitude and phase of the quantity
being measured. Previously, the dynamic response of a galvanometer was con¬
sidered (see Section 2.5) to illustrate the importance of response characteristics
to the recording process. The response characteristics of a transducer are equally
important since serious errors can be introduced in dynamic measurements if
the frequency response of the transducer is not adequate.
Transducers for measuring load, torque, and pressure are all second-order
systems; therefore, their dynamic behavior can be described by a second-order
differential equation similar to Eq. (2.33). The application of second-order the¬
ory to transducers will be illustrated by considering a link-type load cell with a
uniaxial elastic member such as the one illustrated in Fig. 6.2. The dynamic
response of this load cell can be described by the differential equation of motion
for the mass-spring-dashpot combination shown in Fig. 6.24. The elastic mem¬
ber of the load cell is represented by the spring. The spring modulus or spring
constant k is given by the expression

P AE
(6.48)

Figure 6.24 A spring-mass-dashpot representation of a

X link-type load cell.
280 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

where P is the load.

5 is the extension or contraction of the elastic member.
A is the cross-sectional area of the elastic member.
E is the modulus of elasticity of the material from which the elastic
member is fabricated.
L is the length of the elastic member.

The dashpot represents the parameters in the transducer system (such as internal
friction) that produce damping. In load and torque cells, damping is usually a
very small quantity; however, in pressure transducers, damping is larger since
the fluid interacts with the diaphragm. The mass is a lumped mass consisting of
the mass of the object to which the transducer is fastened plus the effective mass
of the elastic element of the transducer. The force F{t) acts on the moving object
and is the quantity being measured. The position parameter x describes the
motion (displacement) of the mass m as a function of time. The dynamic response
of this second-order system is described by the following differential equation;

I d^x 2d dx F(t)
(6.49)
Oil ^ oi„ dt ^ k

where a)„ is the natural frequency of the system (w„ = y'kim)

The natural frequency of the system depends upon the mass of the object
and the effective mass of the transducer that for the link-type load cell can be
approximated as

m — nig + {mJ3)

where is the mass of the object.

m, is the mass of the elastic element in the transducer.

Thus, both the mass of the transducer and the mass of the object affect the
fidelity of the measurement of F{t).
The fidelity of the measurement of F{t) depends primarily on the rise time
associated with F{t). In the treatment of galvanometers and other electronic
recording instruments, F{t) is usually considered to be a step function, since
electrical signals can be applied almost instantaneously. In mechanical systems,
however, it is not realistic to consider F{t) as a step function since application
of F{t) requires some finite time even in the most severe dynamic application.
For this reason, a more realistic forcing function for mechanical systems is the
terminated ramp function shown in Fig. 6.25. This terminated ramp function
 6.7 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF TRANSDUCERS 281

Figure 6.25 A terminated ramp

function type of input to a load cell.

can be expressed in equation form as

no - ^ for 0

^(0 = Fo for t > (6.50)

Since the degree of damping in the link-type load cell is very small, only the
underdamped solution to Eq. (6.49) needs to be considered. After Eq. (6.50)
is substituted into Eq. (6.49), the differential equation can be solved to yield

Homogeneous solution:
sinVl - iMj + C2 cos Vl - a)„t] (a)
Particular solution:
Fo ( 2d\
Xp = — U-I for 0 ^ t ^ C

F„
for t > (b)

The coefficients C■^ and C2 in Eq. (a) are obtained by using the initial conditions
for the system. These conditions are

X = 0 and ^ = 0 at r = 0
dt

x(C) = x{t-) and ^ (C) = ^ (C") at r - c (c)

dt

The general solution (x = x,, + Xp) obtained from Eqs. (a), (b), and (c) is

sin(Vl — d^ixij + 4>)]

V1 - d^

1 2d
+ - t- for (6.51)
282 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

X
{sin(Vl - + c}))
(X)j„ Vl -

(6.52)
— sin[Vl - d^(o,Xt — to) + <!>]} + 1 for t>to

where

p 2d\/\ —
= y and d) = tan-’ ^ (6-53)

Equations (6.51), (6.52), and (6.53) provide the information needed to determine
the error introduced by a load cell while tracking a terminated ramp function
if the degree of damping d is known.
In many transducers, the degree of damping d is very low (less than 0.02)
and Eqs. (6.51), (6.52), and (6.53) reduce to

X 1 t
sin (Jij H- for 0 ^ t ^ to (6.54)
Xo t

X 1
[sin (ji„t — sin o)„(t - t„)] + 1 for t ^ to (6.55)
Xo

4) = 0 (6.56)

The first term in Eq. (6.54) represents an oscillation about the ramp function.
The second term represents the ramp. The amplitude of the oscillation about
the ramp is \l<s>Jo- This amplitude is the maximum deviation from the ramp as
illustrated in Fig. 6.26. The deviation is minimized by ensuring that l/oL)„t„ is
small when compared to the peak response of 1. The maximum error that can

Figure 6.26 Response of a load cell with d = 0 to the terminated ramp function type
of input.
 6.7 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF TRANSDUCERS 283

occur in a measurement of the peak response is

^ ^ (6.57)
<^Jo

To limit the error to a specified amount , the natural frequency of the transducer
and connecting mass must be selected such that

^ Jr (6.58)

The error may be less than that given by Eq. (6.57) if the maximum deviation
associated with the oscillation does not occur at t = The precise error at the
peak response is obtained from Eq. (6.54) by setting t = 0. Thus

% = —- sin (6.59)

Equation (6.59) indicates that the maximum error will occur as the peak of the
ramp is reached only if

In + \
- TT where n = 0, 1, 2, etc.

Since <x)„ and/or are not always known prior to the measurement, Eq. (6.58)
is usually employed to judge the adequacy of a transducer for measuring the
peak of a terminated ramp function with a rise time of 0. Consider, for example,
a load cell and mass system with a natural frequency of 5000 Hz intended to
measure a dynamic load with a rise time of 1 ms. The maximum error in the
peak response that can occur is given by Eq. (6.57) as 0.0318 or 3.18 percent.
If this error is acceptable, the measurement can be made with confidence. How¬
ever, if the error is too high, a transducer with a higher natural frequency must
be utilized in the instrumentation system.
The dynamic response of transducers to a periodic forcing function can be
studied by letting F(t) = sin (ot in Eq. (6.49). Thus

1 d^x 2d dx F^ .
-I-T + ^ ~r sin (lit (6.60)
co^ dF (JL>„ dt k

where oo is the circular frequency of the applied force. If the damping coefficient
d is small (as it is in most transducers), Eq. (6.60) can be reduced to

1 d^x
— sin (lit (6.61)
00^ dF k
284 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Since the forcing function is periodic, the complementary solution to Eq. (6.61)
has no significance and the particular solution alone gives the steady-state re¬
sponse of the transducer to the sinusoidal forcing function. The particular so¬
lution is

(6.62)

Equation (6.62) can be expressed in terms of the periodic forcing function F{t)
as

= T-TT—^ sin wt = AF{t) (6.63)

1 - (a)/aj„)^

where A is an amplification factor that relates the steady-state response to the

periodic forcing function.
The error % associated with a measurement of F{t) can be expressed as

^ kXp - Fjt)
(a)
Fit)

Substituting Eq. (6.63) into Eq. (a) gives an expression for the error in terms
of frequency ratio as

% = A - 1 ^ (6.64)
1 - (w/0J„)2

Equation (6.64) indicates that substantial error can occur in a measurement of

force, torque, or pressure unless the frequency ratio oo/oo„ is very small. For
example, if (o/w„ = 0.142, an error of 2 percent occurs. Similarly, if =
0.229, the error is 5 percent. Thus, if the error is to be kept within reasonable
limits, the natural frequency of the transducer system must be 5 to 10 times
higher than the frequency of the forcing function.
The dynamic response of transducers to other common inputs, such as the
impulse function and the ramp function, should also be studied. These cases are
covered in the exercises at the end of the chapter. Additional information on
the dynamic response characteristics of transducers is presented in Sections 7.6,
7.7, and 7.8.

6.8 CALIBRATION OF TRANSDUCERS

All transducers must be calibrated periodically to ensure that the calibration

constant has not changed. Calibration of load cells and torque cells is usually
accomplished with a testing machine whose accuracy has been certified to be
 6,8 CALIBRATION OF TRANSDUCERS 285

within specified limits. After the transducer is mounted in the testing machine,
load is applied in increments that cover the complete range of the transducer.
The output from the transducer is compared to the toad indicated by the testing
machine at each level of load, and differences (errors) are recorded. If the error
is small, the calibration constant for the transducer is verified and the transducer
can be used with confidence. If the error is excessive but consistent (i.e., the
response is linear, but the slope is not correct), the calibration constant can be
adjusted to correct the error. In cases where the calibration constant requires
correction, the calibration test should be repeated to ensure that the new cali¬
bration constant is reproducible and correct. In some cases it will be observed
that the error is not consistent and the output from the transducer is erratic. If
the instrumentation system is checked and found to be operating properly, then
the transducer is malfunctioning and cannot be calibrated. Such transducers
should be removed from service immediately and returned to the manufacturer
for repair.
A second method of calibrating load cells and torque cells is commonly
employed in instances where a testing machine, certified to the required limits
of accuracy, is not available. This method utilizes two transducers connected in
series. One transducer is a standard transducer that is used only for calibration
purposes, the other is the working transducer. With this method, the calibration
loads are given by the standard transducer instead of the testing machine.
For low-capacity load cells and torque cells, deadweight loads are frequently
used in the calibration process. The standard weights (traceable to the Bureau
of Standards or certified by weighing with a calibrated scale) are applied directly
to the transducer to provide the known input. The transducer output is compared
to the known input as discussed previously. While deadweight loading in cali¬
bration has many advantages and is usually preferred, it is not practical when
the range or capacity of the load cell exceeds a few hundred pounds (about 1
kN).
Pressure transducers are usually calibrated with a deadweight pressure source,
such as the one illustrated schematically in Fig. 6.27. The calibration pressures
are generated in the deadweight tester by adding standard weights to the piston
tray. The calibration pressure is related to the weight by the expression

where W is the total weight of the piston, tray, and standard weights.
A is the cross-sectional area of the piston.

After the weights are placed on the piston tray, a screw-driven plunger is forced
into the hydraulic oil chamber to reduce its volume and thus lift the piston-
weight assembly. The piston-weight assembly is then rotated to eliminate fric¬
tional forces between the piston and the cylinder. By adding weights incremen¬
tally to the piston tray, it is possible to generate 8 or 10 calibration pressures
286 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 6.27 Schematic representation of a deadweight calibration system for pressure

transducers.

that cover the operating range of the transducer. Comparisons are made between
the calculated calibration pressures and the pressures indicated by the transducer
in order to certify the calibration constant. Since deadweight testers are relatively
inexpensive and operate over a very wide range of pressures, they are preferred
over methods that utilize a standard transducer. The cost associated with pur¬
chase of a number of standard transducers to cover a wide range of pressures
exceeds the cost of a deadweight tester to cover the same range.
Dynamic calibration of pressure transducers is usually accomplished with a
shock tube. A shock tube is simply a closed section of smooth-walled tubing
that is divided by a diaphragm into a short high-pressure chamber and a long
low-pressure chamber. When the diaphragm is ruptured, a shock wave propa¬
gates into the low-pressure chamber as illustrated schematically in Fig. 6.28.
The pressure associated with the shock wave (the dynamic calibration pressure
Pc), with air as the gas in the shock tube, is given by the expression

where is the static pressure in the high-pressure chamber.

V is the velocity of the shock wave in the low-pressure chamber.
c is the velocity of sound at the static pressure pi in the low-pressure
chamber.

The velocity v of the shock wave is determined by placing a number of pressure

transducers along the length of the low-pressure chamber in the shock tube and
measuring the time of arrival of the shock front at the various locations. With
a shock tube it is possible to apply a sharp-fronted pressure pulse to a transducer
so that its dynamic response can be characterized.
 6,9 SUMMARY 287
Pressu re
transducer Pressure transducer
V///////,
/
/
Diaphragm spear Diaphragm Low-pressure chamber
\
High-pressure
chamber Velocity transducers

^Pc
Pi
(^1 Position

Figure 6.28 Schematic illustration of the use of a shock tube to generate dynamic pres¬
sure pulses for transducer calibration, (a) Pressure distribution with the diaphragm intact.
(b) Pressure distribution before reflection of the rarefraction wave, (c) Pressure distri¬
bution after reflection of the rarefraction wave.

6.9 SUMMARY

A wide variety of transducers are commercially available for measuring

load, torque, or pressure. All of these transducers incorporate an elastic member
and a sensor to convert the deformation of the elastic member into an electrical
signal. Accuracies of 0.1 to 0.2 percent are often specified.
Most load cells use strain gages as the sensor; however, for static measure¬
ments, where long-term stability is important, the linear variable differential
transformer sensors are more suitable. For dynamic measurements, where a very
high natural frequency is required, piezoelectric sensors are recommended. Load
cells are covered in sufficient detail in Section 6.2 to give the reader adequate
background to design special-purpose transducers and to thoroughly understand
the sensitivities that are possible with many of the commonly employed elastic
elements. It should be noted, however, that it is usually less expensive to buy
a transducer than to build one, and the reader is encouraged to design and
288 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

fabricate transducers only in those instances when it is not possible to purchase

the required transducer.
Torque cells are very similar to load cells. Strain gages are the most common
sensors and a simple circular shaft is the most common elastic member. The
most significant difference between load and torque measurements arises when
torque measurements must be made on a rotating shaft. In these measurements,
either slip rings or telemetry must be used to transmit the signal from the rotating
member to the stationary instrumentation station. Slip rings are usually preferred
if the end of the shaft is accessible for mounting of the slip-ring assembly. If the
shaft ends are not accessible, telemetry must be used for signal transmission.
Pressure transducers are available in a wide variety of designs and capacities.
The diaphragm-type pressure transducer, with electrical resistance strain-gage
sensors, is probably the most common type because of ease of manufacturing.
Selection of a pressure transducer for a given application is usually made on the
basis of stability and frequency response. For long-term stability, transducers
with linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) sensors are usually pre¬
ferred. For quasi-static and medium-frequency measurements, the diaphragm-
type pressure transducer with strain-gage sensors has some advantages. For
extremely high-frequency measurements, transducers with piezoelectric sensors
should be used.
Considerable care must be exercised in all dynamic measurements to ensure
that the desired quantities are recorded with the required accuracy. The capa¬
bility of a transducer to record a dynamic signal depends primarily upon the
natural frequency of the transducer since damping is very small. Since error
increases in proportion to the frequency ratio (o/w„, piezoelectric sensors with
natural frequencies of 100 kHz have significant advantages. Also, the form of
the dynamic signal is important. It is shown in Section 6.7 that the terminated
ramp function can be recorded with greater fidelity than the periodic input
function.

EXERCISES

6.1 Determine the sensitivity of a load cell-Wheatstone bridge combination

if = 2, V = 0.30, £, = 6 V, A = 0.5 in.^, and E = 30,000,000 psi.
6.2 The sensitivity of the transducer of Exercise 6.1 can be increased if the
input voltage E, is increased. If each gage in the bridge can dissipate
0.5 W of power, determine the maximum sensitivity that can be achieved
without endangering the strain-gage {R^ = 350 H) sensors.
6.3 Determine the voltage ratio £„/£, for the load cell of Exercise 6.1 if
the fatigue strength of the elastic member is 75,000 psi.
6.4 If the load cell of Exercise 6.3 is used in a static load application, what
maximum load could be placed on the transducer? What voltage ratio
E^IEi would result?
 EXERCISES 289

6.5 The calibration constant of a transducer procured from a commercial

supplier is listed as 2 mV/V. Determine the sensitivity S of the trans¬
ducer if ^ 40,000 lb and P, = 10 V.
6.6 Design a beam-type load cell with variable range and sensitivity. Use
aluminum {E = 10,000,000 psi, v = 0.33, and Sf = 20,000 psi) as the
beam material and four electrical resistance strain gages (5'^ = 2 and
Rg = 120 fl) as the sensors. Design the load cell to give the following
sensitivities and corresponding range:

{EJE,r (mV/V) Range (lb)

1 1000
2 500
5 200

6.7 Design a ring-type load cell with a linear-variable-differential-trans¬

former (LVDT) sensor. The load cell should have a capacity of 2000
lb. The radius to thickness ratio of the ring R/t should be 10. Select an
LVDT for this application from Table 3.1. Use steel (E = 30,000,000
psi and v = 0.30) for the ring. Determine the sensitivity 5, for your
transducer.
6.8 For the transducer designed in Exercise 6.7, determine {E^IE^* if the
fatigue strength of the steel Sf = 60,000 psi.
6.9 Show that the torque cell shown in Fig. 6.6 is insensitive to both axial
load P and moments and My.
6.10 Determine the sensitivity of a torque cell if E = 30,000,000 psi, v =
0.30, E, = 8 V, D = 1 in., = 2, and R^ = 120 EL.
6.11 The sensitivity of the torque cell described in Exercise 6.10 can be
increased if the input voltage E, is increased. If each gage in the bridge
can dissipate 0.8 W of power, determine the maximum sensitivity that
can be achieved without endangering the strain-gage sensors.
6.12 Determine the sensitivity of the torque cell of Exercise 6.11 if strain
gages having Rg = 500 il are used in place of the 120-11 gages.
6.13 A torque cell with a capacity of 500 ft • lbs is supplied with a calibration
constant of (E^/E,)* = 4 mV/V and a recommendation that the input
voltage E, = 10 V. If the cell is used with E, = 8 V and a measurement
of Eo yields 24 mV, determine the torque T.
6.14 Determine the sensitivity of the torque cell described in Exercise 6.13.
6.15 Why are at least four slip rings used to transmit the voltages associated
with a torque cell on a rotating shaft?
6.16 Outline the advantages associated with the use of telemetry for data
transmission from a rotating shaft.
6.17 A solid circular shaft having a diameter of 2 in. is rotating at 800 rpm
and is transmitting 100 hp. Show how four strain gages can be used to
 290 FORCE, TORQUE, AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

convert the shaft itself into a torque cell. Determine the sensitivity of
this shaft-torque transducer if the shaft is made of steel having E =
30,000,000 psi and v = 0.30.
6.18 Design a static pressure transducer having a 2-in.-diameter diaphragm
fabricated using steel with a fatigue strength of 60,000 psi. Select a
linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT) from Table 3.1 to use
as a sensor to convert the center point deflection of the diaphragm to
an output voltage E„. The capacity of the transducer is to be 1000 psi
and linearity must be maintained within 0.3 pereent. Determine the
sensitivity of your transducer.
6.19 Repeat Exercise 6.18 by using a special-purpose four-element dia¬
phragm strain gage as the sensor in place of the LVDT. Assume that
for each element of the strain gage = 2 W, = 350 fi, and =
2.
6.20 Determine the natural frequency of the pressure transducer of Exercise
6.18.
6.21 Determine the natural frequency of the pressure transducer of Exercise
6.19.
6.22 A cylindrical elastic element for a very-high-pressure transducer is shown
in Fig. E6.22. If the capacity of the pressure transducer is to be 50,000
psi and if the fatigue strength of the steel used in fabricating the cylin¬
drical elastic element is 80,000 psi, determine the diameters D, and D^.

6.23 Determine the sensitivity of the pressure transducer described in Ex¬

ercise 6.22 if the strain gages used as sensors have Pg = 0.5 W, Sg =
2, and Rg = 350 Vi.
6.24 Explain why dummy gages are mounted at the positions shown in
Fig. E6.22.
6.25 The load cell shown in Fig. 6.18 was shown to be insensitive to moments
and M,,. Show, in addition, that it is not sensitive to the torque M^.
6.26 A load cell with a natural frequency /„ = 10 kHz is to be used to
measure a terminated ramp function that exhibits a rise time of 1 ms.
Determine the maximum error due to the response characteristics of
the transducer.

Active gage in the

circumferential direction
■—*

A
t \
\ D, Dummy
p gage
iy y /

'
r 1 1

I—* Active gage in the

circumferential direction

Figure E622
 EXERCISES 291

6.27 Repeat Exercise 6.26 by assuming that the rise time of the terminated
ramp is reduced to;

(a) 500 |JLS

(b) 200 |JLS
(c) 100 |JLS

Plot a curve showing the maximum possible error as a function of rise

time for the transducer.

6.28 A transducer having a natural frequency a)„ will be used to monitor a

sinusoidal forcing function having a frequency o). Determine the error
if o)/(jL)„ equals:
(a) 0.05
(b) 0.10
(c) 0.20
(d) 0.50

Plot a curve showing error as a function of frequency ratio w/oo^.

6.29 Derive the response equation for a transducer with = 0 if the input
function is a ramp that can be expressed as F{t) = Fj.

6.30 Interpret the results of Exercise 6.29 and determine the magnitude of
any error that may result.
6.31 Derive the response equation for a transducer with damping (d F 0)
if the input function is an impulse 4 as shown in Fig. E6.31.

6.32 Use the results of Exercise 6.31 to show the response of the transducer
if
(a) d = 0.01
(b) d = 0.10
(c) d = 0.20
(d) d = 0.50
(e) d = 0.70

Fit)

lo
to

Area = /„

Time
Figure E6.31
0
 _SEVEN_
DISPLACEMENT,
VELOCITY, AND
ACCELERATION
MEASUREMENTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Many methods have been developed to measure linear and angular dis¬
placements and 0), velocities (v and co), and accelerations {a and a). Dis¬
placements and accelerations are usually measured directly, while velocities are
often obtained by integrating acceleration signals. The definitions of velocity (v
= dsidt or (0 ^ d^ldt) and acceleration {a = dv/dt = dhldt^ or a = doildt =
d^Qldt^) suggest that any convenient quantity can be measured and the others
can be obtained by integrating or differentiating the recorded signal. Since the
integration process is an error-smoothing process, while the differentiation proc¬
ess is an error-amplifying process, only the integration process is widely used
for practical applications. Inexpensive and accurate systems are available for
such applications. Displacement measurements are most frequently made in
manufacturing and process-control applications, while acceleration measure¬
ments are made in vibration, shock, or motion-measurement situations.
Measurements of kinematic quantities, such as displacement, velocity, and
 7.2 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION 293

acceleration, must be made with respect to a system of reference axes. The basic
frame of reference used in mechanics is known as the primary inertial system
(or astronomical frame of reference) and consists of an imaginary set of rectan¬
gular axes that neither translate nor rotate in space. Measurements made with
respect to this primary inertial system are said to be absolute. Measurements
show that the laws of Newtonian mechanics are valid for this reference system
as long as velocities are negligible with respect to the speed of light (300,000
km/s or 186,000 mi/s). For velocities of the same order as the speed of light, the
theory of relativity must be applied.
A reference frame attached to the surface of the earth exhibits motion in
the inertial reference system; therefore, corrections to the basic equations of
mechanics may be required when measurements are made relative to an earth-
based reference frame. For example, the absolute motion of the earth must be
considered in calculations related to rocket-flight trajectories. For engineering
calculations involving machines and structures that remain on the surface of the
earth, corrections are extremely small and can usually be neglected. Thus, meas¬
urements made relative to the earth in most earth-bound engineering applications
can be considered absolute.
There are many engineering problems for which the analysis of motion is
simplified by making measurements with respect to a moving coordinate system.
These measurements, when combined with the observed motion of the moving
coordinate system with respect to some fixed system, permits the determination
of the absolute motion. This approach is known as a relative motion analysis.
For most earth-bound engineering applications, a set of fixed axes attached to
the surface of the earth gives satisfactory results, since the effects of the motion
of the earth in space for these applications are insignificant and can be neglected.
For problems involving earth satellites, a nonrotating coordinate system with its
origin on the earth’s axis of rotation is a convenient fixed reference system. For
problems involving interplanetary travel, a nonrotating coordinate system fixed
on the axis of rotation of the sun would be appropriate. From the above it can
be concluded that the choice of a fixed reference system depends on the type
of problem being considered in the relative motion analysis.

7.2 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION

RELATIONSHIPS

The position of a particle P moving along a straight line, as shown in Fig.

7.1, can be specified at any instant of time t by its displacement 5 from some
convenient fixed reference point 0 on the line. The average velocity v^vg of the

■ + S

■ A5- Figure 7.1 Rectilinear motion of a particle.

294 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

particle during any time interval At is simply the distance moved As divided by
the time interval At. The instantaneous velocity v of the particle at any time t
is given by the expression

As ds
V = lim — = — == 5 (7.1)
A/—>0 at

where a dot over a quantity indicates differentiation with respect to time. Sim¬
ilarly, the instantaneous acceleration a of the particle is the instantaneous time
rate of change of the velocity. Thus,

Av dv
a — lim “ = ^ (7.2)
Ar—►O dt

An expression for acceleration a in terms of displacement 5 is obtained by

substituting Eq. (7.1) into Eq. (7.2). Thus,

dv
a (7.3)
dt

Equations involving only displacement s, velocity v, and acceleration a are ob¬

tained by eliminating time dt from Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2). Thus,

V dv = a ds or s ds = s ds (7.4)

Since displacement 5, velocity v, and acceleration a are algebraic quantities, their

signs may be either positive or negative. In Eqs. (7.1)-(7.4) the positive direction
for velocity v or accelertion a is the same as that chosen for displacement 5.
Angular motion of a line in a plane can be described by using an angular
displacement 0 with respect to a convenient fixed reference direction, as shown
in Fig. 7.2. For the case illustrated in Fig. 7.2, angular displacement in a coun¬
terclockwise direction has been defined as positive. The choice of reference axis
 7.2 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION 295

and sense for positive measurements is arbitrary. Angular velocity oo and angular
acceleration a of a line are, respectively, the first and second time derivatives
of the angular displacement 6. Thus,

0) (7.5)

and
doi
(1) = 0 (7.6)
dr-

By eliminating time dt from Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6), it is possible to obtain equations
for angular motion of a line that are similar to Eqs. (7.4) for rectilinear motion
of a particle. Thus,

(xi dii} ^ a dQ and Q dQ = Q dQ (7.7)

In the previous equations for angular motion of a line, the positive direction for
angular velocity o) and angular acceleration a, clockwise or counterclockwise,
is the same as that chosen for angular displacement 0.
Motion of a particle along a curved path is called curvilinear motion. The
vast majority of problems encountered in engineering practice involve plane
curvilinear motion. A particle moving along a plane curved path s is shown in
Eig. 7.3. At position A, the particle can be located by a position vector r measured
from a convenient fixed origin 0. Similarly, at position B, the particle can be
located by a vector r + Ar. The vector change of position Ar is known as a
linear displacement, while the scalar length A^ measured along the path 5 is the
distance actually traveled. The velocity v of the particle at position A is defined
as

Ar dr
V = hm "7“ = “T ~ ^ (7.8)
At—^0 A ^ dt
296 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

The magnitude of the velocity is usually referred to as the speed of the particle.
The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at position A is defined as

Av. d\
a = hm — — ~r “ (7.9)
Af-»o At dt

Three different coordinate systems (rectangular, normal and tangential, and

polar) are commonly used to describe plane curvilinear motion. The choice of
system is determined by the problem being studied. Useful forms of Eqs. (7.8)
and (7.9) for each of these coordinate systems are as follows.

Rectangular Coordinates (see Fig. 7.4):

r - xi + yj
V = r = xi + yj (7-10)
a = v = r = xi + yj
where
= X

Vy = Y
ax = ^ X

ay = V, = y
+ Vy

tan 0 = ^

Figure 7.4 Plane curvilinear motion in rectangular coordinates.

 7,2 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION 297

Normal and Tangential Coordinates (see Fig. 7.5):

V = Vtj
(7.11)
a = V — vtj + vtj

however.

dt^ dQ
0ni
dt dt

therefore,
a = V = 0vni + v>ti

= a„ + a,
where
ds p dd
V p0
dt dt

a„ = v0 = p0^ = —
P
a, = V = 5

Polar Coordinates (see Fig. 7.6):

r = rrj

V = r = rrj + rr^ (7.12)

a = V = r = rrj + 2rri + rr-^

Figure 7.5 Plane curvilinear motion in normal and tangential coordinates.

298 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.6 Plane curvilinear motion in polar coordinates.

however,
i-i = 001

01 = -0ri

therefore,
V = r = rri + r00i

= V, + Ve
a = v = r-(r — r0^)ri + (r0 + 2r0)0i

= a, + ae
where
= r

Ve = r0

= r — r0^

Qq = r0 + 2r0

Motion of a particle along a curved path in space, as shown in Fig. 7.7, is

known as space curvilinear motion. Extension of Eqs. (7.10) for plane curvilinear
motion in rectangular coordinates and Eqs. (7.12) for plane curvilinear motion
in polar coordinates to problems involving particle motion along space rather
than plane curves requires addition of a z-coordinate to the system. Results for
rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems are as follows.

Rectangular Coordinates (x-y-z) (see Fig. 7.7):

R = xi + yj + zk
V = R = xi + yj + zk (7.13)
a = V = R = xi + yj + zk
 7.2 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY,A ND ACCELERATION 299

where

= T

= i

Cylindrical Coordinates (r-0-z) (see Fig. 7.7):

V = V, + Ve + (7.14)
a = a, + ae + a^

where
V, = 7
Ve = re
= z

a, = r — r0^

Uq = rQ + 270

a
300 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Spherical coordinates can also be used to describe space curvilinear motion.

Expressions for velocity and acceleration in spherical coordinates are

Spherical Coordinates (/?-6-(j)) (see Fig. 7.7);

V = Vr + Ve + (7.15)

a = a/j + a(j + a,|,

where
Vr = R
= RQ cos c()

= /?cj)
= - /?ci)2 - /?02 C0S2 cj)

Qq = — COS c}) -j (R^Q) - 2RQ^ sin cj)

R at

«<)> = ^ ^^{R}^) + RQ^ sin cj) cos 4)

The choice of rectangular, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates for a particular

problem, involving space curvilinear motion, will depend upon the manner in
which the measurements are made or upon the manner in which the motion is
generated. The most convenient system is usually fairly obvious.

7.3 VIBRATORY MOTION AND ITS REPRESENTATION

Vibratory motion can occur in all types of machines and structures. Vibra¬
tions may result from a slight unbalance of forces in rotating machine components
or from the action of wind loadings in transmission lines and suspension bridges.
Loss of efficiency, objectional noise or motion, increased bearing loads, and
failure are some of the effects of unwanted vibrations.
A vibration can be described as a cyclic or periodically repeated motion
about a position of equilibrium. The amplitude A of a vibration is defined as
the distance from the equilibrium position to the point of maximum displace¬
ment. The period T of the vibration is the minimum amount of elapsed time
before the motion starts to repeat itself. The motion completed in one period
is a cycle. The number of times the motion repeats itself in a unit of time is the
frequency f of the motion.
The periodic motion that occurs when an elastic system is displaced from
its equilibrium position and released is known as a free vibration. The frequency
of a free vibration is called the natural frequency /„ of the system. When the
vibration results from application of an external periodic force, it is called a
forced vibration. If the frequency of the external periodic force is the same as
the natural frequency of the system, the amplitude of vibration becomes very
 7.3 VIBRATORY MOTION AND ITS REPRESENTATION 301

large and the system is said to be in a state of resonance. When motion of a

body is constrained so that its position can be completely specified by one
coordinate, it is said to have a single degree of freedom. If the system can vibrate
in two directions or if the system is composed of two bodies that can vibrate
independently in one direction, it is said to have two degrees of freedom since
two coordinates are required to specify the position of the system at any instant
of time. A single rigid body has, in general, six degrees of freedom, since it can
translate in three coordinate directions and can rotate about three coordinate
axes.
A common type of vibratory motion, which applies to many physical sys¬
tems, is shown in Fig. 7.8. The line OR of magnitude rotates in a counter¬
clockwise direction about point 0 with a constant angular velocity o). The pro¬
jection of line OR onto the horizontal x axis can be used to represent a special
type of motion for a particle P having a single degree of freedom in the x
direction. The position x of particle P at any time t is given by the expression

X = Ag cos cot (7-16)

Similarly, the projection of line OR onto the vertical y axis can be used to
represent motion of a particle Q having a single degree of freedom for motion
in the y direction. The position y for particle Q as a function of time is

y = A^ sin cot (7-17)

where A„ is the magnitude of OR and the amplitude of each of its sinusoidal

components. The velocities of particles P and Q , obtained by taking derivatives

* ory

Figure 7.8 A common rotating line representation of a simple type of vibratory motion.
302 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

with respect to time of the expressions for displacement, are

TT
= X = —Am sin cot = Am cos cot + —

TT
Vq = y = A^oi cos cot = A^oi sin^cot + — (7.18)

Likewise, the accelerations are

Up = Vp = X — —A„(x>^ cos cot = AgO)^ cos(cot + tt)

Uq = Vq = y ^ —A„oi^ sin cot = A^co^ sin(cot + tt) (7.19)

Equations (7.18) and (7.19) show that velocities and accelerations for this special
case of motion can be obtained from the expressions for displacement by mul¬
tiplying by CO and co^ and increasing the angles by tt/2 and tt radians, respectively.
The angles tt/2 and tt are known as phase angles and indicate that velocities and
accelerations are out of phase with the displacements by 90 and 180 degrees,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 7.9.
If Eqs. (7.16) and (7.17) are substituted into Eqs. (7.19), the accelerations
Op and Oq can be expressed as

Up = — co^x
(7.20)
Oq = -co^y

Both accelerations are seen to be proportional to distance from the equilibrium

position. Any motion for which the acceleration is proportional to the displace¬
ment from a fixed point on the path of motion and always directed toward that

X, X, X

Figure 7.9 Rotating line representation of simple harmonic motion.

 7.3 VIBRATORY MOTION AND ITS REPRESENTATION 303

fixed point is defined as simple harmonic motion. Any periodic motion which
is not simple harmonic motion can be considered as being a sum of simple
harmonic motions of frequencies that are multiples of the frequency of the
fundamental motion. In general, any periodic motion can be expressed by using
the Fourier form as follows:

X ^ Aq + sin cot + A2 sin 2cot + • • •

(7.21)
+ flj cos cot + B2 cos 2cot + ■ • •

The motion described by the rotating line OR of Fig. 7.8 can also be rep¬
resented by using phasors in the complex plane. The phasor is written using an
exponential expression of the form

A = = A^ cos cot -E iA^ sin cot

(7.22)
Real Imaginary

where A is the phasor and i = V — 1- Each phasor has a magnitude A^ and a

phase angle measured relative to a reference phasor which also rotates with the
same angular frequency co. In Eq. (7.22), A is the reference phasor; therefore,
its phase angle is zero. The first and second derivatives of A with respect to
time are

dA
A = = iA^ioe''^^ = A„coe'f“' + ’^^2)
dt

/
= Agio cosi cot 2/
■ A ■ f
smi cot + — (7.23)

d^A
A = = -A.co^e'^f = A^co2e'(“' +
dt^

= A^co^ cos(cot + tt) -f- iA^co^ sin(cot -f tt) (7.24)

since i = and — 1 = It is clear from Eqs. (7.22), (7.23), and (7.24)

that A is the reference phasor from which the phase angles for A and A are
measured as shown in Fig. 7.9.
With this exponential (phasor) representation of the rotating line OR, the
position, velocity, and acceleration of point P can be interpreted to be the real
parts of the complex expressions for phasor A and its first and second derivatives
with respect to time. The advantages of using the exponential representation of
motion include the ease associated with differentiation and integration, the elim¬
ination of extensive trigonometric identity manipulation to reduce expressions
to a useful form, and the presence of both magnitude and phase information in
304 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

a simple form. Equations (7.22), (7.23), and (7.24) and Fig. 7.9 indicate that
taking a derivative simply involves multiplying by w and adding nH radians to
the phase angle. Similarly, performing an integration requires dividing by w and
subtracting tt/2 radians from the phase angle. The phase angles associated with
velocity and acceleration (with displacement as the reference vector) are positive
(counterclockwise) and are referred to as leading phase angles. Similarly, a
lagging phase angle would be negative (clockwise). The exponential or complex
representation of sinusoidal time histories will be used for all further develop¬
ments in this chapter.

7.4 DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS

One of the most fundamental of all measurements is the determination of

linear displacement. Measurements related to the size of an object are usually
referred to as dimensional measurements', whereas, measurements related to the
extent of movement of an object are usually referred to as displacement meas¬
urements. In either case, the measurement process generally requires only the
simple process of comparing the size or movement of the object with some
standard (basis for length measurements).
The primary standard for length measurements is a platinum-iridium bar,
maintained under very accurate environmental conditions, at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, France. In 1960, The General
Conference on Weights and Measures defined the standard meter in terms of
the wavelength of the orange-red light of a krypton-86 lamp. The standard meter
was defined as

1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths

The National Bureau of Standards of the United States has adopted this standard
and the inch is now defined in terms of the krypton light as

1 in. = 41,929.39854 wavelengths

The relationship between English and International (SI) systems of units for
length measurement, which has been used in industry and engineering since the
SI system was adopted, is

1 in. = 25.4 mm (exactly)

Determinations of the size of an object are frequently made with graduated

metal or wood scales (secondary standards). For large dimensional measure¬
ments, metal tapes are used. Such devices can provide accuracies of approxi¬
mately ±0.02 in. A modification of the metal scale that can provide dimensional
 7.4 DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS 305

information with an accuracy of approximately ±0.002 in. is a vernier caliper

of the type shown schematically in Fig. 7.10a. A more precise measurement
device is the micrometer of Fig. 7.106, which can provide dimensional infor¬
mation with an accuracy of the order of ±0.0002 in. Dial indicators represent
a similar class of measurement devices that have an accuracy of the order of
±0.001 in.

Optical Measurement Methods

Optical instruments in wide use for dimensional measurements include fixed-
scale and filar microscopes for small dimensional magnitudes (0.05 to 0.200 in.),
traveling and traveling-stage microscopes for larger dimensional magnitudes (4
to 6 in.), and drawtube microscopes for small displacement measurements (0 to
li in.) in a directional parallel to the optical axis of the instrument. Accuracies
for the various microscopes range from ±0.001 to ±0.00005 in. Optical instru¬
ments for very large dimensional measurements (50 to 1000 ft) are represented
by the conventional surveyor’s transit. Accuracies for this type of instrument
are approximately ± 1/2 percent.
The modification of intensity of light by superposition of light waves is
discussed in any undergraduate physics text and is defined as an interference
effect. An optical device that can be used to measure lengths or changes in length
with great accuracy by means of interference effects is known as an interferom¬
eter. A fundamental requirement for the existence of well-defined fringes (lines
of zero intensity of light) is that the light waves producing the fringes have a
sharply defined phase difference that remains constant with time. When light
beams from two independent sources are superimposed, interference fringes are
not observed, since the phase difference between the beams varies in a random
way (the beams are incoherent). Two beams from the same source, on the other
hand, interfere, since the individual wave trains in the two beams have the same
phase initially (the beams are coherent) and any difference in phase at the point
of superposition results solely from differences in optical paths. The concept of
optical-path difference and its effect on the production of interference fringes
306 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

can be illustrated by considering the reflection and refraction of light rays from
a transparent plate and a reflecting surface, as shown in Fig. 7.11. Consider a
plane wavefront associated with light ray A that strikes the plate at an angle of
incidence a. Ray B results from reflection at the front surface of the plate. A
second ray is refracted at the front surface, reflected at the back surface, and
refracted from the front surface before emerging from the front surface of the
plate as ray C. The optical-path difference between rays B and C can be expressed
as

8, = -^21 — -«2i sin^ 7 = 2hn2i cos 7 (7.25)

cos 7 cos 7

where is the index of refraction of material 2 with respect to material 1.

Since ray B suffers a phase ehange of A./2 on reflection, rays B and C will interfere
destructively (produce minimum intensity or extinction when brought together)
whenever

8, = 2/7/221 cos 7 = mX /r? = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

If the light beam illuminates an extended area of the plate, and if the thickness
of the plate varies slightly with position, the locus of points experiencing the
same order of extinction will combine to form an interference fringe. The fringe
spacings will represent thickness variations of approximately 7 lain., or 180 nm
(in glass with mercury light and a small angle 7).

Figure 7.11 Schematic illustration of the operating principles associated with measure¬
ments employing interference effects.
 7.4 DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS 307

Rays emerging from the back surface of the plate and reflecting from a
working surface will also produce interference effects as indicated by ray D. If
the glass plate is a strain-free optical flat (a plate that has been polished flat
within a few microinches), beam D will have traveled farther than beam C by
a distance 2dlcos a. Complete extinction will occur (fringe will form) when

2d _ (2m + 1)X
m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
cos a 2

The previous discussion serves to illustrate the principles associated with meas¬
urements employing interference effects. For the system illustrated schematically
in Fig. 7.11, the optical-path difference 8i associated with thickness measure¬
ments would be a large number of wavelengths (m ^ co). Such a system would
involve high-order interference; therefore, it would require extreme coherence
and long wave trains, such as those provided by a laser for successful operation.
Other systems, such as the one for the determination of the spacing d, utilize
low-order interference (m = 0, 1, 2, etc.); therefore, less stringent requirements
are imposed on the light source. Interference methods are frequently used to
calibrate dimensional standards.

Pneumatic Measurement Methods

Air or pneumatic gaging has been developed in the metal working industry
and is widely employed for determining the dimensions of machined parts. The
method is relatively simple and can be applied to a wide variety of gaging
problems. The pneumatic gage, shown schematically in Fig. 7.12, is used in the
discussion that follows to illustrate the principles involved in pneumatic gaging.
As shown in Fig. 7.12, air at a constant pressure head H passes from a
reservoir to a plenum through an orifice R (which may be only a short length
of pipe). The pressure drop across this orifice is proportional to the pressure
head H - h. The flow rate through the orifice is proportional to
A^V2g(// — h) for air and a given manometer fluid. The air then flows through
a pipe from the plenum to an opening G in the pneumatic device, where it
strikes the surface opposite the opening, is deflected, and is forced to flow radially
outward until vented to the atmosphere. The cylindrical area at S forms a second
orifice S in series with the orifice at R. The pressure drop across this second
orifice is proportional to the pressure head h. Since the orifices are in series,
the flow can be expressed in terms of the pressure heads as

Aj,V2g(H - h) = AsVI^ (7.26)

where A^ and As are the cross-sectional areas of orifices R and S.

H is the constant head maintained by the reservoir.
h is the head maintained by the manometer.
308 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Orifice R

Figure 7.12 Schematic illustration of a pneumatic measurement device.

In Eq. (7.26) it has been assumed that the flow is incompressible. This assumption
is valid, and density changes can be neglected so long as the pressures used with
the system are small (less than 10 to 15 in. of water).
When the specimen shown in Fig. 7.12 is loaded, the distance between the
two gage points changes. This elongation is transmitted through the lever system
to the pneumatic gage where it changes the gap between opening G and the top
surface. Thus, the area As changes in direct proportion to the change in length
of the specimen. The manometer reading h varies as a quadratic function of this
change in length. With proper design, this nonlinear characteristic of the gage
can be minimized and a nearly linear response can be obtained over short ranges.
Multiplication factors of 100,000 are possible with this type of pneumatic am¬
plification.
In many types of industrial applications, the system is simplified considerably
by utilizing the work piece as the upper surface (at S) of the gage shown in Fig.
7.12. The dimensional changes in the part being gaged controls the area As of
orifice S. The principle of operation (two orifices in series) is identical for this
simplified system.

Calibration Methods
Calibration of dimensional measuring devices by industry is accomplished
by using gage-block sets similar to the one shown in Fig. 7.13. Gage blocks, as
the name implies, are small blocks of heat-treated steel having parallel faces
 7.4 DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS 309

and a thickness that is accurate to within a given tolerance. Gage blocks are
available in the following classes:

Gage Blocks for the English System of Units

Class Type Tolerance

B “Working” blocks ±8 fxin.

A “Reference” blocks ±4 |xin.
AA “Master” blocks ±2 pin. for all blocks up to 1 in. and
±2 pin./in. for larger blocks

A commercially available set of 83 blocks consists of the following:

9 blocks with 0.0001-in. increments from 0.1001 to 0.1009 in. inclusive.

49 blocks with 0.001-in increments from 0.101 to 0.149 in. inclusive.
19 blocks with 0.050-in. increments from 0.050 to 0.950 in. inclusive.
4 blocks with 1-in. increments from 1 to 4 in. inclusive.
2 tungsten-steel wear blocks having a thickness of 0.050 in.

Figure 7.13 A set of gage blocks. (Courtesy of DoAll Company.)

310 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

The previously listed set of 83 blocks can provide approximately 120,000 di¬
mensional values in steps of 0.0001 in. The blocks must be assembled by using
a process known as wringing to obtain a specific dimension. This assembly
process involves eliminating all but the thinnest oil film (approximately 0.2 p,in.)
between the individual blocks. Properly wrung blocks will exhibit a significant
resistance to separation. Extreme care must be exercised in maintaining the
temperature of both the blocks and the machine component during any gaging
operation. The reader should refer to an Industrial Metrology Handbook or text
for additional information regarding calibration of industrial measurement stand¬
ards.

7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS IN A

FIXED REFERENCE FRAME

Displacement Measurements
Measurements related to the extent of movement of an object are usually
referred to as displacement measurements. Most of the sensor devices described
in Chapter Three can be used for displacement determinations when a fixed
reference frame is available. Variable-resistance (Section 3.4) and capacitance
(Section 3.5) sensors are widely used for small static and dynamic displacement
measurements (from a few microinches to small fractions of an inch). Differential
transformers (Section 3.3) are used for larger displacement magnitudes (from
fractions of an inch to several inches). Resistance potentiometers are used where
less accuracy but greater range (small fractions of an inch to several feet) is
required. In the paragraphs that follow, the use of resistance potentiometers,
photosensing transducers, and microswitch position indicators are described in
detail, since they provide a convenient means for introducing several circuits
that have been designed and perfected for displacement measurement.

Displacement Measurements with Resistance Potentiometers

Potentiometer devices, such as those shown in Figs. 3.1 and 3.2, are com¬
monly used to measure linear and angular motions. A typical potentiometer
circuit is shown in Fig. 7.14. The circuit consists of a potentiometer sensor with
a resistance Rp, a recording instrument with a resistance a power supply to
provide an input voltage F,, and in certain instances a capacitor C. The capacitor
is used with wire-wound potentiometers to smooth the output signal by mo¬
mentarily maintaining the voltage as the wiper moves from wire to wire along
the spiral resistance coil. In the following analysis of the circuit, the effects of
the capacitor are neglected.
The effects of the load imposed on the output signal by the voltage measuring
instrument is obtained from an analysis of the circuit of Fig. 7.14. The output
 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 311

Figure 7.14 Displacement measuring circuit with a potentiometer as a sensor.

voltage Eg can be expressed in terms of the various resistances as

Eg = ImRm - (/ - Im)R - E, - 1{R, - R) (7.27)

where R = {xll)Rp is a resistance that is proportional to position x of the
wiper on the potentiometer coil.
Rm is the load imposed on the output signal Eg by the measuring in¬
strument.

Solving Eq. (7.27) for the output voltage Eg yields

RmIRi (7.28)
Eo = {RiRp)E,
{RmIRp) + {RiRp) - {RIRpY]

Equation (7.28) clearly indicates that the output voltage Eg of this circuit is a
nonlinear function of resistance R (and thus position x) unless the resistance R^
of the measuring instrument is large with respect to the potentiometer resistance
Rp. This nonlinear behavior can be expressed in terms of a nonlinear factor p
such that Eq. (7.28) becomes

Eg ^ {I - ^){RIRp)E, (7.29)

Values of the nonlinear term p as a function of resistance ratio RIRp (wiper

position) for different values of R^IRp are shown in Fig. 7.15a. The significance
of the nonlinear effect is further illustrated in Fig. 7.15b, where normalized
output voltage EJEi for the circuit is plotted as a function of resistance ratio
RIRp (wiper position) for different values of RmIRp- These results clearly indicate
that the resistance ratio R^IRp must be at least 10 if significant deviations from
linearity are to be avoided.
Figure 7.15a also indicates that the maximum deviation from linearity will
occur at a position x where RIRp = 0.5 for all measuring instruments. At such
a position, the error % due to nonlinear effects can be obtained from Eq. (7.28)

as

1
% = (7.30)
1 -f- A{RmIRp)
312 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

(b)

Figure 7.15 {a) Nonlinear factor t] and (b) Normalized output voltage EJE^ as a function
of resistance ratio RIRp (position) for different values of R^IRp-

where and E'„ are the open circuit and indicated output voltages from a
measuring instrument when RIRp = 0.5. Thus, for a measuring instrument with
RmIRp equal to 10, the maximum error due to nonlinear effects % = 6.0244
= 2.44 percent.
A second circuit that utilizes a resistance potentiometer as a displacement
sensor is shown in Fig. 7.16. A special feature of this circuit is incorporation of
an operational amplifier (op-amp) as a voltage follower interface between the
 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 313

50 a

Figure 7.16 (a) Displacement measuring circuit with a potentiometer as a sensor and a
voltage follower interface between the sensor and indicator, (b) Equivalent circuit.

sensor and the indicating instrument. Use of the voltage follower in the circuit
converts the high-resistance voltage source Ep of the potentiometer into a low-
resistance (about 50 n) source device with sufficient power to drive a measuring
instrument with a low input resistance This type of circuit is useful in
situations where long lead wires must be used between the sensor and the voltage
indicating or recording instrument. In such cases, the circuit is very susceptible
to 60-Hz electrical noise or other parasitic signals. Such noise can be significantly
reduced by using an indicating or recording instrument with a lower input re¬
sistance
As shown in Fig. 7.16, the supply voltage E, can be used to power both the
potentiometer and the op-amp by inserting a resistor R^ in series with the po¬
tentiometer. The resistor Rs should be sized to yield a voltage drop of approx¬
imately 2 V. Several op-amps are available (such as the LM 324 series) that

' The student should perform the following experiment to verify the effect of lowering the load
resistance on the attenuation of 60-Hz electrical noise. Connect a 3- to 5-ft length of unshielded
cable to the input terminals of an oscilloscope (input resistance > 1 Mil); grasp the cable and
observe the magnitude of the 60-Hz signal. Now shunt a 100- to 500-H resistor across the input
terminals of the oscilloscope and observe the reduction in signal. This simple experiment shows that
most magnetically induced noise signals contain very little power; hence, a lowering of the terminating
resistance will produce a dramatic increase in the desired signal-to-noise ratio.
314 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

exhibit linear output with single-sided inputs from zero to supply voltage less
1.5 V.
Use of the voltage follower interface between the potentiometer sensor and
the recording instrument permits the use of long lead wires (with significant
resistance Ri), and provides reduced susceptibility to electrical noise provided
the op-amp is located near the potentiometer. This circuit also eliminates all of
the undesirable nonlinear potentiometer characteristics, since the potentiometer
has been converted to a low-resistance source device that has the effect of
increasing the R^IRp ratio. Drift and thermal instability of the op-amp, on the
other hand, frequently create other types of problems.
Calibration of a potentiometer-type, displacement-measuring device can be
accomplished by using a micrometer as the source of accurate displacements.
The process of calibration can also be automated by comparing the output of
the instrument to be calibrated with that from a previously calibrated instrument.
Resolutions of the order of ±0.001 in. are possible. Sensitivities of 30 V/in. can
be achieved by using potentiometers with resistances of 2000 fl/in. and the ability
to dissipate a power of 0.5 W/in. of coil.

Displacement Measurement with Multiple-Resistor Devices

Another type of variable-resistance, displacement-measuring device consists
of a sequence of resistors in parallel, as shown in the circuit of Fig. 1 Ala. With
a fixed input voltage the initial output voltage Eq of the circuit is given by
the expression

Ro
Ea = E, (7.31)
Rq + Re
where

1111 1
—— -|- - -j- . . . -|- - (7.32)
Re R\ Rl R3 Rn

As the resistors are successively removed from the circuit (the moving object
either breaks the series of wires or opens the series of switches), the output
voltage Eg varies in the descending step fashion illustrated in Fig. 7.17b. Res¬
olution of this simple system depends upon the spacing of the wires or switches.

Unbonded-Wire, Variable-Resistance Dispiacement Gages

A high-resolution, variable resistance, displacement gage can be fabricated
by using strain-sensitive loops of wire as the sensing elements. The operating
principle of this type of displacement gage is illustrated schematically in Fig.
7.18. Components A and B are rigid frames connected by pretensioned loops
of strain-sensitive wire. Any relative motion between the fixed frame (referenee)
and the movable frame (displaeement measuring) increases the tension in two
 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 315

(b)
Figure 7.17 {a) Multiple-resistor circuit for displacement measurements, {b) Output
voltage from the multiple-resistor circuit.

of the wire loops and decreases the tension in the other two, thus producing
two positive and two negative changes in resistance. When the four individual
elements are connected in an appropriate fashion to form a four-equal-arm
Wheatstone-bridge circuit, the output voltage of the bridge is proportional
to 4 ^RIR. Because of the stepless character of the output, the ultimate resolution
of this type of displacement transducer is limited primarily by the characteristics
of the voltage measuring instrument used to indicate the output voltage.

Variable-Inductance Displacement Gages

Linear and angular displacement gages based on the variable-inductance prin¬
ciple are known as linear variable-differential transformers (LVDTs) and rotary
variable-differential transformers (RVDTs). Application of these transducers to
displacement measurements was discussed in Section 3.3 when the variable-
inductance sensor was introduced.
316 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.18 Unbonded wire, variable-resistance displacement gage.

Variable-Capacitance Displacement Gages

Displacement gages based on the variable-capacitance principle are discussed in
Section 3.5.

Photoelectric Displacement Transducers

A light source, an opaque object, and a photoelectric sensor (see Section 3.9)
can be combined to produce a very useful displacement measuring system that
requires no contact with the object in motion. Exact implementation depends
on the type of photoelectric sensor to be used. For photoemissive and photo-
conductive sensors, which generate a current / that is proportional to the illu¬
mination i); imposed on the sensitive area of the sensor, a system similar to the
one illustrated schematically in Fig. 7.19 is used. In this system, a parallel beam
of light is generated by using a point-light source and a collimating lens. The
size and shape of the parallel beam is established with a reticle opening. An
opaque flag, whose position in the parallel beam is related to the displacement
being measured, interrupts the light beam and controls the illumination ijj falling
on the focusing lens and ultimately on the sensitive face of the sensor.
The focusing lens and photoelectric sensor of Fig. 7.19 are often replaced
by a flat photovoltaic cell that exhibits the behavior of a current generator in
parallel with a capacitor as shown in Fig. 7.20. The voltage output from the
circuit of Fig. 7.20 depends on the load resistance of the instrument used to

Figure 7.19 Schematic diagram of a photoelectric displacement transducer.

 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 317

Figure 7.20 Displacement measuring circuit with

a photovoltaic sensor.

make the measurement. For an open-circuit condition {R^ °°) the output E„
varies logarithmically with illumination i|/; however, nearly linear output can be
obtained with the appropriate load resistance R/^. Dynamic response and line¬
arity can be improved by introducing an op-amp into the circuit as a current
amplifier, as shown in Fig. 7.21. In this circuit, the feedback resistor R is adjusted
to give the best linear output with the desired signal range. The inherent ca¬
pacitance of the sensor is effectively removed with this circuit, since the voltage
across the capacitor is very small {E = EJA) due to the large open-loop gain
A of the op-amp.
Errors with this system result from light source and lens imperfections that
tend to produce a nonparallel beam. Light source power variations and external
light variations and/or reflections can also introduce additional errors.

Microswitch Position Sensors

A microswitch is often used in production lines to indicate passage of an object
or to record the number of items produced. Features of microswitches that have
contributed to their widespread use include low cost, rugged construction, and
low activating force. Microswitches normally have three terminals labeled COM
(common), NO (normally open), and NC (normally closed) for use in different
electrical circuits. The simple circuit of Fig. 7.22, which contains a power supply,
a microswitch, and an electronic counter, is used for many counting applications.
The series resistor R^ is inserted into the circuit to protect the power supply in
case of a short in the circuit.
The major problem encountered with mechanical switches in counting op¬
erations is contact bounce. When an electrical switch with mechanical contacts
is closed, numerous contacts are made and broken before solid contact is finally
achieved. A typcial voltage output E^ from a circuit containing a switch with

Figure 7.21 Displacement measuring circuit with a photovoltaic sensor and an op-amp
as a current amplifier.
318 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Ks

Figure 7.22 Simple microswitch circuit for

counting applications.

mechanical contacts is shown in Fig. 7.23. An electronic counter responding to

positive voltage slopes would count each of the spikes as a legitimate event.
Such errors can be eliminated by inserting two digital-logic elements known as
NAND gates into the switching circuit to form what is known as a latch. The
latch will respond to the first momentary contact but will ignore any other
contacts until the circuit is reset.
A dual NAND-gate, switch-debouncer circuit together with a NAND-gate
logic or truth table is shown in Fig. 7.24. As shown in the figure, the COM
terminal of the switch and the negative terminal of the power supply (f, = 5
VDC for the TTL chip referred to in the figure) are connected to ground, while
the NO and NC terminals of the switch and the A1 and B2 inputs of the NAND
gates are connected to the positive terminal of the power supply through series
resistors (20 kfi to 100 kH for the 5-V TTL chips). With the switch initially
in the NC position, as shown in Fig. 7.24, NAND input A1 is held low (L) by
the closed switch. The logic (truth) table for the NAND gate indicates that
output Y1 will be high (H) regardless of the value of the input Bl. Since input
A2 is connected to Y1 and since input B2 is connected to the NO terminal of
the switch, both A2 and B2 will be high (H); therefore, according to the NAND-
gate truth table, output Y2 will be low (L). With Bl forced low (L) by the Y2
condition, the NC contact can be opened and closed repeatedly without altering
the logic state of output Y1 high (H) and output Y2 low (L). In other words.

Figure 7.23 Typical voltage output from a switch with mechanical contacts.
 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 319

NAND-gate
Truth Table

A B Y
L L H
L H H
H L H
H H L

L - low logic state

less than 0.8 V for
5-V TTL logic chips

H - high logic state

greater than 2.4 V
for 5-V TTL logic chips

Figure 7.24 Dual NAND-gate, switch-debouncer circuit.

the logic state would not be altered by any NC contact bounce as long as the
NO contact does not make a momentary closure.
When a NO contact closure occurs, input B2 is forced low (L) by the new
switch position. When this occurs, output Y2 goes high (H) as indicated in the
truth table, and forces Y1 to go low (L) with the accompanying result that output
Y2 remains high (H) regardless of NO contact bounce. The time required to
effect this logic shift is approximately 20 ns. The duration At of a first contact
closure (see the first voltage spike of Fig. 7.23) for a mechanical switch is several
orders of magnitude longer (millisecond duration) than this activation time;
therefore, the response of the NAND circuit is more than adequate for this
switch-contact-bounce application. Either output voltage can be used to record
the switch activation.

Full-Field Displacement Measuring Methods

All of the displacement-measuring methods presented in previous sections of
this chapter (except for interference methods) were concerned with relative
movements between discrete points. On occasion, for the purpose of performing
an experimental stress or strain analysis,^ relative movements associated with
an array of points or complete maps of displacement fields are required. Such
information can be provided by moire and grid methods.
The word moire is the French name for a fabric known as watered silk,
which exhibits patterns of light and dark bands. This moire effect occurs when¬
ever two similar but not quite identical arrays of equally spaced lines or dots
are positioned so that one array can be viewed through the other. Almost
everyone has seen the effect in two parallel snow fences or when two layers of
window screen are placed in contact.
The first practical application of the moire effect may have been its use in
judging the quality of line rulings used for diffraction gratings or halftone screens.

^ For more information on the subject of experimental stress analysis, see the text Experimental
Stress Analysis, 2nd ed., by J. W. Dally and W. F. Riley, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978.
320 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

In this application, the moire fringes provide information on errors in spacing,

parallelism, and straightness of the lines in the ruling. All of these factors con¬
tribute to the quality of the ruling.
Elimination of the moire effect has always been a major problem associated
with screen photography in the printing industry. In multicolor printing, for
example, where several screened images must be superimposed, the direction
of screening must be carefully controlled to minimize moire effects.
Two line arrays must be overlaid to produce moire fringes. The overlaying
can be accomplished by mechanical or optical means. In the following discussion,
the two line arrays (gratings) will be referred to as the model (or specimen)
grating and the master (or reference) grating. Quite frequently, the model grating
is applied by coating the specimen with a photographic emulsion and contact¬
printing through the master grating. In this way, the model and master gratings
are essentially identical (matched) when the specimen is in the undeformed state.
Model arrays can also be applied by bonding, etching, ruling, etc. In one method
of analysis, the shadow of the master grating on the model serves as the model
array.
A typical moire fringe pattern, obtained using transmitted light through the
model and master gratings, is shown in Fig. 7.25. In this instance, both the
master grating and the model grating before deformation had 1000 lines per
inch. The number of lines per unit length is frequently referred to as the density

Figure 7.25 Moire fringe pattern.

 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 321

of the grating. The master grating was oriented with its lines running vertically,
as shown in the inset.
The mechanism of formation of moire fringes can be illustrated by consid¬
ering the transmission of a beam of light through model and reference arrays,
as shown in Fig. 7.26. If model and master gratings are identical, and if they
are aligned such that the opaque bars of one grating coincide exactly with the
opaque bars of the other grating, the light will be transmitted as a series of bands
having a width equal to one-half the pitch p (reciprocal of the density) of the
gratings. However, owing to diffraction and the resolution capabilities of the
eye, this series of bands will appear as a uniform gray field with an intensity
equal to approximately one-half the intensity of the incident beam when the
pitch of the gratings is small.

Oil film separation Transmitted light

Incident light (Actual) (Average)

•D E
■5

i!
C •-
3 >
ro 2
(D

>C
Qi —

■O
OJ
g

Light intensity

Figure 7.26 Light transmission through matched and aligned model and master gratings.
 322 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

If the model is then subjected to a uniform deformation (such as the one

in the central tensile bar of Fig. 7.25), the model grating will exhibit a deformed
pitch p' as shown in Fig. 7.27. The transmission of light through the two gratings
will now occur as a series of bands of different width, the width of the band
depending on the overlap of an opaque bar with a transparent interspace. If the
intensity of the emerging light is averaged over the pitch length of the master
grating, to account for diffraction effects and the resolution capabilities of the
eye, the intensity is observed to vary as a staircase function of position. The
peaks of the function occur at positions where the transparent interspaces of the
two gratings are aligned. A light band is perceived by the eye in these regions.
When an opaque bar of one grating is aligned with the transparent interspace
of the other grating, the light transmitted is minimum and a dark band known
as a moire fringe is formed.

Oil film separation Transmitted light

I-^^
0 A
Light intensity

Figure 7.27 Formation of moire fringes in a uniformly deformed specimen.

 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 323

Figure 7.28 Moire fringes formed by rotation of one grating with respect to the other.

Inspection of the opaque bars in Fig. 7.27 indicates that a moire fringe is
formed, within a given length, each time the model grating within the length
undergoes a deformation equal to the pitch p of the master grating. Deformations
in a direction parallel to the lines do not produce fringes. In the case illustrated
in Fig. 7.25, 32 fringes have formed in the 1-in. length indicated on the specimen.
Thus, the change in length of the specimen in this 1-in. interval is

M = np = 32(0.001) = 0.032 in. (7.33)

In the previous discussions, the moire fringes were formed by elongations

or contractions of the specimen in a direction perpendicular to the lines of the
master grating. Simple experiments with a pair of identical gratings indicate that
moire fringes can also be formed by pure rotations (no elongations or contrac¬
tions), as illustrated in Fig. 7.28. In this illustration, two gratings having a line
density of 59 lines per inch have been rotated through an angle 9 with respect
to one another. Note that the moire fringes have formed in a direction that
bisects the obtuse angle between the lines of the two gratings. The relationship
between angle of rotation 0 and angle of inclination ((> of the moire fringes, both
measured m the same direction and with respect to the lines of the master grating,
can be expressed as

0 = 2(}) — TT (7-34)

The moire fringe patterns illustrated in Figs. 7.25 and 7.28 were produced
by simple mechanical interference between two coarse line arrays. Moire fringe
formation was easily explained by simple ray or geometric optics. As the line
spacing of the arrays are reduced to improve the sensitivity of the method, a
324 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

point is reached where diffraction effects become important and the complete
wave character of light must be considered. Under such conditions, interference
effects can no longer be explained by simple ray optics and the much more
complicated methods of physical optics must be used. Ordinary photography
can record only the intensity (related, to the amplitude) of such waves. Holog¬
raphy, however, makes possible the recording of both amplitude and phase
information. Extensive current research in both moire interferometry and hol¬
ographic interferometry shows promise of providing totally new measurement
capabilities for stress analysis, vibration analysis, and nondestructive evaluation.
Such methods in combination with digital image analysis and interactive com¬
puter technology offer unlimited advancement possibilities for the future.^

Velocity Measurements
The principle of electromagnetic induction provides the basis for construc¬
tion of direct-reading, linear- and angular-velocity measuring transducers. Ap¬
plication of the principle for the two transducer types is shown in Fig. 7.29. For
linear-velocity measurements, a magnetic field associated with the velocity to
be measured moves with respect to a fixed conductor. For angular-velocity
measurements, a moving conductor associated with the velocity to be measured
moves with respect to a fixed magnetic field. In either case, a voltage is generated
that can be related to the desired velocity. The basic equation relating voltage
generated to velocity of a conductor in a magnetic field can be expressed as

Et = Blv (7.35)

Figure 7.29 Schematic representations of linear- and angular-velocity transducers, (a)

Linear-velocity measurements, (b) Angular-velocity measurements.

® For more information on the subject of moire fringe analysis, see the text Moire Analysis of Strain,
by A. J. Durelli and V. J. Parks, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1970.
 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 325

where is the voltage generated by the transducer.

B is the component of the flux density (magnetic field strength) normal
to the velocity.
/ is the length of the conductor.
V is the velocity.

Linear Velocity Measurements

A schematic representation of a self-generating linear-velocity transducer
(LVT) is shown in Fig. 7.30. The windings are installed in series opposition so
that the induced voltages add when the permanent magnet moves through the
coil. Construction details of a commercially available linear-velocity transducer
are shown in Fig. 7.31. As indicated, the core consists of an Alnico-V permanent
magnet encased in a stainless steel sleeve. The coil form and windings may also
be enclosed in a steel shell to prevent external magnetic materials from affecting
the calibration.
The LVT is equivalent to a voltage generator connected in series with an
inductance Lj- and a resistance Rj^SiS shown in Fig. 7.32. The governing differ¬
ential equation for a velocity-measuring circuit with an LVT sensor and a re¬
cording instrument having an input resistance /?m is

Lr^+(RT+RM)l=S,v (7.36)
at

where is the voltage sensitivity of the transducer (mV/ips).

V is the time-dependent velocity being measured (ips).
I is the time-dependent current flowing in the circuit.

Response characteristics of an LVT can be obtained by considering the

response of the transducer to a sinusoidal input velocity v that can be expressed
in phasor form as

V = = Vo(cos oit + i sin ot) (a)

Permanent-magnet core

r\ A

\J sJ yj %J KJ

Figure 7.30 Schematic representation of a linear-velocity transducer.

326 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Windings

Alnico core

Threaded ends

DC output

Figure 7.31 Cross section through a linear-velocity transducer.

where is the magnitude of the velocity v.

to is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal input.

Use of the phasor representation in the complex plane provides a convenient

means for obtaining a solution to Eq. (7.36) that contains both magnitude and
phase information. In a similar manner, the response / of the LVT circuit to
the sinusoidal input v can be expressed in phasor form as

I = - 4(cos cot -I- i sin tot) (b)

where /„ is the magnitude of the output /. Substituting Eqs. (a) and (b) into Eq.
(7.36) yields

(Rm + Rj- + — S^,Vg (c)

Solving Eq. (c) for 4 yields

(Rm + Rt) + /L^(o

The denominator of Eq. (d) is a complex number (a + ib) with real {a = R^

+ Rj) and imaginary (b = Lt-co) parts that are perpendicular in the complex
plane. The two parts can be combined by using the parallelogram law to yield

Figure 7.32 Linear-velocity transducer and circuit.

 7.5 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 327

a resultant r = Va^ + b^- The real a and imaginary b components can be related
to the resultant r through a phase angle 4) such that a = r cos 4) and b = r sin 4>-
Thus, the phase angle 4> can be obtained from the expression bla = r sin 4>/
r cos <i> = tan 4)- Equation (d) can be written in terms of r and 4» as

4 Vc -/<{)
4 = (e)

In Eq. (e), the quantity within the brackets (the real part of the expression)
represents the magnitude of the response while the angle 4> represents the phase
of the response relative to the input. The negative sign in the exponential expres¬
sion indicates that the current output lags the velocity input. The magnitude of
the phase angle 4) is given by the expression

b Imag Part Lj-oo

tan 4> = “ = —rr;— ^ ; ic vJ
a Real Part

The output voltage E from the circuit shown in Fig. 7.32 is given by the
expression

Rm^\Eo
E (g)
{Rm + Rt) +

The transfer function //(co) for a circuit is defined as the ratio of the output to
the input. Thus

E Rm^v
= -
V (Rm + Rt) +
R S
(7.37)
\/{Rj- -L Rm)^

Equation (7.37) shows that the transfer function for an LVT circuit is a complex
quantity and that both magnitude and phase of the output is frequency de¬
pendent. Equation (7.37) also indicates that the output will be attenuated at the
higher frequencies. The break frequency o), for a circuit whose behavior is
described by a first-order differential equation occurs when the real and imagi¬
nary parts of the transfer function are equal. Equation (7.37) indicates that this
occurs when

Rm + Rt (7.38)
Wc = ^(1 + RrIRM)
Et
328 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Measurement error at the break frequency (-3 dB or 30 percent with a 45

degree phase shift) is too large for most practical applications. The more practical
value of 2 percent error with a phase shift of 15.9 degrees occurs when w =
0.28(1)^- Magnitude errors can be kept within 5 percent if instrument use is limited
to frequencies below one-third of the break frequency.
Equations (7.37) and (7.38) clearly indicate that the sensitivity and fre¬
quency response of a given LVT is very dependent upon the input resistance
Rm of the recording instrument. The output voltage of an LVT sensor is relatively
large (10 to 100 mV/in./s); therefore, signal amplification is not usually required.
Linearity within ± 1 percent can usually be achieved over the rated range of
motion of the transducer. Common values for Rj^ are less than 10 11.
The projection of the rotating phasors v and / onto the “real” axis corre¬
sponds to the solution of Eq. (7.36) for the cosine part of the excitation of Eq.
(a). Similarly, the projection of v and I onto the “imaginary” axis corresponds
to the solution of Eq. (7.36) for the sine part of the excitation of Eq. (a). The
principal advantage of using the phasor representation (complex notation) is
that both sine and cosine solutions are obtained simultaneously and the phase
angle is automatically obtained as a part of the complex algebra. Solutions of
this type will be obtained for a number of seismic measuring instruments in later
sections of this chapter.

Angular Velocity Measurements

Angular velocities can be measured by using either dc or ac generators.
With ac generators, which are used to measure average angular velocities, the
number of cycles generated per revolution is an even integer; therefore, the
readout device can be a simple frequency counter.

Crack-Propagation Gages
A variable-resistance transducer, closely related to the multiple-resistor
displacement-measuring system of Fig. 7.17, is the crack-propagation gage of
Fig. 7.33. When a gage of this type is bonded to a structure, progression of a
surface crack through the gage pattern causes successive open-circuiting of the
strands, resulting in an increase in total resistance of the gage. Crack growth
can be monitored by making a simple measurement of resistance with an ohmme-
ter, as shown schematically in Fig. 7.34, to establish the number of strands
fractured and thus, the position of the crack tip. Typical step curves of resistance
versus strands fractured for several gage types are shown in Fig. 7.35.
Crack-propagation-velocity determinations can also be made by using either
a strip-chart recorder or an oscilloscope as the readout instrument in a circuit
similar to the one shown in Fig. 7.36. The voltage-output record, which can be
related to strands fractured as a function of time, provides the crack-tip position
and time information needed for calculation of the average velocity of propa¬
gation between strands.
 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 329

CPB02

CPA01

CPA02

Figure 7.33 Alloy foil crack-propagation gages. (Courtesy of Micro-Measurements.)

7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE

Measurements of displacement, velocity, and acceleration must be made in

many applications where it is not possible to use a fixed reference. Instances
include earthquake-related phenomena and motion associated with aircraft or
spacecraft in flight. Instruments that have been developed for such measurements
are referred to as seismic instruments. Basically, such instruments detect relative
motion between a base, which is attached to the structure of interest, and a
seismic mass that, due to inertia, tends to resist any changes in velocity. Force

Ohmmeter
with
milliohm
sensitivity

Figure 7.34 Circuit for monitoring crack growth.

330 DISPLACEMENL VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

O
u
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c/5
<u
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CD Q o
CJ U
■Oc O
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fO
<u
W)
cs
C>X)
c
_o
a(Dij
03
CL
O

o
03

O CN
ro o <U
CO >
(A Q.
■O CJ
a>
c
CO

•o
<L>

(lunqs u-og qjjM)

o
CC
t:
c

-oS
2<
3 Q-
^ O <D
CO -Q
>
a>
u
■D r- c
c o 03
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to y
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fejO <i>
(junqsuoQ s: s
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 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 331

DC power
supply

Figure 7.36 Circuit for crack-propagation-velocity studies.

and pressure transducers also exhibit the seismic characteristics that are consid¬
ered in this section.

Seismic Transducer Theory

The mechanical behavior of motion-measuring instruments of the seismic
type can be studied and their characteristics can be determined by considering
a simple one-degree-of-freedom model with viscous damping as shown in Fig.
1.37a. A free-body diagram of the seismic mass is shown in Fig. 1.31b. The
equation of motion of the seismic mass, obtained from an application of Newton’s
second law of motion, is

my + C(y - x) + k(y - x) = F(t) (7.39)

where m is the mass of the seismic body.

k is the deflection constant for the spring.
C is the viscous damping constant.
X, X, and x are the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the base.
y, y, and y are the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the seis¬
mic mass.
F(t) is the time-dependent, external, forcing function from either a
force or pressure transducer.

The bolt force required to attach the transducer base to the structure can be
expressed as

F^ = F{t) - my - mt,x

The transducer does not measure this force directly.

Sensing elements in all types of seismic transducers respond to relative
motion between the seismic mass and the base. As shown in Fig. 1.31a, this
332 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Fit)
yU)
J ' yit)

Seismic mass m |

'

Tb - ») ' 4b -x)

C{y-i)

fory > X and y> x

W
Figure 7.37 Single-degree-of-freedom model of a seismic instrument, (a) Schematic of
a seismic transducer, (b) Free-body diagram of the seismic mass.

relative motion can be expressed as

z = y - X

z = y — X

z = y - X (7.40)

If Eqs. (7.40) are substituted into Eq. (7.39), the differential equation of motion
becomes

mz + Cz y kz = F(t) - mx ^ R(t) (7.41)

where i?(f) = F(t) - mx represents the external transducer excitation. Equation

(7.41) indicates that the relative motion z depends on both the external forcing
function and base motion, in addition to instrument damping (C) and the fre¬
quency of the input relative to the natural frequency (co^ = ^/klm) of the
transducer. Since Eq. (7.41) can be used to describe the response of displace¬
ment, velocity, and acceleration motion sensors as well as force and pressure
transducers, a general solution of the equation for a sinusoidal type of excitation
will be developed first and then applied to specific types of sensors. The solution
for a sinusoidal excitation can be applied to a broad spectrum of inputs, and
describes most of the mechanical characteristics of seismic sensors.
The sinusoidal excitation, expressed in very compact exponential (complex
notation) form, is

R(t) = R^e"^‘ = /?o(cos cot + i sin (ut) (7.42)

where R„ is the magnitude of the excitation. In a similar way, the relative motion
 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 333

response can be expressed in exponential form as

z =

from which

z =

z = (7.43)

where is the complex amplitude (magnitude and phase) of the response phasor
2 relative to the excitation phasor R. Substitution of Eqs. (7.42) and (7.43) into
Eq. (7.41) yields

{k - moi^ + iCoi)z„e‘'^' = (7.44)

From Eq. (7.44) it is obvious that the transfer function between the output z
and the input R is

//(w) = > —<<t> (7.45)

k - mco^ + iC(o V(k - mco2)2 + (Coif

Thus, the magnitude of the response is given by the expression

R. Rr
(7.46)
\/{k--im^y^^r~(C^f- A:V(1 — + {2rdY

and the phase angle 4> is given by the expression

Imag Part Cw 2rd

tan (|) = (7.47)
Real Part k — 1

where d = CH's/T^ is a dimensionless damping ratio.

r = a)/a)„ = ///„ is a dimensionless frequency ratio.

In addition, the steady-state solution of Eq. (7.41) with the sinusoidal excitation
of Eq. (7.42) is

R. ,i(o)t-4>)
z =
\/(k — -I- (Cioy

Rq f(ajr — 4>)
(7.48)
^V(l — + (2rd)^
334 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Imaginary

Figure 7.38 Rotating phasor representation of steady-state instrument response.

The relationship between rotating phasors and is illustrated in Fig. 7.38.

Note that phase angles associated with the response phasor are positive when
counterclockwise and negative when clockwise with respect to the reference
phasor R„.

Seismic Displacement Transducers

Seismic displacement transducers are instruments which have been designed
to respond to base motion. If the base motion is assumed to be sinusoidal with
amplitude x^, then

X = XoC'"'

and
X = ioix^e''^'
(7.49)
X = —

Since an external forcing function F(t) is not present in these instruments, the
excitation term R(t) of Eq. (7.41) becomes

R{t) = (7.50)

With this excitation, the steady-state solution of Eq. (7.48) becomes

. gi(a>r-<t>)

\/{k ~ nnxFy- + (Co))^

r^x^
(7.51)
V(1 - + {Idrf
 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 335

The transfer function //(co) for the system represented by Eq. (7.51) is illustrated
in Fig. 7.39 in the form of magnitude ratio zlx^ and phase angle cf) versus fre¬
quency ratio (o/a)„ curves for different amounts of damping. It is evident from
these curves that the ratio zlx^ approaches value of unity and the phase angle
4) approaches 180 degrees as the frequency ratio becomes large (r > 4) irre¬
spective of the amount of damping. The peak response decreases and occurs at
a higher frequency ratio as the damping ratio is increased from 0 to 0.707. There
are no peaks in the response curve for damping ratios greater than 0.707.
The results of Fig. 7.39 indicate that seismic displacement transducers should
have a very low natural frequency so that the ratio oo/o),, can be large under most
situations. Under this condition, r» 1.0, 4) ^ tt, and Eq. (7.51) reduces to

r^x.
z = = -X (7.52)
V(U7^2-

Equation (7.52) indicates that the seismic mass remains essentially motionless
and the response of the transducer results only from the motion of the base that
is attached to the structure whose displacement is being measured. The amount
of damping used in displacement sensing transducers is controlled by the peak
amplitudes that can be tolerated during transients, the usable frequency range,
and the phase shift that can be tolerated in the usable frequency range. These

Figure 7.39 Transfer function (magnitude and phase) for a displacement transducer.
(a) Magnitude, (b) Phase.
336 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

requirements cannot be satisfied simultaneously; therefore, some compromises

will always be required. For example, a constant phase shift requires little or
no damping, while the amplitude and frequency range requirements require
some damping.
Seismic displacement transducers, because of the low natural frequency
requirements, utilize soft springs with correspondingly large static deflections
and instrument size. As a result, the common sensing elements used in these
instruments are linear variable-differential transformers (LVDTs) and electrical
resistance strain gages on flexible elastic members (beam-type elements).

Seismic Veiocity Transducers

The seismic displacement transducer can be converted to a seismic velocity
transducer (velometer) by using a velocity-dependent magnetic sensing element
to measure relative motion between the seismic mass and the base. The governing
differential equation that describes the behavior of this type of instrument is
obtained by differentiating Eq. (7.51) with respect to time. Thus,

z (7.53)
V(1 — r'^Y + {2dry

Under the conditions that r » 1.0 and 4) ^ tt, Eq. (7.53) reduces to

2 ~ — = -X (7.54)

Equation (7.54) indicates that the response of a seismic velocity transducer

depends only on the velocity of the base if the instrument is designed with a
very low natural frequency. Also, the transfer function is the same as that for
the seismic displacement transducer.

Seismic Acceieration Transducers

In the previous discussions involving seismic displacement and seismic ve¬
locity transducers, sensing elements, which respond to displacement and velocity,
were available for use in the instruments. For the case of acceleration meas¬
urements, no such sensing element is available; therefore, other means must be
used to accomplish the measurement. If Eq. (7.49) is substituted into Eq. (7.41),
an expression is obtained that relates the relative displacement z between the
seismic mass and the base of the transducer to the acceleration x of the base.
Thus,

2 (7.51)
V(k rruxp-y -I- (Cco)^
 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 337

However from Eq. (7.49),

X = —

Therefore,

Z = — (7.55)
co^V(l - + {2drf'

The transfer function //(co) for the system represented by Eq. (7.55) is
illustrated in Fig. 7.40 in the form of magnitude ratios and phase angles versus
frequency ratios for different amounts of damping. It is evident from these curves
that the magnitude ratio approaches a value of unity and the phase angle ap¬
proaches 0 degrees as the frequency ratio becomes very small (r^ 0), irre¬
spective of the amount of damping. The peak response decreases and occurs at
a lower frequency ratio as the damping ratio is increased from 0 to 0.707. There
are no peaks in the magnitude response curve for damping ratios greater than
0.707.
Under the condition that r —^ 0, Eq. (7.55) reduces to

1 m
2 ~ - :x — (7.56)
(ot; “U

ia]

Figure 7.40 Transfer function (magnitude and phase) for acceleration, force, and pres¬
sure transducers, (a) Magnitude, (b) Phase.
338 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Equation (7.56) shows that the basic sensing mechanism of a seismic acceleration
transducer consists of an inertia force mx being resisted by a spring force kz.
This type of instrument requires a very stiff spring and a very small seismic mass
so that the instrument will have a very high natural frequency. Seismic accel¬
eration transducers can be made very small; therefore, the presence of the
transducer usually has little effect on the quantity being measured. An acceler¬
ometer with a piezoelectric sensing element that has been designed for shock
measurements is shown in Fig. 7.41.
The condition that must exist if an accelerometer is to faithfully respond to
a typical acceleration input can be determined by considering response of the
instrument to a periodic input of the type shown in Fig. 7.42. Such an input
signal can be represented by a Fourier series of the form

X = fli sin (Oj/ -I- Uj sin 2(o,/ + • • • + sin qo^it (7.57)

where ooi = I'nITp is the fundamental frequency of the input signal.

Tp is the period of the input signal.

The magnitude and phase of each component of the input signal will be modified
as indicated by the transfer function for the accelerometer and as a result, the

Figure 7.41 An accelerometer with a piezoelectric sensing element. (Courtesy of Bruel

and Kjaer.)
 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 339

output 2 will take the form

z ^ sin(a)if - 4)1) + sin(2a)it - 4)2)

+ ■ • ■ + b^ sin(^coir - 4)^) (7.58)

A comparison of Eqs. (7.57) and (7.58) shows that they will have the same
shape if:

1. The b^ coefficients are constant multiples of the coefficients.

2. The phase angle is either zero or a linear function of frequency.

The plots shown in Fig. 7.40 indicate that the first requirement can be satisfied
over a broad range of frequencies if either the damping ratio is near zero or if
it is in the range between 0.59 to 0.707. With near-zero damping, the upper
frequency limit is approximately 20 percent of the natural frequency of the
instrument if errors are to be limited to ±5 percent. With a damping ratio of
0.59, errors can be limited to ±5 percent over a frequency range from 0 to 85
percent of the natural frequency of the instrument. Magnitude and phase errors
as a function of frequency for different amounts of damping are shown in Fig.
7.43. The plots of Fig. 7.40 also indicate that the second requirement can be
met by using either a damping ratio near zero to yield a very small phase angle
over the useful range of frequencies of the instrument or a damping ratio between
0.59 to 0.707 to yield a phase shift that varies as a linear function of frequency.
With a linear phase shift.

4)^ = ao)^ = gawi

The argument of the general term in Eq. (7.58) thus becomes

— (\)q = — a) (7-59)

Equation (7.59) indicates that a linear phase shift produces a simple time shift
of the output signal with respect to the input signal, but does not change the
shape of the signal.
340 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.43 Magnitude and phase errors as a function of frequency for different degrees
of damping.

At the present time, most seismic acceleration transducers are designed to

have very high natural frequencies and very low damping ratios (of the order
of 1 to 2 percent). The low damping ratios are used, since most damping schemes
add significant mass to the transducer in the form of fluids or magnetic materials
that would reduce their useful range of frequencies. Piezoelectric sensing ele¬
ments are ideally suited for accelerometer applications, since they have a very
small mass, exhibit a large spring constant (have a high modulus of elasticity),
and exhibit little damping. The characteristics of several electrical circuits that
are widely used with piezoelectric sensors are discussed in a later section of this
chapter.

Dynamic Force and Pressure Transducers

Force, torque, and pressure transducers were described in Chapter Six. In
those discussions, the effects of acceleration on the output of the force or pressure
transducer were neglected. Dynamic force and pressure transducers are con¬
structed to have stiff structures with high natural frequencies; therefore, they
respond to acceleration and can be considered a seismic type of instrument.
Piezoelectric sensing elements are often used in order to obtain these high natural
frequencies. The transfer function for these instruments is given by Eq. (7.45);
therefore, the magnitude and phase curves of Fig. 7.40 are applicable. In the
discussions that follow, problems unique to force and pressure transducers are
discussed.
The manner in which a force or pressure transducer is used in a dynamic
application can seriously affect its performance. For example, a connector such
as a bolt with mass must usually be used between the transducer and the
 7.6 MOTION MEASUREMENT WITHOUT A FIXED REFERENCE 341

structure. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 7.44, where the force to be measured
is R(t) while the force sensed by the transducer is F(t). Application of Newton’s
second law of motion to the connector mass indicates that

For a force transducer F{t) — R{t) — m^y

For a pressure transducer F{t) - Ap{t) — nicy (7.60)

where p{t) is the dynamic pressure.

A is the effective area of the face of the pressure transducer.

Equation (7.60) shows that the mounting hardware can significantly alter the
force or pressure output of a transducer. The performance characteristics of a
system consisting of a force transducer and mounting hardware can be obtained
from the expression that results when Eq. (7.60) is substituted into Eq. (7.41).
Thus

{m + mc)z + Cz + kz = R{t) - {m + m<.).r (7.61)

Equation (7.61) indicates that the natural frequency of the measurement system
is

k _ 1
m + nic VI + {mjm)

Since the ratio mJm can be quite large for instruments with piezoelectric sensors,
the natural frequency of the measurement system (transducer and connector) is
considerably less than the natural frequency of the transducer. Equation (7.61)
also indicates that an increase in sensitivity to base acceleration will occur since
the mx term is multiplied by the factor 1 + mjm. The response resulting from
base acceleration can be eliminated electronically by subtracting a signal that is
proportional to the base acceleration. Such a feature has been incorporated into
several commercially marketed pressure transducers. The self-compensating fea¬
ture is difficult to build into force transducers since the connector mass is de¬
termined by the user for his specific application. A discussion of acceleration

Structure
Interface (t)
A t"
Connector mass m.

Force Transducer
F(t)
Sensing Surface y
Figure 7.44 Schematic representation of a
Seismic mass m
force transducer with a connector mass.
342 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

compensation circuits for force transducers can be found in a paper by McConnell

and Park.**
The problem of force transducer response to base acceleration is especially
important when the force transducer is used to measure the force being applied
to a structure that is being excited at or near its resonant frequency. For such
a situation, the motion of the structure is represented by the equation

m^x + C^x + k^x — R(t) = (7.63)

where is the mass of the structure.

is the structural damping coefficient,
is the structural spring constant.

The acceleration experienced by the force measuring system is

k^ — m^uy^ +

As the excitation frequency to approaches the structural resonance frequency

(ly^ = \/kJm^, the acceleration experienced by the force measuring system
becomes

^o^ns ^o^ns
X (7.64)
iC,oy„, iC,

The force F{t) sensed by the transducer is

F{t) = R{t) — {m + mc)x

, / mA ns
1 + m 1 -1- (7.65)
1_

The term in the bracket of Eq. (7.65) can be considerably greater than unity
when the connector mass is large with respect to the seismic mass of the trans¬
ducer and the structural damping coefficient C, is small. Thus, the output of the
transducer F{t) can be much larger than the magnitude of the excitation force
R„. Equation (7.65) illustrates one of the many problems encountered in making
dynamic force measurements.
An instrument known as an impedance transducer measures both the force
transmitted through the instrument and the acceleration of the instrument. Since

“Electronic Compensation of a Force Transducer for Measuring Fluid Forces Acting on an Ac¬
celerating Cylinder,” by K. G. McConnell and Y. S. Park, Experimental Mechanics, vol. 21, no. 4,
April 1981, pp. 169-172.
 7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 343

the two measurements are made simultaneously, compensation for the effects
of connector mass can be made.
Typical characteristics for a selected list of seismic instruments (acceleration,
force, and pressure transducers) are listed in Tables 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3, respec¬
tively.

7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS

Seismic acceleration transducers and dynamic force and pressure gages often
use piezoelectric sensing elements in order to obtain the required frequency
response. Since these piezoelectric sensing elements are charge generating de¬
vices, high-input-impedance signal conditioning instruments, such as cathode or
voltage followers, charge amplifiers, or integrated-circuit amplifiers, built into
the transducer package must be incorporated into the measurement circuit to
convert the charge to an output voltage that can be measured and recorded.
The operational and performance characteristics that are related to sensitivity
and frequency response for each of these circuits are discussed in detail in the
material that follows.

Cathode-Follower Circuit
The general arrangement of a measurement circuit containing a piezoelectric
sensor and a cathode follower (unity-gain buffer amplifier) is shown in Fig.
7.45a. The charge generated by the sensor can be expressed as

q = SqQ (7.66)

where q is the charge generated by the piezoelectric sensor (pC).

is the charge sensitivity of the transducer (pC/g, pC/lb, or pC/psi).
a is the quantity being measured (acceleration, force, or pressure).

An analysis of the circuit of Fig. 7.45a requires consideration of the capacitance

Q of the transducer, the capacitance Q of the cable, the capacitance C, of the
standardizing capacitor in the amplifier input portion of the circuit, the capac¬
itance Ch of the blocking capacitor used in some designs to protect the amplifier,
and the resistance R that represents the combined effect of the input impedance
of the amplifier and any load resistance that may be placed in parallel with the
amplifier. The circuit can be reduced for analysis to the form shown in Fig.
7.45b by combining the transducer, cable, and standardizing capacitances into
a capacitance C such that

C = Cj -t- Cc + Q (7.67)
344 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

o o
o yd o
(N O-
u N O o ^ S O i-l
D
< o o to
00 1 O o" o a.
c/5 o 3 ^ 1 On 1 ^
o
+1 (N 03
00 '4^ X
2 o (U
o V/ ° a^ <u
o X ^ c
I ^
' O

O
(N
uo
o r-i
o +
cq < t: ^ o
o
rO
o o
O O o
u (N03
0. O 3 O lo' + 1 X
(N o o *-
(N in o
^ o V/ <u o

m o
00
o o o
t o
o 0- O ^S X
(N
O -f
> o' o O o
lU C^ CD ^ ^ O X o 8 o o
■o (N .ti •
(N N O o
CN <N
lA +1 OJ
^ 2 o -C
c O X
(N i/-^ c/:i
u <L>

o
^ V/ - 1-H YD

o
Piezoelectric Accelerometer Characteristics

O
001 UO
o
u &H o
o
o o
o
o
> W ^ o o o lo o X o o +
at <u o 1 00
4—> r-- YD O o o
■O t-H o ' o +1 X
o o O _
e *N
<u 4—* <N^
ro <u r—i

U V/ X YD
£

N
X
>>
a
a
0)
00 ^ N cr c/5
''oo [X,
C E c ^ ^
W (U . s3 00 (U
^
c e
S ^
c • 00
'> Uh
s
O O 03 E G
03 > O Cl. C X 3
c 3
L'’ O (U
<U Q.) 'D CA c/5 H
c <D
E 3
TABLE 7.1

c3 a;
..
CJ
c
<U c/5 u.
00
3 ^
3 o
S "oo ' C
o 3
OJ In CJ
(D ^
•D
O
00
5 3 rt j w C
CD
00
c-:. c
H Cl I3Q- ^3 >
c/)
^
03 — a. ^ ^ .■ ^ 2
dj D X3 o E §:
O ^ O 03 P O § N
S u u > u 2 £ S H 2 v5 ^ > H <
 7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 345

o o
o o
o wc
1—t
^ T
N O s vC o o +
.. o ^ o
H o 00 O
X o o
ON 3 ^ o +1 X
o o o X
<D s'i
‘ lO (N
I I

G
vO O
o CO O
LO
o o O O'!
O o
^ N o O X ^ +
n o o in
R§
u < S O rH
1 3 2; X
a. O 3 S o o' § S O
o r\ o +1 (N O o
O) ■*-•
Q ^
o
'sO G
Cl.
B

S
C

o (N in o
Piezoelectric Dynamic Force Transducer Characteristics

o VO o (N o-
N
o O
o 4
• —> O T-H O + G
oa o 8 O O a
< O rH O
25

u G 1 o 1 8 X O
oo G 1 1 o o X O
a. o (N +1 X
CN o'
T—t o
<N O 8 +1 O
<u t-H o a>
G
0)
o

n O G
(N O
o o o (N
u
>
o
in o o
§o 8 O
I in in o 8 8 X
o o
CO
o
.ti ^ 1—I CN o o' 2 X
c N X
U OJ 0) 'sO o
CO

N
X
-o
O <u
-G
G o
^ (U G
N D
E cjjo Ph
SI c Cl <u
_ c C/D
D. 3 G <u G
G "CJC 0)
a
— -ti ■> Mh
G
O G
a s bJD
G
"g
17' 3 G
.5 > o ^ D- G a> c 3• X
3 G
OJ w■ O c 3 < 3 S
Z ^ a ^ g cU 3 0 0 X 3
TABLE 7.2

X
G
^ <1^
B uD^ y 00 2 .2 (U
C
C
G
c/5 d O G
3 G -4—» a o
fl 1 2 c G
3 S) °?'o 3 S 2 «D LG JC ^ -G 3/ a> U
uT ^ G
“33 CL .2?^ 2 o CL LG
CT 3 G G
G- 0^ o G C N aj ^ O O <L>
'TD
O G
u JC O G - aj ^ S & ^
u u > u S [1. S Dh <! c/^ ^ lO L> 00 H <
346 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

o
in mj (U .t::
fN rf
U N +
VO
o
-4-^
o
IT)
l§?S
^ o
X (N
rsi
2 ^
2
o ^
o
vO O o ^ +1 X o
2 (L) »n JZ
■3: (n o CO)
^ X

CQ S 2 o
D r-H (N
o
o
Piezoelectric Dynamic Pressure Transducer Characteristics

mj
o 00 r- <0
o O \D >
o
o + C3
CQ <
On O o 8 S^ O g O
o 2 o 2 ^
U O
ci
D g 2 S s ^
cu Q o ^ O +1 ^ o o o o
o O IT) c/3
2 -c -2
I ^ CQ

<D
in
O V
o r-
© o
u
>
2
o d
CnJ (U
o o
(n + 30
D- P
© -H ^ ^
o 28 m X
CN
o O „ ^
c o N +1 X 3
in (D 2 2 dj rsl ^
-
c/3
3
CN (N
S u-
o

>. 00
O
C
c^ ^ N D
2-> r T,
c g o
u
.-—«s .'ti O

Q. 3
c/3 > ^
CU ^ E bXj '3! dj
c/3 3
>.3^ c s ^ ^ c 5
03
■ ‘ > CJh o O
> CX C
3 3
(U D <u p
■<U‘ O E c/5
D. O c/3
C
<U c OJ
^ (U c (D
E .2 3 co
TABLE 7.3

5= SX ^n S
<u
„
'55 U
C 03 y T3 D3 2 -O' 25 c E « 3
E <u — 2 c ^ o ^ ^ 3
—' 0) 2^, Eg u x 2, -c g X g.2
"nl 00 2?
^ 2 CO C t ^ E 00 o. 00 2
'5 X o 3 E Cl
2-
2 x; o 03 2 11 e N r" c) aj
S U U > U 2 U- 2 (2 < on ^ > < H <
 7,7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 347

Ch

Figure 7.45 (a) Measurement circuit with a piezoelectric sensor and a cathode follower.
(b) Equivalent circuit for analysis.

The differential equation that describes the behavior of the circuit of Fig. 7.45b
is obtained as follows:

/ ^ + /2 = g = S^d (7.68)

where

I, = CE, and h = Q(£i “ ^) = | (7.69)

Substituting Eqs. (7.69) into Eq. (7.68) and simplifying yields

E
E + (7.70)

where

J_ _ 1 ± (7.71)
Q, ~ C ^ Q

Typical values of C range from 300 to 10,000 pF while values of Q are usually
of the order of 100,000 pF; therefore, the equivalent capacitance of Eq.
(7.71) is usually not significantly different from the combined capacitance C of
Eq. (7.67).
348 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

The transfer function associated with Eq. (7.70) can be obtained by assuming
that the quantity being measured (acceleration, force, or pressure) experiences
a sinusoidal variation that can be expressed as

a = = ^^(cos co/ + i sin (ot) (7.72)

The steady-state sinusoidal response can then be expressed as

E = = E„{cos cat 4- i sin oot) (7.73)

Substitution of Eqs. (7.72) and (7.73) into Eq. (7.70) yields

^ iE.Cfg(X>
(7.74)
“ ~ 1 + iRC.^io C

Therefore, the voltage sensitivity of the measurement system is

(7.75)

Equation (7.75) shows that the voltage sensitivity of the measurement system
of Fig. 7.45a depends on all of the capacitances that contribute to Eq. (7.67).
The specific cable used for the measurement, environmental factors such as
temperature and humidity that can change the capacitance of the individual
elements of the circuit, and dirt, grease, or sprays, which play no role in a clean
laboratory but may be significant in an industrial setting, can produce a change
in the voltage sensitivity of the system.
The electrical transfer function for the circuit of Fig. 7.45a is obtained from
Eq. (7.74). Thus,

CEg
S

(7.76)
1

SqQg 1 -l- iRCg^iX) Vl + (0)7)2"

RCeq (7.77)

— — tan ^ oaT (7.78)

2

where T is the time constant of the circuit (seconds).

(}) is the phase angle of the output relative to the input (radians).

The low-frequency characteristics of this circuit are shown in Fig. 7.46. The
magnitude of the transfer function is plotted as a function of toT in Fig. 7.46a.
The curve shows that the response is very nonlinear in the range 0 ^ coT ^ 2.
The nonlinear characteristics of the magnitude response curve can be linearized
 7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 349

Figure 7.46 Low-frequency transfer-function characteristics of piezoelectric sensors, {a)

Magnitude of the transfer function //(w) versus coL. (b) Magnitude of //(co) in decibels
versus log coL. (c) Phase angle cf) versus coL.

for values of (uT less than 1.0 by plotting the magnitude in decibels as a function
of log ioT (known as a Bode plot) as shown in Fig. 7.46h. This curve initially
rises at a standard rate of 6 dB/octave (for 0 ^ wT ^ 0.7), but then curves (the
-3-dB point occurs at ooT = 1.0) and approaches the 0-dB line asymptotically
as the frequency is increased. Phase-angle values for ooT ^ 4 are shown in Fig.
7.46c. Key values of coTand cj) for different levels of attenuation of the magnitude
are listed in Table 7.4.
350 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 7.4 Key Values of wTand (}> for Different Levels of Magnitude Atten¬
uation

Phase Angle
Percent Attenuation mT (Degrees)

1 7.02 8.1
2 4.93 11.5
5 3.04 18.2
10 2.06 25.8
20 1.33 36.9
30 1.00 45.0

Charge-Amplifier Circuit
The general arrangement of a measurement circuit containing a piezoelectric
sensor and a charge amplifier is shown in Fig. 7.47. Two operational amplifiers
in series are commonly used for describing the operational characteristics of
such circuits. The first amplifier (the charge amplifier), which converts the charge
q into a voltage E , has both capacitive C^and resistive
2 feedback. The second
amplifier (an inverting amplifier), which is used to standardize the output sen¬
sitivity of the measurement system, has a variable resistive input = bR (0 ^
b ^ 1) and a fixed resistive feedback R. The circuit can be reduced for analysis
to the form shown in Fig. 7.48 by using Eq. (7.67) to combine the transducer
capacitance C„ the cable capacitance Q, and the amplifier input capacitance
into an effective amplifier input capacitance C. The differential equation that
describes the behavior of this circuit is obtained as follows;

I = li + I2 + I3 = q = Sqd

= CE, + + Cf{E, - E ) - S^d

2 (7.79)

Rf

Figure 7.47 Measurement circuit with a piezoelectric sensor and a charge amplifier.
 7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 351

Equation (7.79) can be expressed in terms of the output voltage E of the circuit
once it is observed that

^2 - -GiEi

E = — GnE'y — — ~ Eo

where Gj is the open-loop gain of the first amplifier.

G2 is the circuit gain of the second (standardization) amplifier.
b is the fraction of the potentiometer that is active in the circuit.

Thus

G2 ^^ ^ t) It
Since Gj is very large (greater than 10"^) for an op-amp in this configuration,
Eq. (7.80) reduces to

E G2S,
E + - -d (7.81)
RfCe, C
^eq

where

c
c.eq 1 + (7.82)
QGi,

Equation (7.82) shows that the total input capacitance C has little effect on this
measurement system, since the term C/C^Gj will usually be very small. The
352 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

effect of this term on charge-amplifier performance is usually specified in terms

of a maximum input capacitance C permitted for each level of feedback capac¬
itance Cf available in the particular instrument. When the limitation on input
capacitance is satisfied, the differential equation governing charge-amplifier per¬
formance becomes

E G2S, ,
E + -a (7.83)
Cf

Equation (7.83) is identical in form to Eq. (7.70) for the cathode-follower circuit;
therefore, the performance characteristics (see Fig. 7.46) of the two circuits are
identical. _
The voltage sensitivity of the charge-amplifier circuit is given by the
expression

G2Sq S*
(7.84)
Cf ~ bCf ~ Cf

Equation (7.84) indicates that two parameters {b and Cf) are available in the
charge-amplifier circuit for controlling voltage sensitivity. The charge sensitivity
Sq of a particular transducer can be standardized to a value S* by adjusting the
potentiometer to the required position b. In this way it is possible to have
convenient charge sensitivities such as 1,10, or 100 pC/unit of a. Once the charge
sensitivity is standardized, instrument range is established by selecting the proper
feedback capacitance. Typical instruments provide values from 10 to 50,000 pF
in a 1-2-5-10 sequence.
Equation (7.83) indicates that the time constant T of the charge-amplifier
circuit is controlled by the feedback resistance Rf and the feedback capacitance
Cf of the charge-amplifier, whereas the time constant of the cathode-follower
circuit was controlled by the combined input capacitance C of the transdueer,
cable, and amplifier and the input resistance R of the amplifier. Charge amplifiers
are available in two configurations. In the first, the time constant is fixed for
each of the range positions. Typical values range from 0.1 to 2 s. In the second
configuration, a short, medium, and long time constant is available for each
range. Range, sensitivity, and time-constant information for a typical charge
amplifier are listed in Table 7.5. The advantages of a charge-amplifier eircuit
over a cathode-follower circuit are

1. The time constant is controlled by charge-amplifier feedback resistance and

capacitance instead of transducer and cable capacitance.
2. System performanee is independent of transducer and cable capacitance so
long as the total input capacitance is less than the maximum allowed for a
given error limit.
 7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 353
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354 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

3. The charge sensitivity can be easily standardized by using the position pa¬
rameter b that controls the gain of the second (standardizing) amplifier.
4. A wide range of voltage sensitivities are available by simply changing the
feedback capacitance.

Transducers with Built-in Amplifiers

Recent developments in solid-state electronics have progressed to the point
where it is possible to incorporate a miniature integrated-circuit amplifier into
the transducer housing. A P-channel MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
Field-Effect Transistor) unity-gain amplifier (source follower) is used for this
application. The additional components required for the measurement circuit
are a power supply, a cable to connect the transducer to the power supply, and
a recording instrument. A schematic diagram of a typical circuit is shown in Fig.
7.49.
In this type of circuit, the cable capacitance Q is removed from the charge¬
generating side of the circuit and placed on the low-impedance-output side of
the circuit where it has negligible effect on the accuracy of the measurements.
Also, the sensor capacitance C and the amplifier input resistance R are not
influenced by changing environmental conditions, since these components are
well protected inside the housing of the transducer. Resistance R and capacitance
C are adjusted by the manufacturer during fabrication of the transducer to give
a standard voltage sensitivity and a reasonable time constant T.
The power supply shown in Fig. 7.49, which consists of a dc supply voltage
E, and a current regulating diode (CRD), provides a nominal -I-11 V at the
transistor source (5) when there is no input signal. The blocking capacitor Cj
in the power supply is used to shield the recording instrument from this dc
voltage. The meter M in the power supply is used to adjust the voltage and
monitor proper installation of the transducer and cable. If the meter reads zero,
a short exists in the connecting cable; likewise, if the meter reads at the level
of the supply voltage, the circuit is open.

-Transducer- Recording
Cable
instrument
Sensor-»-|-e—Amplifier Power supply

Figure 7.49 Schematic diagram of a measurement circuit that utilizes a piezoelectric

transducer with a built-in amplifier.
 7.7 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR CIRCUITS 355

Response of the circuit of Fig. 7.49 can be obtained by using the equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 7.50 for the analysis. Input to and output from the voltage
follower amplifier yields two differential equations. From the input,

(7.85)

And since the MOSFET amplifier is a unity-gain (G = 1) amplifier, from the

output.

(7.86)

The steady-state transfer function obtained from Eqs. (7.85) and (7.86) is

(7.87)

Equation (7.87) indicates the presence of two time constants; namely.

r, = and T = RC

The internal time constant T = RC is fixed by the manufacturer during fabri¬

cation of the transducer. Ideally, the value of T should be very large; however,
the value of R is limited by MOSFET amplifier requirements and the value of
C is selected to yield the required voltage sensitivity. Typical values of T range
from 0.5 to 2000 s. The external time constant = RjCi is controlled by the
blocking capacitor Cj (fixed by the manufacturer of the power supply) and by
the input resistance R^ of the readout instrument (selected by the user). Since
readout instruments have input resistances that range from 0.1 Mfl to 1 Mfi,
this external time constant usually becomes the controlling time constant. Mag¬
nitude and phase-angle response characteristics of the transducer with built-in
amplifier are shown in Fig. 7.51.
The Bode plots of Fig. 7.51 clearly show the effects of the external time
constant on the response characteristics of the piezoelectric transducer with a

Figure 7.50 Equivalent circuit for analysis.

356 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

BP3

Figure 7.51 Transfer function (magnitude and phase) for a piezoelectric transducer with
built-in amplifier, (a) Magnitude, (b) Phase angle cf) versus wT.

built-in amplifier. When = T, the low-frequency response drops off at a rate

of 12 dB/octave and the phase angle quickly approaches 180 degrees. At the
one break point (BP3) in the curve, the amplitude is attenuated by 6 dB (down
50 percent) and a 90-degree phase shift exists. When = lOOT, the low-
frequency response initially drops off at a rate of 6 dB/octave; but at the lower
frequencies, the rate eventually increases to 12 dB/octave. At break point BP2
in this curve, the amplitude is attenuated by 3 dB and a 45-degree phase shift
exists.
Practical error limits of 2 and 5 percent, with time constant ratios T^/T of
1, 10, and 100, are obtained when loT is greater than the values listed in Table
7.6.
It is evident from Table 7.6 that errors can be limited to 2 percent when T^/T
is greater than 10 if coT is greater than 5. Similarly, errors can be limited to 5

TABLE 7.6 Minimum Values of coTfor Errors of 2 and 5 Percent

TJT 2% 5%

1 7.00 4.96
10 4.95 3.06
100 4.93 3.04
 7.8 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSIENT SIGNALS 357

percent when T^/T is greater than 10 if coT is greater than 3. The values of coT
listed in Table 7.6 for T-^/T equal to 100 are the same as those obtained for a
single-time-constant system as described by Eq. (7.76).
The advantages of the system with the built-in amplifier are

1. The voltage-sensitivity S,, is fixed by the manufacturer.

2. Cable length and cable capacitance have little effect on the output.
3. A high-level voltage output signal with a low level of noise is obtained.
4 . Low-cost power supplies are adequate.
5 . Operates directly with most readout instruments.

7.8 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSIENT SIGNALS

In the previous two sections, mechanical and electrical steady-state (sinu¬

soidal) transfer functions were developed for seismic transducers and their elec¬
trical circuits. In this section, the response of seismic transducers to transient
inputs is investigated. For the purpose of these discussions, a transient input WxW
be defined as one in which rapid changes in input occur over a short period of
time that is both preceded and followed by a constant input for long periods of
time. A typical transient input is illustrated in Fig. 7.52.

Mechanical Response
Transient load-time histories that provide insight into the response limita¬
tions of mechanical systems include the terminated ramp function, the step
function, the triangle function, and the half-sine function. The first of these
inputs (the terminated ramp input) was considered in Chapter Six. The me¬
chanical response of a load cell to a terminated ramp input (see Fig. 6.25) is
given by Eqs. (6.51) through (6.55) and illustrated in Fig. 6.26. Errors are small
when the quantity l/w^r^ is small with respect to unity (a)„ is the natural frequency
of the transducer and t^ is the rise time of the ramp input).
As the rise time C of the ramp input becomes smaller and smaller, the input

Figure 7.52 Transient input with different constant values before and after the transient
event.
358 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

approaches a step input, as shown in Fig. 7.53. No mechanical system can

generate a step input; however, a pressure transducer subjected to shock or
blast pressures can appraoch this ideal case. The response of a pressure trans¬
ducer to a time-dependent loading is controlled by Eq. (7.61). For the case of
a rigidly mounted (no connecting mass) pressure transducer responding to a step
input, Eq. (7.61) becomes

mz + Cz + kz = Ap^ (7.88)

where A is the effective area of the sensitive face of the transducer.

p„ is the magnitude of the step pressure pulse.

Equation (7.88) has the solution

^Po 1
2 e -dwj cos((j0^t -I- 4>) (7.89)
k Vl -

tan 4) = — r/ZVl — (7.90)

(jij = V1 — (7.91)

The first term of Eq. (7.89) is the particular solution (the step), while the second
term is the homogeneous solution (transient), which decays exponentially with
time. The terms inside the bracket of Eq. (7.89) are often referred to as the
unit-step response function h{t). Typical response of a lightly damped {d = 0.05
or 5 percent) transducer is shown in Fig. 7.54. This type of response is often
referred to as transducer ringing, since the output oscillations occur at the damped
frequency of oscillation of the transducer. Transducer damping can be esti¬
mated from the decay envelope of the response curve by using the log-decrement
technique.
The rise time of the output signal from a transducer is frequently defined
as the time required for the signal to rise from 10 to 90 percent of the final or
static value as shown in Fig. 7.54. For lightly damped second-order mechanical

pit)

Figure 7.53 Dynamic pressure pulse from a shock tube.

 7.8 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSIENT SIGNALS 359

Figure 7.54 Response of a lightly damped transducer to a unit-step input.

systems, which respond essentially as (1 — cos co,,/), the rise time is approxi¬
mately 0.1623 times the natural period T„ of the system. The rise time of any
input can be used as a criterion for selecting a minimum natural frequency for
the transducer to be used for the measurement. In order to prevent serious
transducer ringing, at least five complete natural oscillations of the transducer
should occur during the rise time of the input signal.
Transient half-sine and triangle inputs are characteristic of many impact
problems. Mechanical response of a transducer to each of these inputs is shown
in Figs. 7.55 and 7.56. In each of these figures, the response of the transducer
for pulse durations of T,, and 5T„ are shown where T„ is the natural period of
the transducer. It is evident from these plots that a reasonable output from the
transducer requires a pulse duration that is at least five times the natural period
of the transducer. For pulse durations less than 5T„, the output from the trans¬
ducer is severely distorted as shown in Figs. 7.55 and 7.56 for the pulse of
duration T,,.

Figure 7.55 Mechanical response of a transducer to a half-sine transient.

360 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Dimensionless time t/t■^

Figure 7.56 Mechanical response of a transducer to a triangular transient.

Electrical Response
The electrical-response characteristics of the transducer circuit can also alter
the output signal generated by transient inputs. This is particularly true for the
ac-coupled circuits used with piezoelectric transducers. As an example, consider
the electrical response of a cathode-follower circuit to the rectangular input
pulse shown in Fig. 1.51a. While such a rectangular pulse is physically impossible
to generate with a mechanical system, it provides a limiting case that can be
used to judge the adequacy of the low-frequency response of a measuring system.
The behavior of the cathode-follower circuit is governed by Eq. (7.70), which
was developed in the previous section. Thus,

E (7.70)

which has the solution

S f
E - (7 92)

The derivative with respect to time of the input d is shown in Fig. 1.51b and
can be expressed as

d = a,h{t) - a,h{t - t,) (7.93)

where h{t) is the Dirac delta function. The properties of the Dirac delta function
are such that the function is zero except when its argument is zero and the area
under the function is unity. Substituting Eq. (7.93) into Eq. (7.92) yields

-t/RC
E - [e u{t — ti)e (7.94)
C
 7.8 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSIENT SIGNALS 361

a(t) a(t)

^ Ideal response

c
response

.-t./RC

c ^
0 '■-^

Undershoot

(c)

Figure 7.57 Electrical response of an RC circuit with a piezoelectric sensor to a rec¬

tangular pulse (transient) input, (a) Rectangular input pulse, (b) Time derivative of input
pulse, (c) Output voltage.

where u(t — h) is the unit-step function. The electrical response of the cathode-
follower circuit, as represented by Eq. (7.94), is shown in Fig. 7.57c. Two
characteristics of the low-frequency response of the circuit can be seen in this
figure. First, the output signal decays exponentially during the pulse duration
and generates an error of (1 - when compared to the input. Second,
an undershoot occurs at the end of the pulse. This undershoot provides the
maximum error associated with the rectangular pulse.
The maximum error associated with this RC circuit can be estimated
from a series expansion of the function (1 — Thus

h 1 Je (7.95)
%
'^max
RC 2 RC

When t^lRC is very small, Eq. (7.95) reduces to

or T= RC = ^ (7.96)
^max

Equation (7.96) was used to determine the time constant requirements listed in
Table 7.7 for the rectangular pulse.
The triangular and half-sine pulse shapes shown in Fig. 7.58 are also used
to establish time constant requirements. Time constants for these pulse shapes,
which will maintain measurements within specified error limits, are also listed
362 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 7.7 Time Constant Requirements for Various Error Levels

Time Constant

Pulse Shape 2% Error 5% Error 10% Error

C '

Error
50?! 20r, lOr,

Rectangular
pulse

25r. lOr, 5r,

16r, 3r,

31r. I2t, 6ri

in Table 7.7. It is evident from the data of Table 7.7 that the rectangular pulse
places the greatest demand on the transducer time constant for a given level of
error. The error present in a given measurement, which has been made with a
particular transducer, can be estimated by comparing the shape of the output
signal with one of the pulses listed in Table 7.7. Also, undershoot with its telltale
exponential decay is a good indicator of time constant problems.
The transducer with built-in amplifier presents a special problem since it
has two time constants {T = RC and Tj = RiCi) as indicated by Eq. (7.87).

a(t) ait)

Figure 7.58 Common pulse forms used in studies of RC time constants, (a) Triangular
pulse, (b) Half-sine pulse.
 7.8 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSIENT SIGNALS 363

The response of a transducer with built-in amplifier to a step input can be shown
to be given by the following expression

E - (7.97)
^ ^ 1

where is the magnitude of the step input.

is the voltage sensitivity of the transducer.

The response of the circuit, as represented by Eq. (7.97), is plotted in Fig. 7.59
for several different ratios of the two time constants. When T/Tj is large (of the
order of 1000), the response is controlled entirely by the time constant Tj. When
TIT-^ is small (near 1), both time constants play nearly equal roles, which results
in a much faster decay and some undershoot. The effects of the two time con¬
stants can be combined into an equivalent time constant T^, which is defined as

TT
T. = ^ (7.98)

This effective time constant can be used with Table 7.7 to estimate maximum
errors associated with any measurement by comparing the output pulse with the
shapes listed in the table.

Summary
A typical transfer function //(w) for a measurement circuit with a piezo¬
electric transducer is shown in Fig. 7.60. At the low-frequency end of the spec¬
trum (below ooi), the system exhibits a rapid drop in amplitude (6 dB/octave)
and serious phase distortion of sinusoidal or periodic inputs as well as exponential

Figure 7.59 Response of a dual time constant circuit to a step input.

 364 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.60 Typical transfer function //(to) for a piezoelectric transducer.

decay of transient inputs. Behavior at this end of the spectrum is controlled by

the electrical RC time constant of the system. Between coi and t02, the system
exhibits essentially zero phase shift and nearly constant output per unit input.
Measurements should be limited to this range of the spectrum if possible. Above
C02, mechanical resonance becomes important and causes amplitude magnifica¬
tion and phase distortion of sinusoidal or periodic inputs and a ringing response
to transient inputs if the rise time of the input is less than five times the natural
period of the transducer. In every instrumentation application, it is the engineer’s
responsibility to select instruments that will provide the desired measurement
with a minimum of error regardless of input type or shape; therefore, it is
important that all of the effects illustrated in Fig. 7.60 be given careful consid¬
eration.

7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION

The charge and voltage sensitivities of a transducer are very important

quantities. Transducer manufacturers provide calibration information, traceable
to the National Bureau of Standards, when the instrument is purchased. Users
must recalibrate the instrument occasionally to ensure that the original calibra¬
tion has not changed with use. The National Bureau of Standards and most of
the manufacturers use absolute calibration methods. Users generally use com¬
parison methods to recalibrate the instruments. Calibration techniques for ac¬
celeration and force transducers, which utilize constant, sinusoidal, and transient
inputs, will be examined in this section.

Accelerometer Calibration with a Constant Input

The most widely used constant-acceleration calibration method requires
only the simple act of rotating the sensitive axis of the accelerometer in the
earth’s gravity field, which produces a nominal change in acceleration of 2 g’s
(-1 g to +1 g). The primary disadvantages of this simple method are the limited
 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 365

range and the absence of any check on the frequency response characteristics
of the instrument due to the dc character of the test. The method provides a
quick means to ensure that the transducer is at least nominally functional.
The range limitation problem can be solved by using a centrifuge. With this
method of calibration, the sensitive axis of the accelerometer is aligned radially
with respect to the axis of rotation of the centrifuge. Here it experiences an
acceleration that is given by Eq. (7.12) as

cir = (7.12)

where r is the radial position of the seismic mass of the accelerometer,

o) is the angular velocity (speed) of the centrifuge.

A range of 0 to 60,000 g’s has been achieved by using this method of calibration.
The primary problem encountered with this method of calibration is elimination
of the electrical noise generated when the output signal is transmitted through
slip rings from the transducer to the recording instrument.

Accelerometer Calibration with a Sinusoidal Input

A sinusoidal type of input, such as that provided by a vibration generator,
provides a means for calibrating an accelerometer at different frequencies and
at different levels of acceleration. This form of loading is widely used for both
comparison and absolute calibration.
When the comparison method is used, two accelerometers (test and stand¬
ard) are mounted as close as possible on the exciter head and the output from
the accelerometer being calibrated is compared with the output from the standard
accelerometer, which is used only for calibration and whose calibration is trace¬
able to the National Bureau of Standards. Standard accelerometers, together
with charge amplifiers that have been adjusted to provide a constant sensitivity
(say 10 mV/g) over a broad range of frequencies, are available for this use. A
plot of test output versus standard output as the amplitude of vibration is varied
at a given frequency establishes the linearity of the test instrument. The sensi¬
tivity as a function of frequency of the test instrument is obtained by varying
the frequency while holding the standard output constant. Accuracies within ±2
percent are attainable with this comparison technique.
Several manufacturers have developed portable calibrators that can be used
in the field to check an accelerometer. One such unit, shown in Fig. 7.61, uses
a double magnet system with two mechanically coupled moving coils. One coil
operates as the driver and the other serves as a velocity pickup. The coils can
be connected to external instrumentation for performing reciprocity calibration.^
An accurate measure of the local acceleration of gravity can be obtained

^ “A Portable Calibrator for Accelerometers,” by Reinhard Kuhl, Bruel and Kjaer Technical Review,
no. 1, 1971, pp. 26-32.
366 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Axial Stop ,Magnet

/ Spring Driver Coil

Spring I Magnet

-
-Rubber Protecting Plate

Figure 7.61 Portable accelerometer calibrator. (Courtesy of Bruel and Kjaer.)

by mounting the calibrator with its axis vertical, mounting the test accelerometer
on the calibrator, and placing a small (less than 1 gram) nonmagnetic object on
the free face of the accelerometer. At a level of ± 1 g of acceleration, the object
will begin to “rattle.” The onset of “rattle” can be detected in the output signal
of the accelerometer within an accuracy of ± 1 percent.
Absolute calibration of an accelerometer requires precise measurement of
frequency o) and displacement x, since the magnitude of the peak acceleration
 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 367
Accelerometer
to be

True RMS voltmeter Frequency counter

Figure 7.62 Absolute accelerometer calibration with laser interferometry.

^max for sinusoidal motion is given by Eq. (7.20) as

^max ^ -^max (7.20)

As an example of the magnitudes of the quantities involved in such measure¬

ments, a sinusoidal displacement of 0.001 in. at a frequency of 100 Hz gives an
acceleration of 1.02 g’s. Thus, the peak-to-peak displacements that need to be
measured are very small. For frequencies below 100 Hz, reasonable results can
be obtained with a measuring microscope. For frequencies above 100 Hz, prox¬
imity gages and interferometry methods are commonly used.
A schematic diagram of a Michelson interferometer arranged for absolute
calibration of an accelerometer is shown in Fig. 7.62. The helium-neon (X =
6328 A) laser beam is split into two parts by the beamsplitter in such a way that
one is reflected by the fixed mirror while the other is reflected by the acceler¬
ometer being calibrated. The two reflected beams, which are combined before
arriving at the photodetector, exhibit a variation in intensity from minimum to
maximum each time the accelerometer moves one-half of a wavelength. The
number of changes in intensity per vibration cycle provides an accurate measure
of the peak-to-peak displacement, since the wavelength of the helium-neon light
is precisely known. Accuracies within ±0.5 percent have been obtained with
this method over the frequency range from below 100 Hz to over 2000 Hz.

Accelerometer Calibration with a Transient Input

A simple impulse method of accelerometer calibration known as gravimetric
calibration^ is based on Newton’s Second Law of Motion, which can be written
as

F = ma = mg (7.99)

“Gravimetric Calibration of Accelerometers,” by R. W. Lally, available from PCB Piezotronics,

Inc., P.O. Box 33, Buffalo, NY.
368 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

A schematic diagram of the physical system used for this type of calibration is
shown in Fig. 7.63. The system consists of a steel cylinder on which the accel¬
erometer to be calibrated is mounted, a plastic tube to guide the motion of the
cylinder, and a rigid base that supports a quartz force transducer. The calibration
is performed in two steps and requires measurement of three voltages. First,
the test mass (cylinder and accelerometer) is positioned on the force transducer
and the output voltage is measured as the mass is quickly removed. Next,
the test mass is dropped on the force transducer and the output voltages Ef and
E^ from the force transducer and accelerometer are simultaneously measured.
By definition, the force and acceleration experienced by the force transducer
and the accelerometer are their output voltages divided by their sensitivities.
Thus

Fmg = mg

F =

a
(7.100)
8

where E^g is the output voltage from the force transducer due to the weight
(mg) of the cylinder and accelerometer.
Ef is the output voltage from the force transducer during impact.
E^ is the output voltage from the accelerometer during impact.
Sf is the voltage sensitivity of the force transducer.
Sa is the voltage sensitivity of the accelerometer (expressed in g’s).

Substituting Eqs. (7.100) into Eq. (7.99) yields

El or ^ (7.101)
Sf Sa Ef

Equation (7.101) shows that the unknown sensitivity of the accelerometer is

simply the measured acceleration signal E^ during impact divided by the ratio
of the force signals EflE^g. The sensitivity Sf of the force transducer does not
affect the calibration. Typical output signals from a gravimetric calibration of
an accelerometer are shown in Fig. 7.64.
The cushion material shown in Fig. 7.63 controls the impact pulse duration.
The drop height controls the pulse amplitude. A typical calibration is performed
over a range of amplitudes and time durations by using different combinations
of drop height and cushion material. The preamplifiers shown in Fig. 7.63 can
be any one of the three standard types (high input impedance, charge, or built-
 ib)

Figure 7.63 Gravimetric calibration system for accelerometers, (a) Components of a

gravimetric calibration system. (£>) Gravimetric calibrator. (Courtesy of PCB Piezotron-
ics.)
370 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.64 Typical voltage-time curves from a gravimetric accelerometer calibration,

(fl) Weight lifting, {b) Impacting. (Courtesy of PCB Piezotronics.)

in). The attenuator of Fig. 7.63 is used to vary the amplitude of the signal from
the force transducer. If the attenuator is adjusted to give Ef = during impact,
the voltage E^g obtained after the attenuator is set becomes a direct measure
of the voltage sensitivity of the accelerometer. A typical set of superimposed
force and acceleration signals with Ef — E^ that illustrate the linearity of the
system (no detectable difference in signal) is shown in Fig. 1.65a. The linearity
is further illustrated in Fig. 1.65b where a plot of acceleration versus force for
one of the pulses is shown. Typical gravimetric calibration results for an accel¬
erometer are listed in Table 7.8.

The data of Table 7.8 indicate that the gravimetric calibration method is capable
of providing an accuracy that is equivalent to that provided by the back-to-back
comparison method with sinusoidal motion. The two quantities that must be
accurately known are the local acceleration of gravity g since as defined by
Eq. (7.101), is expressed in terms of local g’s and the voltage E^g due to the
weight of the test cylinder and accelerometer.

Figure 7.65 Linearity illustrations for gravimetric accelerometer calibration, (a) Super¬
imposed acceleration and force versus time, (b) Acceleration versus force. (Courtesy of
PCB Piezotronics.)
 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 371

TABLE 7.8 Gravimetric Caiibration of an Acceierometer°

PCB Model 302A, S/N 3116'=’

Test Number
1 2 3

^mg (mV) 38.8 38.8 38.8

E/(mV) 111 492 1016.5
Fa (mV) 45.5 126.3 261.9
a (g’s) 4.56 12.7 26.2
5. (mV/g) 9.97 9.97 10.00
Deviation (%) -0.2 -0.2 + 0.1

“ Lally, R. W.: “Gravimetric Calibration of Accelerometers,” available from PCB Piezotronics,

Inc., Buffalo, NY.
Reference sinusoidal calibration = 9.99 mV/g.

Force-Transducer Calibration with a Constant Input

Static calibration of force transducers with electrical-resistance strain-gage
sensors was discussed in Section 6.8. Typical procedures involve loading with a
testing machine whose accuracy has been certified, loading with standard weights,
or comparison with a standard force transducer. Similar calibrations are possible
with force transducers having piezoelectric sensors; however, the loads must be
applied and then removed very quickly due to the low-frequency response of
piezoelectric sensors.

Force-Transducer Calibration with a Sinusoidal Input

Dynamic calibration of a force transducer can be performed with a vibration
generator by using the arrangement illustrated in Fig. 7.66. Here, known cali¬
bration masses are attached in sequence to the seismic mass m of the force
transducer, after which the base is subjected to a sinusoidal oscillation that is
measured with the accelerometer. With this arrangement, the external force F{t)
applied to the force transducer is

F{t) = -mj

or in terms of the relative motion between the seismic mass and the base as
given by Eq. (7.40),

F(t) = -mXx + z) (7.102)

The differential equation governing behavior of the force transducer during

372 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.66 Calibration of a force transducer with

a vibration generator.

calibration is obtained by substituting Eq. (7.102) into Eq. (7.41). Thus

(m + m^)z + Cz + kz -{m + mjx (7.103)

Equation (7.103) indicates that the natural frequency of the transducer during
calibration decreases as the calibration mass is increased. This behavior
must be given careful consideration during calibration in order to avoid errors
due to resonance effects. The natural frequency is

\/klm
(7.104)
m + VI + mjm Vl + mjm

The effective force during calibration is the sum of the inertia force m^x of the
calibration mass and the inertia force mx of the seismic mass of the transducer.
Thus, the output voltages E^of the force transducer and of the accelerometer
are

Ef = Sf{m + m^)x (7.105)

Ea - S,{xlg) (7.106)

From Eqs. (7.105) and (7.106) it is obvious that the voltage ratio E^IE^ is related
to the sensitivity ratio SflS^ by the expression

E S S
^ -^{m + m,)g = + W,) (7.107)

where W is the weight of the seismic mass.

is the weight of the calibration mass.
 7,9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 373

Figure 7.67 Voltage ratio EflE^ versus

calibration weight from a sinusoidal
-w 0 calibration of a force transducer.

A plot of voltage ratio EflE^ versus calibration weight from a typical sinu¬
soidal calibration of a force transducer is shown in Fig. 7.67. It is evident from
Eq. (7.107) that the slope of such a plot is the sensitivity ratio S^/S^. Either a
peak- or RMS-voltage ratio can be used for the calibration. The intercept point
on the horizontal axis of Fig. 7.67 should verify the weight W of the seismic
mass of the force transducer being calibrated. During a given calibration, plots
of voltage ratio E^IE^ versus calibration weight should be obtained over a
wide range of vibration amplitudes (to check linearity) and frequencies (to check
resonance effects). Once the slope 5 has been accurately established, the voltage
sensitivity Sf of the force transducer is simply

(7.108)

It is evident from Eq. (7.108) that the voltage sensitivity of the accelerometer
must be accurately known. By using standard accelerometers and exercising care
during the measurements, accuracies of ±2 percent are obtainable with this
method of calibration for force transducers.

Force Transducer Calibration for Impact Applications

A modern method of structural testing, which utilizes advanced frequency
analysis techniques to construct a dynamic response model of the structure for
vibration analyses, mode-shape determinations, mechanical-impedance deter¬
minations, and structural-integrity studies, requires striking of the structure with
a hammer-type device and simultaneous recording of the impacting force to¬
gether with accelerations at different points of the structure. A typical hammer
with attached force transducer and impact head for use in such studies is shown
in Fig. 7.68.
Calibration of the force transducer used in this impact application can be
accomplished by using the pendulum system illustrated in Fig. 7.69. The differ¬
ential equation describing motion of the hammer head and attached seismic mass
is

m^z + kfZ = E(t) - m^Xi, (7.109)

374 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.68 Impact hammer with attached force transducer and impact head. (Courtesy
of PCB Piezotronics.)
 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 375

Figure 7.68 (Continued).

where is the mass of the hammer head and the seismic mass of the trans¬
ducer.
is the mass of the hammer body and transducer base.
kf is the spring constant of the piezoelectric sensor,
z is the relative motion between the seismic mass and base of the
transducer.

When the impacting frequencies are well below the resonant frequency of the
force transducer, the dominant term on the left side of Eq. (7.109) is the spring
376 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Pendulum Force Hammer

Impact head transducer body
Accelerometer I 1
—r- Kf —1—^—
ntp —f(d— I -vw- I
- -
Seismic mass Transducer base

Figure 7.69 Calibration of an impact hammer with a pendulum system.

force kfZ. Relative motion z is also very small in comparison to x^, and
therefore, it can be assumed that x^, ~ X/,. When the previous conditions are
satisfied,

F{t) = + mt,Xt == (m^, + m^x^,

rrih F{t)
Z ~-;—
rrih +

Output voltage Ef from the force transducer can be expressed in terms of the
relative motion z as

Ef = 5,z = ——^F{t) = SfE{t) (7.110)

^ nif, + nih kf ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ’

where is the voltage sensitivity of the force transducer to relative motion z.

The quantities and kfOiEq. (7.110) are sensor properties that remain constant;
however, the mass of the hammer and the mass of the impact head can
be easily changed, and any such change will significantly affect the voltage
sensitivity 5^ of the instrument to force E{t).
During calibration of an impacting hammer with the system of Fig. 7.69,
the force E{t) applied by the pendulum is

E{t) = rripU = nipgialg) = Wp{alg) (7.111)

where is the combined mass of the pendulum and accelerometer.

Wp is the combined weight of the pendulum and accelerometer.
a is the acceleration of the pendulum during impact.

The output voltage from the accelerometer during impact is

Ea ^ S^{a/g) (7.112)
 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 377
Thus, from Eqs. (7.111) and (7.112),

Ef Sf
- = -IT, = 5lT, (7.113)

Equation (7.113) is similar to Eq. (7.107); therefore, the calibration procedure

with impact inputs is identical to that used for sinusoidal inputs. In the case of
impact inputs, the voltage ratio EflE^ is plotted as a function of pendulum weight
Wp to obtain the slope 5 = Sj ISa- The voltage sensitivity of the impact hammer
to force is then simply

Sf = sS„ (7.114)

Again, by using standard accelerometers and exercising care during the meas¬
urements, accurate calibration (±2 percent) can be achieved.
The calibration procedure outlined for impact hammers is adequate only
for operating frequencies well below the natural frequency of the force trans¬
ducer used in the hammer. At higher operating frequencies, where stress-wave-
propagation effects become important, the force measurements made with such
hammer devices may exhibit considerable error.

Overall System Calibration

Electronic measurement systems usually contain a number of components,
such as power supplies, signal conditioning circuits, amplifiers, and recording
instruments, in addition to the specific transducer required for the measurement.
It is possible to calibrate each component and thus determine the input-output
relationship for the complete system; however, this procedure is time-consuming
and subject to the calibration errors associated with each component of the
system. A more precise and direct procedure establishes a single calibration
constant for the complete system that relates readings from the recording in¬
strument directly to the quantity being measured.
System calibration involves not only voltage sensitivity determinations but
also determinations of such dynamic response characteristics as rise time, over¬
shoot, undershoot, and time constant. A typical type of system calibration, which
does not require that the transducer be disconnected from either the system or
the object on which it is mounted, uses a voltage input on the transducer end
of the system. For piezoelectric transducers commonly used for force and ac¬
celeration measurements, the voltage generator can be connected to the system
through the calibration capacitor Qai, which is provided on the input side of
most charge amplifiers as shown in Fig. 7.48. This type of system calibration is
based on the fact that a charge generator in parallel with a capacitor is equivalent
to a voltage generator in series with a capacitor. This charge amplifier circuit,
shown in Fig. 7.48, will be used for the discussion of system calibration that
follows.
378 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

The calibration voltage needed to simulate a calibration charge is

^ (7.115)
^cal

Also, the calibration charge is related to the quantity being simulated a^ai
by the expression

^cal = ‘^^flcal (7.116)

where is the charge sensitivity of the piezoelectric sensor being used in the
transducer. The voltage sensitivity of the charge amplifier circuit of Fig. 7.48 is
given by Eq. (7.84) as

(7.84)
t)C^

The output voltage £(.ai from the charge amplifier circuit, which results from
application of the calibration voltage is

‘^(y^cal ^cal ^cal

Ecal S,.a cal (7.117)
bCf ~ bCf

Equation (7.117) shows that the potentiometer position b can be adjusted to

provide a standardized output for the circuit. Range is then established by
selecting the proper feedback capacitance Q.
The calibration voltages used to simulate transducer loadings may be si¬
nusoidal, periodic, or transient. Precision voltage calibrators are available that
provide either a 0- to — 10-V full-scale step function or a 0- to — 10-V full-scale
100-Hz square wave. The voltage is adjustable over the full range with a reso¬
lution of 0.02 percent of full scale and a linearity of ±0.25 percent of full scale.
Precision calibration capacitors are available for use with charge amplifiers that
do not have built-in calibration capacitors.
The calibration and check-out of measuring systems that have piezoelectric
transducers and high-input-impedance amplifiers as components can also be
accomplished by applying a calibration voltage Ecai across a series resistance
in the ground side of the circuit^ as shown in Fig. 7.70. The series resistance R,
is usually of the order of 10 to 100 fl, while the input resistance R^ of the

’ “In-place Calibration of Piezoelectric Crystal Accelerometer Amplifier Systems,” by D. Penning¬

ton, ISA National Flight Test Instrument Symposium (San Diego, CA, May 1960). See also, Endevco
Corp., Tech. Paper Nos. 211 and 216.
 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 379

6
£
•a o

-o-c>

Figure 7.70 Voltage insertion method of system calibration.

amplifier is of the order of 100 Mfl; therefore, the presence of R, exerts only
an insignificant effect on the circuit during normal operation and calibration.
Special adaptors that can be inserted into the transducer connecting cable are
commercially available.*^ Such adaptors contain the series resistor and provide
connections for the voltage generator used for calibration.
The capacitance Cj-of Fig. 7.70 includes the transducer capacitance C„ the
cable capacitance from the transducer to the adaptor Qi, and the adaptor con¬
nector capacitance Similarly, the capacitance of Fig. 7.70 includes the
adaptor connector capacitance C,2, the cable capacitance from the adaptor to
the amplifier Cc2, the amplifier input capacitance C^, and any standardization
capacitance Q used to yield a standard voltage sensitivity. For the purpose of
the analysis that follows, the amplifier (cathode follower or charge amplifier) is
assumed to have a gain G that is constant over a broad range of frequencies.
The sinusoidal input-output relationship for the charge generator circuit of
Fig. 7.70 during normal operation (no calibration voltage inserted) can be ob¬
tained from Eq. (7.74). Thus, with the terms used in this discussion

(7.118)

where

C — Cj- + Cyi

When the transducer is inactive and the calibration voltage is inserted into
the circuit, the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 7.71 can be used for analysis.

® Such as Bruel and Kjaer Adaptor UA 0322 (/?,. = 10 tl).

380 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.71 Equivalent circuit for analysis with voltage inserted.

In this circuit.

Z, = —— since R,^ ^
iC jOi

-
(7.119)
1 + iR^ Cl)

The output voltage from the circuit of Fig. 7.71 is

GZ. *
E cal Ecal (7.120)
z, + Z^

Substituting Eqs. (7.119) into Eq. (7.120) yields

iRg Cco GCj^

E cal (7.121)
1 + iRgCi^ C

If it is assumed that an input a{t) = is applied to the circuit of Fig. 7.70

during normal operation, then Eq. (7.118) indicates that the output voltage E^^^
would be

iRgCio GSg
E cal (7.122)
1 + iRgCui C

From Eqs. (7.121) and (7.122) it is evident that

 7.9 TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION 381

The quantity — S^IC, is the open-circuit voltage sensitivity^ of the transducer.

When the quantity RaCm » 1, Eq. (7.121) becomes

•^cal ^ ^cal ^ “^oc^cal 'a^cal (/.IZjj

where is the effective voltage sensitivity of the system.

The voltage insertion method of calibration provides a convenient means
for establishing all “system” parameters. The time constant T = R^C for the
complete system can be obtained from the 3-dB point where R^Coi = 1.0. The
ratio GC,IC can be obtained from the voltage ratio when 7?„Ca) >>
1.0. The values of G and R^ for the amplifier are usually known and the ca¬
pacitance Cf of the transducer is provided by the manufacturer or can easily be
measured. Thus, all of the electrical parameters of the system can be determined.
The integrity of the transducer, cables, and connections are checked, since failure
of any one of these units result in a zero output voltage. This “Go”-“No Go”
check is very useful in large multichannel systems, since a simple “tap” on the
transducer establishes integrity of the circuit.
A step voltage input E^ is commonly used for the voltage insertion type of
calibration, since it thoroughly tests the fidelity of the measuring system. For
the circuit of Fig. 7.70, the governing differential equation is

. E GCt^ GCr-
TC^ (7.124)

which has a step-voltage response of

£ _ GCj^^ g-t/R^c
C "

= (7.125)

This response illustrates the exponential decay characteristics of the circuit. A

typical recording of the response of a system to a step input is shown in Fig.
7.72. This response establishes the rise time, overshoot, and exponential decay
characteristics of the measuring system. Each of these quantities impose limi¬
tations on the use of the system. Unfortunately, the transducer’s natural fre¬
quency is not excited by this calibration procedure. Also, the natural frequency

® Some manufacturers use = S^IC, for the open-circuit voltage sensitivity, while others use
= 5,/(C, -h 300), since many 3-m-long cables have approximately 300 pF of capacitance. Note that
(the charge sensitivity) does not depend on capacitance.
382 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure 7.72 Typical response of a measurement system to a step input.

of the recording system is not always provided since the oscillations of the signal
about the decay line are sometimes difficult to interpret.
Calibration of transducers and complete measurement systems must be
performed periodically to ensure satisfactory performance. As the number of
channels in a measurement system increases, the need for quick, accurate, and
efficient calibration procedures becomes more and more pressing. Calibration
must always be regarded as one of the most important steps in the measurement
process.

7.10 SUMMARY

A broad range of topics associated with motion measurement, the influence

of motion on force and pressure measurements, and the characteristic response
of various measurement systems to sinusoidal and transient events was consid¬
ered in this chapter. A brief review of displacement, velocity, and acceleration
relationships in several different coordinate systems was presented at the be¬
ginning of the chapter. Simple-harmonic vibratory motion was then reviewed
and a phasor representation (with real and imaginary components in the complex
plane) of sinusoidal vibratory motion which provides a convenient means for
relating displacement, velocity, and acceleration without extensive trigonometric
identity manipulation and which provides the final expressions in a simple form
that contains both magnitude and phase information was developed.
Common dimensional measurement methods involving comparisons with
secondary standards of length such as metal or wood scales, metal tapes, vernier
calipers, micrometers, dial indicators, and fixed-scale, traveling, and traveling-
stage microscopes are mentioned but not discussed in detail. A more extended
discussion of the less familiar methods of optical interferometry and pneumatic
gaging is provided. Finally, the use of gage blocks as a precise length reference
and for calibration of secondary standards of length is discussed.
Displacement and velocity measurements with respect to a fixed reference
 7,10 SUMMARY 383

frame were considered next. Included in the discussions are variable-resistance

and variable-capacitance sensors, which are widely used for small static and
dynamic displacement measurements, differential transformers (variable-in¬
ductance sensors), which are used when a larger range is needed, and resistance
potentiometers, which are used when less accuracy but still greater range is
required for the measurement. Photosensing transducers and microswitch po¬
sition indicators are described in detail since they provide a convenient means
for introducing several circuits that have been designed and perfected for dis¬
placement measurements. Direct-reading linear- and angular-velocity trans¬
ducers (based on the principle of electromagnetic induction) are also introduced
and described in considerable detail. Finally, moire methods, which provide full-
field displacement information, are briefly introduced.
Motion measurement without a fixed reference requires use of a seismic-
type instrument. Basically, such instruments detect relative motion between a
base, which is attached to the structure of interest, and a seismic mass, which,
due to inertia, tends to resist any changes in velocity. The theory of operation
of such instruments is presented and equations are developed which describe
their response to displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and pressure inputs.
Results of this analysis shows that seismic displacement and velocity transducers
must be constructed with soft springs in order to have the desired response
characteristics. As a result, such instruments exhibit large static deflections and
low natural frequencies. Commonly used sensing elements for displacement
transducers include linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) and elec¬
trical resistance strain gages on flexible elastic members. Acceleration trans¬
ducers, on the other hand, require a very stiff spring and a very small seismic
mass. As a result, accelerometers exhibit small deflections and high natural
frequencies. The sensing elements most widely used in accelerometers (and in
dynamic force and pressure transducers) are piezoelectric crystals. Since this
type of dynamic force or pressure transducer responds to acceleration in addition
to the quantity being measured (force or pressure), extreme care must be ex¬
ercised in controlling the acceleration of the base of the force or pressure in¬
strument.
The three common circuits used with transducers having piezoelectric crys¬
tals as sensing elements are the charge-amplifier circuit, the cathode-follower
circuit, and the built-in-amplifier circuit. The characteristics of each of these
circuits was examined in detail. The charge-amplifier circuit is the most versatile
but also the most costly. The built-in-amplifier circuit is the least costly and also
the easiest to use.
Transient-signal analysis shows that both mechanical and electrical char¬
acteristics of a system can significantly alter the response. Transducers require
time to respond to any transient mechanical event. In order to prevent serious
transducer ringing, at least five complete natural oscillations of the transducer
should occur during the rise time of the mechanical event. Similarly, the electrical
time constant of the system must be sufficient to prevent serious signal decay
384 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

during the transient event. The amount of signal undershoot at the end of a
transient event can be used to judge the adequacy of the time constant of a
system for a particular type of measurement.
Methods that utilize constant, sinusoidal, and transient mechanical inputs
for accelerometer, force transducer, and pressure transducer calibration were
described. Use of constant, sinusoidal, and transient voltage inputs for overall
system calibration (the voltage insertion method of system calibration) was also
discussed. Periodic calibration of individual transducers and complete systems
must be performed to ensure continued satisfactory performance. Calibration
must always be regarded as one of the most important steps in the measurement.

REFERENCES

1. Broch, Jens Trampe: “Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements,”

Available from Bruel and Kjaer Instruments, Inc., Marlborough, Massa¬
chusetts, October 1980.
2. Bruel and Kjaer Instruments: “Piezoelectric Accelerometer and Vibration
Preamplifier Handbook,” Available from Bruel and Kjaer Instruments,
Inc., Marlborough, Massachusetts, March 1978.
3. Bruel and Kjaer Instruments: Technical Review, A quarterly publication
available from Bruel and Kjaer Instruments, Inc., Marlborough, Massa¬
chusetts.
(a) Vibration Testing of Components, no. 2, 1958.
(b) Measurement and Description of Shock, no. 3, 1966.
(c) Mechanical Failure Forecast by Vibration Analysis, no. 3, 1966.
(d) Vibration Testing, no. 3, 1967.
(e) Shock and Vibration Isolation of a Punch Press, no. 1, 1971.
(f) Vibration Measurement by Laser Interferometer, no. 1, 1971.
(g) A Portable Calibrator for Accelerometers, no. 1, 1971.
(h) High Frequency Response of Force Transducers, no. 3, 1972.
(i) Measurement of Low Level Vibrations in Buildings, no. 3, 1972.
(j) On the Measurement of Frequency Response Functions, no. 4, 1975.
(k) Fundamentals of Industrial Balancing Machines and Their Applications,
no. 1, 1981.
(l) Human Body Vibration Exposure and Its Measurement, no. 1, 1982.
4. Dove, R. C., and P. H. Adams: Experimental Stress Analysis and Motion
Measurement, Merrill, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.
5. Pennington, D.: “Piezoelectric Accelerometer Manual,” Endevco Cor¬
poration, Pasadena, California, 1965.
6. Peterson, A. P. G., andE. E. Gross, Jr.: Handbook of Noise Measurement,
Available from General Radio Company, Concord, Massachusetts, 1972.
7. Jones, E., S. Edelman, and K. S. Sizemore: Calibration of Vibration Pick-
 EXERCISES 385

ups at Large Amplitudes, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,

vol. 33, no. 11, November 1961, pp. 1462-1466.
8. Peris, T. A., and C. W. Kissinger: High Range Accelerometer Calibrations,
Report No. 3299, National Bureau of Standards, June 1954.
9. Jones, E., D. Lee, and S. Edelman: Improved Transfer Standard for Vi¬
bration Pickups, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 41, no.
2, February 1967, pp. 354-357.
10. Schmidt, V. A., S. Edelman, E. R. Smith, and E. T. Pierce: Modulated
Photoelectric Measurement of Vibration, Journal of the Acoustical Society
of America, vol. 34, no. 4, April 1966, pp. 455-458.
11. Schmidt, V. A., S. Edelman, E. R. Smith, and E. Jones: Optical Calibra¬
tion of Vibration Pickups at Small Amplitudes, Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, vol. 33, no. 6, June 1961, pp. 748-751.
12. Crosswy, F. L., and H. T. Kalb: Dynamic Force Measurement Techniques,
Part I: Dynamic Compensation, Instrument and Control Systems, February
1970, pp. 81-83.
13. Crosswy, F. L., and H. T. Kalb: Dynamic Force Measurement Techniques,
Part II: Experimental Verification, Instrument and Control Systems, March
1970, pp. 117-121.
14. Bell, R. L.: Development of 100,000 g Test Facility, Shock and Vibration
Bulletin, Bulletin 40, Part 2, December 1969, pp. 205-214.
15. Graham, R. A., and R. P. Reed (Ed.): Selected Papers on Piezoelectricity
and Impulsive Pressure Measurements, Sandia Laboratories Report, SAND78-
1911, December 1978.
16. Otts, J. V.: Force-Controlled Vibration Testing, Sandia Laboratories Tech¬
nical Memorandum, SC-TM-65-31, February 1965.
17. Hunter, Jr., N. F., and J. V. Otts: Electronic Simulation of Apparent
Weight in Force-Controlled Vibration Tests, Preprint No. P15-1-PHYM-
MID-67, Presented at the 22nd Annual ISA Conference (Chicago, Illinois,
September 11-14, 1967).
18. Change, N. D.: “General Guide to ICP Instrumentation,” Available from
PCB Piezotronics, Inc., Depew, New York.
19. Graneek, M., and J. C. Evans: A Pneumatic Calibrator of High Sensitivity,
Engineer, July 13, 1951, p. 62.
20. Kistler, W. P.: Precision Calibration of Accelerometers for Shock and
Vibration, Test Engineer, May 1966, p. 16.

EXERCISES

7.1 The earth circles the sun every 365 days at an average radius of 92,600,000
miles. The mean radius of the earth is 3,960 miles. Show that the average
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

acceleration of the earth’s center is 0.0006 g toward the sun and that
the maximum acceleration on the surface of the earth at the equator
relative to the earth’s center is approximately 0.0034 g toward the center
of the earth.
The equation of the spiral of Fig. E7.2 can be expressed as r =
2V0, where r is in inches when 0 is in radians. If angle 0 can be expressed
as a function of time in seconds as 0 = 9r, determine the velocity and
acceleration of point P on the curve when t — Tr/54 s. Express your
answers in both rectangular and polar coordinate form.
The expression x = A cos 9t + 3 sin 9t is a harmonic function. Show
that X can be written as either x = 5 cos(9/ + 0i) or x = 5 sin(9r +
02). Determine the phase angles 0i and 02. Which angle is leading and
which angle is lagging the reference vector? What is the reference vector
for each of the expressions for x?
A simple harmonic motion has an amplitude of 0.001 in. and a frequency
of 100 Hz. Determine the maximum velocity (in inches per second) and
maximum acceleration (in gravitational acceleration) associated with
the motion. If the amplitude of motion doubles and the frequency
remains the same, what is the effect on maximum velocity and maximum
acceleration? If the frequency doubles and the amplitude of motion
remains the same, what is the effect on maximum velocity and maximum
acceleration?
Express the following complex numbers in exponential (Ae'®) form:

(a) 1 - /V3
(b) -4
(c) li
(d) 6/(V3 - i)
(e) (VI + /)/(3 + Ai)
(f) (VI - /)/(4 + 3i)
Light having a wavelength of 546.1 nm is directed at normal incidence
(see Fig. 7.11) onto a thin film of transparent material having an index
of refraction of 1.59. Ten dark and nine bright fringes are observed

Figure E7.2
 EXERCISES 387

over a 50-mm length of the film. Determine the thickness variation over
this length.
7.7 An optical flat, shown schematically in Fig. 7.11 as material two, is
being used to evaluate the finish of a ground and polished machine
surface (specimen in Fig. 7.11). The optical flat rests on several high
points of the specimen surface, but does not make contact over a large
part of the surface. When a beam of sodium light having a wavelength
of 589.0 nm is directed onto the surface of the optical flat at essentially
normal incidence, an interference pattern forms that indicates that the
deepest valley on the surface produces an interference fringe of order
5. Determine the difference in elevation between the contact points
and the valley floor.
7.8 For the pneumatic displacement gage shown in Fig. 7.12, show that

^_1
\ + {AslA,,f

A linear relationship proposed by Granek and Evans^*^ is often used to

simplify measurements made with such devices. The linear relationship
is

^ = 1.10 - 0.5(A5M^)
ti

Compare the two equations by plotting hlH versus A5MR over the range
0.4 < hlH < 0.9 for which the linear equation is proposed to be valid.
7.9 A pneumatic displacement device is constructed as shown in Fig. E7.9.
Assume that the relationship hlH = 1.10 - 0.5(A5M^) for 0.4 <
hlH < 0.9 is valid. Show that the relationship between system parameters
d[i, ds, and x and manometer readings hlH is

— = 1.10 - 2.Q{dsld^)x
H

7.10 How many Class A reference blocks are required to accurately establish
a length of 1.2693 in.? What tolerance limits should be placed on this
dimension due to block tolerance and oil film effects?
7.11 A 200-ft stainless steel (a = 9.6 x 10-^/°F) surveyor’s tape is left lying
along the edge of a highway. The tape temperature is approximately

“A Pneumatic Calibrator of High Sensitivity,” by M. Graneek and J. C. Evans, Engineer, July

13, 1951, p. 62.
 388 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

[ f
5 j ' % — Workpiece

fti..i
A
T^ iir. . 1
B

Figure E7.9

140°F when it is used to measure a distance of 186 ft. What is the actual
distance measured if the tape is accurate at 60°F?
7.12 A 10-kfi single-turn potentiometer has been incorporated into a dis¬
placement measuring system as shown in Fig. E7.12. The potentiometer
consists of 0.005-in.-diameter wire wound onto a 1.25-in.-diameter ring,
as shown in the figure. The pulley diameters are 2.00 in. Determine;

(a) The minimum load resistance that can be used if nonlinearity error
must be limited to 0.25 percent
(b) The smallest motion x that can be detected with this system

7.13 The potentiometer circuit shown in Fig. 7.16 is being used to measure
the angular position of a shaft. The potentiometer being used can rotate
320 degrees, has a resistance Rp of 2 kD, and is capable of dissipating
0.01 W of power in most environments. Show that

(a) The maximum voltage that can be applied to the potentiometer

is 4.47 V
(b) The output sensitivity S is given by the expression

5 = ( \ ( Rp \^
\Rm + Rl F 50/ \Rp + Rs) Op

where Bj’ is the range of the potentiometer in degrees

Potentiometer detail
Figure E7.12
 EXERCISES 389

7.14 For the circuit of Exercise 7.13, a minimum sensitivity of 10 mV/degree

is desired when 350 ft of AWG 28 copper wire (66.2 O per 1000 ft) is
being used as lead wires. The op-amp, which is capable of driving an
output circuit continuously at 20 mA, requires a minimum 2-V drop
across resistor in order to operate satisfactorily.

(a) What values of Rj^ and R^ would you select to achieve the desired
sensitivity?
(b) How would you calibrate and adjust the system? Keep in mind
that 5-, 8-, 10-, 15-, and 18-Volt regulators are commercially avail¬
able.

7.15 The multiple-resistor displacement-measuring system shown in Fig. 7.17

has n equal resistors R„. Each of these resistors has a value k times that
of the output resistor R„ (i.e., R„ = kR„).

(a) Show that the normalized output voltage ratio EJEq is given by
the expression

^ ^ {n - p){n + k)
Eq {n + k - p)n

where p is the number of resistors removed from the circuit by

either a switch or a broken wire.
(b) Plot EJEq as a function of p for n = 10 and k = 1, 10, and 100.
(c) If linear output with pis a. desirable feature, what value of k should
be selected for the measurement system?

7.16 Show that the switch-debouncer circuit of Fig. 7.24 performs its intended
function irrespective of the logic state present when the switch first
makes momentary contact in the NO position. Which output (Y^ or Y2)
is high when NO is high?
7.17 The moire fringe pattern of Fig. 7.28 was formed by rotating one grating
through an angle 0 with respect to the other grating. The fringes have
formed in a direction that bisects the obtuse angle between the lines of
the two gratings. If the angle of inclination cj) of the moire fringes and
the angle of rotation 0 of one grating with respect to the other are both
measured in the same direction and with respect to the lines of the fixed
grating, show that

0 = 24) — TT

7.18 The voice coil of a small speaker can be used as a velocity sensor. The
coil, shown schematically in Fig. E7.18, has a diameter of 15 mm and
has 100 turns of wire wrapped onto the nonmagnetic core. During
calibration, the sensor exhibited a sensitivity of 52 mV/(m/s) over a
390 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Motion
’'

Figure E7.18

range of frequencies. Estimate the magnetic field strength B in the gap

occupied by the voice coil.
7.19 Show that the voltage generated by N windings of wire, similar to the
one shown in Fig. 7.2%, rotating in a magnetic field of flux density B
can be expressed as

E — NBA(j} sin 0

where A is the area of the coil (A = length / x width (i), to is the

angular velocity of the coil, and 0 is the angular position of the coil
measured with respect to the position shown in Fig. 7.29b.
7.20 The magnetic flux density B (Webers per square meter) generated by
an electric solenoid can be expressed as

B = 12.57(10-’)yV///

where N is the number of turns, 1 is the current in amperes, and / is

the length of the solenoid in meters. The ring magnet, shown in Fig.
E7.20, is being designed to have a field strength of 0.10 Wb/m^. The
 EXERCISES 391

solenoid will consist of 2000 turns of wire wrapped uniformly over half
of the 10-mm-diameter steel ring. Determine the required current I and
estimate the voltage that would be induced in a single length of wire
as it passed through the gap at a speed of 1.0 m/s.
7.21 A linear-velocity transducer (LVT) has an inductance of 16.5 mH, a
resistance of 6.2 O, and a sensitivity of 30 mV/(in./s). Evaluate the
performance of this sensor when it is used in conjunction with a re¬
cording instrument having an input resistance of (a) 100 O and (b) 1000
n in terms of frequency response and signal attenuation.
7.22 The resistance of CPA 01 and CPA 02 crack-propagation gages in
parallel with a 50-0 shunt resistor is shown in Fig. 7.35. If the combined
resistance is 34.5 O when 19 of the 20 strands are broken, determine
the resistance of that single strand. Compare this single-strand resistance
to the average strand resistance when all 20 strands are connected in
parallel. Based on this information, design a circuit that will give a
nearly linear voltage output as a function of the number of strands
broken. Compare this circuit to Fig. 7.36.
7.23 A velocity meter is being designed with a natural frequency of 5 Hz,
damping of 10 percent, and a sensitivity of 8.3 mV/(in./s). The magnetic
core weighs 0.25 lb, and is mounted on soft springs. Determine the
required spring constant for the springs supporting the core. The ve¬
locity meter is mounted on a surface that is vibrating with a maximum
velocity of 8.0 in./s. Determine the peak output voltage and phase angle
if the frequency of vibration is (a) 8.0 Hz and (b) 20 Hz. Which meas¬
urement has the greatest error? Why?
7.24 The force transducers listed in Table 7.2 have stiffnesses that range
from 5(10®) to 100(10®) Ib/in. Based on the information given in Table
7.2, estimate the weight and mass of the seismic mass for each model.

What is the acceleration sensitivity compared to the force sensitivity

for each transducer as constructed? {Hint: Use the ratios of relative
motion z.) Which transducer is the least acceleration sensitive?
7.25 An accelerometer is used to measure a periodic signal that can be
expressed as

a{t) = a sin(0.2a)„t) - OAa sin(0.6a)„r)

where is the natural frequency of the accelerometer. The relative

motion of the transducer can be expressed as

z(t) = bi sin(0.2a)„r - (j)i) + b^, sin(0.6a)„t - 4)3)

Determine the coefficients hj and b^ and phase angles ct^i and 4)3 when
the transducer damping is (a) 5 percent and (b) 60 percent. Which
392 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

damping condition gives the best modeling? Why? Compare a{t) and
z(60 percent).
7.26 The Kistler model 912 force gage in Table 7.2 is connected to a structure
with a i-in.-diameter by 1-in.-long coupling that weighs 0.0313 lb. Show
that the nominal natural frequency is reduced to 34,400 Hz and that
one g of base acceleration gives a signal that is equivalent to 0.0413 lb
of force.
7.27 The PCB 208A03 general-purpose force transducer listed in Table 7.2
is being used to measure the driving force from an electrodynamic
vibration exciter, as shown in Fig. E7.27. The base of the force trans¬
ducer is connected to the structure under test, and the seismic mass is
connected to the exciter through a 2.00-lb connector. The effective mass
of the structure (including the force transducer) is m, = 0.250 lb ■ s^/
in., the effective spring constant is k, = 15,620 Ib/in., and the effective
damping is 6 percent. Show that the natural frequency of the transducer
is lowered to 6970 Hz when used this way, that the natural frequency
of the structure is 39.8 Hz, and that the driving force measured by the
transducer is related to the force generated between the exciter and
connector by the expression

no = Ro 1 +
V(k,
(m -L

- m^(o2)2 + (Q(o)2

where

tan 4) =
k^ — m^o)^

Show that the measurement is 2.66 percent too high when the driving
frequency is 30 Hz, and 17.6 percent too high at the resonant frequency
of the structure. What would happen if the force between the connector

Vibration
exciter

Connector

Force gage

Structure w.

N\\\\\\\\\\'^^V\V\\^^ Figure E7.27

 EXERCISES 393

and the force gage were to be measured instead of the force between
the connector and the exciter?

7.28 The charge sensitivity, voltage sensitivity, and capacitance for an En-
devco 2501-2000 pressure transducer are listed in Table 7.3. Typical
coaxial transducer cable has a nominal capacitance of 30 pF/ft. Show
that approximately 40 in. of cable must have been connected to the
transducer to give the voltage sensitivity listed in the table. Show that
the 3-dB cutoff frequency is 4.0 Hz when the transducer is connected
to a voltage follower with an input resistance of 100 Mfi. Show that
the voltage sensitivity drops to 18.67 mV/psi when the transducer is
connected to the voltage follower with 15 ft of transducer cable. At
what frequency (in hertz) will the attenuation be 10 percent with this
longer cable?

7.29 From the data in Table 7.5, estimate the minimum open-loop gain for
the first op-amp in the charge amplifier. If Qai (1000 pF) in Fig. 7.48
is connected to ground, how is this open-loop gain G changed? Consider
only the cases when Cf = 10 pF and Cf = 1000 pF.

7.30 A force transducer with a charge sensitivity of 48.6 pC/lb is connected

to a charge amplifier. The transducer sensitivity dial is set at 46.8 pC/
lb instead of 48.6 pC/lb. The range capacitor is set at the Cf = 10,000
pF position. The user initially thinks the sensitivity is 100 Ib/V, as listed
in Table 7.5; however, he later recognizes his error. What is the actual
sensitivity? How can the results obtained by using a sensitivity of 100
Ib/V be corrected to yield the true values?
7.31 The Endevco model 2215E accelerometer listed in Table 7.1 will be
used to measure some low-level acceleration signals. The transducer
cable is 30 ft long and has a nominal capacitance of 30 pF/ft. Assume
that the minimum op-amp gain ^ 20,000. What minimum feedback
capacitance can be used if error due to source capacitance must be
limited to 0.5 percent? What is the unit sensitivity (gravitational ac¬
celeration per volt) if Cf = 200 pF and the transducer sensitivity dial
is set at (a) 85, (b) 170, and (c) 340? Which transducer dial setting gives
the largest voltage signal for a given level of acceleration?

7.32 A Kistler model 606L pressure transducer is being used in conjunction

with a voltage follower, as shown in Fig. E7.32. The connecting cable
is 10 ft long and has a nominal capacitance of 30 pF/ft. Determine:
(a) The minimum blocking capacitance Q required if error due to Q
must be less than 1 percent
(b) The gain required to obtain a voltage sensitivity of 50 mV/g
(c) The time constant if R = 100 MH
394 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

Figure E7.32

7.33 The PCB model 302A accelerometer listed in Table 7.1 is connected
to a power supply that has a 0.05-|jlF blocking capacitor and to an
oscilloscope that has a TO-MH input impedance.

(a) Show that the 3-dB down point in Fig. 7.51 occurs when wTi =
1.0.
(b) Show that the transfer function plots the same as the curve for Tj
= 107 in Fig. 7.51.
(c) At what value of w7i is the signal attenuated 5 percent?
(d) What is the effect of increasing the blocking capacitance to 5 fxF?

7.34 For the accelerometer of Exercise 7.33, determine the phase shift when
Cl = 0.05 |jlF and (a) = 0.1 and (b) coTi = 1.0. Compare your
results to Fig. 7.51^?.
7.35 The “pop test” illustrated in Fig. E7.35 provides a convenient means
for testing the overall performance of a pressure transducer. The pres¬
sure variation resulting from rupture of the diaphragm approaches a
step input; therefore, typical transducer response is as shown in Fig.
7.54. During a specific test, the first three peaks of Fig. 7.54 were 8.51,
7.19, and 6.37 mV, while the first three valleys were 0, 1.879, and 3.05
mV for an initial chamber pressure of 3.0 psig. The final steady-state
response was 5.0 mV. The three peaks occurred at 0.375, 0.875, and
1.375 ms, while the valleys occurred at 0, 0.50, and 1.00 ms. Show that

(a) The natural frequency of the transducer is 2000 Hz

(b) The damping is 7.5 percent
(c) The transducer sensitivity is 1.667 mV/psi

7.36 Compare the rise times calculated from Eq. (7.89) with those obtained
from the expression (1 - cos co„t) if (a) d = 5 percent and (b) d = 15
percent.
7.37 Show that Eq. (7.94) represents the electrical response of the cathode-
follower circuit to the rectangular input pulse of Fig. 7.57.
 EXERCISES 395

Figure E7.35

7.38 The triangular pulse in Table 7.7 has a form that can be expressed as

a{t) = —t for 0 ^ t ^
b

Show that the transient solution of Eq. (7.70) for this input is

RC
E, = ^ — (1 -

Show that the error in Table 7.7 can be estimated from the expression

1 b
—

2 RC

7.39 Use Eq. (7.97) to show that the effective time constant of Eq. (7.98)
can be obtained by equating the intitial slope of the actual response
curve to that for an equivalent circuit that can be expressed as

Eoe =

Compare results when (a) = T, (b) Tj = lOT, and (c) T = lOOTi.

7.40 A centrifuge is being designed to obtain a 60,000 g acceleration field
at a radius of 10.0 in.

(a) Determine the required speed of the centrifuge (rpm).

(b) Determine the bolt load for an accelerometer weighing 26 grams.
(c) Will a ife-in.-diameter brass bolt keep the accelerometer in place?

7.41 A traveling microscope with a least count of 0.0001 in. is used to measure
the peak-to-peak displacement during a sinusoidal calibration of an
accelerometer. The microscope is focused on an object having a di-
396 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

ameter of 0.0011 in., as shown in Fig. E7.41. For the readings shown,
determine the acceleration (in g’s) if the frequency of oscillation is

(a) 50 Hz
(b) 100 Hz
(c) 500 Hz
(d) 1000 Hz
(e) What is your estimate of the perent error in these measurements?
(f) Would any of these acceleration levels be difficult to obtain if the
moving mass weighs 0.35 lb and the vibration exciter can deliver
a maximum force of 100 lb?

7.42 Several calibration methods require accurate knowledge of the local

acceleration of gravity. A common method for obtaining this quantity
utilizes a simple pendulum (see Section 3.10). If a pendulum having a
length of 25 in. is used with a stopwatch that can be started and stopped
consistently within 0.15 s, which variable—pendulum length or period
of oscillation—must be measured most accurately? How can the 0.15-
s uncertainty in the period measurement be overcome? What shape
should the pendulum mass have so that its center of mass can most
easily be located accurately? Would increasing the pendulum length or
using multiple period measurements increase the accuracy of the meas¬
urement of g?
7.43 A Michelson interferometer with a helium-neon (\ = 632.8 nm) laser
light source is being used for the absolute calibration of an accelero¬
meter. The number of changes in intensity per vibration cycle was
recorded as 4008 at a frequency of oscillation of 750 Hz. The peak-to-
peak output voltage was 6370 mV. Determine:

(a) The acceleration (peak-to-peak)

(b) The voltage sensitivity of the transducer

7.44 Data obtained from four gravimetric calibration tests are listed below:

Test Number

1 2 3 4

Emg (mV) 46.6 46.5 46.7 46.5

F,(mV) 19.48 78.1 302 1162
E, (mV) 4.23 16.83 64.5 254.0

Determine the sensitivity of the accelerometer. After the tests were

conducted it was determined that the local acceleration of gravity was
31.30 ft/s^ instead of the nominal 32.17 ft/s^ What effect will this change
have on the previously determined values of 5„?
 EXERCISES 397

7.45 The RMS voltage ratio EflE^ versus calibration weight curve from
a typical sinusoidal calibration of a dynamic force gage is shown in Fig.
7.67. If a similar curve for a dynamic force gage being calibrated has
a slope of 6.08 g’s/lb and intersects the vertical axis at a value of 0.304
V/V, determine:

(a) The sensitivity of the force gage if the sensitivity of the acceler¬
ometer is 7.65 mV/g
(b) The weight of the seismic mass

7.46 In a dynamic force gage calibration test, the transducer sensitivity dial
of the charge amplifier being used with the accelerometer was set at b
= 1.00 and the transducer sensitivity dial of the charge amplifier being
used with the force gage was set at h = 0.276. The charge sensitivity
of the accelerometer is 2.76 pC/g. The feedback capacitor of the charge
amplifier being used with the accelerometer was set at 100 pF, while
that of the force transducer was set at 2000 pF. The slope of the EflE^
versus curve is 7.82 g’s/lb. Determine the charge sensitivity of the
force gage.
7.47 An impact hammer with attached force transducer is to be calibrated
by impacting a mass suspended as a pendulum, as shown in Fig. 7.69.
The sensitivity of the accelerometer is 3.65 mV/g. The peak voltage
ratio EfIEa versus pendulum weight Wp curve has a slope of 14.38 g’s/
lb. The hammer head weighed 0.165 lb and the hammer body weighed
0.769 lb during the calibration tests. Show that the voltage sensitivity
of the force gage is 52.5 mV/lb. At a later date, the weight of the
hammer head was increased to 0.611 lb and the weight of the body was
increased to 1.278 lb in order to obtain some desired impact force
characteristics. Show that the voltage sensitivity of the force gage changes
to 43.2 mV/lb.
7.48 A pressure transducer having a charge sensitivity of 1.46 pC/psi is to
be used with a charge amplifier to measure hydraulic pump pressures
that range from 100 to 1000 psi. The charge amplifier has a calibration
capacitor (Qai = 1000 pF), as shown in Fig. 7.48. The required voltage
sensitivity for this application is 5 mV/psi. Specify:
398 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENTS

(a) The transducer sensitivity setting b

(b) The feedback capacitor setting Cf (see Table 7.5 for standard val¬
ues)
(c) The peak calibration charges to simulate 100 psi and 1000 psi
(d) The peak calibration voltages required to simulate 100 psi and
1000 psi
(e) The anticipated calibration output voltages corresponding to the
two pressures

7.49 A Kistler model 912 force transducer is connected to the voltage in¬
sertion adaptor with a cable having a capacitance of 107 pF. The voltage
insertion adaptor is connected to the amplifier with a cable having a
capacitance of 356 pF. The amplifier has an input capacitance of 15 pF
and an effective resistance of 700 Mfi. The amplifier gain G can be
adjusted from 1 to 10 by using the method illustrated in Fig. E7.49.
The insertion adapter has a resistance of 16.2 fl. Determine;

(a) The calibration voltage requried to simulate a 55.0-lb load

(b) The minimum test frequency for which there is less than a 0.5
percent low-frequency attenuation
(c) The gain G required to yield a voltage sensitivity of 200 mV/lb
 ZD

TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENTS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Temperature, unlike other quantities such as length, time, or mass, is an

abstract quantity that must be defined in terms of the behavior of materials as
the temperature changes. Some examples of material behavior that have been
used in the measurement of temperature include change in volume of a liquid,
change in length of a bar, change in electrical resistance of a wire, change in
pressure of a gas at constant volume, and change in color of a lamp filament.
Temperature is related to the kinetic energy of the molecules at a localized
region in a body; however, these kinetic energies cannot be measured directly
and the temperature inferred. To circumvent this difficulty, the International
Practical Temperature Scale has been defined in terms of the behavior of a
number of materials at thermodynamic fixed points.
The International Practical Temperature Scale is based on six fixed points
that cover the temperature range from -183°C (-297°F) to 1065°C (1949°F).
These six points, each of which correspond to an equilibrium state during a
phase transformation of a particular material, are listed in Table 8.1.
400 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 8.1 The Six Primary Points of the International Practical Temperature
Scale

^ .... . ^ Temperature
Equilibrium State _
Material Phase Transformation °C °F

Oxygen Liquid-vapor -182.962 -297.33

Water" Solid-liquid-vapor 0.01 32.02
Water Liquid-vapor 100.00 212.00
Zinc Solid-liquid 419.58 787.24
Silver Solid-liquid 961.93 1763.47
Gold Solid-liquid 1064.43 1947.97

Triple point of water.

All of the primary fixed points with the exception of the triple point of water
are at a pressure of one standard atmosphere. The temperature, associated with
each of these thermodynamic states, is specified in degrees Celsius and converted
to degrees Fahrenheit when required for engineering applications. Other sec¬
ondary fixed points are listed in Table 8.2.
Between the fixed points (both primary and secondary), the temperature
is defined by the response of specified temperature sensors and interpolation
equations. The scale is divided into four ranges with the sensors, fixed points,
and temperature span prescribed as indicated in Table 8.3.
The International Practical Temperature Scale is an empirical reference that
is used to substitute for the direct measurement of the kinetic energy of a
molecule. The scale will change with time as scientists improve sensors and other
apparatus. However, for engineering purposes, the accuracy of the existing scale
(1968) is more than adequate. Of more importance to engineering applications

TABLE 8.2 Other Secondary Points of the International Practical Temper¬

ature Scale

Equilibrium State Temperature

Phase
Material Transformation °C °F

Hydrogen Solid-liquid-vapor -259.34 -434.81

Hydrogen Liquid-vapor -252.87 -423.17
Neon Liquid-vapor -218.789 -361.820
Water Liquid-solid 0 32
Tin Liquid-solid 231.9681 449.5426
Lead Liquid-solid 327.502 621.504
Sulfur Liquid-vapor 444.6 832.3
Antimony Liquid-solid 630.74 1167.33
Aluminum Liquid-solid 660.37 1220.67
 8,2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 401

TABLE 8.3 Temperature Range, Sensors, and Interpolation Equations for the
International Practical Temperature Scale

Temperature
Range (°C) Sensor Fixed Point Equation

-190 to 0 Platinum thermome- Oxygen, ice, steam, Reference equa-

ter sulfur tion
0 to 660 Platinum thermome¬ Ice, steam, sulfur Parabola
ter
660 to 1063 10% rhodium plati¬ Antimony, silver, Parabola
num thermocouple gold
Above 1063 Optical pyrometer — Planck’s Law

is the selection of the temperature sensor, its installation, the instrumentation

system for recording and displaying the output signal, and the use of the tem¬
perature data in product design or process control. This chapter deals with the
issues of importance to the measurement of temperature for engineering appli¬
cations.

8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS

Resistance thermometers consist of a sensor element that exhibits a change

in resistance with any change in temperature, a signal conditioning circuit that
converts the resistance change to an output voltage, and appropriate instru¬
mentation to record and display the output voltage. Two different types of
sensors are normally employed: resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and
thermistors.
Resistance temperature detectors are simple resistive elements formed of
such materials as platinum, nickel, or a nickel-copper alloy known commercially
as Balco.^ These materials exhibit a positive coefficient of resistivity and are
used in RTDs because they are stable and provide a reproducible response to
temperature over long periods of time.
Thermistors are fabricated from semiconducting materials such as oxides
of manganese, nickel, or cobalt. These semiconducting materials, which are
formed into the shape of a small bead by sintering, exhibit a high negative
coefficient of resistivity. In some special applications, where very high accuracy
is required, doped silicon or germanium is used as the thermistor material.
The equations governing the response of RTDs and thermistors to a tem¬
perature change and the circuits used to condition their outputs are different,
therefore, they will be treated separately in the following subsections.

’ Balco is a trade name for a product of the W. B. Driver Co.

402 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

A typical RTD consists of a wire coil for a sensor with a framework for
support and a sheath for protection, a linearizing circuit, a Wheatstone bridge,
and a voltage display instrument. The sensor is a resistive element that exhibits
a resistance-temperature relationship given by the expression

R = R„i\ + 7,r + + • • • + (8.1)

where 7i, 72. • • 7«are temperature coefficients of resistivity.

/?„ is the resistance of the sensor at a reference temperature T„.

The reference temperature is usually specified as = 0°C.

The number of terms retained in Eq. (8.1) for any application depends
upon the material used in the sensor, the range of temperature, and the accuracy
required in the measurement. Resistance-temperature curves for platinum, nickel,
and copper, which illustrate the nonlinearity in resistance R with temperature
T for each of these materials, are shown in Fig. 8.1. For a limited range of
temperature, the linear form of Eq. (8.1) is often used to relate resistance change
to temperature change. Equation (8.1) is then expressed as

(8.2)

When error due to the neglect of nonlinear terms becomes excessive, either
linearizing circuits can be used to compensate for the nonlinearities, or additional
terms can be retained from Eq. (8.1) to relate the measured A.R to the unknown
temperature T. Retaining the temperature coefficients 71 and 72 from Eq. (8.1)

Nickel

Copper
o

0I2-1-1-1_1_I_

-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature (°C)

Figure 8.1 Resistance-temperature curves for nickel, copper, and platinum.

 8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 403

yields the second-order relationship

^ = y,{T - TJ + y,iT - (8.3)

Equation (8.3) is more cumbersome to employ in practice but provides accurate

results over a wider temperature range.
Sensing elements are available in a wide variety of forms. The different
RTD sensors shown in Fig. 8.2 illustrate the wide range of commercially avail¬
able products. One widely used sensor consists of a high-purity platinum wire
wound on a ceramic core. The element is stress relieved after winding, immo¬
bilized against strain, and artificially aged during fabrication to provide for long¬
term stability. Drift is usually less than 0.1°C when such a sensor is used at its
upper temperature limit.
The sensing element is usually protected by a sheath fabricated from stain¬
less steel, glass, or a ceramic. Such sheaths are made pressure tight to protect
the sensing element from the corrosive effects of both moisture and the process
medium.
Lead wires from the sensor exit from the sheath through a specially designed

Figure 8.2 Selection of resistance temperature detectors. (Courtesy of Omega

Engineering, Ire.)
404 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

seal. The method of sealing between the sheath and the lead wires depends on
the upper temperature limit of the sensor. Epoxy cements are used for the low-
temperature range (<260°C), while glass and ceramic cements are used for the
high-temperature range (>260°C). Since the temperature at the sheath exit is
usually much lower than the process temperature being monitored, lead wires
insulated with Teflon or impregnated fiberglass are often suitable for use with
process temperatures as high as 750°C (1380°F).
The sensors shown in Fig. 8.2 are immersion type transducers that are
inserted in the medium to measure fluid temperatures. The response time in
this application is relatively long (between 1 and 5 s is required to approach 100
percent response). This relatively long response time for immersion thermom¬
eters is not usually a serious concern, since the rate of change of liquid tem¬
peratures in most processes is relatively slow.
Resistance temperature detectors can also be employed to measure tem¬
peratures on the surface of an object by using a different type of sensor. Re¬
sistance temperature detectors for surface temperature measurements utilize
either a thin-wire element, such as the one shown in Fig. 8.3, or a thin-film
element that resembles an electrical resistance strain gage and is fabricated by
using the photoetching process developed in recent years to produce high-quality
strain gages. The foil sensors are available on either polyimide or glass-fiber-
reinforced epoxy resin carriers. The wire models are available with either teflon
or phenolic-glass carriers or as free filaments. The sensors with carriers are
bonded to the surface with an adhesive suitable for the temperature range to
be encountered. The free filaments are normally mounted by flame spraying.
The response time of a thin-film sensor compares favorably with a small ther¬
mocouple; therefore, measurement of rapidly changing surface temperatures is
possible.
An example of a bondable type of dual-grid resistance temperature detector
is shown in Fig. 8.4. This construction detail shows two thin-foil sensing elements
connected in series and laminated in a glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy resin matrix.
One of the two sensing elements is fabricated from nickel and the other from
manganin. These two materials were selected since they exhibit equal but op¬
posite nonlinearities in their resistance-temperature characteristics over a sig¬
nificant temperature range. By connecting the nickel and manganin in series,
the nonlinear effects cancel and the composite sensor provides a linear response

Figure 8.3Resistance temperature detector for surface temperature

measurements. (Courtesy of BLH Electronics.)
 8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 405

BASE MANGANIN GRIDS

Figure 8.4 Cryogenic linear temperature sensor. (Courtesy of Micro-Measurements.)

with respect to temperature over the temperature range from - 269°C (- 452°F)
to 24°C (75°F). The bondable RTD is fabricated with integral printed-circuit
terminals to provide for easy attachment of the lead wires.
The output from a resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a resistance
change AR/R that can be conveniently monitored with a Wheatstone bridge, as
illustrated schematically in Fig. 8.5. The RTD is installed in one arm of the
bridge, a decade resistance box is placed in an adjacent arm, and a matched
pair of precsion resistors are inserted in the remaining arms to complete the
bridge. Careful consideration must be given to the lead wires since any resistance
change AR/R in the lead wires will produce an error in the readout. With the
three-lead-wire arrangement shown in Fig. 8.5, any temperature-induced re¬
sistance change in the lead wires is canceled. The Wheatstone bridge shown in
Fig. 8.5 can be balanced by adjusting the decade resistance box. In the null
position, the reading on the box is exactly equal to the resistance of the RTD.
The temperature is then determined from a table of resistance versus temper¬
ature for the specific RTD being used. Care must also be exercised in powering
the bridge to avoid excessive currents in the sensor. If the excitation voltage is
excessive, errors will occur due to self-heating of the sensor. This problem can
be avoided by maintaining excitation at 0.25 V or less. Fortunately, the resistance
change with temperature in the RTD is large; therefore, adequate resolution of
temperature can be achieved with very low excitation voltages.
406 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Wire 1

1000 Q, maximum in O.OI fl steps

Figure 8.5 Wheatstone-bridge circuit with lead-wire compensation and manual reading
of the output from a resistance temperature detector.

Another circuit that can be employed for automatic readout is the constant-
current potentiometer circuit shown in Fig. 8.6. The output voltage E IR
from this circuit can be monitored with a digital voltmeter. If a constant current
of 1 mA is supplied to the sensor, the output of the digital voltmeter converts
easily to resistance (R = E/I). The temperature is then determined from a
resistance-temperature table for the sensor. Errors due to resistance changes in
the lead wires are also eliminated by using the four-lead-wire system shown in
Fig. 8.6 when of the DVM is high.
The circuits shown in Figs. 8.5 and 8.6 provide simple and accurate methods
for measuring the sensor resistance. However, since the sensor resistance R is
a nonlinear function of temperature T, as shown in Fig. 8.7, tables must be used
to relate the measured resistance to the temperature. This tabular conversion
procedure is time-consuming and prevents direct display of the temperature on
a strip-chart recorder or other instrument.
The nonlinear response of the bonded RTD can be significantly improved
by utilizing the simple shunting circuit illustrated in Fig. 8.8. A shunt resistor,
having a resistance value three times that of the sensor resistance, improves the
linearity but reduces the output of the sensor, as shown in Fig. 8.7. Fortunately,
this reduction in output is not a serious disadvantage because of the very high
signal output from a typical RTD. Use of a shunt resistor in the circuit does not

Constant-
current
power
supply

Figure 8.6 Constant-current potentiometer circuit with lead-wire compensation and au¬
tomatic reading of the output from an RTD sensor.
 8,2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 407
Resistance (f2)

Figure 8.7 Response of nickel foil resistance temperature detectors.

completely compensate for the nonlinear relationship between sensor resistance

and temperature; however, the deviation from linearity is small and within
acceptable limits for many applications. The deviation from linearity for a typical
RTD in a shunt circuit over the temperature range from - 196°C (- 320°F) to
260°C (500°F) is shown in Fig. 8.9.
Four common errors encountered during use of RTDs for temperature
measurements result from lead-wire effects, stability, self-heating, and sensitivity
of the RTD to strain. Lead-wire errors can be minimized by making the lead
wires as short as possible. The total resistance of a two-wire system should always
be less than 1 percent of the sensor resistance. The effect of lead-wire resistance
is to increase the apparent resistance of the sensor and thus cause a zero shift
(offset) and a reduction in sensitivity. The error due to temperature-induced
resistance changes in the lead wires is usually small enough to be neglected. For
example, a temperature change of 10°C (18°F) over the entire length of a two-

Shunt Constant current

resistor power supply
R, = 3R„

Figure 8.8 Shunt method for improving the linearity of bonded RTD sensors.
408 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 8.9 Deviation from linearity for a 50-0 RTD sensor with a 150-0 shunt resistor
when the sensor is bonded to 1018 steel. (Courtesy of Micro-Measurements.)

wire circuit (7?^ = 0.5 O) with a 50-0 nickel sensor will produce an apparent
temperature offset of only 0.2°C (0.4°F). All error due to lead wires can be
eliminated by using either the three- or four-wire circuits illustrated in Figs. 8.5
or 8.6.
Stability of the sensors is usually assured by aging of the elements during
the manufacturing process. Stability may become a source of error when the
upper temperature limit of the sensor is exceeded either by design or accident.
Anytime the upper temperature limit of a sensor is exceeded, any new temper¬
ature measurements should be repeated until stable and reproducible readings
are obtained. Stability can also be affected by the polymeric carrier used with
bondable RTDs. These carriers have a finite life and lose their strength at
temperatures in excess of 120°C (250°F).
Self-heating errors are produced when excitation voltages or currents are
used in the signal conditioning circuits. Usually there is no reason for large
excitation signals, since an RTD is a high-output sensor (a typical output is 0.9
mV/V • °C or 0.5 mV/V • °F). Self-heating errors can be minimized by limiting
the power dissipation in the RTD to less than 2 mW. In those applications where
small temperature changes are to be measured and very high sensitivity is re¬
quired, sensors with large surface areas should be employed. These sensors with
large surface areas can dissipate larger amounts of heat; therefore, higher ex¬
citation voltages can be used without introducing self-heating errors.
Bonded RTD sensors resemble strain gages and, in fact, they respond to
strain. Fortunately, the strain sensitivity of the sensor is small in comparison to
the temperature sensitivity. A bonded RTD with a nickel sensor exhibits an
apparent temperature change of 1.7°C (3°F) when subjected to an axial tensile
strain of 1000 |xm/m along the filaments of the gage grid. The magnitude of the
strain effect is such that it can be neglected in most applications.

Thermistors
Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors fabricated from semicon¬
ducting materials, such as oxides of nickel, cobalt, or manganese and sulfides
of iron, aluminum, or copper. Thermistors with improved stability are obtained
 8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 409

when oxide systems of manganese-nickel, manganese-nickel-cobalt, or man¬

ganese-nickel-iron are used. Conduction is controlled by the concentration of
oxygen in the oxide semiconductors. An excess or deficiency of oxygen from
exact stoichiometric requirements results in lattice imperfections known as Schottky
defects and Frankel defects. N-type oxide semiconductors are produced when
the metal oxides are compounded with a deficiency of oxygen that results in
excess ionized metal atoms in the lattice (Frankel defects). P-type oxide semi¬
conductors are produced when there is an excess of oxygen that results in a
deficiency of ionized metal atoms in the lattice (Schottky defects).
Semiconducting materials, unlike metals, exhibit a decrease in resistance
with an increase in temperature. The resistance-temperature relationship for a
thermistor can be expressed as

In {RIR,) = p(l/r - l/TJ

or

R = R,e^^^''^ - (8.4)

where R is the resistance of the thermistor at temperature T.

Rg is the resistance of the thermistor at reference temperature T^.
P is a material constant that ranges from 3000 K to 5000 K.
T and T„ are absolute temperatures, K.

The sensitivity 5 of a thermistor is obtained from Eq. (8.4) as

^R/R _ p (8.5)
AT '

For p = 4000 K and T - 298 K, the sensitivity S equals -0.045/K, which is

more than an order of magnitude higher than the sensitivity of a platinum
resistance thermometer (S = +0.0036/K). The very high sensitivity of ther¬
mistors results in a large output signal and good accuracy and resolution in
temperature measurements. For example, a typical thermistor with R^ = 2000
n and a sensitivity S = -0.04/K exhibits a response Ai^/AT = 80 fi/K. This
very large resistance change can be converted to a voltage with a simple bridge
circuit. The voltage change associated with a temperture change as small as
0.0005 K can be easily and accurately monitored.
Equation (8.4) indicates that the resistance 7? of a thermistor decreases
exponentially with an increase in temperature. Typical response curves for a
family of thermistors is shown in Fig. 8.10. Since the output from the thermistor
is nonlinear, precise determinations of temperature must be made by measuring
the resistance R and using a calibration table similar to the one presented in
Appendix A (Table A.l). Linearity of the output can be improved by using
modifying potentiometer and/or bridge circuits; however, these circuits reduce
the sensitivity and the output of the thermistor.
 410 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
Resistance Ratio R/R

Temperature °C

Figure 8.10 Resistance as a function of temperature for different thermistors (Tq = 25°C).
(Courtesy of Thermometries, Inc.)
 8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 411

Thermistors are produced by mixing two or more semiconducting oxide

powders with a binder to form a slurry. Small drops (beads) of the slurry are
formed over the lead wires, dried, and fired in a sintering furnace. During
sintering, the metallic oxides shrink onto the lead wires and form an excellent
electrical connection. The beads are then hermetically sealed by coating the
beads with glass. The glass coating improves stability of the thermistor by elim¬
inating water absorption into the metallic oxide. Thermistor beads, such as those
shown in Fig. 8.11, are available in diameters that range from 0.005 in. (0.125
mm) to 0.060 in. (1.5 mm). Thermistors are also produced in the form of disks,
wafers, flakes, rods, and washers to provide sensors of the size and shape re¬
quired for a wide variety of applications.
A large variety of thermistors are commercially available with resistances
at the reference temperature that vary from a few ohms to several megohms.
When a thermistor is selected for a particular application, the minimum resist¬
ance at high temperature must be sufficient to avoid overloading of the readout
device. Similarly, the maximum resistance at low temperature must not be so
high that noise pickup becomes a serious problem. Thermistors having a resist¬
ance Ro = 3000 Cl that varies from a low of about 2000 fl to a high of 5000 Cl
over the temperature range are commonly employed.
Thermistors can be used to measure temperatures from a few degrees above
absolute zero to about 315°C (600°F). They can be used at higher temperatures,
but the stability begins to decrease significantly above this limit. The range of
a thermistor is usually limited to about 100°C (180°F), particularly, if it is part
of an instrumentation system with a readout device that has been compensated
to provide nearly linear output. The accuracy of thermistors depends upon the
techniques employed for the measurement of AR/R and for the calibration of
the sensor. With proper techniques and glass-bead thermistors, temperatures of
125°C can be measured with an accuracy of O.OrC. Long-term drift data indicate
that stabilities better than 0.003°C/year, when cycled between 20 and 125°C, can
be achieved.
The accuracy of the measurement of temperature with a thermistor depends
on the instrumentation system employed and the method used to account for
the nonlinear response. Both Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer circuits can
be used to determine the resistance changes in a thermistor resulting from a
change in temperature.
Use of a thermistor as the active element in a Wheatstone bridge is shown
schematically in Fig. 8.12^. If the Wheatstone bridge is initially balanced (Rj^R^
= R2R4) and if resistors R2, R3, and R4 are fixed-value precision resistors, then
the output voltage AE^ produced by a temperature-induced change in resistance
ARt in the thermistor is given by Eq. (4.19) as

AE, ^ _ARrR^_
(8.6)
Ei ~ (Rt + ^Rt + ^2)(^3 + ^4)
412 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

"N

Figure 8.11 Bead-type thermistors. (Courtesy of Thermometries, Inc.)

 8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 413

Thermistor

Figure 8.12 Constant-voltage Wheatstone bridge and potentiometer circuits used with
thermistors, (a) Wheatstone-bridge circuit, (b) Potentiometer circuit.

For the common case where R2 = R3. and Rj^ = /? , Eq. (8.6) reduces to
4

_ARt/Rt_
E, “ (1 + ^Rt/Rt + + Rt/Ri)

_ARr/Rj_
(8.7)
~ 2 + RjIRi + RiIRt + ARtIRt + ARr/R2

For thermistors, the terms AR^/Rt and ARr/R2 in the denominator of Eq. (8.7)
are not small with respect to the other terms; therefore, they cannot be neglected
to simplify the solution of the equation for ARj-IR^. Consequently, the output
from the Wheatstone bridge is also a nonlinear function of the change in ther¬
mistor resistance, and the determination of AR^IRt from the bridge output
voltage is not trivial. For the special case of an equal-arm bridge {R^ = R2 ~
/?3 = R4), Eq. (8.7) reduces to a simpler form and the change in thermistor
resistance can be expressed in terms of the bridge output voltage AE„ as

ARr _ 4AE„/£,
(8.8)
R-r ~ 1 - 2AEJEi

The thermistor resistance at any temperature T is then given by the simple

expression

R* = R^ + ARr = /?r(l + ^RtIRt) (8-9)

Substituting Eq. (8.8) into Eq. (8.9) yields

1 -b 2AE„IEi
R^ = Rt (8.10)
1 - 2AEJE,
414 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

The value of obtained from Eq. (8.10) is converted to temperature by using

tables that list T as a function of for the specific thermistor being used. This
procedure accounts for nonlinearities in both the bridge and the thermistor.
If the constant-voltage supply to the equal-arm Wheatstone bridge (R2, R^,
and /?4are fixed-value resistors) is replaced with a constant-current supply, the
output voltage produced by a temperature-induced change in resistance
ARf in the thermistor is given by Eq. (4.33) as

_ Rl ARr
(8.11)
I AR-j- -l- ARj- Rj-

Also, since the voltage drop Ej across the thermistor equals IRj^, Eq. (8.11) can
be expressed in terms of the voltage drop E^ as

^ _ 1
(8.12)
Ej A A- ARflR^ Rf

Solving Eq. (8.12) for A/? -//? - yields

7 7

ARt _ AAEJEr
(8.13)
Rr ~ 1 - ^EJE-r

Substituting Eq. (8.13) into Eq. (8.9) gives the resistance R\ as

/l + 3AE,/eA
R *T (8.14)
V1 - b.EJEj)

A comparison of Eqs. (8.10) and (8.14) shows that the nonlinearity of the Wheat¬
stone bridge has been improved by using a constant-current supply; however,
the nonlinearity remains significant and the resistance R\ must be converted to
temperature by using the appropriate conversion table for the thermistor.
Potentiometer circuits can also be employed to convert the resistance change
LRj of the thermistor to a voltage change AE^. If the thermistor is placed in
position R2 of the potentiometer circuit, as shown in Fig. 8.12^>, Eq. (4.2) in¬
dicates that

A£o (1 4.

Ei
1
(8.15)

\ j. (^Et/Rt)

1 + r(l + ARt/Rt)
 8.2 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 415

where r = R^IRi- Equation (8.15) again shows the presence of nonlinear terms
that may be significant. For the special case of r = 1, Eq. (8.15) reduces to

^ _ _ 4AEJE,
(8.16)
Rt ~ 1 + 2^EJE,

The resistance of the thermistor R"^ is obtained by substituting Eq. (8.16) into
Eq. (8.9). Thus

/l - 2AE„/E,\
R^ = Rr (8.17)
U + 2AE,/Ej

A comparison of Eq. (8.17) for the potentiometer circuit with Eq. (8.10) for
the Wheatstone-bridge circuit shows that the equations are identical except for
the signs of the AE^/E, terms. Since AE^/E, can be either positive or negative,
depending on the direction (increase or decrease) of the temperature change,
the two equations are identical in form; therefore, one circuit has no advantage
over the other.
A simple circuit for determining thermistor resistance is shown in Fig. 8.13.
This circuit employs a constant-current power supply directly across the ther¬
mistor. Since the output voltage E„ equals IR^, the voltage change ts.E^IE^ is
given by the simple expression

AE^ _ ^
(8.18)
Eo ~ Rt

Substituting Eq. (8.18) into Eq. (8.9) yields

R* = E^(l + AE„/EJ (8.19)

Thus, the simple circuit shown in Fig. 8.13 exhibits a linear relationship between
output voltage and sensor resistance; therefore, the simple circuit is superior to
the more traditional Wheatstone-bridge and potentiometer circuits for temper¬
ature measurements with thermistors if the accuracy obtained with the DVM is
sufficient and if regulation of the constant-current power supply is adequate.
Many modified bridge and potentiometer circuits have been developed to lin¬
earize the output of the thermistor. Some of these circuits are covered in the
exercises at the end of the chapter.
When thermistors are used to measure temperature, errors resulting from
lead-wire effect are usually small enough to be neglected even for relatively long

Figure 8.13 Constant-current potentiometer

circuit used with thermistors.
416 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

lead wires. The sensitivity of a thermistor is high; therefore, the change in

resistance A/? - resulting from a temperature change is much greater than the
7

small change in resistance of the lead wires due to the temperature variation.
Also, the resistance of the thermistor is very large relative to the resistance of
the lead wires {RjIRi^ ~ 1000); consequently, any reduction in sensitivity of the
sensor due to lead-wire resistance is negligible.
Errors may occur as a result of self-heating since the power {P — PRt)
dissipated in the thermistor will heat it above its ambient temperature. Rec¬
ommended practice limits the current flow through the thermistor to a value
such that the temperature rise due to the PRj power dissipation is smaller than
the precision to which the temperature is to be measured. A typical thermistor
with Rj- = 5000 ft is capable of dissipating 1 mW/°C above the ambient tem¬
perature. Thus, if the temperature is to be determined with an accuracy of 0.5°C,
the power to be dissipated should be limited to less than 0.5 mW. This limitation
establishes a maximum value for the current / at

I = ^/PTRr = VO.0005/5000 - 316(10-^)A = 316 p.A

In this example, it would be prudent to limit the current 1 to approximately 100

|jlA. Adequate response can be obtained, even at these low currents, because
the sensitivity of a thermistor is so very high. Precise measurements of can
be made easily with a digital millivoltmeter.

8.3 EXPANSION THERMOMETERS

The expansion (or contraction) per unit length A///of a material experiencing
an increase (or decrease) in temperature AT is given by the expression

A/// = a^T (8.20)

where a is the thermal coefficient of expansion of the material. Since a is very

small for metals (it ranges from 1 to 26 |xm/m • °C), direct measurement of A/
to infer AT is difficult. In order to circumvent this sensitivity problem, devices
that utilize the differential expansion between two different materials have been
developed to measure temperature change AT. Devices of this type include the
familiar liquid-in-glass thermometer, bonded bimetallic strips of two metals, and
pressure thermometers. Each of these devices is described in the following sub¬
sections.

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
The well-known and widely used glass thermometer provides a simple,
convenient, and inexpensive means for measuring temperature in many appli¬
cations. The thermometer consists of an indexed glass capillary tube with a bulb
at one end to hold a supply of fluid. The fluids commonly used are mercury and
 8.3 EXPANSION THERMOMETERS 417

alcohol. Mercury can be used for temperatures between — 39°C ( —38°F) and
538°C (1000°F). When a lower temperature limit is needed, alcohol permits
measurements at temperatures as low as — 62°C ( —80°F); pentane can be used
for measurements as low as — 218°C ( —360°F).
Glass thermometers are designed for either partial or full immersion. As
the name implies, full-immersion thermometers are calibrated to read correctly
when the thermometer is completely immersed in the fluid whose temperature
is being measured. Partial-immersion types are marked and should be immersed
only to the depth indicated by the immersion mark.
The accuracy that can be achieved with a glass thermometer depends upon
the quality and range of the particular thermometer being used. Also, strict
attention must be paid to immersion requirements, since corrections must be
made when these requirements are not satisfied. With a good-quality, full-im¬
mersion thermometer having a range from 0°C to 100°C, the temperature can
be determined to within ±0.1°C.
Glass thermometers provide a low-cost means for measuring temperatures
with reasonable accuracy over the range from about -200°C to 500°C. Since
the readout is visual, they are not used in automatic data systems or in auto¬
matically controlled processes in industry.

Bimetallic Thermometers
The sensing element in a bimetallic thermometer consists of a bonded com¬
posite of two materials, as illustrated in Fig. 8.14. Materials is usually a copper-
based alloy with a large coefficient of thermal expansion, while material B is
usually Invar (a nickel steel), which has a very small coefficient of thermal
expansion. When the bonded bimetallic strip is subjected to a temperature
change, the differential expansion causes it to bend into a circular arc. The radius
of curvature of the arc is given by the expression

[3(1 + 6)^ + (1 + ee)(e^ + l/9c)]f . .

6(a^ - a5)(l + ej^AT

where 0 = G/G is the thickness ratio.

e = Eg/E^ is the modulus ratio.

Bimetallic elements in the form of cantilever beams, spirals, washers, and helixes
are inexpensive and deform significantly with relatively small changes in tem¬
perature; therefore, they are used in a wide variety of temperature sensing and
temperature control devices. In thermostats, they are used to control temper-

~r
t
; Material A

' to Material B
1 ‘B

Figure 8.14 Beam-type bimetalic element.

418 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

ature by switching the heat source on and off. As overload switches in electrical
equipment, they are activated by excessive current flows and turn off the equip¬
ment. Finally, they are often used in conjunction with a linear-displacement
sensor such as a potentiometer or linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT)
to provide a temperature indicating instrument.
The accuracy of bimetallic thermometers varies; therefore, they are usually
used in control applications where low cost is more important than accuracy.
For those applications where accuracy is important, high-quality bimetallic ther¬
mometers are available with guaranteed accuracies of about 1 percent.

Pressure Thermometers
A typical pressure thermometer, illustrated schematically in Fig. 8.15, con¬
sists of a bulb filled with a liquid such as mercury or xylene, a capillary tube,
and a pressure sensor. When the bulb is subjected to a temperature change,
both the bulb and the fluid experience a volume change. The differential volume
change AF^ is proportional to the temperature change AT. In a closed system
completely filled with liquid under an initial pressure, the pressure changes in
response to the differential volume change. The pressure is transmitted through
the capillary tube to a pressure measuring transducer, such as a bourdon tube,
bellows, or diaphragm. Movement of the bourdon tube or bellows can be trans¬
mitted through a suitable linkage system to a pointer whose position relative to
a calibrated scale gives an indication of the temperature. The bourdon tube or
bellows can also be used with a potentiometer or linear variable-differential
transformer (LVDT) to construct a temperature measuring and recording in¬
strument. Similarly, an electrical resistance strain gage on a diaphragm provides
the sensor for a temperature measuring and recording instrument.
The dynamic response of a pressure thermometer is poor because of the
thermal lag associated with the mass of fluid in the bulb; therefore, such in¬
struments cannot be used to measure temperatures in fluids undergoing rapid
changes in temperature. The pressure thermometer can, however, provide a
 8.4 THERMOCOUPLES 419

simple, low-cost, reliable, and trouble-free method of measuring temperature

in systems undergoing relatively slow changes in temperature.
Pressure thermometers filled with mercury cover the range from - 39°C to
538°C (-38°F to 1000°F), while those filled with xylene are used for the range
from - 100°C to 400°C (- 150°F to 750°F). The response is linear over a large
portion of the range. Capillary tubes as long as 60 m (200 ft) have been used
sucessfully for remote measurements. Temperature variations along the capillary
tube and at the pressure sensing device require compensation. A common com¬
pensation scheme utilizes an auxiliary pressure sensor and capillary tube. Bimetal
elements can also be used to effect partial compensation. The accuracy of pres¬
sure thermometers under the best of conditions is approximately ±0.5 percent
of the scale range.

8.4 THERMOCOUPLES
A thermocouple is a very simple temperature sensor, consisting essentially
of two dissimilar wires in thermal contact, as indicated in Fig. 8.16(3. The op¬
eration of a thermocouple is based on the Seebeck effect, which results in the
generation of a thermoelectric potential when two dissimilar metals are joined
together to form a junction. The thermoelectric effect is produced by diffusion
of electrons across the interface between the two materials. The electric potential
of the material accepting electrons becomes negative at the interface, while the
potential of the material providing the electrons becomes positive. Thus, an
electric field is established by the flow of electrons across the interface. When
this electric field becomes sufficient to balance the diffusion forces, a state of
equilibrium with respect to electron migration is established. Since the magnitude
of the diffusion force is controlled by the temperature of the thermocouple
junction, the electric potential developed at the junction provides a measure of
the temperature.
The electric potential is usually measured by introducing a second junction
in an electric circuit, as shown in Fig. 8.16^, and measuring the voltage across
one leg with a suitable voltmeter. The voltage across terminals M-N can be

Material A Material A

Material B M N

Figure 8.16 Thermocouple sensor and circuit for measuring the temperature difference
Tj - Tj. (a) Single junction, (b) Dual junction.
 420 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

represented approximately by an empirical equation having the form

= C,iT, - T,) + C^{T\ - Tl) (8.22)

where Cj and C are thermoelectric constants that depend on the materials

2

used to form the junctions.

Tl and T2 are junction temperatures.

In practice, junction 1 is used to sense an unknown temperature Tj, while

junction 2 is maintained at a known reference temperature T2. Since the ref¬
erence temperature T2 is known, it is possible to determine the unknown tem¬
perature Tl by measuring the voltage E„. It is clear from Eq. (8.22) that the
response of a thermocouple is a nonlinear function of the temperature. Also,
experience has shown that Eq. (8.22) is not a sufficiently accurate representation
of the voltage-temperature relationship to be used with confidence when precise
measurements of temperature are required. For this reason, thermocouples are
calibrated over the complete range of temperature for which they are useful and
tables are obtained which can be used to relate temperature Tj to the thermo¬
electric voltage E^. Thermocouple tables are presented in Appendix A for iron-
constantan (Table A.2), Chromel-Alumel (Table A.3), Chromel-constantan (Table
A.4), and copper-constantan (Table A.5) thermocouples. It is important to note
that the reference temperature is T2 = 0°C (32°F) in these tables.

Reference Junction Temperature

Since a thermocouple circuit responds to a temperature difference {T^ -
T2), it is essential that the reference junction be maintained at a constant and
accurately known temperature Tj. Four common methods are used to maintain
the reference temperature.
The simplest and most popular technique utilizes an ice and water bath, as
illustrated in Fig. 8.17. The reference junction is immersed in a mixture of ice
and water in a thermos bottle that is capped to prevent heat loss and temperature

Thermos bottle and cap

Material A Copper

Measuring
junction
Material B
Ip Copper

Reference Readout
junction

Figure 8.17 The ice bath method for maintaining a reference temperature at 0°C (32°F).
 8.4 THERMOCOUPLES 421

gradients. Water (sufficient only to fill the voids) must be removed and ice must
be replaced periodically to maintain a constant reference temperture. Such an
ice bath can maintain the water temperature (and thus the reference tempera¬
ture) to within 0.1°C (0.2°F) of the freezing point of water.
A very-high-quality reference temperature source is available that employs
thermoelectric refrigeration (Peltier cooling effect). Thermocouple wells in this
unit contain air-saturated water that is maintained at precisely 0°C (32°F). The
outer walls of the wells are cooled by the thermoelectric refrigeration elements
until freezing of the water in the wells begins. The increase in volume of the
water as it begins to freeze on the walls of the wells expands a bellows that
contacts a microswitch and deactivates the refrigeration elements. The cyclic
freezing and thawing of the ice on the walls of the wells accurately maintains
the temperature of the wells at 0°C (32°F). This automatic and precise control
of temperature can be maintained over extended periods of time.
The electrical-bridge method, illustrated in Fig. 8.18, is usually used with
potentiometric, strip-chart, recording devices to provide automatic compensa¬
tion for reference junctions that are free to follow ambient temperature con¬
ditions. This method incorporates a Wheatstone bridge with a resistance tem¬
perature detector (RTD) as the active element into the thermocouple circuit.
The RTD and the reference junctions of the thermocouple are mounted on a
reference block that is free to follow the ambient temperature. As the ambient
temperature of the reference block varies, the RTD changes resistance. The
bridge is designed to produce an output voltage that is equal but opposite to
the voltage developed in the thermocouple circuit as a result of the changes in
temperature Tj from 32°F (0°C). Thus, the electrical-bridge method automati¬
cally compensates for changing ambient conditions. This method is widely used
with potentiometric recording devices that are used to display one or more

Figure 8.18 The electrical-bridge method of compensation for changes in the reference
temperature.
 422 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Oven at Oven at Readout

65.5°C 130°C

Figure 8.19 Double oven method for reference junction control.

temperatures over long periods of time when it is obviously not practical to

maintain the simple ice bath.
A different type of reference temperature control is obtained by using an
oven that maintains a fixed temperature higher than any expected ambient
temperature. This system is practical when heating is more easily obtained than
cooling; however, the thermoelectric voltage-temperature tables must be cor¬
rected for the higher reference junction temperature. A popular technique,
which eliminates the need for reference junction temperature corrections, em¬
ploys two ovens at different temperatures, as illustrated in Fig. 8.19, to simulate
a reference temperature of 0°C (32°F). In the example shown in Fig. 8.19, each
of the junctions (one Chromel-Alumel and one Alumel-Chromel) in the first
oven produces a voltage of 2.66 mV at an oven temperature of 65.5°C (150°F).
This total voltage of 5.32 mV is canceled by the double junction of Alumel-
copper and copper-Chromel in the second oven at a temperature of 130°C
(266°F). The net effect of the four junctions in the two ovens is to produce the
thermoelectric equivalent of a single reference junction at a temperature of 0°C
(32°F).

Thermoelectric Behavior
The thermoelectric behavior of a thermocouple is based on a combination
of the Seebeck effect, the Thompson effect, and the Peltier effect. A complete
explanation of the contribution of each of these effects to thermocouple behavior
requires a thorough understanding of thermodynamics and several aspects of
physics. No attempt is made here to describe in detail why a thermocouple circuit
produces a given voltage. Instead, emphasis is placed on the practical aspects
of employing thermocouples to measure a wide range of temperatures with good
accuracy and at low cost.
The practical use of thermocouples is based on six operating principles that
are stated below and illustrated in Fig. 8.20.

PRINCIPLES OF THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOR

1. A thermocouple circuit must contain at least two dissimilar materials and

at least two junctions, as illustrated in Fig. 8.20^.
 PRINCIPLES OF THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOR 423

Material A Material A

Material C
Material A

(d)

Material A Material A Material A

(e)

Figure 8.20 Typical situations encountered during use of thermocouples, (a) Basic ther¬
mocouple circuit, (b) Output depends on (T^ - only, (c) Intermediate metal in
circuit, {d) Intermediate metal in junction, (e) Voltage addition from identical thermo¬
couples at different temperatures, if) Voltage addition from different thermocouples at
identical temperatures.

2. The output voltage of a thermocouple circuit depends only on the dif¬

ference between junction temperatures (Tj - and is independent of the
temperatures elsewhere in the circuit (see Fig. 8.20h).

3. If a third metal C is inserted into either leg {A or B) of a thermocouple

circuit, the output voltage is not affected, provided the two new junctions
Ate and CIA, as shown in Fig. 8.20c, are maintained at the same temper¬
ature (for example, temperature Tg).
424 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

4. The insertion of an intermediate metal C into junction 1 does not affect the
output voltage E^, provided the two junctions formed by the insertion {A!
C and CIB) are maintained at the same temperature T^. (See Fig. 8.20r^.)

5. A thermocouple circuit with temperatures Tj and T2 produces an output

voltage (F'o)i_2 = /(Tj - T2), and one exposed to temperatures Tj and Tj
produces an output voltage (£^0)2-3 = /(Ti ~ ^3)- If fh® same circuit is
exposed to temperatures and £3, the output voltage (£0)1 _ 3 = /(£i —
T,) = (£Ji-2 + (£.)2-3. (See Fig. 8.20e.)
6. A thermocouple circuit fabricated from materials A and C generates an
output voltage (£o)^/c when exposed to temperatures £1 and T2, while a
similar circuit fabricated from materials C and B generates an output voltage
Furthermore, a thermocouple fabricated from materials A and B
generates an output voltage (£J^//,= (£oW+ (£o)c/» (See Fig. 8.20/.)

The six principles of thermoelectric behavior are important since they provide
the basis for the design, circuitry, and application of thermocouples to temper¬
ature measurements.
The first principle formalizes the experimental observation that a thermo¬
couple circuit must be fabricated with two different materials in such a way that
two junctions are formed. The output voltage £„ (see Fig. 8.20^) has been
observed to be a nonlinear function of the difference in temperature (£1 — £2)
at these two junctions. For clockwise current flow as illustrated in Fig. 8.20(3,
the output voltage £„ can be expressed as

£<5 ~ ^B/aTi + ^AIbT^2 (a)

where is the junction potential per unit temperature at a junction as the

current flows from material B to material A.
e^/g is the junction potential per unit temperature at a junction as the
current flows from material A to material B.

Since eg,^ = —e^,g, Eq. (a) can be written in its more familiar form as

£0 ~ ^BIAiTl ~ T2) (b)

Experiments indicate that the relationship between E„ and temperature differ¬

ence (£1 — £2), as expressed by Eq. (b), is nonlinear and dependent upon the
two materials used to fabricate the thermocouple.
Thermocouple calibration tables such as those presented in Tables 8.4 to
8.7 are used to relate temperature difference (£3 - £2) to a measured output
voltage £„. Since an unknown temperature Ty is being measured, the reference
temperature £2 must be known. The calibration information presented in Tables
8.4 to 8.7 is based on a reference temperature £2 = 0°C (32°F). If the reference
 PRINCIPLES OF THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOR 425

temperature is not 0°C (but rather some other known value, such as 100°C),
it is still possible to determine but the procedure involves application of the
fifth principle of thermoelectric behavior.
The second principle indicates that the voltage output £„ from a thermo¬
couple circuit is not influenced by the temperature distribution along the con¬
ductors, except at points where connections are made to form junctions (see
Fig. S.20b). This principle provides assurance that the output voltage of the
thermocouple circuit will be independent of the length of the lead wires and the
temperature distribution along their length.
The third principle deals with insertion of an intermediate conductor (such
as copper lead wires or a voltage measuring instrument) into one of the legs of
a thermocouple circuit (see Fig. 8.20c). The effect of this insertion of material
C into the A-B-type thermocouple can be determined by writing the equation
for the output voltage as

~ ^BIaT'x ^AlC^i T ^C/aTj + ^a/bT2 (c)

Since = -Sa/b and e^/c = -Cc/a, Eq. (c) can be written as

Eq = ^bia^Ti — Tj) + ^AiciTi — Tj) (d)

Equation (d) indicates that the effect of the A/C junctions can be reduced to
zero if T, = 7j. A similar analysis will show that the effect of B/C junctions can
be reduced to zero if T, = Tj when the third metal C is inserted in the B leg of
the thermocouple. This principle verifies that insertion of a third material C into
the circuit will have no effect on the output voltage E^, provided the junctions
formed in either leg A or leg B are maintained at the same temperature T, =
T, = T,.
The fourth principle deals with insertion of an intermediate metal into a
junction during fabrication or utilization of a thermocouple. Such a situation
can occur when junctions are formed by twisting the two thermocouple materials
A and B together and soldering or brazing the connection with an intermediate
metal C (see Fig. 8.20d) or when the thermocouple junction is attached to the
surface or embedded into a specimen. The influence of the presence of the
intermediate metal in the junction can be evaluated by considering the expression
for output voltage E„ which can be written as

Eo — ^bicT\ + ^c/aT\ + ^/i/5T2 (e)

Since Ccm = ^c/b + ^bia, Eq. (e) reduces to

Eo — ^s//t(Ei ~ T2) (f)

Equation (f) verifies that the output voltage E„ is not affected by the presence
426 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

of a third material C, which may be inserted during fabrication of the thermo¬

couple, if the two junctions BIC and CIA are at the same temperature.
The fifth principle deals with the relationship between output voltage
and the reference junction temperature. As mentioned previously, Tables A.2
to A.5 are based on a reference temperature of 0°C (32°F). In some instances
it may be more convenient to use a different reference temperature (say boiling
water at 100°C). The effect of this different reference temperature can be ac¬
counted for by using the equivalent thermocouple system illustrated in Fig. 8.20e.
The outputs from such a system can be expressed in equation form as

(Eoh-3 = fiT, - T,) = + {EJ2-3 (8.23)

Use of Eq. (8.23) for the case of an arbitrary reference temperature can be
illustrated by considering the example of an iron-constantan thermocouple ex¬
posed to an unknown temperature while the reference temperature is
maintained at 100°C. Assume that an output voltage (Eo)i_3 = 28.388 mV is
recorded under these conditions. The voltage (£’0)2-3 of Eq. (8.23) can be de¬
termined from Table A.2 since it is known that T2 = 0°C and £3 = 100°C. Thus,
(■£'0)2-3 = -(£0)3-2 = -5.268 mV. Solving Eq. (8.23) for (£Ji_2 yields

(£"0)1-2 — (£0)1-3 — (£0)2-3

= 27.388 - (-5.268) = 32.656 mV

Table A.2 indicates that an output voltage (O1-2 = 32.656 mV would be

produced by a temperature Tj = 592.5°C. The same procedure can be used to
correct for any arbitrary (but known) reference temperature.
The sixth principle pertains to voltage addition for thermocouple circuits
fabricated from different materials as illustrated in Fig. 8.20/. Output voltage
(Eo)a/b can be expressed in equation form as

(Eo)a/b — (£o).4/c ^Eg)(2iB (8.24)

As a result of this principle, calibration tables can be constructed for any pair
of materials by knowing the calibrations for the individual materials when they
are paired with a standard thermocouple material such as platinum. For example,
materials A and B, when paired with the standard material C, would provide
(Eo)a/c nnd (£o)c/b — — (£o)b/c. The calibration for a junction formed by using
materials A and B could then be determined by using Eq. (8.24). Use of this
principle eliminates the need to calibrate all possible combinations of materials
to establish their usefulness.
 PRINCIPLES OF THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOR 427

Thermoelectric Materials
The thermoelectric effect occurs whenever a thermocouple circuit is fab¬
ricated from any two dissimilar metals; therefore, the number of materials suit¬
able for use in thermocouples is very large. In most cases, materials are selected
to

1. Maximize sensitivity over the range of operation.

2. Provide long-term stability at the upper temperature levels.
3. Ensure compatibility with available instrumentation.
4. Minimize cost.

The sensitivity of a number of materials in combination with platinum is pre¬

sented in Table 8.4.

The results from Table 8.4 can be used to determine the sensitivity S at 0°C
(32°F) of a thermocouple fabricated from any two materials listed in the table.
For instance, the sensitivity of a Chromel-Alumel thermocouple is

5 Chromel/Alumel 25.8 (-13.6) = 39.4 |xV/°C

It is important to recall that the sensitivity 5 of a thermocouple is not constant,

since the output voltage is a nonlinear function of the difference in junction
temperatures - T2). Sensitivity 5 as a function of temperature for the six
most frequently used material pairs is listed in Table 8.5.

TABLE 8.4 Thermoelectric Sensitivity S of Several Materials in Combination

with Platinum at 0°C (32°F)
Sensitivity S Sensitivity S

Material |xV/°C p.V/°F Material fiV/°C fjuVAF

-72 -40 Copper + 6.5 + 3.6

Bismuth
-35 -19.4 Gold + 6.5 + 3.6
Constantan
- 8.3 Tungsten + 7.5 + 4.2
Nickel -15
- 7.6 Iron + 18.5 + 10.3
Alumel -13.6
0 Chromel + 25.8 + 14.3
Platinum 0
+ 0.3 Germanium + 300 + 167
Mercury + 0.6
+ 1.7 Silicon + 440 + 244
Carbon + 3
+ 1.9 Tellurium + 500 + 278
Aluminum + 3.5
+ 2.2 Selenium + 900 + 500
Lead + 4
Silver + 6.5 + 3.6
428 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 8.5® Sensitivity as a Function of Temperature for Six Different Types

of Thermocouples

Temperature
(°C) E» J' K" R‘ S' fg

-200 25.1 21.9 15.3 _ _

15.7
-100 45.2 41.1 30.5 — — 28.4
0 58.7 50.4 39.5 5.3 5.4 38.7
100 67.5 54.3 41.4 7.5 7.3 46.8
200 74.0 55.5 40.0 8.8 8.5 53.1
300 77.9 55.4 41.4 9.7 9.1 58.1
400 80.0 55.1 42.2 10.4 9.6 61.8
500 80.9 56.0 42.6 10.9 9.9 —

600 80.7 58.5 42.5 11.3 10.2 —

700 79.8 62.2 41.9 11.8 10.5 —

800 78.4 — 41.0 12.3 10.9 —

900 76.7 — 40.0 12.8 11.2 —

1000 74.9 — 38.9 13.2 11.5 —

““ From NBS Monograph 125, March 1974.

Chromel-constantan thermocouple (E type).
Iron-constantan thermocouple (J type).
Chromel-Alumel thermocouple (K type).
Platinum 13 percent rhodium-platinum thermocouple (R type).
' Platinum 10 percent rhodium-platinum thermocouple (S type).
® Copper-constantan thermocouple (T type).

The voltage output as a function of temperature for several popular types

of thermocouples is shown in Fig. 8.21. This graphical display shows that the
E-type (Chromel-constantan) thermocouple generates the largest output voltage
at a given temperature, unfortunately, it has an upper temperature limit of only
1000°C (1832°F). The upper limit of the temperature range is increased (but the
sensitivity is decreased) to 1260°C (2300°F) with a K-type (Chromel-Alumel)
thermocouple, to 1538°C (2800°F) with an S-type (platinum 10 percent rhodium-
platinum) thermocouple, and to 2800°C (5072°F) with a G-type (tungsten-tung¬
sten 26 percent rhenium) thermocouple. The operating range of temperature,
together with the span of output voltages for most of the popular types of
thermocouples, are listed in Table 8.6.

Fabrication and Instailation Procedures

Proper installation of a thermocouple may involve fabrication of the junc¬
tion, selection of the lead wires (diameter and insulation), and placement of the
thermocouple on the surface of the component or in the fluid at the point where
 PRINCIPLES OF THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOR 429

Figure 8.21 Output voltage versus temperature with a reference temperature T2

= 0°C for several types of thermocouples.

TABLE 8.6 Operating Range and Voltage Span for Several Different Types
of Thermocouples

Type of Thermocouple Temperature Range Voltage Span

(mV)
°C °F

Copper-constantan -185 to 400 - 300 to 750 -5.284 to 20.805

Iron-constantan -185 to 870 -300 to 1600 -7.52 to 50.05
Chromel-Alumel -185 to 1260 - 300 to 2300 -5.51 to 51.05
Chromel-constantan 0 to 980 32 to 1800 0 to 75.12
Platinum 10% rhodium-plati- 0 to 1535 32 to 2800 0 to 15.979
num
Platinum 13% rhodium-plati- 0 to 1590 32 to 2900 0 to 18.636
num
Platinum 30% rhodium-plati- 38 to 1800 100 to 3270 0.007 to 13.499
num 6% rhodium
Platinel 1813-Platinel 1503 0 to 1300 32 to 2372 0 to 51.1
Iridium 60% rhodium 40% iri- 1400 to 1830 2552 to 3326 7.30 to 9.55
dium
Tungsten 3% rhenium-tung- 10 to 2200 50 to 4000 0.064 to 29.47
sten 25% rhenium
Tungsten-tungsten 26% rhe- 16 to 2800 60 to 5072 0.042 to 43.25
nium
Tungsten 5% rhenium-tung- 0 to 2760 32 to 5000 0 to 38.45
sten 26% rhenium
430 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 8.22 Fabrication details for a

thermocouple junction.

the temperature is to be measured. The recommended procedure for forming

a thermocouple junction, illustrated in Fig. 8.22, consists of butting the two
wires together and fastening by welding, brazing, or soldering to form a small
bead of material around the junction. The wire diameter used in the fabrication
of the thermocouple depends upon the dynamic response required of the ther¬
mocouple and the degree of hositility of the environment in which the ther¬
mocouple must operate. When temperature fluctuations are rapid, the wire
diameter must be small and any protective sheathing must be thin so as to
minimize thermal lag. Wire diameters as small as 0.125 mm (0.005 in.) are
routinely employed when response time becomes an important factor in the
temperature measurement. On the other hand, thermocouples are often required
to operate over long periods of time at high temperatures in either reducing or
oxidizing atmospheres. In these applications, heavy-gage wires are used with
relatively large-diameter junctions so that part of the junction can be sacrificed
to extend the period of stable operation.
The material used to provide insulation for the lead wires is determined by
the maximum temperature to which the thermocouple will be subjected. Types
of insulation, together with their temperature limits, are listed in Table 8.7. For
higher-temperature applications, thermocouple wire is available with a ceramic
insulation swaged into a metal sheath. For extremely high-temperature appli¬
cations (2315°C or 4200°F), ceramic (Beryllia) tubes are often used to insulate
the wires.

TABLE 8.7 Characteristics of Thermocoupie-Wire insuiation

Temperature (°C) Temperature (°F)

Abrasion
Material Resistance Flexibility Max. Min. Max. Min.
Polyvinyl chloride Good Excellent 105 -55 220 -65
Polyethylene Good Excellent 75 -75 165 -100
Nylon Excellent Good 150 -55 300 -65
Teflon-FEP Excellent Good 200 -165 390 -265
Silicone rubber Fair Excellent 200 -75 390 -100
Asbestos Good Good 540 -75 1000 -100
Glass Poor Good 540 -75 1000 -100
Refrasil Poor Good 980 -75 1800 -100
 PRINCIPLES OF THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOR 431

h Figure 8.23 Details of a typical thermocouple

probe. (Courtesy of BLH Electronics.)

Thermocouples are widely used to measure fluid temperatures in tanks,

pipes, boilers, reactors, etc. The thermocouple is usually protected from the
fluid by metal wells or probes and insulated with swaged and compacted ceramic
powders. A wide variety of commercial products, similar to the one shown
schematically in Fig. 8.23, are available to provide for easy installation and
maintenance over extended periods of operation.
Surface installations are usually made by bonding, welding, or brazing the
thermocouple to the surface. In some cases, the thermocouple is embedded in
a shallow, small-diameter hole prior to welding. Care should be exercised in
minimizing the weld material and in maintaining the geometry of the surface
being instrumented.

Recording Instruments for Thermocouples

In the previous subsections it was shown that thermocouples are voltage
generators; however, the voltage generated by a thermocouple is quite small
(see Table 8.5); therefore, small voltage losses due to current flow in the circuit
(A£o = IR) can produce significant errors in the temperature measurements.
Also, when a temperature gradient and a current flow are in the same direction,
heat is generated (the Thompson effect). Similarly, when the directions are
opposite, heat is absorbed. Obviously, the Thompson effect can also produce
significant errors in temperature measurements when current flows in a ther¬
mocouple circuit. Thus, the output voltage from a thermocouple circuit must
be measured and recorded with a recording instrument having a high input
impedance so that current flow in the circuit is minimized.
The most common instruments used to measure and record the output
voltage from a thermocouple circuit are the digital voltmeter (DVM), the
strip-chart recorder, and the oscilloscope. All of these are high-input-impedance
instruments {Rm > 10^ ^)-
The digital voltmeter is ideal for static and quasi-static measurements where
it can be used in the manual mode of operation or as the voltage measuring
component of a data logging system for automatic recording at a rate of ap¬
proximately 20 points per second. A digital voltmeter with an input impedance
of 10 Mft will limit current flow in the thermocouple circuit to 10A at a
thermocouple voltage of 1 mV. Under such conditions, the IR losses and junction
heating and cooling due to the Thompson effect are negligible. A commercial
DVM which has been adapted to provide a readout directly in terms of degrees
Celsius for several different types of thermocouples is shown in Fig. 8.24.
The strip-chart recorder, with its servomotor-driven, null-balance potentio-
metric circuit (see Section 2.4), is an ideal instrument for quasi-static temperature
432 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 8.24 A digital thermometer. (Courtesy of Soltec Corp.)

measurements over long periods of time. Such strip-chart recorders are usually
equipped with a bridge-compensation device that provides the reference junction
required for thermocouple operation. In these instances, the scale of the recorder
is usually calibrated to read temperature directly for a particular type of ther¬
mocouple.
High-frequency variations in temperature can be recorded with either an
oscilloscope or an oscillograph. Use of an oscilloscope is straightforward since
its input impedance and sensitivity are usually well matched to the thermocouple
circuit. Use of an oscillograph, however, requires considerable caution if it
exhibits a low input impedance. Any oscillograph used for temperature meas¬
urements with thermocouples must be equipped with a high-impedance input
amplifier to limit current flow in the thermocouple circuit; otherwise, significant
errors will occur as a result of IR losses and Thompson effects.
The use of dc voltmeters without preamplifiers is not recommended. While
it is possible to use such instruments and correct for IR losses and Thompson
effects, the probability for error is high. The difference in cost between a digital
voltmeter and a dc voltmeter is modest; therefore, cost does not usually become
an important consideration in the decision to avoid use of a dc voltmeter.

8.5 TWO-TERMINAL INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE

TRANSDUCERS

The two-terminal integrated-circuit temperature transducer is a device that

provides an output current 1 that is proportional to absolute temperature
when an input voltage (between 4 and 30 V) is applied to the terminals of
 8.5 TWO-TERMINAL INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS 433

the transducer. This type of temperature transducer is a high-impedance con¬

stant-current regulator over" the temperature range from -55°C ( —70°F) to
150°C (300°F). It exhibits a nominal current sensitivity 5/ of 1 |xA/K. The current
sensitivity is controlled by an internal resistance that is laser trimmed at the
factory to give an output of 298.2 |jlA at a temperature of 298.2K (25C). Typical
input voltage-current-temperature characteristics of a two-terminal integrated-
circuit temperature transducer are shown in Fig. 8.25.
The two-terminal integrated-circuit temperature transducer is ideally suited
for remote temperature measurements since it acts like a constant-current source,
and as a result, lead wire resistance Rj has no effect on the output voltage of
the transducer circuit at the recording instrument. A well-insulated pair of twisted
lead wires can be used for distances of several hundred feet. Also, many of the
problems associated with use of thermocouples or RTD devices such as small
output signals, need for precision amplifiers and linearization circuitry, cold
junction compensation, and thermoelectric effects at connections are not en¬
countered with the two-terminal temperature transducer.
The output voltage from the two-terminal temperature sensor circuit is
controlled by series resistance Rs as shown in Fig. 8.26. Since the temperature
sensor serves as a current source, this output voltage can be expressed as

E, = IRs = S.T^Rs = SrT^ (8.25)

where Sj is the current sensitivity of the sensor.

Rs is the series resistance across which the output voltage is measured.
is the absolute temperature.
I is the current output at absolute temperature T^-
Sr is the voltage sensitivity of the circuit.

The output resistance Rs often contains a trim potentiometer, as shown in

Fig. 8.26, which is used to standardize the output voltage to a value such as 1

Figure 8.25 Input voltage-current-temperature characteristics of a two-terminal inte¬

grated-circuit temperature transducer.
434 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Temperature
sensor

-O E„0-

Figure 8.26 Two-terminal temperature sensor circuit with leadwire resistance and a
series output resistance with trim potentiometer for standardizing sensitivity.

mV/K or 10 mV/K. This trim adjustment also permits the sensor’s calibration
error at a given temperature to be adjusted so as to improve accuracy over a
given range of temperatures as shown in Fig. 8.27.
Unfortunately, the two-terminal integrated-circuit temperature transducer
is limited to use in the range of temperatures from -55°C to 150°C. In this
temperature range, it is an excellent temperature measuring device.

8.6 RADIATION METHODS (PYROMETRY)

As the temperature of a body increases it becomes increasingly difficult to

measure the temperature with resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), ther¬
mistors, or thermocouples. The problems associated with measurement of high
temperatures by means of these conventional methods (lack of stability, break¬
down of insulation, etc.) provided the motivation for initial developments in
pyrometry (inferring temperature from a measurement of the radiation emitted
by the body). As the art of pyrometry developed, two other applications emerged.
In certain measurements of temperature, the presence of the sensor affects the
temperature; therefore, a noncontact method of measurement, such as pyrom-

Temperature (°C)
Figure 8.27 Typical nonlinearity and calibration error for a two-terminal integrated-
circuit temperature transducer.
 8.6 RADIATION METHODS (PYROMETRY) 435

etry, is desirable. Another application that has developed is the measurement

of complete temperature fields. Thermocouples, thermistors, and RTDs provide
data only at a point. Temperature distributions over the entire body are often
needed, and the radiation emitted from a body provides this information if it is
properly recorded and interpreted. Thus, pyrometry is a useful method for the
measurement of very high temperatures, for providing a noncontacting method
for measurement, and for obtaining full-field temperature distributions.

Principles of Radiation Measurements of Temperature

When a body is heated it radiates energy that can be detected and related
to the temperature of the body. The relationship between intensity of radiation,
wavelength of the radiation, and temperature is known as Planck’s Law and can
be expressed as

2'nc^h (8.26)
1) - 1)

where is the spectral radiation intensity for a black body (W/m^).

X is the wavelength of the radiation (m).
T is the absolute temperature (K).
h is Planck’s constant = 6.626 (10(J • s).
c is the velocty of light = 299.8 (10^) (m/s).
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381 (10“^^) (J/K).

Cl and C are constants.

2

From Eq. (8.26) it is evident that

C, = 2ttc2/z = 3.75(10-16) yy ■ m-

C 2 = hdk = 1.44 (10-^) m • K

The spectral radiation intensity is the amount of energy emitted by

radiation of wavelength X from a flat surface at temperature Tinto a hemisphere.
It is evident from Eq. (8.26) that the spectral radiation intensity W, depends
upon both wavelength X and temperature T. A plot of versus X for several
different temperatures is shown in Fig. 8.28. Note that peaks at a specfic
wavelength, which depends on temperature, and that the wavelength associated
with the peak IT;, increases as the temperature decreases. The wavelength X^
associated with the peak in VF;, can be expressed as

X^ = 2891(10-6)/7’ (8.27)
436 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 8.28 Blackbody radiation at different temperatures.

The area under each of the curves in Fig. 8.28 is the total power W emitted at
the particular temperature T. Thus

IT = W^d\ - 5.67(10-«)r^ W/m2 (8.28)

JK

Equation (8.28) is the Stefan-Boltzmann Law with the emissivity e equal to

unity (e = 1). From the previous discussion it is evident that

1. The total power W increases as a function of the fourth power of the tem¬
perature.
2. The peak value of spectral radiation intensity VF;, occurs at shorter wave¬
lengths as the temperature increases.

Both of these physical principles are used as the basis for a measurement of
temperature.

The Optical Pyrometer

The optical pyrometer, illustrated schematically in Fig. 8.29fl, is used to
measure temperature over the range from 700°C to 4000°C (1300°F to 7200°F).
The radiant energy emitted by the body is collected with an objective lens and
focused onto a calibrated pyrometer lamp. An absorption filter is inserted into
the optical system between the objective lens and the pyrometer lamp when the
temperature of the body exceeds 1300°C (2370°F). The radiant energy from both
 8.6 RADIATION METHODS (PYROMETRY) 437

the hot body and the filament of the pyrometer lamp is then passed through a
red filter with a sharp cutoff below X = 0.63 ixm. The light transmitted through
the filter is then collected by an objective lens and focussed for viewing with an
ocular lens. The image observed through the eyepiece of the pyrometer is that
of the lamp filament superimposed on a background intensity due to the hot
body. The current to the filament of the pyrometer lamp is adjusted until the
brightness of the filament matches that of the background. Under a matched
condition, the filament disappears (hence the commonly used name—^disap-
pearing-filament optical pyrometer), as illustrated in Fig. 8.296. The current
required to produce the brightness match is measured and used to establish the
temperature of the hot body. Pyrometers are calibrated by visually comparing
the brightness of the tungsten filament with a blackbody source of known tem¬
perature (e =1).
When the brightness of the background and the filament are matched, it is
evident from Eq. (8.26) that

8 1
(8.29)
^C2l\rT _ Y ~ QC2l\rT[ _ ^

Absorption filter when

temperature
low
b
Figure 8 29 Schematic illustration of the optical system and filament brightness ad¬
justment in an optical pyrometer, (a) Schematic illustration of an optical pyrometer. (6)
Filament brightness adjustment in an optical pyrometer.
438 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

where k, is the wavelength of the red filter k^ — 0.63 fJ-m.

e is the emissivity of the surface of the hot body at X = 0.63 ixm.
Tfis the temperature of the filament.
T is the unknown surface temperature.

When T < 4000°C (7200°F), the term » 1 and Eq. (8.29) reduces to

X^ (In e)/C2 + lITf

It is obvious from Eq. (8.30) that T = 7} only when e = 1. If e ¥= 1, then T

7= Tf and Eq. (8.30) must be used to determine the temperature T from the
temperature Tf indicated by the pyrometer. The emissivity of a number of ma¬
terials (oxidation-free surface) are listed in Table 8.8.
If the emissivity of a surface is not known precisely, then an error will occur
when Eq. (8.30) is used to determine the temperature T. The change in tem¬
perature as a function of change in emissivity is obtained from Eq. (8.30) as

dT _ kT de
(8.31)
y“ ~ Q T
Since kTIC2 <0.1 for T< 2000°C (3630°F), errors in temperature determinations
are mitigated considerably with respect to errors in emissivity. For example, at

TABLE 8.8<^ Emissivity e of Engineering Materials at X = 0,65 pm

Material Solid Liquid Material Solid Liquid

Beryllium 0.61 0.61 Thorium 0.36 0.40

Carbon 0.8(M).93 — Titanium 0.63 0.65
Chromium 0.34 0.39 Tungsten 0.43 —

Cobalt 0.36 0.37 Uranium 0.54 0.34

Columbium 0.37 0.40 Vanadium 0.35 0.32
Copper 0.10 0.15 Zirconium 0.32 0.30
Iron 0.35 0.37 Steel 0.35 0.37
Manganese 0.59 0.59 Cast Iron 0.37 0.40
Molybdenum 0.37 0.40 Constantan 0.35 —

Nickel 0.36 0.37 Monel 0.37 —

Platinum 0.30 0.38 90 Ni-10 Cr 0.35 —

Rhodium 0.24 0.30 80 Ni-20 Cr 0.35 —

Silver 0.07 0.07 60 Ni-24 Fe- 0.36 _

Tantalum 0.49 — 16 Cr

From ASME Performance Test Codes PTC 19.3, 1974.

 8.6 RADIATION METHODS (PYROMETRY] 439

a temperature of 1500°K, a 20 percent error in emissivity produces only a 1.3

percent error in temperature T.
The disappearing-filament optical pyrometer is the most accurate of all
radiation-type temperature measuring devices and as a consequence it is used
to establish the International Practical Temperature Scale above 1063°C (1945°F).
If the emissivity of the hot body is accurately known, the error in a temperature
measurement is usually less than 1 percent.

Photon Detector Temperature Instruments

There are many applications where temperature must be measured without
contacting the body. Examples are temperature measurements involving thin
films or foils where the presence of a sensor would markedly affect the meas¬
urement and, at the other extreme, scanning of buildings, piping systems or
other large objects where a requirement exists for measuring the temperature
distribution over a large area. Both of these types of measurements can be made
with a temperature measuring instrument that incorporates a photon detector
as the sensor.
A photon detector is a sensor that responds by generating a voltage that is
proportional to the photon flux density cj) impinging on the sensor. A schematic
diagram of a photon detector system for measuring temperature is shown m
Fig. 8.30. The photons emitted from a small area of a surface (not necessarily
hot) are collected by a lens and focused on a photon detector of area A^. The
photon flux density ^ at the detector, when the optical system is focused, can
be expressed as

* = ^ ^S(T) (8-32)

where k is the transmission coefficient of the lens (and filter if one is used).
D is the diameter of the lens.
f is the focal length of the lens.
g{T) is a known function of the temperature of the surface,
e is the emissivity of the surface.

Area A, on the Photon

detector
with areaA^

Lens with focal -

y length f Liquid nitrogen Dewar

Figure 8.30 Schematic illustration of a temperature measuring instrument with a photon

detector type of sensor.
440 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

The output voltage from the detector as a result of the flux density ({) is

(8.33)

where k, is the system sensitivity, and includes the transmission coefficient of

the lens, the amplifier voltage gain, and the detector sensitivity. The system
sensitivity k, is essentially a constant; however, the lens in a typical instrument
(see Fig. 8.31) can be changed to provide for different fields of view where the
solid angle may range from 3.5 to 40 degrees. The term ^g{T) depends only on
the temperature of the surface and its emissivity. A typical response curve,
shown in Fig. 8.32, indicates that the output voltage varies as a function of the
cube of the temperature. Thus, Eq. (8.33) can be simplified to

E„ - K^T^ (8.34)

where X is a calibration constant for the instrument. In practice, K is determined

by calibrating the instrument with a blackbody source (e = 1) over an appropriate
range of temperatures. When the instrument is used for temperature measure¬
ments, the emissivity e of the surface must be considered, since it may differ
significantly (see Table 8.12) from the calibration value. Any correction required
is easily made by substituting the correct value of the emissivity into Eq. (8.34)
and solving for the required temperature T. Thus

(8.35)

Errors in temperature due to inaccuracies in emissivity are mitigated by a factor

of 0.333 since differentiation of Eq. (8.35) gives dTIT ^ - {\l?>){dzlz).
Many different commercial instruments employ the photon detector; there¬
fore, it is difficult to list specifications that cover the full range of products.
Specifications for the scanner shown in Fig. 8.31 indicate that it can be used to

Figure 8.31 Photon detector-based tempera¬

ture scanner. (Courtesy of AGA Corporation.)
 8.7 CALIBRATION METHODS 441

Figure 8.32 Typical response curve for an indium antimonide photon detector.

measure temperatures in the range from -20°C to 1600°C (0°F to 2900°F). Its
sensitivity at 30°C (86°F) is 0.1°C (0.2°F).
A recent innovation with this type of instrument permits determination of
temperature distributions over extended regions of a body. This improved ca¬
pability is accomplished by inserting two mechanically driven cylindrical lenses
into the optical path. As the two lenses are oscillated, a region of the surface
of the body is scanned. At any instant, a relatively small target area is focused
on the photon detector, and the temperature of this small target area is deter¬
mined. Since the entire surface of the body is scanned in a short period of time,
a full-field photograph of the temperature distribution representing an x-y array
of the many small target areas can be obtained. A single frame typically contains
28,000 individual temperature measurements (280 lines with 100 elements per
line). The voltage output can be displayed on a TV monitor in either gray scale
or color. Photon-detector-type instruments can complete a scan of a field in
about 40 ms. If a video recorder is used to store the images, the system can be
used to study full-field dynamic temperature distributions.

8.7 CALIBRATION METHODS

Calibration of temperature sensors is usually accomplished by using the

freezing-point (or boiling-point) method, the melting-wire method, or the com¬
parison method.
The freezing-point method is the easiest and most frequently employed
calibration technique. With this approach, the temperature sensor is immersed
in a melt of pure metal that has been heated in a furnace to a temperature above
 442 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

the melting point. The temperature of the melt is slowly reduced while a tem¬
perature-time record, similar to the one shown in Fig. 8.33, is recorded. As the
metal changes state from liquid to solid, the temperature remains constant at
the melting-point temperature and provides an accurate reference temper¬
ature for calibration. The particular metal selected for the bath is determined
by the temperature required for the calibration. Usually, a sensor should be
calibrated at three points within its temperature range (preferably the minimum,
the midpoint, and the maximum). The melting points of a number of metals are
listed in Tables 8.1 and 8.2. These data indicate that the melting-point approach
can be used to provide calibration temperatures in the range from 232°C (450°F)
with tin to 1064°C (1948°F) with gold. The metals must be pure since small
quantities of an impurity can significantly affect the melting point and thus affect
the calibration. Melting point standards are commercially available for temper¬
atures ranging from 125°F to 600°F in 25°F increments. These standards are
accurate to ± 1°F.
The lower range of the temperature scale is usually calibrated by using the
boiling phenomenon. The temperature sensor is immersed in a liquid bath and
heat is added slowly until the fluid begins to boil and a stable calibration tem¬
perature is achieved. Atmospheric pressure must be considered in ascertaining
the boiling point of any liquid since pressure variations can significantly affect
the calibration results. For example, reducing the atmospheric pressure from
29.922 in. of Fig to 26.531 in. of Hg results in a decrease in the saturation
(boiling) temperature of water from 212°F to 206°F.
The melting-wire method of calibration is used with thermocouples. With
I this approach, the hot junction of the thermocouple is effected by connecting
the two dissimilar wires with a pure third metal, such as silver or tin. As the
hot junction is heated, the output voltage is recorded continuously. When
the connecting material melts, the thermocouple junction is broken and the
output voltage drops to zero. The output voltage E^ just prior to the drop
is associated with the melting point (calibration temperature T^) of the specific
material used for the joint.
The comparison method utilizes two temperature sensors: one of unknown
quality and one of reference or standard quality. Both are immersed in a liquid

Figure 8.33 Typical temperature-time curve for a metal during solidification.

 8.8 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS 443

bath that is temperature cycled over the range of interest. The response of the
“standard” sensor gives the "temperature of the bath at any time that can be
used as the calibration temperature for the unknown sensor. The “standard”
temperature sensor must be calibrated periodically to ensure its accuracy.

8.8 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Temperature sensors are classified as first-order systems, since their dynamic

response is controlled by a first-order differential equation that describes the
rate of heat transfer between the sensor and the surrounding medium. Thus,

<, = M(r„ - T) = mc^ (8.36)

where q is the rate of heat transfer to the sensor by convection.

h is the convective heat-transfer coefficient.
A is the surface area of the sensor through which heat passes.
is the temperature of the surrounding medium at time t.
T is the temperature of the sensor at time t.
m is the mass of the sensor,
c is the specific heat capacity of the sensor.

Equation (8.36) can also be expressed as

hA _ hA (8.37)
^ ^ m
dt me me

Solving Eq. (8.37) for the homogeneous part yields

T = (8.38)

where C\ is ^ const3.nt of integration.

_ constant for the sensor. (8.39)

hA

A complete solution of Eq. (8.37) requires specification of the medium tem¬

perature as a function of time and the initial conditions. Two cases provide
valuable insight into the behavior of temperature sensors; namely, response to
step-function inputs and response to ramp-function inputs. , . . ,
Consider first the response of a temperature sensor to a step-function input
(sensor is suddenly immersed in a medium maintained at constant temperature
r„). In this case, the particular solution of Eq. (8.37) is T - therefore, the
general solution is

T = + Tm (8.40)
444 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

Figure 8.34 Response of a temperature sensor to a step-function input.

For the initial condition 7(0) = 0, the integration constant Cj in Eq. (8.40)
equals — thus, the final expression for temperature T as a funciton of time
t for the step-function input is

T - TM - (8.41)

The results of Eq. (8.41), shown in nondimensional form in Fig. 8.34,

indicate that a temperature sensor requires considerable time before it begins
to approach the temperature of the surrounding medium T^. The temperature
of the sensor is within 5 percent of r„, at t = 3(3 and within 2 percent of at
t - 3.913. The response time can be improved by reducing p. This can be
accomplished by designing a sensor with a small mass, a low specific heat ca¬
pacity, and a large surface area. An example of a rapid-response thermocouple
is shown in Fig. 8.35. This type of thermocouple is fabricated from a thin sheet
of foil having a thickness of approximately 0.012 mm (0.0005 in.). The foil
elements are mounted on a thin polymeric carrier to facilitate bonding to the
component. The time constant p for this type of thermocouple ranges from 2

LAMINATE
INSULATED LEADS

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES DIMENSIONS IN INCHES

(b)
Figure 8.35 Rapid-response foil-type thermocouples, (a) Encapsulated foil element, (b)
Free-filament foil element. (Courtesy of Omega Engineering, Inc.)
 8.8 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS 445

to 5 ms, depending primarily on the convective heat-transfer coefficient h that

'^xists between the sensor and the medium.
The second case of importance involves response of a temperature sensor
to a ramp-function input, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 8.36. The sensor
and the surrounding medium are initially at the same temperature; thereafter,
the temperature of the medium increases linearly with time. Solving Eq. (8.37)
for the particular solution yields

T = b{t - P)

where b is the slope of the temperature-time ramp function, as illustrated in

Fig. 8.37. Thus, the general solution of Eq. (8.37) for the ramp-function input
is

T = + b(t - p) (8.42)

For the initial condition T{0) = T^{0) = 0, the integration constant Cj in Eq.
(8.42) equals hp; therefore, the response of a temperature sensor to a ramp-
function input can be expressed as

T = b^e-‘'^ + b{t - p) (8.43)

The results of Eq. (8.43) are shown in Fig. 8.36. This data indicate that the
initial response of the sensor is sluggish; however, after a short initial interval,
the sensor tracks the rise in temperature of the medium surrounding the sensor
with the correct slope, but with a time lag p. This behavior is evident in Eq.
(8.43) where the first term is important during the initial response and the second
term dominates the long-term response. The first term decreases rapidly with
time and becomes negligible when t > 3p. Since the lag time p can be determined
from a simple experiment, accurate temperature measurements can be made for
time greater than 3p by correcting for the time lag. Sensors with small time
constants should be used to reduce the time lag and the transient period so that
they are consistent with the time requirements of the process being monitored
or controlled.

Figure 8.36 Response of a temperature sensor to a ramp-function input.

446 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

8.9 SUMMARY

Temperature is an abstract quantity and as such must be defined in terms

of the behavior of materials as the temperature changes. This is accomplished
by defining the temperature associated with phase transformations in several
different materials over the temperature range from - 183°C to 1064°C (— 297°F
to 1948°F).
The different sensors available for temperature measurement include re¬
sistance temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, expansion thermometers,
thermocouples, and pyrometers. Each type of sensor has advantages and dis¬
advantages; selection of the proper sensor for a particular application is usually
based on considerations of temperature range, accuracy requirements, environ¬
ment, dynamic response requirements, and available instrumentation.
The most frequently used temperature measuring sensor is the thermocou¬
ple, since it is a low-cost transducer that is easy to fabricate and install. The
signal output is relatively low and must be measured and recorded with an
instrument having a high input impedance so that current flow in the circuit is
minimized; otherwise, significant errors can be introduced. The nonlinear output
of the thermocouple is clearly a disadvantage; however, modern instruments
used to record the output voltage incorporate linearizing circuits that permit
readout in terms of temperature directly. The range of temperatures that can
be measured with thermocouples is very large (—185°C to 2800°C or — 300°F
to 5072°F).
Resistance-based temperature sensors (RTDs and thermistors) are usually
employed when a high sensitivity is required. Because of the high voltage output,
higher accuracies can be achieved. The RTD-type sensor is available in coil form
for fluid temperature measurements and in a bondable grid form for surface
temperature measurements. These sensors are easy to install and the instru¬
mentation used to monitor the output signal is inexpensive and easy to employ.
Thermistors are used in many commercial temperature recorders because their
high voltage output permits a reduction in complexity and cost of the readout
system. The range of thermistors is limited and the output is extremely nonlinear.
Bimetallic thermometers are used primarily in control applications where
long-term stability and low cost are important considerations. They are often
used to activate switches in on-off temperature control situations where precision
is not a stringent requirement.
Pressure thermometers are also employed primarily in control applications.
The accuracy obtainable with a pressure thermometer is usually better than that
of a bimetallic thermometer, but the costs are higher. Both bimetallic and pres¬
sure thermometers exhibit long-term stability and minimize need for electronic
components in their control circuits.
Pyrometers are used primarily to monitor the extremely high temperatures
associated with metallurgical processes. The disappearing-filament optical py¬
rometer has been a reliable instrument in many industrial applications for several
 REFERENCES 447

decades. In more recent years, with the development of photon detectors, ra¬
diation methods of temperature measurement have been extended into the lower
temperature range. Two significant advantages are offered by instruments that
use photon detectors as sensors. First, they can be used to measure temperature
without contacting the specimen in applications involving thin films, paper, or
moving bodies. Second, they can be used to monitor temperature distributions
over extended fields. The single disadvantage of the photon-detector-based in¬
struments is their relatively high cost.
Temperature sensors are first-order systems that respond to a step change
in temperature in a manner that is described by the equation

T = T„,(l - (8.41)

Errors due to the time required for heat transfer can be minimized by reducing
the time constant (B for the sensor.

REFERENCES

1. The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968, A Committee Re¬

port, English version appeared in Metrologia, vol. 5, no. 2, April 1969.
2. American Society for Testing and Materials: Evolution of the International
Practical Temperature Scale of 1968, ASTM STP 565, 1974.
3. The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968—Amended Edition
of 1975, A Committee Report, English version appeared in Metrologia,
vol. 12, 1976, pp. 7-17.
4. Preston-Thomas, H.: The Origin and Present Status of the IPTS-68, Tem¬
perature, vol. 4, Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, 1972.
5. Curtis, D. J., and G. J. Thomas: Long Term Stability and Performance of
Platinum Resistance Thermometers for Use to 1063 C, Meterologia, vol.
4, no. 4, October 1968, pp. 184—190.
6. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Resistance Thermometers,
Temperature Measurement, Chapter 4, Supplement to ASME Performance
Test Codes, PTC 19.3, 1974.
7. Benedict, R. P., and R. J. Russo: Calibration and Application Techniques
for Platinum Resistance Thermometers, Transactions of the American So¬
ciety of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of Basic Engineering, June 1972,
pp. 381-386.
8. Becker, J. A., C. B. Green, and G. L. Pearson: Properties and Uses of
Thermistors, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
vol. 65, November 1946, pp. 711-725.
9. National Bureau of Standards: Eiquid-in-Glass Thermometry, NBS Mon¬
ograph 150, 1975.
448 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

10. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Liquid-in-Glass Thermome¬

ters, Temperature Measurement, Chapter 5, Supplement to ASME Per¬
formance Test Codes, PTC 19.3, 1974.
11. Seebeck, T. J.: Evidence of the Thermal Current of the Combination Bi-
Cu by its Action on Magnetic Needle, Royal Academy of Science, Berlin,
1822-1823, p. 265.
12. Peltier, J. C. A.: Investigation of the Heat Developed by Electric Currents
in Homogeneous Materials and at the Junction of Two Different Conduc¬
tors, Annales de Chimie et Physique, vol. 56 (2nd Ser.), 1834, p. 371.
13. Thompson, W.: On the Thermal Effects of Electric Currents in Unequal
Heated Conductors, Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 7, May 1854.
14. Finch, D. I.: General Principles of Thermoelectric Thermometry, Tem¬
perature, vol. 3, part 2, Reinhold, New York, 1962.
15. Powell, R. L., W. J. Hall, C. H. Hyink, Jr., L. L. Sparks, G. W. Burns,
M. G. Scroger, and H. H. Plumb: Thermocouple Reference Tables Based
on IPTS-68, NBS Monograph 125, March 1974.
16. American Society for Testing and Materials: Manual on the Use of Ther¬
mocouples in Temperature Measurement, ASTM STP 470A, March 1974.
17. Nutter, G. D.: Radiation Thermometry, Mechanical Engineering, part 1,
June 1972, p. 16, part 2, July 1972, p. 12.
18. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Optical Pyrometers, Temper¬
ature Measurement, Chapter 7, Instruments and Apparatus Supplement to
ASME Performance Test Codes, PTC 19.3, 1974.
19. Benedict, R. P.: Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Meas¬
urements, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1977.
20. Doebelin, E. O.: Measurement Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
21. Omega Engineering: Temperature Measurement Handbook, Omega En¬
gineering, Stamford, Connecticut, 1981.
22. Cook, N. H., and E. Rabinowicz: Physical Measurement and Analysis,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1963.

EXERCISES

8.1 Why are the primary and secondary points on the International Tem¬
perature Scale important in the measurement of temperature?
8.2 From the results shown in Fig. 8.1, determine the temperature coeffi¬
cients of resistivity yj, 72. snd 73 in Eq. (8.1) for a resistance temperature
detector (RTD) fabricated from platinum for the temperature range
from -200°C to 1000°C.
8.3 From the results shown in Fig. 8.1, determine the temperature coeffi-
 REFERENCES 449

cients of resistivity 71,72^ 73 in Eq. (8.1) for a resistance temperature

detector (RTD) fabricated from cooper for the temperature range from
-200°C to 1000°C.
8.4 From the results shown in Fig. 8.1, determine the temperature coeffi¬
cients of resistivity 71, 72, and 73 in Eq. (8.1) for a resistance temperature
detector (RTD) fabricated from nickel for the temperature range from
0°C to 1000°C.
8.5 Repeat Exercise 8.2 for a temperature range from 0°C to 600°C.
8.6 Repeat Exercise 8.3 for a temperature range from 0°C to 600°C.
8.7 Repeat Exercise 8.4 for a temperature range from 0°C to 600°C.
8.8 From the results shown in Fig. 8.1, determine the temperature coeffi¬
cients of resistivity 71 and 72 in Eq. (8.3) for a resistance temperature
detector (RTD) fabricated from platinum for the temperature range
from 100°C to 400°C.
8.9 Repeat Exercise 8.8 for a copper RTD.
8.10 Repeat Exercise 8.8 for a nickel RTD.
8.11 A resistance temperature detector (RTD) fabricated from platinum
exhibits a temperature coefficient of resistivity 7^ = 0.003902/°C. If the
resistance of the sensor is 100 ft at 0°C, find the resistance at

(a) -270°C (d) +300°C

(b) - 100°C (e) +500°C
(c) + 100°C (f) -f660°C

Assume 72 is negligible.
8.12 Find 72 for the RTD of Exercise 8.11 by using the data of Fig. 8.1 for
the temperature range from -200°C to 600°C. Determine the percent
error introduced in the resistance determinations at each temperature
level of Exercise 8.11 by neglecting 73.
8.13 Show that lead-wire effects are completely eliminated by using the three-
wire system illustrated in Fig. 8.5 to connect a resistance temperature
detector (RTD) into a Wheatstone bridge.
8.14 Show that lead-wire effects are completely eliminated by using the four-
wire system illustrated in Fig. 8.6 to connect a resistance temperature
detector (RTD) into a constant-current potentiometer circuit.
8.15 A platinum RTD with a resistance of 100 fi at 0°C is used in the constant-
current potentiometer circuit shown in Fig. 8.6. If the current I equals
5 mA, determine the output voltage at the following temperatures:

(a) -270°C (d) +300°C

(b) - 100°C (e) +500°C
(c) + 100°C (f) +660°C
450 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

8.16 Verify Eq. (8.5).

8.17 If (S = 4000 K and = 3000 ft at = 298 K, determine the resistance
of a thermistor at

(a) -80°C (d) 50°C

(b) -40°C (e) 75°C
(c) 0°C (f) 150°C

8.18 Verify Eq. (8.7).

8.19 Verify Eq. (8.10) for a constant-voltage, equal-arm Wheatstone bridge.
8.20 Verify Eq. (8.14) for a constant-current, equal-arm Wheatstone bridge.
8.21 Verify Eq. (8.17) for the potentiometer circuit.
8.22 The thermistor described in Exercise 8.17 is connected into a constant-
voltage Wheatstone bridge as illustrated in Fig. 8.12a. If the bridge is
initially balanced at — 25°C, determine the output voltage ratio
for the temperatures listed below. Assume = R2 ^ —
/?4 — Rf.

(a) -80°C (d) 50°C

(b) -40°C (e) 75°C
(c) 0°C (f) 150°C

8.23 The thermistor-bridge combination described in Exercise 8.22 provided

the following output voltage ratios l^EJE^ in a series of tests. Determine
the temperatures by using the attached table that was provided by the
manufacturer for the thermistor (Table A.l).

(a) 0.1 (e) 0.3

(b) -0.1 (f) -0.3
(c) 0.2 (g) 0.4
(d) -0.2 (h) -0.4

8.24 The thermistor described in Exercise 8.17 is connected into a constant-

current Wheatstone bridge. If the bridge is initially balanced at T„ =
25°C, determine the output voltage ratio b^EJEj for the temperatures
listed below. Assume Ry = R2 = R^, = Ra, = Rt-

(a) -70°C (d) 60°C

(b) -35°C (e) 100°C
(c) o°c (f) 140°C

8.25 The thermistor-bridge combination described in Exercise 8.24 provided

the following output voltage ratios ^E^lEj- in a series of tests. Deter¬
mine the temperatures by using Table A.l.

(a) 0.1 (c) 0.2

(b) -0.1 (d) -0.2
 REFERENCES 451

(e) 0.3 (g) 0.5

(f) -0.3 (h) 0.9
8.26 The thermistor described in Exercise 8.17 is connected into the simple
circuit illustrated in Fig. 8.13. If / = 5 mA, determine the voltage ratio
for the temperatures listed below. = 25°C.
(a) -80°C (c) 75°C
(b) 0°C (d) 150°C

8.27 The thermistor-circuit combination described in Exercise 8.26 provided

the following output voltage ratios in a series of tests. Deter¬
mine the temperatures by using Table A.l.
(a) 500 (f) 0.1
(b) 100 (g) -0.1
(c) 50 (h) -0.5
(d) 10 (i) -0.90
(e) 1.0 (j) -0.98
8.28 The modified potentiometer circuit :shown in
wiin incrmisiurs lu uiipiuvc me iiiieain^ TTicii
temperature T. Determine the relationship between output voltage E^
and temperature T. Prepare a graph showing E„ versus T for the range
of temperature from 0°C to 100°C if (3 = 4000 K, £, = 1.0 V, and
^ = R.J- = 3000 D.
8.29 Repeat Exercise 8.28 for the circuit shown in Fig. E8.29.
8.30 Repeat Exercise 8.28 for the cirucit shown in Fig. E8.30.
8.31 Repeat Exercise 8.28 for the circuit shown in Fig. E8.31.
8.32 List the primary advantages and disadvantages of
(a) Liquid-in-glass thermometers
(b) Bimetallic thermometers
(c) Pressure thermometers
452 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

8.33 A digital voltmeter (DVM) is being used to measure the output voltage
Eg from a copper-constantan thermocouple, as shown in Fig. E8.33.

(a) Determine the output voltage Eg indicated by the DVM.

(b) If the DVM reading changes to 2.078 mV, what is the new tem¬
perature T{!
(c) Does temperatures T2 or Tj influence the measurement? Why?

Constantan

8.34 A digital voltmeter (DVM) is being used to measure the output voltage
Eg from a copper-constantan thermocouple, as shown in Fig. E8.34.
Determine the output voltage indicated by the DVM.

DVM
Figure E8.34
 REFERENCES 453

8.35 A digital voltmeter (DVM) is being used to measure the output voltage
Eo from a Chromel-Alumel thermocouple, as shown in Fig. E8.35.

(a) Determine the output voltage indicated by the DVM.

(b) If the DVM reading changes to 20.470 mV, what is the new tem¬
perature Tj?
(c) Does the copper-Alumel junction at the DVM influence the read¬
ing on either (a) or (b)?

Chromel

8.36 A digital voltmeter (DVM) is being used to measure the output voltage
from an iron-constantan thermocouple, as shown in Fig. E8.36.
(a) Determine the temperature associated with a DVM reading of
13.220 mV.
(b) Does the separation at junction 1 influence the measurement of
T{! List any assumptions made in reaching your answer.
(c) How far can the junctions be separated before errors will develop?
Explain.

8.37 A digital voltmeter (DVM) is being used to measure the output voltage
E„ from an iron-constantan thermocouple, as shown in Fig. E8.37.

(a) Determine the output voltage E„ indicated by the DVM.

(b) If the DVM reading changes to 25.000 mV, what is the new tem¬
perature Fi?
8.38 Use Eq. (8.24) to prepare a table for an iron-constantan thermocouple
showing output voltage E„ versus temperature Fj in steps of 10°C over
the temperature range from 0°C to 100°C.
454 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

8.39 A digital voltmeter (DVM) having an input impedance of 10 Mfl is

being used to measure the output voltage of the iron-constantan
thermocouple shown in Fig. E8.39. The thermocouple is fabricated from
AWG No. 20 wire having a resistance of 0.357 17 per double foot (1 ft
of iron plus 1 ft of constantan). The distance between junctions 1 and
2 is 40 ft. Determine:
(a) The IR drop due to the long lead wires
(b) The output voltage indicated by the DVM
(c) The temperature associated with the output voltage indicated by
the DVM

8.40 A chromel-constantan thermocouple is accidentally grounded at both

the active and reference junctions, as shown in Fig. E8.40. If the re¬
sistance of the thermocouple is 3 li and the resistance of the ground
loop is 0.2 D, determine the error introduced into the measurement of
temperature T•^.

Figure E8.40
 REFERENCES 455

8.41 The extension wires of an iron-constantan thermocouple were improp¬

erly wired to produce the situation illustrated in Fig. E8.41. Determine
the error introduced into the measurement of temperature T^.
8.42 Graph the results of Planck’s Law (Eq. 8.26) for temperatures of 500°C,
1000°C, 1500°C, and 2000°C.
8.43 Use Eq. (8.30) to prepare a graph showing the relationship between T
and Tf if the emissivity e is

(a) 0.1 (d) 0.4

(b) 0.2 (e) 0.6
(c) 0.3 (f) 0.8
8.44 Use Eq. (8.31) to prepare a graph of error dT/T versus temperature T
over the range from 1000°C to 4000°C for an optical pyrometer if the
emissivity e of the surface is in error by

(a) de/e = 0.1

(b) de/e = 0.2
8.45 Use Eq. (8.34) to prepare a graph of the output ratio EJKs as a function
of temperature T for a photon detector over the temperature range
from 500°C to 3000°C.
8.46 Derive an expression for the change in temperature dTIT as a function
of the change in emissivity d^l^ for a photon detector.
8.47 Use the results of Exercise 8.46 to prepare a graph of error in the
temperature measurement dTIT as a function of temperature T for a
photon detector if the estimate of the emissivity of a surface is in error
by
(a) d^l^ = 0.1
(b) <ie/e = 0.2
8.48 Outline the procedure you would follow to measure the time constant
(3 for a thermocouple. See Eq. (8.41).
8.49 li T^ = A sin oo/ (a medium undergoing a cyclic variation in temper¬
ature), develop an expression for the temperature T recorded by a
temperature sensor as a function of time t. Interpret the results in terms
of the response time of the sensor.
456 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

8.50 Develop an expression for the response of a temperature sensor to the

truncated-ramp type of input function shown in Fig. E8.50 for

(a)
(b) t >

8.51 Outline the procedure you would follow to determine the lag time
associated with thermocouple response to a ramp-function type of input.
 NINE
FLUID FLOW
MEASUREMENTS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Fluid flow measurements, expressed in terms of either volume flow rate or

mass flow rate, are used in numerous applications, such as industrial process
control, city water systems, petroleum or natural-gas pipeline systems, etc. The
fluid may be a liquid, a gas, or a mixture of the two (mixed-phase flow). The
flow can be confined or closed (as in a pipe or conduit), semiconfined (as in a
river or open channel), or unconfined (as in the wake behind a fan or jet). In
each case, several methods of flow measurement can be used to determine the
required flow rates. Several of the more common measurement techniques are
discussed in this chapter.
The concept of mass flow rate can be visualized by considering confined
flow in a circular pipe as shown in Fig. 9.1. The mass flow rate dmidt (or dm)
through area dA surrounding point P (see Fig. 9.1a) can be expressed as

dm = pl^ dA
458 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

V=Vo[^- ir/R)^] V= Vo (1 -

Figure 9.1 Mass flow rate in a closed conduit—general concept and velocity profiles,
(a) General concept; (b) velocity profile; (c) velocity profile.

where p ts the density of the fluid at point P.

V is the velocity of the fluid at point P in a direction normal to area
dA.

The total mass flow rate through the cross section of pipe containing point P is

(9.1)

Equation (9.1) is valid for any plane area and both fluid density and fluid velocity
can vary over the cross section. When the fluid is either a liquid or a gas, the
density is usually constant; therefore, the density term can be factored out of
the second integral in Eq. (9.1) to yield an integral involving a volume per unit
time (volume flow rate).
For steady laminar flow, a parabolic velocity profile exists, as shown in
Fig. 9.1h, which can be expressed as

(9.2)

where is the centerline velocity.

R is the inside radius of the pipe.
r is a position parameter.

In those instances when the density of the fluid is a constant, Eq. (9.1) can be
used to define an “average” velocity Thus

(9.3)
 9.1 INTRODUCTION 459

For the case of laminar flow in a circular pipe, Eq. (9.3) gives

m = pVo r dr dQ

= = P^Favg

Since the cross-sectional area of the pipe A equals ttR^,

(9.4)
avg

In fully developed turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, as shown in Fig. 9.1c,

the velocity profile has been established by careful measurements to be of the
form

F = E, (9.5)

The exponent n depends upon Reynolds number, which for the circular pipe
can be expressed as

pFavgT>
Re =

where p. is the absolute viscosity of the fluid and D is the diameter of the pipe.
For the case of the circular pipe it can be shown that the average velocity E^^g
is related to the centerline velocity E^ by the expression

2n^ (9.6)
Eavg E„
(n + 1)(2« + 1)

Values of n as a function of Reynolds number R, are shown in Fig. 9.2. Also

plotted in this figure are velocity ratios associated with the various values
of n. From the laminar-flow results of Eq. (9.4) and the turbulent-flow results
of Eq (9 6) it is evident that accurate mass flow rates can be established from
velocity measurements at a point only if the velocity profile is accurately known.
An approximation for the integral of Eq. (9.3), which can be applied to
any flow problem and which is widely used in practice to establish mass flow
rates, is the finite sum representation

m 2 = pv„g/i (9.7)
1 = 1
460 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.2 Exponent n and velocity ratio as a function of Reynolds number.

As an example, consider the open-channel-flow problem illustrated in Fig. 9.3.

Here, the mass flow rate through each area A, is summed to obtain the total
mass flow rate.
In the sections that follow, different flow measurement methods are pre¬
sented that utilize either velocity measurements at a point or average velocity
at a cross section. Usually, devices inserted into the flow (insertion-type trans¬
ducers) provide velocity information at a point. Other devices, such as orifices,
nozzles, and weirs, alter the basic flow in such a way that changes in pressure
can be related to the average flow rate.

9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (Insertion-Type Transducers)

In this section, transducers designed to measure velocity at a point in the

flow are discussed. The types of transducers considered are pitot tubes, hot-wire
and hot-film anemometers, drag-force transducers, turbine meters, and vortex
shedding devices.

Figure 9.3 Measurement of mass flow rate in an open channel.

 9,2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS) 461

Pitot Tube (Incompressible Flow)

The use of a pitot tube to measure velocity at a point in a fluid is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 9.4. The velocity of the fluid at point O is measured by
inserting the open-ended pitot tube just downstream from point O. As the fluid
particles move from point O to point 5 (the stagnation point at the center of
the pitot-tube opening), their velocity decreases to zero as a result of the in¬
creased pressure at point S. The piezometer tube above point O measures the
static pressure at point O, while the pitot tube measures the total pressure at
the stagnation point S. The dynamic pressure is the difference between the total
pressure and the static pressure. For the streamline from point O to point S,
the Bernoulli equation gives

^Y1 = Pi ^Yl (9.8)

y 2g y 2g

where is the velocity of the fluid at point O.

is the velocity of the fluid at point S.
g is the local acceleration due to gravity.
y is the weight per unit volume of the fluid.
Po is the static pressure at point O.
is the stagnation pressure at point S.

Since = 0, the dynamic pressure (p^ - Po) is

Ps - Po ^ = yh (9-9)

The velocity at point O, as obtained from Eq. (9.9), is

(9.10)

J -\
h Dynamic pressure ,yj/2
f 4
^ Pitot tub
h,
i ^ Piezometer tube
77777777/77777
VTTTy/ '//////i -
-^
-
0 Flow in,.,., 1.1,,1 I,,:,,
-
-^
^ -
-^ ^- -^

Figure 9.4 Velocity measurement with a pitot tube.

462 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.5 Piezometer ring for making static pressure measurements.

Velocity measurements made with a pitot tube require accurate static pres¬
sure measurements. Slight geometric errors in the pressure tap, such as a rounded
corner or a machining burr, can lead to significant errors in the static pressure
measurement. To minimize such errors, static pressure measurements are often
made with a piezometer ring, as illustrated in Fig. 9.5. The use of multiple
pressure taps around the periphery of the tube tends to minimize the static
pressure errors.
Pitot-static tubes are compact, efficient, velocity measuring instruments that
combine static-pressure measurements and stagnation-pressure measurements
into a single unit, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 9.6. The static pressure
recorded by a pitot-static tube is usually lower than the true static pressure
because of the increase in velocity of the fluid near the tube. This difference
between indicated and true static pressure can be accounted for by inserting an

Figure 9.6 Velocity measurement with a pitot-static tube.

 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS) 463

instrument coefficient C, into Eq. (9.10). Thus

(9.11)

where Cj is an experimentally determined calibration constant for the tube.

p'^ is the indicated static pressure.

In a pitot-static tube designed by Prandtl, the static pressure tap is placed

at a location where the drop in static pressure due to the increase in velocity of
the fluid near the tube is exactly equal to the increase in static pressure due to
fluid stagnation along the leading edge of the support stem. Thus, for the Prandtl
pitot-static tube, the instrument coefficient Cj is unity. For other pitot-static
tubes, the instrument coefficient Q must be determined by calibration.
The stagnation pressure p, can be measured easily and accurately for most
flow conditions. Four factors that affect the accuracy of the stagnation-pressure
reading are geometry of the pitot tube, misalignment (yaw) of the pitot tube
with the flow direction, viscous effects at low Reynolds numbers, and transverse-
pressure gradients in flows with high-velocity gradients.
Geometric and misalignment effects are illustrated in Fig. 9.7, where dy¬
namic pressure measurement error % is plotted as a function of pitot-tube ori¬
entation (angle of attack of the pitot tube with respect to the flow direction).
In Fig. 9.7,

^Pd ^ Pd - Pd
Pd Pd

Angle of attack

Figure 9.7 Dynamic pressure measurement error as a function of pitot-tube orientation.

(See NACA TN 2331, April 1951, for complete details.)
464 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

where is the measured dynamic pressure.

Pj is the true dynamic pressure = Ps ~ Po =

From Fig. 9.7 it is evident that a square-end pitot tube with a 15-degree internal
bevel angle is capable of providing dynamic pressure data with errors of less
than 1 percent, provided the yaw angle is less than 25 degrees. Thus, with exercise
of reasonable care and with normal flow conditions, small errors in pitot-tube
orientation does not produce serious error in the dynamic pressure measurement.
A pitot-tube coefficient Cp can be defined that provides a measure of viscous
effects due to flow around the pitot tube itself. Thus,

^ ^ p: - Po ^ p's - Po

p, ^VlUg

where p[ is the measured stagnation pressure in the presence of viscous effects.

Experimental data showing pitot-tube coefficient Cp as a function of Reynolds
number is presented in Fig. 9.8. From these results it can be seen that for
Reynolds numbers greater than 1000, there is no effect of viscosity, and Cp is
equal to unity. In the range 50 ^ ^ 1000, Cp is slightly less than unity (has
a minimum value of 0.99). For values of less than 50, Cp is always greater
than unity. For < 1, the coefficient Cp is given by the approximate expression
Cp ~ 5.6/Re. The data of Fig. 9.8 clearly show that viscous effects are important
only for Reynolds numbers less than 50.
When a pitot tube is placed in a flow with a large velocity gradient, the
flow around the tip of the tube can be significantly altered with respect to the
uniform flow situtaion away from the tube. This altered flow causes the sensed
total pressure to be greater than normal, since the effective center of the pitot
tube is shifted from the geometric center of the tube toward the region of higher
velocity. Since the amount of center shift has been shown to be limited to

Figure 9.8 Pitot-tube coefficient Cp as a function of Reynolds number.

 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS) 465
approximately 0.2D for square-end pitot tubes (where D is the diameter of the
pitot tube), very-small-diameter tubes should be used for measurements in flows
with high-velocity gradients.
In Figs. 9.4 and 9.6, the pressuresand are illustrated with manometers.
In practice, the pressures can be measured with manometers, pressure gages,
or one of the pressure transducers discussed in Section 6.4. Differential pressure
transducers are also commercially available for measuring the pressure difference
{Ps ~ Po) directly. One type of differential pressure transducer utilizes a thin
diaphragm as the elastic element and electrical resistance strain gages as the
sensor. This differential pressure transducer, when used in conjunction with a
Wheatstone bridge, provides for continuous monitoring of the pressure differ¬
ence {ps — Po), and thus for continuous monitoring of velocity Vo and mass
flow rate m by using Eqs. (9.10) and (9.7).

Pitot Tube (Compressible Flow)

In previous discussions, the fluid was assumed to be incompressible. For
compressible flow, the situation is much more complicated and requires use of
the equation of motion for a compressible fluid, energy considerations, and a
description of the flow process.
The equation of motion (Euler equation) for one-dimensional flow of a
compressible ideal (nonviscous or frictionless) fluid can be expressed as:

dp V dV
^ + F dE = 0 or — + - (9.12)
P 7 8

where p is the density of the fluid.

y is the specific weight of the fluid.

Equations (9.12) are based on the assumption that compressible-flow problems

are usually concerned with gases of light weight and with flows in which changes
of pressure and velocity predominate and changes of elevation are negligible.
When there is no heat transfer and no work done by pumps or turbines in the
flow of an ideal fluid, the flow is isentropic and the steady flow energy equation
along a streamline reduces to Eq. (9.12). Thus, the energy and Euler equations
are identical for isentropic flow of an ideal fluid.
When Eq. (9.12) is integrated along a streamline for isentropic flow of a
perfect gas (pi/p^ = P2/P2), it becomes
ik-iyk-

El ^ 1 -

2 Pi k - I (9.13)
(k-l)lk

El ^ - 1
P2 k — \
466 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

where k is the adiabatic exponent (ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to

specific heat at constant volume for the gas) k = Cpic.-
In gas dynamics, Eq. (9.13) is usually expressed in terms of Mach number
M (ratio of velocity V to sonic velocity c). Since the sonic velocity c is given by
the expression c = \/kplp, Eq. (9.13) can be written as

El (9.14)

Application of Eq. (9.14) to a stagnation point in a compressible flow (V2 = 0

and P2 = Ps) together with the free-stream conditions (pi = and = M^)
yields
kl(k-\)
El (9.15)
Po

Equation (9.15) indicates that measurements of stagnation pressure p, and static

pressure p^ provide sufficient data for the determination of free-stream Mach
number of the undisturbed flow. Determination of the velocity however,
requires measurement of a temperature in addition to the static and stagnation
pressures. In practice, the stagnation temperature is easiest to measure since
a thermocouple can be placed near the stagnation point on the pitot tube. Once
Ts, Ps, and are known, the velocity E^ can be determined by using the
expression
-1

_1
1

E^
— = cJs
1

2 ^ \PJ

A comparison of velocities predicted by Eq. (9.10) with those given by Eq. (9.16)
shows agreement within 1 percent for pressure differences {ps - Po) less than
0.83 psi or Mach numbers less than 0.28. For larger pressure differences or Mach
numbers, the agreement becomes less satisfactory and Eq. (9.16) should be used
for velocity determinations. At room temperature, the above values correspond
to a velocity of 320 ft/s in air.
For supersonic flow (M^ > 1), a shock wave forms in front of the pitot tube
upstream from the stagnation point. Velocity calculations for this complicated
case are beyond the scope of this elementary text.

Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers

Hot-wire and hot-film anemometers are devices that can be used to measure
either velocity or velocity fluctuations (at frequencies up to 500 kHz) at a point
in a fluid (liquid or gas) flow. Typical sensing elements (hot-wire and hot-film)
 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS) 467
Gold-plated
sensor supports Platinum film Gold-plated sensor
Distance between —Alumina coated for air supports
supports -Quartz coated for water

Distance
between
supports

Sensitive length (defined

Sensitive length (defined
by gold plating on support ends)
by plating on support ends)
Hot wire
Joints and supports insulated
when made for water

(a)

Figure 9.9 Typical sensing elements (hot-wire and hot-film) and their supports, (a) Hot¬
wire sensor, (h) Hot-film sensor. (Courtesy of TSI Incorporated.)

and their supports are shown in Fig. 9.9. Hot-wire sensors are fabricated from
platinum, platinum-coated tungsten, or a platinum-iridium alloy. Since the wire
sensor is extremely fragile, hot-wire anemometers are usually used only for clean
air or gas applications. Hot-film sensors, on the other hand, are extremely
rugged; therefore, they can be used in both liquids and contaminated gas en¬
vironments. In the hot-film sensor, the high-purity platinum film is bonded to
a high-strength, fused-quartz rod. After the platinum film is bonded to the rod,
the thin film is protected by using a thin coating of alumina if the sensor will
be used in a gas, or a thin coating of quartz if the sensor will be used in a liquid.
The alumina coatings have a high abrasion resistance and a high thermal con¬
ductivity. Quartz coatings are less porous and can be used in heavier layers for
electrical insulation. Other hot-film anemometer shapes for special-purpose ap¬
plications include conical, wedge, and hemispheric probes.
Hot-wire and hot-film anemometers measure velocity indirectly by relating
power supplied to the sensor (rate of heat transfer from the sensor to the sur¬
rounding cooler fluid) to the velocity of the fluid in a direction normal to the
sensor. Heat transfer from a heated wire placed in a cooler flowing fluid was
studied by King,^ who established that the heat transfer rate dQ/dt is given by
the expression

iS. = (A + BVWKT. - Tf) = P = IIR. (9.17)

where
A and B are calibration constants,
p is the density of the fluid.

' “On the Convection of Heat from Small Cylinders in a Stream of Fluid, with Applications to Hot-
Wire Anemometry,” by L. V. King, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
vol. 214, no. 14, 1914, pp. 373-432.
468 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

V is the free-stream velocity of the fluid.

Ta is the absolute temperature of the anemometer (hot wire or hot
film).
Tf is the absolute temperature of the fluid.
is the current passing through the wire (or film) sensor,
is the resistance of the wire (or foil) sensor.

The quantity (T^ — 7}) is typically maintained at approximately 450°F in air and
80°F in water.
Materials used for hot-wire and hot-film sensors exhibit a change in resist¬
ance with temperature change. The resistance-temperature effect can be rep¬
resented with sufficient accuracy for thermal anemometer applications by the
linear expression

= R,[l + a(T, - T,)] (9.18)

where R^ is the resistance of the sensor at reference temperature T^.

a is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the wire or foil.

Equation (9.17) indicates that an indirect measurement of fluid velocity V

can be made through a measurement of either the current /„ or the resistance
Ra- In practice, the velocity measurement is made by using a hot-wire or a hot-
film anemometer as the active element in a Wheatstone bridge. In one bridge
configuration, sensor current 4 is maintained at a constant value (the constant-
current circuit) and sensor resistance R^ changes with fluid flow and produces
an output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge that can be related to the
velocity of the fluid. In the second Wheatstone-bridge configuration (the con¬
stant-temperature circuit), the sensor resistance R^ (and thus the sensor tem¬
perature TJ is held at a constant value by varying the current passing through
the sensor as the fluid velocity changes. In this circuit, the current 4 is used to
provide a measure of the velocity. A complete description of the characteristics
of each of these circuits follows.

Constant-Current Anemometer Circuit

A constant-current Wheatstone bridge with a hot-wire (or film) anemometer
as the sensor is shown schematically in Fig. 9.10. In this bridge arrangement,
resistance R2 is much larger than sensor resistance R^; therefore, current 4 is
for all practical purposes independent of changes in sensor resistance R^. Var¬
iable resistor R4 is used to balance the bridge under conditions of zero velocity.
Any flow past the sensor cools the hot wire (or film), decreases its resistance
as indicated by Eq. (9.18), and thereby unbalances the bridge. The unbalancing
of the bridge produces an output voltage as given by Eq. (4.34), which is
related to the fluid velocity V. The output voltage from the bridge is small;
 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS) 469

Figure 9.10 Constant-current anemometer circuit.

therefore, considerable amplification is needed before it can be used to drive

most voltage measuring instruments.
An important application of hot-wire or hot-film anemometry in addition
to steady-flow velocity measurements is the measurement of turbulence. The
voltage fluctuations between points B and D of the constant-current Wheatstone
bridge (see Fig. 9.10) are a direct indication of velocity fluctuations (intensity
of turbulence) in the flow. Thermal lag (the inability of the wire or film to
transfer heat fast enough to the surrounding fluid) limits the resolution of these
velocity fluctuations to several hundred hertz. Above a cutoff frequency(de¬
pendent upon sensor material, coating, and diameter), the wire or film acts as
an integrator and attenuates the fluctuations at 6 dB/octave, as shown in Fig. 9.11.
This attenuation problem can be solved electronically by passing the bridge
output through a low-noise, high-gain amplifier to obtain a high-level signal that
can be differentiated for frequencies above the cutoff frequency to obtain a flat
(compensated) frequency response up to approximately 120 kHz. The steady
flow and low-frequency components of the velocity (below 1 Hz) are attenuated

Frequency

Figure 9.11 Frequency response of a constant-current anemometer circuit.

470 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

as shown in Fig. 9.11. Since the cutoff frequency is different for each hot-wire
(or film) probe, provision must be provided in the associated electronic system
for making a cutoff frequency adjustment.
Two outstanding features of a constant-current anemometer system are its
low noise level and its excellent sensitivity. Turbulence levels less than 0.005
percent of the mean velocity can be resolved in the 10-kHz frequency band. The
range of frequencies for a typical anemometer is from 1 to 120,000 Hz. Also,
the constant-current anemometer is very sensitive to small changes in velocity
at low velocities (the calibration curve has a steep slope at zero velocity); there¬
fore, it is an excellent instrument for low-velocity measurements.
The constant-current anemometer system has two disadvantages that have
motivated development of the constant-temperature anemometer system. First,
the frequency response of the constant-current anemometer is separated into
two bands: the uncompensated low-frequency band and the compensated high-
frequency band. Second, the compensated output is distorted when small high-
frequency fluctuations are measured in the presence of large-amplitude, low-
frequency oscillations.

Constant-Temperature Anemometer Circuits

A simple constant-temperature circuit incorporating a hot-wire or hot-film
anemometer as the sensor, which is ideal for steady-flow measurements, is shown
schematically in Fig. 9.12. The hot-wire (or film) sensor is used as the active
element in a Wheatstone bridge that is balanced under no-flow conditions by
using variable resistor R^. As flow past the sensor cools the hot wire (or film),
sensor resistance decreases and the bridge becomes unbalanced. The unbal¬
ance is sensed with a galvanometer placed across points B and D of the bridge.

Figure 9.12 Constant-temperature anemometer circuit.

 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS] 471

as shown in Fig. 9.12. The balance condition can be restored by adjusting the
rheostat to increase the input voltage E, to the bridge. The increase in bridge
voltage increases the current flowing through the sensor and increases both
sensor temperature and sensor resistance back to their no-flow values.
Under conditions of constant sensor temperature and resistance, Eq. (9.17) can
be reduced to

V = (9.19)

where Q is a calibration constant for the particular hot-wire (or film) probe.
Iq is the current at zero velocity that gives the desired sensor temper¬
ature.
I is the sensor current at velocity V.

The user must determine the constants Q and Iq for his application. With
precision bridge resistors, a sensitive galvanometer, and constant fluid temper¬
ature, better than 1 percent repeatability in steady-flow velocity measurements
can be made with this simple, constant-temperature anemometer system. Any
significant changes in fluid temperature, however, require rebalance and recal¬
ibration of the system, since the quantity (T^ — Tf) in Eq. (9.17) must remain
constant for Eq. (9.19) to be valid.
The current 1 or Iq passing through the sensor is easily measured by recording
the voltage drop across resistance R in the Wheatstone bridge of Fig. 9.12.
2

Since the sensor current is proportional to the input voltage E, for this constant
resistance bridge, input voltage, also, can be used as a measure of sensor current.
A typical calibration curve showing sensor current I (E^ = IR ) as a function
2

of velocity V is shown in Fig. 9.13.

Figure 9.13 Typical calibration curve for a hot-film anemometer in water.

472 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

A more sophisticated constant-temperature anemometer system is illus¬

trated schematically in Fig. 9.14. Again, the hot-wire or hot-film sensor is used
as the active element in a Wheatstone bridge that is balanced under no-flow
conditions. As flow past the sensor cools the hot wire (or film), its resistance
decreases and unbalances the bridge. A high-gain, differential amplifier is used
to sense this unbalanced condition and changes the bridge voltage to increase
the current flowing through the sensor. The increase in current flow restores
sensor temperature and sensor resistance to no-flow values and balances
the bridge. This constant-temperature anemometer system automatically main¬
tains a balanced bridge and corrects for the thermal lag of the wire (or the film).
In some systems, resistor of the bridge is mounted in the probe and is used
to sense and correct for any change in fluid temperature.
Since the Wheatstone bridge is operated as a constant-resistance bridge in
this system, the output from the amplifier (input voltage to the bridge) contains
steady and fluctuating velocity information up to the upper limiting frequency
of the system. Sensor current /, which can be easily measured by recording the
voltage drop across resistance /?2, provides the same information. A typical
constant-temperature anemometer system exhibits a frequency response from
dc to approximately 500 kHz and a resolution of approximately 0.03 percent of
the mean velocity in the 10-kHz band. The upper limiting frequency of this
constant-temperature system is controlled by sensor size, amplifier gain, and
other features of the components of the system.
An important feature of this constant-temperature anemometer system is
the provision for linearized output that makes possible accurate measurements
of large-amplitude, low-frequency velocity fluctuations. In addition, the con-

Figure 9.14 Sophisticated constant-temperature anemometer system.

 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS] 473
stant-temperature type of anemometer system is preferred for studies involving
steady-flow velocity profiles and flow-reversal measurement situations where it
is impossible to distinguish the direction of flow. The constant-current type of
anemometer system is preferred for low-turbulence and high-accuracy meas¬
urements. These general distinctions are gradually disappearing as probe design
and amplifier technology progress to overcome specific limitations. Eventually,
the constant-temperature system will be used exclusively due to its more desir¬
able characteristics. Ultimately, the nonlinear problems will be overcome by
using specially designed microprocessors for data reduction.
When hot-wire or hot-film sensors are used in liquids, other problems arise.
First, liquids often carry dirt particles, lint, or organic matter. These materials
can quickly coat the hot wire or film and cause significant reductions in heat
transfer. Second, the presence of a current-carrying wire in a conducting medium
can cause electrolysis of metals, shunting of the hot wire, and spurious changes
in sensitivity. Third, the presence of the hot wire can cause formation of bubbles
that significantly reduce the heat transfer. Bubbles can arise from entrained air
or gas in the liquid, from electrolysis, or from boiling of the liquid. Successful
use of anemometers in liquids usually require low wire temperatures, coatings
on the hot wires, lower operating voltages, degasification of the liquid, and
application of other bubble-removal techniques.

Drag-Force Velocity Transducers

Drag-force velocity transducers operate on the principle that the drag force
on a body in a uniform flow is related to the fluid velocity V, the fluid density
p, and frontal area A of the body normal to the flow direction by the expression

pV^A
Pd = Co (9.20)

where is a nondimensional parameter known as the drag coefficient.

The drag coefficient for a specific transducer depends upon Reynolds num¬
ber Rg and the shape of the body. Drag coefficients for a sphere and for a circular
disk are shown in Fig. 9.15. Since the drag coefficient for the circular disk is
constant over a wide range of velocities (C^ ~ 1.05 for ^ 3000) and since
the magnitude of the drag coefficient for the disk is more than twice that for
the sphere, the circular disk is the preferred sensing element for a drag-force
transducer.

Rotameter
The rotameter is a common flow measurement device whose operation is
based on drag principles. The rotameter, shown schematically in Fig. 9.16, con¬
sists of a tapered tube and a solid float (bob) that is free to move vertically in
474 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

100

0.1

0,01
0.1 10 10^ 10^ 10^ 10® 10®
pVD
Reynolds number Rg =-

Figure 9.15 Drag coefficients for a sphere and a circular disk as a function of Reynolds
number.

the tube. At any flow rate within the range of the meter, fluid entering the
bottom of the tube raises the float (thereby increasing the area between the
float and the tube) until the drag and buoyancy forces are balanced by the weight
of the float. This condition can be expressed by the equation

(9.21)

where is the frontal area of the float, is the volume of the float, p^, is the
density of the float, and V is the mean velocity of the fluid in the annular space
between the float and the tube. The first term in Eq. (9.21) is the drag force
on the float, the second term is the buoyancy force on the float, and the third
term is the weight of the float. The annular area A can be expressed as

^ Day (9.22)

where « is a constant that describes the taper of the tube. The mass flow rate
m is obtained from Eqs. (9.21) and (9.22) as

m = pfAV

(9.23)

KV{pb - P/)p/>'
 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS] 475

i
1

Figure 9.16 Schematic illustration and photograph of a glass-tube industrial rotameter-

type flowmeter, {a) Principle of operation, {b) Glass-tube rotameter. (Courtesy of Fischer
& Porter.)
476 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

The drag coefficient can be made nearly independent of viscosity by using sharp
edges on the float. The sensitivity to fluid density can be minimized by selecting
== 2p;. Equation (9.23) then reduces to

(9.24)

Thus, flow rate is indicated by the position of the float, which can be measured
on a graduated scale or detected magnetically and transmitted to a remote
location for recording.

Current Meters
Current meters are mechanical devices that are widely used to measure water
velocities in open rivers, channels, and streams. The rotational speed of the
device is proportional to fluid velocity. A direct-reading, cup-type current meter
with sensing unit, cable suspension, torpedo-shaped lead weight, and alignment
fins is shown in Fig. 9.17. As the cup wheel rotates, a magnetically activated
reed switch in the sensing unit produces a train of electrical pulses at a frequency
proportional to the speed of the cup wheel. An electrical circuit in the indicating
unit, which utilizes a self-contained battery as the power supply and a pulse rate
integrator as the signal conditioning element, converts the train of pulses to a

Figure 9.17 Cup-type current meter

with sensing unit, cable suspension, tor¬
pedo-shaped lead weight, and alignment
fins. (Courtesy of Teledyne Gurley.)
 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS) 477
direct display of the fluid velocity that is producing rotation of the wheel. Typ¬
ically, the range of such instruments is 0 to 25 ft/s. Linearity of the unit shown
in Fig. 9.17 is within ±5 percent over the full range of the unit. Error caused
by temperature change is approximately 0.05 percent per degree Fahrenheit
change from 75°F.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has established a typical velocity pro¬
file (by using data from thousands of measurements) for use in establishing flow
rates (discharge rates) in large rivers, canals, and streams. This velocity profile,
shown in Fig. 9.18, indicates that the velocity distribution in a typical large stream
is parabolic with the maximum velocity occurring some distance (from 0.05/j to
0.25/i, where h is the depth of the stream) below the free surface. The free-
surface velocity is typically 1.18 times the average velocity. The typical profile
indicates that the mean velocity often occurs at a point slightly more than midway
between the free surface and the bottom of the stream (at 0.6/i). An accurate
estimate of the mean velocity can usually be obtained by averaging the velocities
at points 0.2/z and 0.8/?, as indicated in Fig. 9.18.
The flow rate in a stream is measured by using the procedure illustrated
schematically in Fig. 9.19. First, a stretch of river with a fairly regular cross
section is selected for the measurement. The cross section is then divided into
vertical strips, as shown in Fig. 9.19. The mean velocity along each vertical line
is determined by averaging velocity measurements at points 0.2/? and 0.8/? below
the free surface. Thus,

y, = I (9.25)

The flow rate in a vertical strip is calculated by using the height of the strip, the
width of the strip, and the mean velocity for the strip (averaged from the two

Typical velocity profile in a large

river.
478 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.19 Flow-rate measurement procedure for a large river or stream.

vertical lines bounding the strip). Thus,

(9.26)

The total volume flow rate for the stream is the sum of the flow rates for all of
the strips:

n
Q = i=\
Ea (9.27)

From the above it is obvious that many flow-rate data points are needed to
establish accurate volume flow rates for rivers and streams.

Turbine Flowmeters
Basically, a turbine flowmeter is a miniature propeller suspended in a pipe.
This freely suspended axial turbine (see Fig. 9.20) is rotated by the flow of fluid
(either liquid or gas) through the flowmeter. The rotational speed of the turbine
is proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Since the flow passage is fixed, the
turbine’s rotational speed is also a true representation of the volume of fluid
flowing through the flowmeter.
The only physical connection between the turbine and its housing is the
turbine bearings. The rotation of the turbine is sensed by a pickoff coil in the
flowmeter body that responds to the passage of each turbine blade past the coil.
The output from the coil is a train of voltage pulses whose frequency is pro¬
portional to the volume flow rate. Once the pulses are transmitted to an ap¬
propriate recording system near the flowmeter or at a remote location, they can
be amplified, counted, interfaced with a computer or microprocessor, and used
to measure or control the fluid flow.
Flowmeters have been developed to an outstanding level of accuracy, lin¬
earity, durability, and reliability. Flowmeters are commercially available to measure
fluid flow within the temperature range from -430°F to -E750°F. Accuracy
 9.2 FLOW VELOCITY (INSERTION-TYPE TRANSDUCERS] 479

Figure 9.20 Cutaway view of a turbine flowmeter. (Courtesy of Flow Technology, Inc.)

within ±0.05 percent in liquids and ±0.5 percent in gases is easily obtained at
flow rates from 0.03 to 20,000 gal/min. Turbine flowmeters are currently used
to monitor and control critical flow rates in a number of different industrial
processes.

Vortex Shedding Transducers

When a circular cylinder is placed in a uniform flow with its axis perpen¬
dicular to the direction of the flow, eddies (called vortices) shed regularly (at a
frequency/J from alternate sides of the cylinder in a pattern known as a Karman
vortex street (see Fig. 9.21). The shedding frequency the diameter of the
cylinder D, and the flow velocity are related by a dimensionless number
known as the Strouhal number S^. Thus,

^ (9.28)

Experimental studies indicate that the Strouhal number is relatively constant

(0.20 ^ S'yv ^ 0-21) over the range of Reynolds numbers from 300 to 150,000.
480 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.21 Schematic illustration of a Karman vortex street.

Since accurate frequency measurements are easy to make, Eq. (9.28) provides
a means for making accurate velocity measurements in a flow. Thus,

^ (9.29)

Equation (9.29) indicates that small-diameter cylinders should be used for such
measurements, since they give a higher frequency for a given flow velocity. The
natural frequency of the mounted cylinder must be considerably higher than the
vortex shedding frequency {fjf, > 3); otherwise, significant nonlinear fluid-
structure interaction can occur with consequent large-amplitude vibrations and
large stresses that can destroy the device.
A recent design of vortex shedding flowmeter uses a triangular wedge (bluff
body) in a pipe with circular cross section, as shown in Fig. 9.22. In order to
produce strong and consistent vortex shedding, the bluff body must extend across
the full width of the pipe. Also, the height h of the bluff body must be an
appreciable fraction (approximately one-third) of the diameter of the pipe, and
the length of the bluff body in the direction of flow should be approximately
1.3 times the height. The salient edges at the face of the bluff body force the
location of the vortex shedding to be fixed, thus giving a consistent Strouhal
number of 0.88 ± 0.01 over the range of Reynolds numbers from 10,000 to
1,000,000. Two sensor elements are mounted on the front face of the bluff body
in such a way that their outputs are out of phase by 180 degrees. This arrangement
gives a very good signal-to-noise ratio, since the vortex shedding signals add,
while the common noise components cancel. Calibration studies have shown
that air at 150, 600, and 1100 psi as well as water gives the same calibration
value over a pipe Reynolds number range from 10,000 to 5,000,000. These results
support the contention that calibration values for these probes are independent
of pressure, temperature, and state of the fluid (liquid or gas). While Fig. 9.22
tends to imply that such devices can be used only in a closed pipe, such devices
can also be used in a free-flow field by using a short length of pipe with the
bluff body inside. The system, consisting of the bluff body and short pipe, can
be calibrated and suspended in the flow in much the same manner as the current
meter.
9.3 FLOW RATES IN CLOSED SYSTEMS BY PRESSURE-VARIATION MEASUREMENTS

481

Figure 9.22 Use of a bluff body as a vortex shedding flowmeter.

9.3 FLOW RATES IN CLOSED SYSTEMS BY PRESSURE-

VARIATION MEASUREMENTS

Common devices that measure average velocity or flow rate by means of

either a constriction in the stream tube or a change in direction of the flow are
considered in this section. The devices to be discussed are the venturi meter,
the flow nozzle, the orifice meter, and the elbow meter. The operation of each
of these devices is based on the fact that a change in geometry of the stream
tube causes a corresponding change in velocity and pressure of the fluid within
the tube.
The Bernoulli equation as applied to an ideal incompressible fluid (pi =
P2), as shown in Fig. 9.23 is

El V\ P2
+ Zo (9.30)
1 2g 7 2g

The velocity Uj can be eliminated from Eq. (9.30) by using the continuity equa¬
tion (conservation of mass) that requires that

Q = (9-31)

Thus, the ideal volume flow rate <2, (for an ideal frictionless fluid) can be
expressed as

<2, = (9.32)

YI2
Vl -{AMxf

Figure 9.23 Illustration of conservation of mass at two locations in a closed system.

 482 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

For real fluid flow and the same pressure drop term - p2h ~ ^2)^
the flow rate will be less than that predicted by Eq. (9.32) due to friction in the
flow between the two pressure measuring points. This energy loss is usually
accounted for by introducing an experimentally determined coefficient Cy (coef¬
ficient of velocity) into Eq. (9.32). Actual flow rate is then expressed as

_CyA^_
Q. Vl -
(9.33)

The pressure difference term {pxh + - Pih - ^ ) in Eq. (9.33) can be

2

measured with any of the standard pressure measuring devices, such as the
differential manometer or the differential pressure transducer. Specific details
are presented in the following subsections.

Venturi Meter
A typical venturi meter consists of a cylindrical inlet section, a smooth
entrance cone (acceleration cone) having an angle of approximately 21 degrees,
a short cylindrical throat section, and a diffuser cone (deceleration cone) having
an angle between 5 and 15 degrees. Recommended proportions and pressure
tap locations for a venturi meter, as specified by the American Society of Me¬
chanical Engineers (ASME), are shown in Fig. 9.24. Small diffuser angles tend
to minimize head loss from pipe friction, flow separation, and increased tur¬
bulence. In order for the venturi meter to function properly, the flow must be
well established as it enters the inlet pressure ring area. This can be accomplished
by installing the meter downstream from a section of straight and uniform pipe
having a length of approximately 50 pipe diameters. Straightening vanes can
also be installed upstream of the venturi meter to reduce any rotational motion
in the fluid. The pressures at the inlet section and at the throat section of the
meter should be measured with piezometer rings, as shown in Fig. 9.24.
The coefficient of velocity Cy for different size venturi meters having a pipe-
to-throat diameter ratio D/d of 2 is shown plotted as a function of Reynolds

Figure 9.24 Recommended proportions and pressure tap locations for a venturi meter.
9.3 FLOW RATES IN CLOSED SYSTEMS BY PRESSURE-VARIATION MEASUREMENTS

483

pVjd
Reynolds number-

Figure 9.25 Coefficient of velocity Cy as a function of Reynolds number for venturi

meters having a diameter ratio Did = 2.

number at the throat {R^ = pV <i/|a) in Fig. 9.25. These data indicate that Cy
2

ranges from 0.97 to 0.99 over a wide range of sizes and Reynolds numbers.
Experimental evidence at other diameter ratios indicates that Cy decreases with
increasing diameter ratios.

Flow Nozzle
A flow nozzle is essentially a venturi meter with the diffuser cone removed.
Since the diffuser cone exists primarily to minimize head loss caused by the
presence of the meter in the system, it is obvious that larger head losses will
occur in flow nozzles than in venturi meters. The flow nozzle is preferred over
the venturi meter in many applications because of its lower initial cost and
because of the fact that it can be easily installed between two flanges in any
piping system. The recommended ASME geometry for a long-radius flow nozzle
is shown in Fig. 9.26.
As shown in Fig. 9.26, the upstream pressure is measured through a port
or piezometer ring in the pipe at a location one pipe diameter upstream from
the inlet face of the nozzle, while the throat pressure is measured through a
port or piezometer ring at a location one-half pipe diameter downstream from
the inlet face of the nozzle. Errors associated with the measurement of throat
pressure at this location can be corrected for, either in the velocity coefficient
Cy for the flow nozzle or in the discharge coefficient C^ for the meter (C^ =

Extensive research on flow nozzles, sponsored by ASME and others, has

produced a large number of reliable data on flow nozzle installation and velocity
coefficients. Flow coefficients for the long radius ASME flow nozzle are shown
in Fig. 9.27.
484 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.26 Recommended geometery for an ASME long-radius flow nozzle.

Orifice Meter
A restricted opening through which fluid flows is known as an orifice. An
orifice meter consists of a plate with a sharp-edged circular hole (see Fig. 9.28)
that is inserted between two flanges of a piping system for the purpose of
establishing the flow rate from pressure-difference measurements across the
orifice. The flow pattern associated with flow through a sharp-edged orifice plate
is shown in Fig. 9.28. This flow pattern indicates that the streamlines tend to
converge a short distance downstream from the plane of the orifice; therefore,
the minimum-flow area is smaller than the area of the opening in the orifice
plate. This minimum-flow area is known as the “contracted area of the jet” or

10^ 2 5 IQS 2 5 10® 2 5 10"

pV^d
Reynolds number-

Figure 9.27 Velocity coefficients Cy for ASME long-radius flow nozzles.

9.3 FLOW RATES IN CLOSED SYSTEMS BY PRESSURE-VARIATION MEASUREMENTS

485

Figure 9.28 Flow through a sharp-edged orifice plate.

the “vena contracta.” The area at the vena contracta is introduced into Eq. (9.33)
by using a contraction coefficient such that

^2 = (9-34)

where Aq is the area of the hole in the orifice plate. When Eq. (9.34) is substituted
into Eq. (9.33), the flow rate through the orifice becomes

Cv C^Aq Pi
Qa =
Vl {CcAqIA.^)^ 7

(9.35)

where the orifice coefficient C is defined as

_Cy Cc_
C = (9.36)
~ {CcAqIAi}^

Equation (9.36) shows that the value of the orifice coefficient C depends upon
the velocity coefficient Cy, the contraction coefficient Cc, and the area ratio
AJA-^ of the installation. The orifice coefficient C is also affected by the location
of the pressure taps. Ideally, the pressure p2 should be measured at the vena
contracta; however, the location of the vena contracta changes with Reynolds
number and area ratio. As a result, pressure taps are often placed one pipe
diameter upstream and one-half pipe diameter downstream from the inlet face
of the orifice plate. Typical variations of orifice coefficient C as a function of
the ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter are shown in Fig. 9.29 for different
 486 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.29 Orifice coefficient C for different diameter ratios and Reynolds numbers.

Reynolds numbers based on pipe inlet conditions of velocity and diameter. For
Reynolds numbers greater than 100,000, the value of C remains essentially
constant.

Elbow Meter
The venturi meter, flow nozzle, and orifice meter, which are widely used
devices for measuring flow rates in pipes, all contribute to the energy losses in
the system. Elbow meters, on the other hand, do not introduce additional losses
m the system, since they can simply replace an existing elbow in the system that
is being used to change the direction of flow. The principle of operation of an
elbow meter is illustrated in Fig. 9.30. Experimental studies indicate that the
 9.4 FLOW RATES IN PARTIALLY CLOSED SYSTEMS 487

velocity, pressure, and elevation for pressure taps on the inside and outside
surfaces of a 90 degree elbow can be related by the expression

where Q is a coefficient that depends upon the size and shape of the elbow.
Nominal values of range from 1.3 to 3.2. The volume flow rate Q is obtained
from pressure-difference measurements from the elbow meter by substituting
Eq. (9.37) into Eq. (9.31). Thus

(9.38)

where C = I/VQ is known as the elbow meter coefficient. Typical values of

C range from 0.56 to 0.88.
The primary advantage of the elbow meter is the energy savings. The pri¬
mary disadvantage is that each meter must be calibrated in place or in a
calibration facility. The low operating cost can usually justify the calibration
cost. The elbow meter, like the other meters in this section, requires a minimum
of 10 to 30 pipe diameters of unobstructed upstream flow (to reduce large-scale
turbulence and swirl) for satisfactory operation and accurate flow measurements;
otherwise, flow straighteners must be used to stabilize the flow prior to entry
into the flow metering device.

9.4 FLOW RATES IN PARTIALLY CLOSED SYSTEMS

Many variations of the orifice of the previous section are used in practice.
For example, consider either the submerged orifice («) or the free discharging
orifice (6) of Fig. 9.31 that are often used to control fluid flow from one large
reservoir to another. In these two cases, the area ratio Aq/A, is approximately
zero; therefore, Eq. (9.35) becomes

(9.39)
CAo V2g(/?i - /iz)
488 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Water surface Water surface

Figure 9.31 Flow through an orifice between reservoirs, (a) Submerged orifice, (b) Free
discharging orifice.

where C = CyC^ is the orifice or discharge coefficient, and /?, and /z are the
2

static heads. Orifice coefficient C depends on the shape of the orifice as shown
in Table 9.1.
The coefficients listed in Table 9.1 are nominal values for large-diameter
[d > \ in. or 25 mm) orifices operating under static heads {h^ - hj) in excess
of 50 in. (1.25 m) of water. Above these limits of diameter and static head, the
coefficients are essentially constant. For smaller diameter orifices and lower
static heads, both viscous effects and surface tension effects begin to influence
the discharge coefficient.

TABLE 9.1 Orifices and Their Nominal Coefficients

Sharp
edged Rounded Short tube" Borda

~T

0.61 0,98 0.80 0.51

0,62 1.00 1.00 0.52

0.98 0.98 0.80 0.98

l ^ 2.5 d.
 9.5 FLOW RATES IN OPEN CHANNELS FROM PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS 489

9.5 FLOW RATES IN OPEN CHANNELS FROM PRESSURE

MEASUREMENTS

Accurate measurement of flow rates in open channels is important for

navigation, flood control, irrigation, etc. The two broad classes of devices used
for this type of measurement and control are the sluice gate and the weir. Both
of these devices require placement of an obstruction (dam) in the flow channel,
and thus cause a change in the flow. Pressure information is usually obtained
by measuring free-surface elevations and deducing the pressures from these data.

Sluice Gate
The sluice gate is an open-channel version of the orifice meter. As shown
in Fig. 9.32, the flow through the gate exhibits jet contraction on the top surface,
which produces a reduced area of flow or vena contracta just downstream from
the gate. If it is assumed that there are no energy losses (ideal fluid) and that
the pressure in the vena contracta is hydrostatic, the Bernoulli equation with
respect to a reference at the floor of the channel can be written as

Yl Yl (9.40)
yi yi +
2g 2g

The velocity can be eliminated from Eq. (9.40) by using the continuity equa¬
tion {Q = AiEj = A2V2), and friction losses can be accounted for by introducing
490 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

a velocity coefficient Cy. With these substitutions, the actual flow rate be¬
comes

Qa ~

Cv'CrA
V2g(y, - ^2) (9.41)
Vi -{yilyif

where A is the true area of the sluice gate opening.

Cc is a contraction coefficient that accounts for the reduced area at the
vena contracta.

Equation (9.41) indicates that the flow rate or discharge through the sluice
gate depends upon the coefficient of velocity Cy, the contraction coefficient Cc,
the depth ratio y2lyi, and the difference in depths (yi — ^2)- Frequently, in
practice, all of these effects are combined into a single discharge coefficient Cq,
so that Eq (9.41) can be written simply as

Q, = CoAVW, (9A2)

Values for the discharge coefficient C^ usually range between 0.55 and 0.60 so
long as free flow is maintained downstream from the gate. When flow conditions
downstream are such that submerged flow exists, the value of the discharge
coefficient is significantly reduced.
With a constant upstream head y^, it is obvious from Eq. (9.42) that the
flow rate or discharge is controlled by the area of the sluice gate opening. Since
the width of the gate is fixed, the height of the gate opening controls the flow
rate. The position of the gate can be easily monitored with any displacement
measuring transducer; therefore, the flow rate can be easily measured or con¬
trolled.

Weirs
A weir can be simply defined as an obstruction in an open channel over
which fluid flows. The flow rate or discharge over a weir is a function of the
weir geometry and of the weir head (vertical distance between the weir crest
and the liquid surface in the undisturbed region upstream from the weir). The
basic discharge equation for a weir can be derived by considering a sharp-crested
rectangular weir, as shown in Fig. 9.33, and applying the Bernoulli equation to
a typical streamline with the weir crest as the reference. Thus
 9.5 FLOW RATES IN OPEN CHANNELS FROM PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS 491

Figure 9.33 Flow over a sharp-crested rectangular weir.

where H is the head on the weir.

h is a distance below the free surface where V2 exists in the weir plane.

Solving Eq. (9.43) for V2 yields

+ I) (9.44)

In those instances when Ej is small (usually the case), the velocity distribution
in the flow plane above the crest of the weir can be expressed simply as

V2 = V2^ (9-45)

The ideal flow rate over the weir is obtained by integrating the quantity V2 dA
over the area of the flow plane above the weir. Thus,

Q ^ \ V2 dA ^ \ V2^ L dh
Ja Jo

= IV^LH^'^ (9.46)

where L is the width of the weir.

The actual flow rate over a weir is less than the ideal flow rate Q due
to vertical drawdown contraction from the top, friction losses in the flow, and
velocities being other than horizontal in the flow plane above the weir. These
and other effects are accounted for by introducing a weir discharge coefficient
C[) such that

(9.47)
Q. = C„e =
492 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Values of Cq range from 0.62 to 0.75 as the ratio of weir head H to weir height
P ranges from 0.1 to 2.0. The weir must be aerated and sharp for these coef¬
ficients to be valid. When the rectangular weir does not extend across the full
width of the channel, additional end contractions occur so that the effective
width of the weir is (L - O.ln//), where n is the number of end contractions.
Corrosion and algae often cause the weir to appear rough and rounded to the
flowing fluid. This produces an increase in the weir coefficient due to a reduction
in the edge contraction.
When flow rates are small, a triangular (V-notch) weir, such as the one
illustrated in Fig. 9.34, is often used. This type of weir exhibits a higher degree
of accuracy over a wider range of flow rates than does the rectangular weir.
This type of weir also has the advantage that the average width of the flow
section increases as the head increases. The basic discharge equation for the
triangular weir can be derived in the same manner as the equation for the
rectangular weir. The results are

a - A V2^ tan(0/2)Co//"^^ (9.48)

Triangular weirs having vortex angles between 45 and 90 degrees have discharge
coefficients that range between 0.58 and 0.60 provided the heads H are in
excess of 5 in. of water. At low heads, when the nappe clings to the weir plate,
Eq. (9.48) is not applicable.
Equations (9.47) and (9.48) indicate that the flow rate depends on the head
H when weirs are being used as the measuring device. The weir head H can be
measured manually with a point gage or with a float-activated displacement
transducer that serves as the sensor for a chart recorder or other data recording
system.

9.6 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW EFFECTS IN CLOSED SYSTEMS

When a gas flows through a gradual contraction in a piping system or through

a venturi type of flowmeter, compressibility effects occur and must be considered
if accurate measurements are to be made (especially at Mach numbers greater
than 0.3). By using the energy equation, the equation of state for a perfect gas.

Figure 9.34 A triangular or V-notch weir.

 9.6 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW EFFECTS IN CLOSED SYSTEMS 493

the continuity relationship for one-dimensional flow, and assuming the process
to be isentropic, it can be shown that the mass flow rate rhc through a venturi-
type contraction is given by the expression

2/k ik + l)/k
2k
rur = PiPi
Vl - k-1 (9.49)

The corresponding equation (simple Bernoulli equation) for an incompressible

flow is

_^2 Pi_ (9.50)

niB
Vl - {A2/A,f

A comparison of Eqs. (9.49) and (9.50) indicates that an expansion factor

can be incorporated into Eq. (9.50) so that the simple expression can be used
for both compressible and incompressible flow. Energy losses are accounted for
by introducing a velocity coefficient Cy, in the same manner as in Eq. (9.33),
to correlate ideal and actual flow rates. With the introduction of these coeffi¬
cients, the expression for mass flow rate m for both compressible and incom¬
pressible flow becomes

I /pi - P2\
m (9.51)
Vl - \A2lA^f \ 7i /

Values of Q for different pressure ratiospjpi are shown in Fig. 9.35. Equation
(9.51) is limited to cases with subsonic (M < 1) flow velocities at the throat.

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7

Static pressure ratio p2lp\

Figure 9.35 Expansion factor Q as a function of static pressure ratio for a venturi-type
contraction.
494 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

The critical pressure ratio for a gas, above which the flow will be subsonic, is
given by
kl(k-\)
£2\ (9.52)
P\ / critical .k ~\~ 1,

For air {k — 1.4), the critical pressure ratio is 0.528.

9.7 MISCELLANEOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR

CLOSED SYSTEMS

Several widely used, but totally different, flow-measurement methods for

closed systems are discussed in this section. Included is the capillary flow meter
for very small flow rates, positive-displacement flowmeters for use where high
accuracy is needed under steady-flow conditions, hot-film mass flow transducers
that are insensitive to temperature and pressure variations, and laser-Doppler
anemometers for optical non-contacting flow measurements.

Capillary Flowmeter
When very small flow rates must be measured, the capillary flowmeter
shown schematically in Fig. 9.36 is very useful. Operation of this meter is based
on the well-understood and experimentally verified conditions associated with
laminar flow in a circular pipe. The Hagen-Poiseuille law, which governs flow
under these conditions, can be writen as;

Pi - Pi ^ 32fxL^^ ^ Im - 1
(9.53)
7 7

Equation (9.53) is generally valid for Reynolds numbers {R^ = pFD/p) less than
2000. The velocity V can be expressed in terms of the pressure difference {p^ -
9.7 MISCELLANEOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR CLOSED SYSTEM 495

or a differential manometer head h, as shown in Fig. 9.36. Thus

y = ^:r-^ {Pi - Pi) = (T'm - l)h (9.54)

32|jlL 32|jlL

where 7^ is the specific weight of the fluid in the differential manometer.

The volume flow rate, as obtained from Eq. (9.54), is

ttD"'
Q = AV ^ (Ti “ P2) = 7 (t,, “ l)h
128|jlL 128|jlL

= ^{P\ - Pi) = (9.55)

The calibration constants K and K’ are functions of temperature, since the

viscosity and specific weight of the fluid and the diameter of the pipe are all
temperature dependent. Once the constants have been established for the ap¬
propriate temperature, the flow rate Q can be determined from a visual in¬
spection or optical measurement of the differential manometer head h or through
a measurement of the pressure difference (pi - P2) with a differential pressure
transducer and the appropriate automatic recording instruments.

Positive-Displacement Flowmeters
Positive-displacement flowmeters are normally used where high accuracy is
needed under steady-flow conditions (examples are home water meters and
gasoline pump meters). Two common types of positive-displacement flowmeters
are the nutating-disk meter (wobble meter) and the rotary-vane meter.
The nutating-disk device, shown schematically in Fig. 9.37, is widely used
as the flow sensing unit in home water meters. In this type of meter, an inlet
chamber is formed by the housing, the disk, and a partition between the inlet
and outlet ports. Water is prevented from leaving the chamber by the disk that
maintains line contact with the upper and lower conical surfaces of the housing.

Drive shaft to mechanical

or electronic counter
Disk position after
one-half revolution
of the drive shaft Upper conical surface

Spherical housing
Slot in the disk

Disk and ^Partition between

spherical outlet and inlet
mounting ports of the meter

Outlet

Lower conical surface

Figure 9.37 Nutating-disk type of positive-displacement flowmeter.
496 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

When the pressure is reduced on the outlet side by a demand for water, the
pressure difference causes the disk to wobble (but not rotate) about the vertical
axis (axis of symmetry of the housing) and thus provide a passage for the flow
around the partition. The wobble of the disk causes a small pin attached to the
spherical mount for the disk to trace out a circular path about the vertical axis
of the device. This motion of the pin is used to drive the recording mechanism.
Since a fixed volume of water moves through the device during each revolution
of the drive shaft, a simple mechanical or electronic counter can be used to
monitor the flow rate. The nutating-disk flowmeter is accurate to within 1 percent
when in good condition. When worn, the accuracy will be considerably less,
especially for very small flow rates (such as a leaky faucet).
A second type of positive-displacement flowmeter is the rotary-vane type
illustrated schematically in Fig. 9.38. This type of flowmeter consists of a cylin¬
drical housing in which an eccentrically mounted drum with several spring-
mounted vain pairs rotates. A fixed volume of fluid is transferred from the inlet
port to the outlet port during each rotation of the drum. Thus, any type of
counter can be used to monitor the flow rate. The rotary-vane flowmeter is
generally more rugged and more accurate (about 1/2 percent) than the nutating-
disk flowmeter.

Hot-Film Mass Flow Transducers

The hot-film sensor, discussed in Section 9.2, provides the basis for a mass
flow transducer that is relatively insensitive to gas temperature and gas pressure
variations. The mass flow rate m {m = pVA) depends on the cross-sectional
area A of the channel, the density p of the fluid, and the flow velocity V. With
a fixed channel area A, the momentum per unit area pV provides a measure of
the mass flow rate m. Equation (9.17) as applied to mass flow transducer design
can be written as

= [A + B{pVy'^]{T, - 7» = /X (9.56)
dt

Figure 9.38 Rotary-vane type of positive-displacement flowmeter.

9.7 MISCELLANEOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR CLOSED SYSTEM 497

Equation (9.56) indicates that it may be possible to measure the momentum per
unit area pV directly with a hpt-film sensor.
A transducer that has been developed to measure pV directly is shown
schematically in Fig. 9.39. The hot-film probe A in the center of the venturi
throat measures pV, while the temperature compensator B measures the fluid
temperature. The inlet screens C smooth the flow.
Initially, the platinum film sensor is heated by current from the anemometer
control circuit to a temperature above that of the fluid. The fluid then carries
heat away from the sensor in proportion to the flow rate. Two types of outputs
are possible depending on the anemometer bridge circuit. A nonlinear signal
comes directly from the anemometer bridge circuit. A linearized output can be
obtained if a linearizer is incorporated into the anemometer circuit. Some typical
calibration results from a circuit with a linearizer are shown in Fig. 9.40. These
results show little deviation from the mean curve obtained under ambient con¬
ditions for temperatures ranging from 40°F to 100°F, or for pressures ranging
from 15 psia to 30 psia. Similar results can be expected for temperature variations
of ±50°F and pressure variations of ±50 percent from calibration conditions.
Flow ranges of 1000 to 1 with an accuracy of 0.5 percent, a repeatability of 0.05
percent, and a response time of 1 ms are possible.

Laser-Doppler Anemometers
Introduction of the laser has made possible the development of the optical
method of velocity measurement known as laser-Doppler anemometry or laser-
Doppler velocimetry. In any form of wave propagation, frequency changes can
occur as a result of movement of the source, receiver, propagating medium, or
intervening reflector or scatterer. Such frequency changes are known as Doppler
shifts and are named after the Austrian mathematician and physicist Christian
Doppler (1803-1853), who first studied the phenomenon.

Figure 9.39 Schematic diagram showing the components of a hot-film type of mass flow
transducer. (Courtesy of TSI, Inc.)
498 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.40 Calibration curve for a Model 352

Flow rate (Ib/h, air) mass flowmeter. (Courtesy of TSI, Inc.)

An example of the Doppler effect in the field of acoustics is the increase in

pitch of a train whistle as the train approaches an observer, followed by a
decrease in pitch as the train passes and moves away from the observer. The
effect, illustrated in Fig. 9.41, is based on the fact that the observer perceives
the number of sound waves arriving per second at his position as the frequency
of the whistle.
The Doppler shift is also well known in the field of astronomy. The optical
equivalent of the change in pitch of the train whistle occurs when light from a
distant star is observed. If the distance between the star and the earth is de¬
creasing, more light pulses are received in a given time interval and the color
emitted from the star appears to be shifted toward the violet end of the spectrum.
When the distance between the star and the earth is increasing, the light is
shifted toward the red end of the sprectrum. The color shifts of remote galaxies
has been accepted as evidence that the universe is expanding. Color shifts be¬
tween approaching and receding sides of the sun with respect to the earth have
been used to compute the period of rotation of the sun.
In laser-Doppler anemometry there is no relative movement between the
source and the receiver. Instead, the shift is produced by the movement of
particles (either natural or seeded) in the flow that scatter light from the source
and thus permit it to reach the receiver. This same principle provides the basis
for radar; however, in the case of radar, a much lower frequency part of the
electromagnetic spectrum is used. The velocities commonly measured by using
laser-Doppler anemometry methods are very small when compared to the ve¬
locity of light; therefore, the corresponding Doppler shifts are very small. With
red light from a helium-neon laser (X = 632.8 nm, f ^ 4.7 x 10^“* Hz) and a
9.7 MISCELLANEOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR OLOSED SYSTEM 499

M ib)
Figure 9.41 Schematic illustration of the Doppler effect, (a) Wave propagation from a
stationary source, (h) Wave propagation from a moving source.

supersonic flow of 500 m/s, the Doppler shift in frequency is approximately 700
MHz. Since the resolution of a good-quality optical spectrometer is at best about
7 MHz, only velocities associated with supersonic flows can be measured with
reasonable accuracy by using direct Doppler-shift measurements.
An optical beating technique for determining small Doppler shifts, which
is equivalent to heterodyning in radio (signal mixing to obtain alternating con¬
structive and destructive interference or beating), was first demonstrated by Yeh
and Cummins^ in 1964. Light scattered from particles carried in a water flow
was mixed (heterodyned) with an unshifted reference beam of light from the
laser to produce a beat frequency that is equal to the Doppler-shift frequency.
The result of combining two signals with slightly different frequencies to obtain
a beat frequency is illustrated schematically in Fig. 9.42.
A schematic illustration of a simple reference beam anemometer is shown
in Fig. 9.43. As shown in the figure, light from the laser is divided with a beam
splitter into an illuminating beam and a reference beam. Light from the illu¬
minating beam is scattered in the direction of the reference beam by particles
in the flow. When the light from the two beams is combined in the photodetector,
an output signal is produced that contains a beat frequency that is equal to the
Doppler-shift frequency produced by the movement (velocity) of the particles.
This frequency can be determined by using spectrum analysis techniques. Op¬
timum results are obtained when the intensity of the reference beam is approx¬
imately equal to that of the scattered beam. An attenuator (crossed polaroids)
is often placed in the path of the reference beam to control the intensity. The
reference beam anemometer is simple in principle; however, good signal-to-
noise ratios are difficult to obtain in practice. The relationship between Doppler-
shift frequency and particle velocity can be shown to be given by the following
expression:
2V„ cos a . 0 2V . e
/o = —^sm- — sm - (9.57)
X 2

2 “Localized Flow Measurements with a He-Ne Laser Spectrometer,” by Y. Yeh and H. Z. Cum¬
mins, Applied Physics Letters, vol. 4, 1964, pp. 176-178.
500 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

Figure 9.42 Signal mixing (heterodyning) yields a combined signal with a beat frequency
equal to the difference in frequency of the original signals, {a) Signal No. 1. {b) Signal
No. 2. (c) Combined Signal.

where fo is the Doppler-shift frequency.

\ is the wavelength of the light,
is the particle velocity.
V is the component of the particle velocity in a direction normal to
the bisector of the angle between the illuminating and reference
beams.
0 is the angle between the illuminating and reference beams.

Figure 9.43 Reference beam anemometer.

9.7 MISCELLANEOUS FLOW MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR CLOSED SYSTEM 501

a is the angle between the particle velocity vector and a normal to

the bisector of the angle between the illuminating and reference
beams.

A second type of velocity measuring instrument, known as a dual-beam or

differential-Doppler anemometer, is shown schematically in Fig. 9.44. In this
instrument, scattered light from two beams of equal intensity are combined to
produce the beat signal. The frequency of the beat signal is equal to the difference
between the Doppler shifts for the two angles of scattering. The primary ad¬
vantage of this mode of operation is that the beat frequency is independent of
the receiving direction; therefore, light can be collected over a large aperture
and all light imposed on the photodetector contributes usefully to the output
signal. When the particle concentration is low, this feature makes measurement
possible when it would otherwise not be possible with the reference beam system.
The differential-Doppler anemometer also has better signal-to-noise character¬
istics.
Operation of the differential-Doppler anemometer can also be explained
in terms of the optical interference pattern (fringe pattern) formed in the cross¬
over region of the two beams as shown in Fig. 9.45. The spacing of the inter¬
ference fringes is given by the expression

X
(9.58)
2 sin (0/2)

where 5 is the spacing between fringes.

X is the wavelength of the light that is producing the fringes.
0 is the angle between the two intersecting light beams.

A particle in the flow moving with a velocity in a direction that makes an

angle a with respect to a normal to the fringe planes will experience a modulation

Figure 9.44 Differential-Doppler anemometer.

502 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

0/2

Bisector of
light beams

Figure 9.45 Optical interference pattern (fringe pattern) formed by constructive and
destructive interference in the crossover region of the two light beams.

of light intensity as it moves through the fringes. Since the light scattered from
the particle depends on this intensity variation associated with the fringes, it will
also be modulated at the frequency and will be independent of the direction
of observation. The frequency/o obtained from the particle velocity and fringe
spacing is identical to that given by Eq. (9.57).
Output signals from the photodetectors can be processed in many ways to
obtain the Doppler frequency/d required for velocity determinations. Included
are spectrum analysis, frequency tracking, counter processing, filter bank proc¬
essing, and photon correlation. Details of all of these procedures are beyond
the purpose and scope of this book. The reader who is interested in application
of laser-Doppler methods to flow measurements should consult one of a number
of books that have been published on the subject.^
The advantages of laser-Doppler measurements include:

1. The probing is purely optical; therefore, the flow is not disturbed by the
presence of a measuring instrument.
2. Velocity is measured in a direct manner; calibration is not required.
3. A component of velocity in a given direction can be measured.
4. System output is a linear function of the velocity component being measured.
5. Velocities can be measured in flows exhibiting high turbulence.
6. The method is suitable for a very wide range of velocities.

^ The Laser-Doppler Technique, by L. E. Drain, Wiley, New York, 1980.

 9.8 SUMMARY 503
Doppler-shift frequency [q (Hz)

Figure 9.46 Doppler-shift frequency versus velocity.

Typical frequency versus velocity curves for a reference beam anemometer

are shown in Fig. 9.46. Since the wavelength of the helium-neon laser is known
to an accuracy of 0.01 percent and since modern signal processing electronics
can provide very accurate determinations of the Doppler-shift frequency/o, the
accuracy of velocity determinations is controlled essentially by the accuracy of
the determination of the angle 0 between the illuminating and reference beams.
Useful ranges of beam angles for gas and liquid flow are shown crosshatched in
Fig. 9.46.

9.8 SUMMARY

A wide variety of flow measurement methods and devices have been con¬
sidered in this chapter. Other devices that have not been covered include swirl-
meters, magnetic flowmeters, and a number of ultrasonic devices. The choice
of an instrument depends on such factors as accuracy, range, reliability, cost,
viscosity and density of the fluid, extremes of temperature and pressure, type
of readout required, and nature of the fluid (clean, dirty, corrosive, etc.). Initial
and subsequent calibration must also be given serious consideration.
504 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

9.9 TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF SOME COMMON LIQUIDS AND

GASES

TABLE 9.2 Physical Properties of Water

Temperature Specific" Kinematic

English Weight Density" Viscosity Viscosity
units: °F Ib/ff* slug/ft^ Ib-s/ft" ftVs
7 P p, X 10* V X 10*

32 62.42 1.940 3.746 1.931

40 62.43 1.940 3.229 1.664
50 62.41 1.940 2.735 1.410
60 62.37 1.938 2.359 1.217
70 62.30 1.936 2.050 1.059
80 62.22 1.934 1.799 0.930
90 62.11 1.931 1.595 0.826
100 62.00 1.927 1.424 0.739
no 61.86 1.923 1.284 0.667
120 61.71 1.918 1.168 0.609
130 61.55 1.913 1.069 0.558
140 61.38 1.908 0.981 0.514
150 61.20 1.902 0.905 0.476
160 61.00 1.896 0.838 0.442
170 60.80 1.890 0.780 0.413
180 60.58 1.883 0.726 0.385
190 60.36 1.876 0.678 0.362
200 60.12 1.868 0.637 0.341
212 59.83 1.860 0.593 0.319

SI units: °C kN/m^ kg/m^ N • s/m^ mVs

7 P p X 10* V X 10*

0 9.805 999.8 1.781 1.785

5 9.807 1000.0 1.518 1.519
10 9.804 999.7 1.307 1.306
15 9.798 999.1 1.139 1.139
20 9.789 998.2 1.002 1.003
25 9.777 997.0 0.890 0.893
30 9.764 995.7 0.798 0.800
40 9.730 992.2 0.653 0.658
50 9.689 988.0 0.547 0.553
60 9.642 983.2 0.466 0.474
70 9.589 977.8 0.404 0.413
80 9.530 971.8 0.354 0.364
90 9.466 965.3 0.315 0.326
100 9.399 958.4 0.282 0.294

" At 14.7 psia (standard atmospheric pressure).

 TABLE OF PROPERTIES OF SOME COMMON LIQUIDS AND GASES 505

TABLE 9.3 Approximate Properties of Some Common Liquids at Standard

Atmospheric (Pressure

Temper¬ Specific Kinematic

Liquid ature Weight Density Viscosity Viscosity
English Units: °F Ib/tU slug/ft’ Ib-s/ft" ft*/s
y P p, X 10* V X 10*

Benzene 68 54.8 1.702 1.37 0.80

Castor oil 68 59.8 1.858 2060.0 1109.0
Crude oil 68 53.6 1.665 15.0 9.0
Ethyl alcohol 68 49.2 1.528 2.51 1.64
Gasoline 68 42.4 1.317 0.61 0.46
Glycerin 68 78.5 2.439 3120.0 1280.0
Kerosene 68 50.5 1.569 4.00 2.55
Linseed oil 68 58.6 1.820 92.0 50.0
Mercury 68 844.0 26.2 3.24 0.124
Olive oil 68 56.7 1.761 176.0 100.0
Turpentine 68 53.6 1.665 3.11 1.87
Water 68 62.32 1.936 2.10 1.085

SI units: °C kN/m^ kg/m^ N • s/m^ mVs

y P p X 10* V X10*

Benzene 20 8J7 895 0.65 0.73

Castor oil 20 9.39 958 979.0 1025.0
Crude oil 20 8.42 858 7.13 8.32
Ethyl alcohol 20 7.73 787 1.19 1.52
Gasoline 20 6.66 679 0.29 0.43
Glycerin 20 12.33 1257 1495.0 1189.0
Kerosene 20 7.93 809 1.90 2.36
Linseed oil 20 9.21 938 43.7 46.2
Mercury 20 132.6 13500 1.54 0.12
Olive oil 20 8.91 908 83.7 92.4
Turpentine 20 8.42 858 1.48 1.73
Water 20 9.79 998 1.00 1.00
506 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 9.4 Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Temper¬ Specific" Kinematic

ature Weight Density" Viscosity Viscosity
°F Ib/ft^ slug/ft^ Ib-s/ft^ ft"/s
English units:
fJL X 10" V X 1(F
y P

0 0.0866 0.00269 3.39 1.26

10 0.0847 0.00263 3.45 1.31
20 0.0828 0.00257 3.51 1.37
30 0.0811 0.00252 3.57 1.42
40 0.0794 0.00247 3.63 1.47
50 0.0779 0.00242 3.68 1.52
60 0.0764 0.00237 3.74 1.58
70 0.0750 0.00233 3.79 1.63
80 0.0735 0.00228 3.85 1.69
90 0.0722 0.00224 3.90 1.74
100 0.0709 0.00220 3.96 1.80
150 0.0651 0.00202 4.23 2.09
200 0.0601 0.00187 4.48 2.40
300 0.0522 0.00162 4.96 3.05
400 0.0462 0.00143 5.40 3.77

SI units: °C N/m^ kg/m^ N • s/m" m"/s

P p. X 10^ V X 10*
7

-20 13.7 1.40 1.61 1.16

-10 13.2 1.34 1.67 1.24
0 12.7 1.29 1.72 1.33
10 12.2 1.25 1.76 1.41
20 11.8 1.20 1.81 1.51
30 11.4 1.17 1.86 1.60
40 11.1 1.13 1.91 1.69
50 10.7 1.09 1.95 1.79
60 10.4 1.06 2.00 1.89
70 10.1 1.03 2.04 1.99
80 9.81 1.00 2.09 2.09
90 9.54 0.97 2.13 2.19
100 9.28 0.95 2.17 2.29
120 8.82 0.90 2.26 2.51
140 8.38 0.85 2.34 2.74
160 7.99 0.81 2.42 2.97
180 7.65 0.78 2.50 3.20
200 7.32 0.75 2.57 3.44

At 14.7 psia (standard atmospheric pressure).

 REFERENCES 507

TABLE 9.5 Approximate Properties of Some Common Gases

Engineering Specific Adiabatic

Gas Density" Gas Constant Heat Exponent Viscosity
English units: slug/fP ft-lb/slug °R ft-lb/slug °R lb-s/fb=
P R A k p, X 1(P

Air 0.00234 1715 6000 4285 1.40 0.0376

Carbon dioxide 0.00354 1123 5132 4009 1.28 0.0310
Carbon monoxide 0.00225 1778 6218 4440 1.40 0.0380
Helium 0.00032 12420 31230 18810 1.66 0.0411
Hydrogen 0.00016 24680 86390 61710 1.40 0.0189
Methane 0.00129 3100 13400 10300 1.30 0.0280
Nitrogen 0.00226 1773 6210 4437 1.40 0.0368
Oxygen 0.00258 1554 5437 3883 1.40 0.0418
Water vapor 0.00145 2760 11110 8350 1.33 0.0212

SI units: kg/m^ N m/kg K N • m/kg K N • s/m^

P R c„ k pi X 10®

Air 1.205 287 1003 716 1.40 1.80

Carbon dioxide 1.84 188 858 670 1.28 1.48
Carbon monoxide 1.16 297 1040 743 1.40 1.82
Helium 0.166 2077 5220 3143 1.66 1.97
Hydrogen 0.0839 4120 14450 10330 1.40 0.90
Methane 0.668 520 2250 1730 1.30 1.34
Nitrogen 1.16 297 1040 743 1.40 1.76
Oxygen 1.33 260 909 649 1.40 2.00
Water vapor 0.747 462 1862 1400 1.33 1.01

“ At 14.7 psia (standard atmospheric pressure).

REFERENCES

1. Benedict, R. P.: Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Meas¬

urement, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1977.
2. Vennard, J. K., and R. L. Street: Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed.,
Wiley, New York, 1975.
3. John, J. E. A., and W. L. Haberman: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics,
2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1980.
4. Robertson, J. A., and C. T. Crowe: Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 2nd ed.,
Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts, 1980.
5. Vennard, J. K.: Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., Wiley, New York,
1961.
6. Streeter, V. L.: Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1971.
508 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

7. Olson, R. M.: Essentials of Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 2nd ed., Inter¬

national Textbook, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1966.
8. Daugherty, R. L., and J. B. Franzini: Fluid Mechanics with Engineering
Applications, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
9. Schlicting, H.: Boundary Layer Theory, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1968.
10. Tuve, G. L.: Mechanical Engineering Experimentation, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1961.
11. Rouse, H. (Ed.): Engineering Hydraulics, Wiley, New York, 1950.
12. Rayle, R. E.: Influence of Orifice Geometry on Static Pressure Measure¬
ments, ASME Paper 59-A-234, American Society of Mechanical Engi¬
neers, New York, December 1959.
13. Gracey, W., W. Letko, and W. R. Russel: Wind-Tunnel Investigation of
a Number of Total-Pressure Tubes at High Angles of Attack, NACA
TN2331, National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, Washington, D.C.,
April 1951.
14. Hurd, C. W., K. P. Chesky, and A. H. Shapiro: Influence of Viscous
Effects on Impact Tubes, Transactions of the American Society of Me¬
chanical Engineers, Journal of Applied Mechanics, June 1953, p. 253.
15. Lighthill, M. J.: Contributions to the Theory of Pitot-tube Displacement
Effects, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 2, part 2, 1957, p. 493.
16. Hall, I. M.: The Displacement Effect of a Sphere in a Two-dimensional
Shear Flow, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 1, part 2, 1956, p. 142.
17. King, L. V.: On the Convection of Heat from Small Cylinders in a Stream
of Fluid with Applications to Hot-wire Anemometry, Philosophical Trans¬
actions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 214, no. 14, 1914, p. 373.
18. Freymuth, P.: A Bibliography of Thermal Anemometry, TSI Quarterly,
vol. 4, May/June, 1978. Available from Thermo Systems Incorporated, St.
Paul, Minnesota.
19. Marris, A. W., and O. G. Brown: Hydrodynamically Excited Vibrations
of Cantilever-Supported Rods, ASME Paper 62-HYD-7, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1962.
20. White, D. F., A. E. Rodley, and C. L. McMurtrie: The Vortex Shedding
Flowmeter, a paper in Flow, Its Measurement and Control in Science and
Industry, vol. 1, part 2, Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, 1974,
p. 967.
21. Fluid Meters: Their Theory and Application, 6th ed., American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1971.
22. Benedict, R. P.: Most Probable Discharge Coefficients for ASME Flow
Nozzles, Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
Journal of Basic Engineering, December 1966, p. 734.
 REFERENCES 509

23. Tuve, G. L., andR. E. Sprenkle: Orifice Discharge Coefficients for Viscous
Liquids, Instruments, vol. 6, 1933, p. 201; also vol. 8, 1935, pp. 202, 225,
232.
24. Lansford, W. M.: The Use of an Elbow in a Pipe Line for Determining
the Flow in a Pipe, Bulletin 289, Engineering Experiment Station, Uni¬
versity of Illinois, Urbana, 1936.
25. Lenz, A. T.; Viscosity and Surface-Tension Effects on V-Notch Weir Coef¬
ficients, Transactions of the American Society of Civil Eneineers, vol. 108,
1943, pp. 759-802.
26. Cheremisinoff, N. P.: Applied Fluid Flow Measurement: Fundamentals and
Technology, Dekker, New York, 1979.
27. Yothers, M. T. (Ed.): Standards and Practices for Instrumentation, 5th ed..
Instrument Society of America, Pittsburgh, 1977.

EXERCISES

9.1 For laminar flow in a circular pipe, show that the average velocity
is one-half of the centerline velocity V^.
9.2 The velocity profile for fully developed flow in circular pipes is given
by Eq. (9.5). Show that the average velocity is related to the
centerline velocity by Eq. (9.6).
9.3 Water at 60°F flows through a 2.0-ft-diameter pipe with an average
velocity of 20 ft/s. Determine the weight flow rate, the mass flow rate,
the energy per second being transmitted through the pipe in the form
of kinetic energy (yQV^/lg), the velocity profile exponent n, and the
centerline velocity.
9.4 For the rectangular duct shown in Fig. E9.4, the velocity profile can
be approximated by the expression

u = Vc[i - (x/ay][i - (y/bf]

Show that Vavg = 4/9Uc for this case.

Figure E9.4
510 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

9.5 A pitot tube is connected to a manometer filled with fluid of specific

weight 7^ as shown in Fig. E9.5. When the manometer connection
pipes are filled with the flowing fluid of specific weight y, the pressure
differential is independent of dimension a. Show that the free-stream
velocity is given by the expression

= Cl h = KVh

Show that K = 1.087 when the manometer fluid is mercury, Q — 0.98,

is expressed in meters per second, and h is measured in centimeters.
How would these results be altered if the pipe were inclined at an angle
of 60 degrees from the horizontal?
9.6 Compare the velocity measurement error associated with a 30-degree
misalignment for the two types of pitot tubes shown in Fig. 9.7 when
the true dynamic pressure is 4 in. of water for carbon dioxide flowing
at 68°F.
9.7 A 0.25-in.-diameter pitot tube is to be used to measure the velocity of
two liquids (water and glycerin). What is the minimum velocity for each
liquid below which viscous effects must be considered? Assume both
liquids are at room temperature.
9.8 A pitot-static tube is used to measure the speed of an aircraft. The air
temperature and pressure are SOT and 12.3 psia, respectively. What is
the aircraft speed in miles per hour if the differential pressure is 30 in.
of water? Solve by using both Eq. (9.10) and Eq. (9.16). Compare the
results.
9.9 Show that the fundamental form of Eq. (9.19) follows directly from
King’s law as expressed by Eq. (9.17) and that

Co = A2/p52 and = VA(r, - Tf)IR^

9.10 From the typical calibration curve for a hot-film anemometer operating
in water as shown in Fig. 9.13, estimate the reference current /q and
 REFERENCES 511

the calibration constant Cq. Assuming a nominal temperature difference

of 80°F during calibration, how would you correct for a fluid temper¬
ature drop of 10°F occurring after start up of the experiment?
9.11 A circular plate having a diameter of 3.81 cm is to be used as a drag-
force velocity transducer to measure the velocity of water at 68°F.
Determine the velocity sensitivity of the plate and the minimum velocity
for which this sensitivity is valid.

9.12 Current meter data were collected at 13 vertical locations similar to

those shown in Fig. 9.19 on a river that is 72 ft wide. The calibration
constant for the current meter can be expressed as F = 2.45A, where
V is the flow velocity in feet per second and N is the speed of the
rotating element in revolutions per second. The data collected at the
13 locations are as follows:

Rotating Element
(rev/min)

Station Depth (ft) 0.2h 0.8/1

1 0.0 _ _
2 3.0 40.1 31.2
3 3.5 51.1 41.5
4 4.2 59.0 43.0
5 3.7 62.1 48.2
6 5.1 68.3 50.2
7 4.6 65.6 48.2
8 3.8 60.2 45.8
9 4.0 56.5 48.0
10 3.2 57.3 39.8
11 3.1 48.8 38.0
12 2.0 41.2 29.8
13 0.0 — —

Show that the river flow rate is 482 ftTs.

9.13 A vortex shedding transducer is being designed to measure the velocity
of water flowing in an open channel. The range of velocities to be
measured is from 0.10 to 10.0 ft/s. The relationship between shedding
frequency/^ and velocity (subject to calibration) should be approx¬
imately/^ = lOF^. Show that a cylinder having a diameter of 0.250 in.
approximates these design requirements. What other factors must be
considered?
9.14 Design a bluff-body vortex shedding flowmeter similar to the one shown
in Fig. 9.22 for use in an 8-in.-diameter pipe that is carrying water.
Estimate the meter sensitivity (feet per second per hertz) and the range
512 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

of velocities over which this sensitivity should be nearly constant. What

is the equivalent volume flow-rate sensitivity?
9.15 Show that the ideal and actual volume flow rates for the closed system
shown in Fig. E9.15 are

Q. - CvQ,

where is the specific weight of the manometer fluid (y^ > y).

(a) Why do dimensions a and b not appear in the above equation?

(b) How would you change the manometer connection if y^ < 7?
(c) What effect would 7^ < 7 have on the above equation?

9.16 A 4.0-in. by 2.0-in.-diameter venturi meter is used to measure the

volume flow rate of turpentine in a chemical processing plant. Pressure
differences are measured with a manometer having water as the ma¬
nometer fluid.

(a) Show that the ideal flow-rate sensitivity is 0.0210 ft^/s • in.*^^ when
the pressure drop is measured in inches of water.
(b) How can the actual flow-rate sensitivity be estimated by using Fig.
9.25?
(c) For a manometer reading of 16 in. of water and a fluid temperature
of 68°F, determine the actual flow rate.

9.17 The flow of water at 150°F in an existing 8.0-in.-diameter pipe line is

to be measured by using a 4.0-in.-diameter ASME long-radius flow
nozzle. The flow rate will vary from 0.05 to 3.0 ft^/s.

Figure E9.15
 REFERENCES 513

(a) What range of pressure drops should the differential pressure

transducer be able to measure?
(b) If a manometer is to be used to measure these pressure drops,
select a reasonable manometer fluid for use in this application if
it is assumed that a manometer can be easily read to ±0.05 in.

9.18 A mercury manometer is connected to a standard orifice meter with a

40-mm-diameter hole that has been placed in a 100-mm-diameter pipe.
For a manometer reading of 381 mm of mercury, show that the flow
rate in the pipe is 8.05 x 10“^ m^/s if the fluid is crude oil at 20°C.
9.19 An 8.0-in.-diameter elbow meter has a coefficient C = 0.75 when
installed in a water line. The meter is connected to a mercury manom¬
eter having a 24-in. scale that is graduated in units of 0.05 in.

(a) Determine the sensitivity of the instrument in terms of cubic feet

per second and inches of mercury.
(b) When h = 20.0 inches of mercury, what is the change in volume
flow rate A(3 corresponding to a scale reading error of 0.10 in.?
(c) How significant is the 0.10-in. reading error when h = 4.0 in.?

9.20 Compare flow rates through 40-mm-diameter openings under 1.50-m

static heads if the openings have been constructed as sharp-edged,
rounded, short-tube, or Borda orifices. Ancient Rome’s famous water
system used sharp-edged orifices to meter water to Roman citizens.
The clever citizens found that they could obtain 30 percent more water
by inserting a short tube into the orifice and thus cheat Caesar out of
significant water revenues.
9.21 A 10-in.-diameter opening is to be located in the side of a large tank.
Water flows from the large tank into a large reservoir. Estimate the
flow between the tank and the reservoir when the difference in free-
surface elevations is 16 ft. Assume:

(a) That the most efficient orifice construction from Table 9.1 is used
(b) That the most inefficient orifice construction from Table 9.1 is
used
(c) What assumptions are made when the terms “large tank” and
“large reservoir” are used?

9.22 A 4.0-m-wide by 0.50-m-deep sluice gate is used to control the overflow

of water from a small reservoir with a surface area of 100,000 m^. When
the water surface in the reservoir is 2.5 m above the bottom of the
spillway (see Fig. 9.32), estimate the flow rate through the sluice gate
and the rate at which the reservoir surface is falling. Assume =
0.61 and Cy - 0.96.
9.23 Derive Eq. (9.47) for the flow rate over a rectangular weir and carefully
list any assumptions required for the derivation. If Co is assumed to
514 FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

be equal to 0.623 and if end contractTon effects are neglected, show

that
(a) Qa = 3.32L//3/2 English System of units
(b) S3for the SI System of units
9.24 T. Rehbock of the Karlsruhe Laboratory in Germany developed the
following empirical expression for the weir discharge coefficient C^,
which yields good results for rectangular weirs with good ventilation,
sharp edges, smooth weir faces, and adequate water stilling.

Co = 0.605 + O.OSHIP + 1/305//

Plot values of Cp as a function of H (0.08 ft < // < 2.0 ft) for P equal
to 0.33 ft, 1.00 ft, and 3.30 ft. Note: HIP must be less than 2 for the
Rehbock equation to retain an accuracy of 1 percent.
9.25 A rectangular weir is to be placed in a 6-m-wide channel to measure a
nominal flow rate of 5.0 m^/s while maintaining a minimal channel depth
of 3.0 m. Determine a suitable rectangular weir (width L and height
P) if HIP must be less than 0.4 to ensure that V\l2g is negligible. What
would the height P be for a 90-degree V-notch weir? If the flow rate
doubles, which weir would experience the smaller change in weir head
HI
9.26 The flow rate in a rectangular open channel of width L must be meas¬
ured while a nearly constant fluid depth y is maintained. A floating
sluice gate and a weir have been proposed as methods to achieve these
goals. The two methods are shown in Fig. E9.26.

(a) Show that the flow rate under the sluice gate as given by the
following linear equation between Q and H is accurate within 5
percent, provided is constant and HJP, <0.1.

Q = Co, VWsLH,

Float

Movable

Sluice gate proposal

Figure E9.26
 REFERENCES 515

(b) Compare the sluice gage and weir discharge equations and show
that the sluice gate and weir readings are related by the expression

^ 2_Cj^F^
‘ 3 Cry, VP,

(c) Based on the information of Part (b), which method will give the
least variation of H with flow rate?
(d) Which unit is least expensive to install and maintain?
(e) Which proposal would you select and why?

9.27 Air stored in a tank at 200 psia and 150°F flows into a second tank at
160 psia through a 1.70-in.-diameter flow nozzle. Show that 16.9 slugs
of air per minute are moving from one tank to the other under these
conditions. Why must the pressure in the second tank exceed 106 psia?
9.28 Oxygen at — 10°F and 150 psia is flowing in a 6-in.-diameter line at a
rate of 25 Ib/s. Estimate the pressure drop across a 3.0-in.-diameter
venturi meter that would be available for measuring the flow rate.
9.29 A capillary-tube flowmeter is being constructed to measure the flow
rate of water. The glass tubing has an inside diameter of 1.50 mm and
the pressure taps are located 0.35 m apart.

(a) Estimate the flow rate if the manometer reading is 260 mm of

mercury and the water temperature is 20°C.
(b) How much error results if the water temperature increases to 30°C?
Neglect any effects due to expansion of the glass with temperature
change.

9.30 Calibration of flowmeters is often performed with an experimental fa¬

cility consisting of a pump, valve to regulate the flow from the pump,
test meter and manometer, weigh tank and scale, stopwatch, and res¬
ervoir as shown in Fig. E9.30.

(a) What minimum length L of pipe should be used on the inlet side
of the test meter?
FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENTS

(b) What is the maximum flow rate that can be measured if errors are
to be limited to ± 1 percent, if water caught in the weigh tank is
limited to 100 lb, and if the stop watch can be started and stopped
within 0.05 s of the correct time?
(c) What additional information must be collected in order to properly
calibrate the flowmeter?
(d) How should flow rate Q versus manometer reading h be plotted
in order to obtain the meter calibration relationship?
(e) Find a standard relating to calibration of flowmeters in the library
and study the calibration procedures recommended.
 :■■!'• ■j'l’i j.'.'-’.-.-Ji:. y. .v?fe. -tf - ••< ^Nt *-j>- •^ !v.- ■;.iv,-.i - JrAV-- ^• •^ .><

STATISTICAL METHODS
IN EXPERIMENTAL
MEASUREMENTS

X IT ’’izzrrzzriiZL^'.»_icJsiTzr'.’zr^

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Experimental measurements of quantities such as pressure, temperature,

force, or flow velocity will always exhibit some variation if the measurements
are repeated a number of times with precise and accurate instruments. This
variability is due to two different causes. First, the quantity being measured may
exhibit significant variation due to changes in the process over the time interval
required to make the measurement. For example, measurements of flow velocity
in a section of pipe may exhibit large variations related to changes in the flow
elsewhere in the system, to pump fluctuations, or to local changes in turbulence.
Second, the instrumentation system, which includes the transducer, signal con¬
ditioning equipment, and recording instrument, or the operator may introduce
error in the measurement. This error may be systematic or random, depending
upon its source. An instrument operated out of calibration produces a systematic
error, whereas, reading errors due to interpolation on a chart are random. The
accumulation of random errors in a measuring system produces a variation that
must be examined in relation to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
518 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

The data obtained from repeated measurements are an assembly of readings,

not an exact result. Maximum information can be extracted from such an as¬
sembly of readings by employing statistical methods. The first step in the sta¬
tistical treatment of data is to establish the distribution. A graphical represen¬
tation of the distribution is usually the most useful form for initial evaluation.
Next, the statistical distribution is characterized with a measure of its central
value, such as the mean, the median, or the mode. Finally, the spread of dis¬
persion of the distribution is determined in terms of the variance or the standard
deviation.
With elementary statistical methods, the experimentalist can reduce a large
amount of data to a very compact and useful form by defining the type of
distribution, establishing the single value that best represents the distribution
(mean), and determining the variation from the mean value (standard deviation).
Summarizing data in this manner is the most meaningful form for application
to design problems or for communication to other engineers who may have need
for the results of the experiments.
The treatment of statistical methods presented in this chapter is relatively
brief; therefore, only the most commonly employed techniques for representing
and interpreting data are presented. A formal course in statistics, which covers
these techniques in much greater detail as well as many other useful techniques,
should be included in the program of study of all engineering students.

10.2 CHARACTERIZING STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS

For purposes of this discussion, consider that an experiment has been con¬
ducted n times to determine the yield strength of a particular type of cold-drawn,
mild-steel bar. The data obtained represent a sample of size n from an infinite
population of all possible measurements that could have been made. The simplest
way to present these data is to list the measurements in order of increasing
magnitude, as shown in Table 10.1.

TABLE 10.1 Listing of Data in Order of Inoreasing Magnitude

Yield Strength of Cold-Drawn Mild Steel

Sample Strength Sample Strength

Number (ksiiMPa) Number (ksirMPa)

1 65.0 : 448 11 79.0 : 545

2 68.3 : 471 12 79.2 : 546
3 72.2 : 498 13 79.9 : 551
4 73.5 : 507 14 80.3 :; 554
5 74.0 : 510 15 81.1 : 559
6 75.2 : 519 16 82.6 : 570
7 76.8 : 530 17 84.0 : 579
8 77.7 : 536 18 85.5 : 590
9 78.1 ; 539 19 87.0 : 600
10 78.8 : 543 20 89.8 : 619
 10.2 CHARACTERIZING STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTIONS 519

TABLE 10.2 Frequency Distribution of Yield Strength

Group Intervals Observations Relative Cumulative

(ksi’.MPa) in the Group Frequency Frequency

65.0-69.9 ; 448-482 2 0.10 0.10

70.0-74.9 : 483-516 3 0.15 0.25
75.0-79.9 : 517-551 8 0.40 0.65
80.0-84.9 : 552-585 4 0.20 0.85
85.0-89,9 : 586-620 3 0.15 1.00
Total 20

These data can be rearranged into five groups to give a frequency distribution,
as shown in Table 10.2. The advantage of representing data in a frequency
distribution is that the central tendency is more clearly illustrated.

Graphical Representation of the Distribution

The shape of the distribution function representing the yield strength of the
cold-drawn, mild-steel bars is indicated by the data groupings of Table 10.2. A
graphical presentation of this group data, known as a histogram, is shown in
Fig. 10.1. The histogram method of presentation shows the distribution with its
central tendency and variability much more clearly than the tabular method of
presentation of Table 10.2. Superimposed on the histogram is a plot showing
the relative frequency of the occurrence of a group of measurements. Note that
the points for the relative frequency plot are placed at the midpoint of the group
interval.
A cumulative frequency diagram, shown in Fig. 10.2, is another way of
representing the yield strength data from the experiments. The cumulative fre¬
quency is the number of readings having a value less than a specified value of

Figure 10.1 Yield strength distribution with superimposed relative frequency curve.
520 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Figure 10.2 Cumulative frequency curve for the yield strength data.

the quantity being measured (yield strength in this example) divided by the total
number of measurements. As indicated in Table 10.2, the cumulative frequency
is the running sum of the relative frequencies. When the graph of cumulative
frequency versus the quantity being measured (yield strength) is prepared, the
end value for the group interval is used to position the point along the abscissa.

Analysis of Central Tendency

While histograms or frequency distributions are used to provide a visual
representation of a distribution, numerical measures are used to define the
characteristics of the distribution. One basic characteristic of a distribution is
the central tendency of the data. The most commonly employed measure of the
central tendency is the sample mean x, which is defined as

* = 2 f (10.1)

where x, is the /th value of the quantity being measured.

n is the total number of measurements.

Because of time and costs involved in conducting tests, the number of meas¬
urements is usually limited; therefore, the sample mean x is only an estimate of
the true arithmetic mean |x of the population. It is shown later that x approaches
p. as the number of measurements increases.
The median and mode are also measures of central tendency. The median
is the middle value in a group of ordered data. For example, in an ordered set
of 21 readings, the 11th reading represents the median value with 10 readings
lower than the median and 10 readings higher than the median. In instances
 10.3 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 521

when an even number of readings are taken, the median is obtained by averaging
the two middle values. For example, in an ordered set of 20 readings, the median
is the average of the 10th and 11th readings.
The mode is the most frequent value of the data; therefore, it is the peak
value on the relative frequency curve. In Fig. 10.1, the peak of the relative
frequency curve occurs at a yield strength 5',, = 77.5 ksi (535 MPa); therefore,
this value is the mode of the data set presented in Table 10.1.

Measures of Dispersion
It is possible for two different distributions of data to have the same mean
but different dispersions, as shown in the relative frequency diagrams of Fig.
10.3. Different measures of dispersion are the range, the mean deviation, the
variance, and the standard deviation. The standard deviation is the most
popular and is defined as

5 X
(10.2)

When the sample size n is small, the standard deviation 5"^ of the sample rep¬
resents an estimate of the true standard deviation cr of the population. Deter¬
mination of the mean and standard deviation for a distribution are easily and
quickly performed today by utilizing the preprogrammed routines available in
most small electronic calculators.
Expressions for the other measures of dispersion, namely, range R, mean
deviation <7^, and variance Si are

R = X, - X, (10.3)

Quantity being measured

Figure 10.3 Relative frequency diagrams with large and small dispersion.
522 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

where X; is the largest value of the quantity in the distribution.

X,, is the smallest value of the quantity in the distribution.

S k/ -
4 - - (10.4)
n

Equation (10.4) indicates that the deviation of each reading from the mean is
determined and summed. The average of the n deviations is the mean deviation.
The absolute value of the difference .r, - x must be used in the summing process
to avoid cancellation of positive and negative deviations.

S (t - xy
SI = - (10.5)
n

The variance is frequently used in statistics, since it is related to the standard

deviation when the sample size is large. Also, it is useful in describing the
dispersion characteristics of the most important statistical distribution function
(the normal distribution).
Finally, a measure known as the coefficient of variation Q is used to express
the standard deviation 5^ as a percentage of the mean x. Thus

C, = 4(100) (10.6)

10.3 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS

As the sample size is increased, it is possible in tabulating the data to increase

the number of group intervals and to decrease their width. The corresponding
relative frequency plot, similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 10.1, will approach
a smooth curve that can be represented by a frequency equation. This frequency
equation defines the statistical properties of a distribution function that can be
used to represent the population from which the sample was drawn.
Many distribution functions are used in statistical analyses. The best-known
and most widely used distribution is the normal distribution, also known as the
Gaussian distribution. Other useful distributions include binomial, F, Gum-
bel, Poisson, Student’s t, and Weibull distributions. The normal distribution
function is important in engineering, since it describes the statistical variation
in many engineering processes. It also describes the variation resulting from
random error. The normal distribution function, as represented by a normalized
relative frequency diagram, is shown in Fig. 10.4.
The normal distribution is completely defined by two parameters; the mean
 10.3 STATISTICAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 523

Figure 10.4 Normalized relative frequency diagram for the normal distribution function.

|x and the standard deviation o'. The equation for the relative frequency / in
terms of these two parameters is

/(O = (10.7)

where

z = (10.8)
CT

Experimental data (with finite sample sizes) can be analyzed to obtain x as an

estimate of |x and as an estimate of ct. Use of this procedure permits the
experimentalist to utilize data drawn from small samples to represent the com¬
plete population.
Distribution functions are important since they provide a means for pre¬
dicting population properties. This is an extremely valuable capability, since
prediction of process behavior is vital in engineering applications. The method
for predicting population properties from the normal distribution function uti¬
lizes the normalized relative frequency distribution shown in Fig. 10.4. The area
A under the entire normalized relative frequency curve is given by Eq. (10.7)
as

A = I_
V2it 1 -==
f e dz = 1 (10-9)

Equation (10.9) implies that the population has a value z between -oo and +oc
and that the probability of selecting a single sample from the population with a
524 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

value -00 ^ z < +00 is 100 percent. While the previous statement may appear
trivial and obvious, it serves to illustrate the concept of using the area under
the normalized relative frequency curve to determine the probability of drawing
a single sample with a value z between specified limits from a population. As
a less obvious example, consider the probability of drawing a single sample with
Zi ^ z ^ Z2. This probability is equal to the area under the normalized relative
frequency curve from z = z, to z = Z2. Thus, from Eq. (10.7),

(10.10)

where p is the probability of occurrence. Evaluation of Eq. (10.10) is most easily

made by using tables that list the areas under the normalized relative frequency
curve as a function of z. Table 10.3 lists one-side areas between limits of z =
-z, and z = 0 for the normal distribution function. Since the distribution
function is symmetric about z = 0, this one-sided table is sufficient for all
evaluations. For example.

A(-1,0) = A(0, + 1)

therefore

z4(-l, + l) = + = 0.3413 + 0.3413 = 0.6826

A{-2, + 2) = p(-2, + 2) = 0.4772 + 0.4772 = 0.9544

A(-3, + 3) = p(-3, + 3) = 0.49865 + 0.49865 = 0.9973

A(-l, + 2) = pi-1, + 2) = 0.3413 + 0.4772 = 0.8185

Since the normal distribution function has been well characterized, predic¬
tions can be made regarding the probability of a specific strength value or
measurement error. For example, one may anticipate that 68.3 percent of the
data will fall between limits of x ± 5^, 95.4 percent between limits of x ± 2S^,

fM

2
Figure T10.3 Definition of terms for Table
0 10.3.
 10,4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 525

TABLE 10.3 Areas under the Normal Distribution Curve from to z = 0 (One
Side]
JC, — X
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
S.

0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0160 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 .0517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .0714 .0753
0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .1141
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517
0.4 .1554 .1591 .1628 .1664 .1700 .1736 .1772 .1808 .1844 .1879
0.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2157 .2190 .2224
0.6 .2257 .2291 .2324 .2357 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2517 .2549
0.7 .2580 .2611 .2642 .2673 .2704 .2734 .2764 .2794 .2823 .2852
0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2995 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3233
0.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .3315 .3340 .3365 .3389
1.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
1.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .3907 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015
1.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4162 .4177
1.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319
1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4429 .4441
1.6 .4452 .4463 .4474 .4484 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
1.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 .4591 .4599 .4608 .4616 .4625 .4633
1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4706
1.9 .4713 .4719 .4726 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4758 .4761 .4767
2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4799 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 .4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .4861 .4864 .4868 .4871 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
2.3 .4893 .4896 .4898 .4901 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936
2.5 .4938 ,4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 .4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4972 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4979 .4980 .4981
2.9 .4981 .4982 .4982 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986
3.0 .49865 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4988 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990

and 99.7 percent between limits of x ± 3S^. Also, 81.9 percent of the data
should fall between limits of x — and x + 25'^.
In many problems, the probability of a single sample exceeding a specified
value Zj must be determined. It is possible to determine this probability by using
Table 10.3 together with the fact that the area under the entire curve is unity
{A = 1); however, Table 10.4, which lists one-sided areas between limits of z
= Z2 and z 30, yields the results more directly.
526 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Use of Tables 10.3 and 10.4 can be illustrated by considering the yield
strength data presented in Table 10.1. By using Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2), it is easy
to establish estimates for the mean and standard deviation as x = 78.4 ksi (541
MPa) and = 6.04 ksi (41.7 MPa). These values of x and characterize the
population from which the data of Table 10.1 were drawn. It is possible to
establish the probability that the yield strength of a single sample drawn randomly
from the population will be between specified limits (by using Table 10.3), or
that the strength of a single sample will not be above or below a specified value
(by using Table 10.4). For example, one determines the probability that a single
sample will exhibit a strength between 66 and 84 ksi by computing Zj and Z2 and
using Table 10.3. Thus,

66 - 78.4 84 - 78.4
Zi = - -2.05 2-9 = = 0.93
6.04 ■ ■ " 6.04
p(-2.05,0.93) = Xl(-2.05,0) + A(Q,0.93)
- 0.4798 + 0.3238 = 0.8036

This simple calculation shows that the probability of obtaining a strength between
66 and 84 ksi from a single specimen is 80.4 percent. The probability of the
strength of a single specimen being less than 65 ksi is determined by computing
Zj and using Table 10.4. Thus,

65 - 78.4
-2.22
6.04

p(-oo,-2.22) = A{-^,-2.22) = Xl(2.22,x) = 0.0132

Thus, the probability of drawing a single sample with a yield strength less than
65 ksi is 1.3 percent.

10.4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS

Once experimental data are represented with a normal distribution by using

estimates of the mean x and standard deviation and predictions are made
about the occurrence of measurements, questions arise concerning the confi-

/b)

Z
Figure T10.4 Definition of terms for Table
10.4
 10.4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 527

TABLE 10.4 Areas under the Normal-Distribution Curve from Z to z ^ 2 0°

(One Side]

^2 =
X2 — X
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
s.

0.0 .5000 .4960 .4920 .4880 .4840 .4801 .4761 .4721 .4681 .4641
0.1 .4602 .4562 .4522 .4483 .4443 .4404 .4364 .4325 .4286 .4247
0.2 .4207 .4168 .4129 .4090 .4052 .4013 .3974 .3936 .3897 .3859
0.3 .3821 .3783 .3745 .3707 .3669 .3632 .3594 .3557 .3520 .3483
0.4 .3446 .3409 .3372 .3336 .3300 .3264 .3228 .3192 .3156 .3121

0.5 .3085 .3050 .3015 .2981 .2946 .2912 .2877 .2843 .2810 .2776
0.6 .2743 .2709 .2676 .2643 .2611 .2578 .2546 .2514 .2483 .2451
0.7 .2420 .2389 .2358 .2327 .2296 .2266 .2236 .2206 .2177 .2148
0.8 .2119 .2090 .2061 .2033 .2005 .1977 .1949 .1922 .1894 .1867
0.9 .1841 .1814 .1788 .1762 .1736 .1711 .1685 .1660 .1635 .1611

1.0 .1587 .1562 .1539 .1515 .1492 .1469 .1446 .1423 .1401 .1379
1.1 .1357 .1335 .1314 .1292 .1271 .1251 .1230 .1210 .1190 .1170
1.2 .1151 .1131 .1112 .1093 .1075 .1056 .1038 .1020 .1003 .0985
1.3 .0968 .0951 .0934 .0918 .0901 .0885 .0869 .0853 .0838 .0823
1.4 .0808 .0793 .0778 .0764 .0749 .0735 .0721 .0708 .0694 .0681

1.5 .0668 .0655 .0643 .0630 .0618 .0606 .0594 .0582 .0571 .0559
1.6 .0548 .0537 .0526 .0516 .0505 .0495 .0485 .0475 .0465 .0455
1.7 .0446 .0436 .0427 .0418 .0409 .0401 .0392 .0384 .0375 .0367
1.8 .0359 .0351 .0344 .0336 .0329 .0322 .0314 .0307 .0301 .0294
1.9 .0287 .0281 .0274 .0268 .0262 .0256 .0250 .0244 .0239 .0233

2.0 .0228 .0222 .0217 .0212 .0207 .0202 .0197 .0192 .0188 .0183
2.1 .0179 .0174 .0170 .0166 .0162 .0158 .0154 .0150 .0146 .0143
2.2 .0139 .0136 .0132 .0129 .0125 .0122 .0119 .0116 .0113 .0110
2.3 .0107 .0104 .0102 .00990 .00964 .00939 .00914 .00889 .00866 .00842
2.4 .00820 .00798 .00776 .00755 .00734 .00714 .00695 .00676 .00657 .00639

2.5 .00621 .00604 .00587 .00570 .00554 .00539 .00523 .00508 .00494 .00480
2.6 .00466 .00453 .00440 .00427 .00415 .00402 .00391 .00379 .00368 .00357
2.7 .00347 .00336 .00326 .00317 .00307 .00298 .00288 .00280 .00272 .00264
2.8 .00256 .00248 .00240 .00233 .00226 .00219 .00212 .00205 .00199 .00193
2.9 .00187 .00181 .00175 .00169 .00164 .00159 .00154 .00149 .00144 .00139

dence that can be placed on either the estimates or the predictions. One cannot
be totally confident in the predictions or estimates because of the effects of
sampling error.
Sampling error can be illustrated by drawing a series of samples (each
containing n measurements) from the same population and determining several
estimates of the mean Xj, jc2, X3, . . . .A variation in x will occur, but fortunately,
this variation can also be characterized by a normal distribution function, as
shown in Fig. 10.5. The mean of the a: and x distributions is the same; however.
528 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

fix) or fix)

X or AC

Figure 10.5 Normal distribution of individual measurements of the quantity and of

measurements of the mean x from samples of size n.

the standard deviation of the x distribution 5^ (sometimes referred to as the

standard error) is less than since

(10.11)

Once the standard deviation of the population of Fs is known, it is possible

to place confidence limits on the determination of the true population mean p.
from a sample of size n, provided n is large (n > 20). The confidence interval
within which the true population mean p, is located is given by the expression

(a: - 25j) < p < (x + z5^) (10.12)

where x — is the lower confidence limit.

X + z5j is the upper confidence limit.

The width of the confidence interval depends upon the confidence level required.
For instance, if z = 3 in Eq. (10.12), a relatively wide confidence interval exists;
therefore, the probability that the population mean p will be located within the
confidence interval is high (99.7 percent). For confidence levels of 99.9, 99.0,
and 95.0 percent, the corresponding values of z in Eq. (10.12) are 3.30, 2.57,
and 1.96, respectively. Thus, as the width of the confidence interval decreases,
the level of confidence (probability that the population mean p will fall within
the interval) decreases. Commonly used confidence levels and their associated
intervals are

99.9% Confidence level — interval x ± 3.30

99.7% Confidence level — interval x ± 3.00
99.0% Confidence level — interval x ± 2.57 5^
 10,4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 529

95.0% Confidence level — interval x ± 1.96

90.0% Confidence level — interval x ± 1.65 5-
80.0% Confidence level — interval x ± 1.28
68.3% Confidence level — interval x ± 1.00
60.0% Confidence level — interval x ± 0.84

When the sample size is small (n < 20), the standard deviation 5^ does not
provide a reliable estimate of the standard deviation a of the population; there¬
fore, Eq. (10.12) should not be employed. The bias introduced by small sample
size can be removed by modifying Eq. (10.12) as follows

[x - /(a)^^] < |x < [x + t(a)5j] (10.13)

where t(a) is the statistic known as Student’s t. The Student t distribution is

defined by a relative frequency equation /(t), which can be expressed as

(10.14)

where To is the relative frequency at / = 0 required to make the total area

under the f{t) curve equal to unity.
d is the number of degrees of freedom {d = n - l \n this application).

The distribution function f{t) is shown in Fig. 10.6 for several different degrees
of freedom d. It is evident that as d becomes large. Student’s t distribution
approaches the normal distribution. The area under the Student t distribution
is an important quantity since it can be used to determine r(a) in Eq. (10.13).
One-side areas for the t distribution (i.e., between t^^ -x and E) are listed
in Table 10.5. Since t{a) in Eq. (10.13) is based on areas between E and E (two-

0.4
d = °° (normal distribution)

0.3

fit)
0.2

0.1

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5

Figure 10.6 Student’s t distribution for several degrees of freedom d.

530 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

sided areas), care must be exercised in using these tabulated values, as illustrated
in the example problem that follows. The term in Eq. (10.13) represents
a measure of the interval between the estimated mean x and either of the
confidence limits. Since t(a) depends on sample size n, the term t(a)S^ can be
used to estimate the sample size required to produce an estimate of the mean
X with a specified reliability. By denoting the bandwidth of the confidence in¬
terval as 26 and using Eq. (10.11), sample size n can be expressed as

n = [r(a)5'^/6]^ (10.15)

Use of Eq. (10.15) can be illustrated by considering the data in Table 10.1,
where = 6.04 ksi and x = 78.4 ksi. If this estimate of p, is to be accurate to
±5 percent with a reliability of 95 percent then one-half the bandwidth 2S of
the confidence interval is

8 = (0.05)(78.4) = 3.92

Since t(a) depends on n, a trial-and-error solution is needed to establish sample

size n needed to satisfy the specifications. For the data of Table 10.1, n = 20;
therefore, d = 19 and t(a) ^ t(0.975) = 2.09 from Table 10.5. The value r(a)
= r(0.975) is used since 2.5 percent of the distribution must be excluded on
each end of the curve to give a two sided-area corresponding to a reliability of
95 percent. Substituting into Eq. (10.15) yields

n - [(2.09)(6.04)/(3.92)]2 = 10.4

Now with n = 11, d = 10, and t((x) = 2.23; therefore,

n = [(2.23)(6.04)/(3.92)]2 = 11.8

Finally, with n = 12, d = 11, and t(a) = 2.20; therefore,

n = [(2.20)(6.04)/(3.92)]2 = 11.5

/(t)
 10.4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS 531

TABLE 10.5 Student's f Distribution for d Degrees of Freedom Showing 4 as

a Funotion of Area A (One Side)

a* 0.995 0.99 0.975 0.95 0.90 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.55
(1 -«) 0.005 0.01 0.025 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.45

1 63.66 31.82 12.71 6.31 3.08 1.376 1.000 .727 .325 .158
2 9.92 6.96 4.30 2.92 1.89 1.061 .816 .617 .289 .142
3 5.84 4.54 3.18 2.35 1.64 .978 .765 .584 .277 .137
4 4.60 3.75 2.78 2.13 1.53 .941 .741 .569 .271 .134
5 4.03 3.36 2.57 2.02 1.48 .920 .727 .559 .267 .132
6 3.71 3.14 2.45 1.94 1.44 .906 .718 .553 .265 .131
7 3.50 3.00 2.36 1.90 1.42 .896 .711 .549 .263 .130
8 3.36 2.90 2.31 1.86 1.40 .889 .706 .546 .262 .130
9 3.25 2.82 2.26 1.83 1.38 .883 .703 .543 .261 .129
10 3.17 2.76 2.23 1.81 1.37 .879 .700 .542 .260 .129
11 3.11 2.72 2.20 1.80 1.36 .876 .697 .540 .260 .129
12 3.06 2.68 2.18 1.78 1.36 .873 .695 .539 .259 .128
13 3.01 2.65 2.16 1.77 1.35 .870 .694 .538 .259 .128
14 2.98 2.62 2.14 1.76 1.34 .868 .692 .537 .258 .128
15 2.95 2.60 2.13 1.75 1.34 .866 .691 .536 .258 .128
16 2.92 2.58 2.12 1.75 1.34 .865 .690 .535 .258 .128
17 2.90 2.57 2.11 1.74 1.33 .863 .689 .534 .257 .128
18 2.88 2.55 2.10 1.73 1.33 .862 .688 .534 .257 .127
19 2.86 2.54 2.09 1.73 1.33 .861 .688 .533 .257 .127
20 2.84 2.53 2.09 1.72 1.32 .860 .687 .533 .257 .127
21 2.83 2.52 2.08 1.72 1.32 .859 .686 .532 .257 .127
22 2.82 2.51 2.07 1.72 1.32 .858 .686 .532 .256 .127
23 2.81 2.50 2.07 1.71 1.32 .858 .685 .532 .256 .127
24 2.80 2.49 2.06 1.71 1.32 .857 .685 .531 .256 .127

25 2.79 2.48 2.06 1.71 1.32 .856 .684 .531 .256 .127
26 2.78 2.48 2.06 1.71 1.32 .856 .684 .531 .256 .127
27 2.77 2.47 2.05 1.70 1.31 .855 .684 .531 .256 .127
28 2.76 2.47 2.05 1.70 1.31 .855 .683 .530 .256 .127
29 2.76 2.46 2.04 1.70 1.31 .854 .683 .530 .256 .127

30 2.75 2.46 2.04 1.70 1.31 .854 .683 .530 .256 .127
40 2.70 2.42 2.02 1.68 1.30 .851 .681 .529 .255 .126
60 2.66 2.39 2.00 1.67 1.30 .848 .679 .527 .254 .126
120 2.62 2.36 1.98 1.66 1.29 .845 .677 .526 .254 .126
00 2.58 2.33 1.96 1.65 1.28 .842 .674 .524 .253 .126

* The parameter a is the confidence level while the quantity (1 -a) is the risk (chance that the
limits based upon a sample do not include the population parameter being estimated).
532 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Thus, a sample size of 12 would be sufficient to ensure an accuracy of ± 5 percent

with a confidence level of 95 percent. The sample size of 20 listed in Table 10.1
is too large for the degree of accuracy and confidence level specified. This simple
example illustrates how sample size can be reduced and cost savings effected by
using statistical methods to determine sample size.

10.5 COMPARISON OF MEANS

Since Student’s t distribution compensates for the effect of small-sample

bias and converges to the normal distribution in large samples, it is a very useful
statistic in engineering applications. A second important application utilizes the
t distribution as the basis for a test to determine if the difference between two
means is significant or due to random variation. For example, consider the yield
strength data of Table 10.1, where = 20, T, = 78.4 ksi, and 5^-1 = 6.04 ksi.
Suppose now that a second sample is tested to determine the yield strength of
another shipment of steel and the results are ^2 = 25, X2 ^ 81.6 ksi, and S^2
= 5.56 ksi. Is the difference in means significant? The standard deviation of
the difference in means can be expressed as

cA _ i) (10.16)
«2/

where 5^ is the pooled variance that can be expressed as

^2 ^ (^1 - + (^2 -
(10.17)
^ /ij + n2 — 2

The statistic t is then computed as

^2 - ^1
(10.18)
*^(^2-A)

A comparison of the value of t determined from Eq. (10.18) with a value of

t{a) obtained from Table 10.5 provides a statistical basis for deciding whether
the difference in means is significant. The value of t(a) to be used depends upon
the degrees of freedom d = + n2 — 2 and the level of significance required.
Levels of significance commonly employed are 5 and 1 percent. The 5 pereent
level of significance means that the probability of a random variation being taken
for a real difference is only 5 percent. Comparisons at the 1 percent level of
significanee are 99 percent certain; however, in such a strong test, real differences
can often be attributed to random error.
In the example being considered, Eq. (10.17) yields Sp = 33.37 ksi, Eq.
 10.6 STATISTICAL CONDITIONING OF DATA 533

(10.16) yields = 3.00 ksi, and Eq. (10.18) yields t = 1.848. For a 5
percent level of significance test with d = 43 and a = 0.05 (the comparison is
one-sided, since X2 > Xj), Table 10.5 indicates that t{a) = 1.68. Since t > t(a),
it can be concluded with a 95 percent level of confidence that the yield strength
of the second shipment of steel was higher than the yield strength of the first
shipment.

10.6 STATISTICAL CONDITIONING OF DATA

Previously it was indicated that measurement error can be characterized by

a normal distribution function and that the standard deviation of the estimated
mean can be reduced by increasing the number of measurements. In most
situations, cost places an upper limit on the number of measurements to be
made. Also, it must be remembered that systematic error is not a random
variable; therefore, statistical procedures cannot serve as a substitute for precise,
accurately calibrated, and properly zeroed measuring instruments.
One area where statistical procedures can be used very effectively to con¬
dition experimental data is with the erroneous data point resulting from a meas¬
uring or recording mistake. Often, this data point appears questionable when
compared with the other data collected, and the experimentalist must decide
whether the deviation of the data point is due to a mistake (hence to be rejected)
or due to some unusual but real condition (hence to be retained). A statistical
procedure known as Chauvenet’s criterion provides a consistent basis for making
the decision to reject or retain such a point.
Application of Chauvenet’s criterion requires computation of a deviation
ratio DR for each data point, followed by comparison with a standard deviation
ratio DR^. The standard deviation ratio DR^ is a statistic that depends on the
number of measurements, while the deviation ratio DR for a point is defined
as

(10.19)

The data point is rejected when

DR > DR, O
(10.20)

and retained when

DR ^ DR, O
(10.21)

Values for the standard deviation ratio DR^ are listed in Table 10.6.
534 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 10.6 Deviation Ratio DRo Used for Statistical Conditioning of Data

Number of Deviation Number of Deviation

Measurements Ratio Measurements Ratio
n DR„ n DR„

2 1.15 15 2.13
3 1.38 25 2.33
4 1.54 50 2.57
5 1.65 100 2.81
7 1.80 300 3.14
10 1.96 500 3.29

If the statistical test of Eq. (10.20) indicates that a single data point in a
sequence of n data points should be rejected, then the data point should be
removed from the sequence and the mean x and the standard deviation should
be recalculated. Chauvenet’s method can be applied only once to reject a data
point that is questionable from a sequence of points. If several data points
indicate that DR > DR^, then it is likely that the instrumentation system is
inadequate or that the process being investigated is extremely variable.

10.7 REGRESSION ANALYSIS

In experimental investigations, measurements are often made of two or

more quantities to determine whether these quantities are related. In many
engineering problems, the relationship between quantities is obvious (i.e., the
stress in a typical beam is linearly proportional to the applied loads, with the
constant of proportionality depending on the geometry of the beam). In other
problems, however, the relationship is not known. Also, a process may be
affected by more than one quantity and the process may exhibit variation.
Regression analysis is an important statistical method that can be used to address
this class of problems.

Linear Regression Anaiysis

Suppose measurements are made of two quantities that are known to be
important in describing the behavior of a certain process exhibiting variation.
Let y be the dependent variable and x the independent variable. Since the process
exhibits variation, there is not a unique relationship between x and y and the
data, when plotted, exhibit scatter, as illustrated in Fig. 10.7. Frequently, the
relationship between x and y that most closely represents the data, even with
the scatter, is a linear function. Thus,

y, = mXi + b (10.22)

Where F, is the predicted value of the dependent variable y, for a given value
of the independent variable x,. A statistical procedure used to fit a straight line
 10.7 REGRESSION ANALYSIS 535
y

0
0

Figure 10.7 Least-squares line through scattered data points.

through scattered data points is called the least-squares method. With the least-
squares method, the slope m and the intercept b in Eq. (10.22) are selected to
minimize the sum of the squared deviations of the data points from the straight
line as shown in Fig. 10.7. In other words, the quantity

A" = 'Ziy. - vy (10.23)

is minimized. After substituting Eq. (10.22) into Eq. (10.23) this implies that

(10.24)

Differentiating yields

2E(>’/ “ = 0

2S(L; - = 0 (10.25)

Solving Eqs. (10.25) for m and b yields

^Xi^xy>, - 'Zxf^yi Sl/ -

b = (10.26)
536 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

where n is the number of data points. The slope m and intercept b define a
straight line through the scattered data points such that Eq. (10.23) is minimized.
In any regression analysis it is important to establish the correlation between
X andy. Equation (10.22) does not predict the values that were measured exactly,
because of the variation in the process. To illustrate, assume that the independent
quantity x is fixed at a value x^ and that a sequence of measurements is made
of the dependent quantity y. The data obtained would give a distribution of y,
as illustrated in Fig. 10.8. The dispersion of the distribution of y is a measure
of the correlation. When the dispersion is small, the correlation is good and the
regression analysis is effective in describing the variation in y. If the dispersion
is large, the correlation is poor and the regression analysis may not be adequate
to describe the variation in y.
The adequacy of a regression analysis can be evaluated by determining a
correlation coefficient r that is given by the following expression:

(10.27)

The sign of r is always taken as positive. When the value of the correlation
coefficient r is relatively large (0.8 to 1.0), then most of the variation in the
dependent variable y has been accounted for in terms of the independent variable
X, and the linear regression relationship provided by Eq. (10.22) is reliable.
However, when the correlation coefficient r is small, Eq. (10.22) is inadequate,
possibly because the relationship between x and y is not linear or because other
independent variables, not accounted for in Eq. (10.22), may be influencing y.
The method of linear regression can be extended to nonlinear cases when
suitable nonlinear relationships are available to represent the process. For ex-

Figure 10.8 Distribution of y at a fixed value of x superimposed on the linear regression

display.
 10.7 REGRESSION ANALYSIS 537

ample, when the data suggest that is may be represented by an equation of the
form

y = ax"^ (10.28)

it is often convenient to write the equation in the form

log y ^ m log X + log a (10.29)

In this way Eq. (10.29) can be transformed into

y' = mx' + b' (10.30)

which is identical to Eq. (10.22) if the substitutions y’ = log y, x' = log x, and
b' = log a are made.
Similarly, when the data indicate that an exponential relationship of the
form

y = (10.31)

may be appropriate, it is convenient to write the equation in the form

In y = mx + In a (10.32)

Equation (10.32) can also be transformed into the form

y' = mx + b' (10.33)

which is identical to Eq. (10.22) if the substitutions y' = In y and b' — \n a are
made.
These techniques for applying the least-squares method to nonlinear data
minimize the sum of the squared deviations in logarithms of the data rather than
in the data themselves. Eor at least some cases, which include the finite-life
region of the stress-cycle diagram for ferrous metals, this procedure is useful,
since the logarithms of fatigue life at a constant stress are normally distributed.

Multiple Regression
Many experiments involve measurement of a dependent variable y, which
depends upon several independent variables Xj, X , X , . . . , etc. It is possible
2 3

to represent y as a function of Xi, X , X , . . .by employing the multiple regression

2 3

equation

Yi = a + hjXi, -L ^ 2-^21 + ■ • ■ + b,^x,,i (10.34)

where a, hj, ^> , . . . , b/^ are regression coefficients.

2
538 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

The regression coefficients a, b2, ■ ■ ■ , bi^ are determined by using the

method of least squares in a manner similar to that employed for linear regression
analysis where the quantity = 2(y, — is minimized. After substituting
Eq. (10.34) into Eq. (10.23) to obtain

= E (y/ - (10.35)

= ^(yi - ^ - ^2^2/

differentiating yields

= 2 E(>’< - a blXu - b2X2i - 0

da

^^2 ^(yt - « biXu - b2X2i - bkXkdi-^i,) = 0

db^

= 2 E(y,' - « - b2X2i - bkXki){-X2d = 0 (10.36)

db-y

= 0

= 2 2(y, - a - b^Xu - b2X2i - • • ■ - bkXki){-Xki) = 0

dbi.

Equations (10.36) lead to the following set of /:+! equations, which can be
solved for the unknown regression coefficients a, bi, 62, ... , bi,.

an + 61X^1, + b-^X2i + • • • + b^Yj^ki = E)"-

flE^u + ^lE^l- + ^2E^i/^2, + • • • + bk^x^Xki = EyAi,

«E^2, + ^iE^iA2,- + ^aE^i- + • • • + bk'Z^uXki = ^yiX2i (10.37)

+ b^^x^iXki + b2^X2iXki + • • • + bk^xl, =

The correlation coefficient r is again used to determine the degree of as¬

sociation between the dependent and independent variables. For multiple regres¬
sion equations, the correlation coefficient r is given as

n {y^} - b^lyxy} - b2{yx2} - bkiyxk}

1 -
(10.38)
n — k y^
 10.8 CHI-SQUARE TESTING 539
where

l^yp^ki - { 11S

This analysis is for linear, noninteracting, independent variables; however,

the analysis can be extended to include cases where the regression equations
would have higher-order and cross-product terms. The nonlinear terms can enter
the regression equation in an additive manner and are treated as an extra var¬
iable. With well-established computer routines for regression analysis, the set
of (k + 1) simultaneous equations given by Eqs. (10.37) can be solved quickly
and inexpensively and no difficulties are encountered in adding extra terms to
account for nonlinearities and interactions.

10.8 CHI-SQUARE TESTING

Once a series of measurements is made to obtain data to statistically char¬

acterize a population, it is possible to select a distribution function for the
population and to predict population properties, such as the probability of oc¬
currence of a certain event. This is an extremely important measurement pro¬
cedure in engineering; therefore, to avoid error, it is essential that the correct
distribution function be selected to represent the population. The data from a
series of measurements can be subjected to a chi-square (x^) test to check the
validity of the assumed distribution function.
The statistic is defined as

, - Ef
X = Z-A- (10.39)

where O is an observed number.

E is an expected number, based on a specified statistical distribution
function.

The value x^ is used to determine how well the data fit the assumed statistical
distribution. If x^ = 0, the match is perfect. Values of x^ > 0 indicate a possibility
that the data are not represented by the specified distribution function. The
probability p of x^ occurring as a result of random variation is listed in Table
10.7 and illustrated in Fig. 10.9. The number of degrees of freedom associated
with any sequence of measurements is given by the expression

d ^ n - k (10.40)
540 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Figure 10.9 values as a function of the number of degrees of freedom for different
probability levels.

where n is the number of observations.

k is the number of conditions imposed on the distribution.

As an example, consider the yield strength data presented in Table 10.1.

A test can be used to determine how well these data are represented by a
normal distribution having a mean x = 78.4 ksi and a standard deviation - 6.04
ksi. By using the properties of a normal distribution function, the number of
specimens expected to fall in any strength group can be computed. The observed
number of specimens in Table 10.1 exhibiting yield strengths within each of five
group intervals, together with the computed number of specimens in a normal
distribution in the same group intervals, are listed in Table 10.8. Also, the
computation of the value (x^ = 1.129) is illustrated in the table. Since the
number of groups is 5 (n = 5) and since the two distribution parameters x and
were determined by using these data (thus, k = 2), the number of degrees
of freedom isd^n-k = 5- 2^3. Thus, from Table 10.7, it can be
concluded with a 77 percent probability that the data of Table 10.1 can be
represented by a normal distribution function. This can be considered a very
good fit, as shown in Fig. 10.9. One could conclude in other instances with higher
X^ values and much lower probability levels that the assumed distribution was
representative.
 10.8 CHI-SQUARE TESTING 541

00 tT) ^ r- (N r- O'! r- 'O rq r-- (N

Os
Os
^ o6 S CM <N rs

Tj- o-^r-'O Ttr-ooooin

95.0

vo ' un ov
cK <N U-) v6 00
TABLE 10.7 Chi-Squared (x^) Values with Different Degrees of Freedom for Different Probability Levels

»ri 00
90.0

VO o r- o Tj- Tf CO 00 04
VO r-- On O <N rq vo 00 o6 Tt O r—( cd
04 CO O vO
80.0

rN Tf vO 00 O CN r<~) O O- CO CO 04
Tj- to fN Tt u~) 00 ov
70.0

o ' 04 m 00 04 to 04 r-
(N m Tf vo r- 00 o o iri vd

to vo vo
60.0

O ' CO vO ov
vOr^OOOvO r4 rn -rt- 1-!
(N
vd
04
>-’
CO
>-H T-i
to

ro (O CO CO ro CO CO CO CO CO
50.0

cNm^r mvor-ooo O ^ (N rd
Probability (%)
^
40.0

Tt to vo 00 o o

oc
T—I
^ o
rn
O' o
-H O
30.0

CO On tr^ tqv CO
r4 fd m^fiovor^ ooonqvO
20.0

sO ^ CO Tp
(OfO'^to'O '.Dr^oooo tT 00 cd (N '
10.0

to vO
oir4ro'^'^ unvot^r^oo oi vd CD

Os
fO C^l
5.0

O O »o
o ^ c^i r-- Ov vO to to 00
CN CN r^i CO Tt to to vo O '=d 00 vd

o o
O to O ' CO VO
2.5

O oo O to
o o (N vO CN -i- O VO (N »0 00 rf
(N C^l CO CO to to vO Ov cd vd 04
^ 04 CO

ooto;r^Tr
O (N tOi
1.0

o O ^ >0> 04 O to
cd cd
Freedom
Degrees

fslCO^to vor^ooovo (N CO 'Tj- to

of
542 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

TABLE 10.8 Computation for Grouped Yield Strength Data

Number Number*"
Group Interval Observed Expected (0 - E)VE

0 -69.99 2 1.646 0.0761

70.0-74.99 3 4.108 0.2988
75.0-79.99 8 6.298 0.4600
80.0-84.99 4 5.190 0.2729
85.0-» 3 2.758 0.0212

Total 20 20 1.129 = x"

Based on a normal (Gaussian) distribution of data.

The statistic can also be used in contingency testing where the sample is
classified under one of two catagories—say pass or fail. Consider, for example,
an inspection procedure with a particular type of strain gage where 10 percent
of the gages are rejected due to etching imperfections in the grid. In an effort
to reduce this rejection rate, the manufacturer has introduced new clean-room
techniques that are expected to improve the quality of the grids. On the first
lot of 1000 gages, the failure rate was reduced to 9 percent. Is this reduced
failure rate due to chance variation, or have the new clean-room techniques
improved the manufacturing process? A x^ test can establish the probability of
the improvement being the result of random variation. The computation of x^
for this example is illustrated in Table 10.9.
The data in Table 10.7 with d = 1 give a probability p of x^ exceeding 1.111
of 29 percent; thus, the test provides a strong indication that the clean-room
improvements have reduced the rejection rate. Stronger statistical statements
could be made after testing of a second lot of 1000 gages is completed, if the
trend continues. At this point 2000 gages would have been inspected with a
value x^ - 2.222. The probability of x^ exceeding this value due to random
variation is only 14 percent.

TABLE 10.9 Observed and Expected Inspection Results

Observed Expected
Number Number {O - EY/E

Passed 910 900 0.111

Failed 90 100 1.000
1.111 = x^
 10.9 ERROR PROPAGATION 543

10.9 ERROR PROPAGATION

Previous discussions of error have been limited to error arising in the meas¬
urement of a single quantity; however, in many engineering applications, several
quantities are measured (each with its associated error) and another quantity is
predicted on the basis of these measurements. For example, the volume F of a
cylinder could be predicted on the basis of measurements of two quantities
(diameter D and length L). Thus errors in the measurements of diameter and
length will propagate through the governing mathematical formula V = 'uD^LI
4 to the quantity (volume, in this case) being predicted. Since the propagation
of error depends upon the form of the mathematical expression being used to
predict the reported quantity, standard deviations for several different mathe¬
matical operations are listed below.
For addition and/or subtraction of quantities {y = x-^ ± X2 ± ■ • • ± x^),
the standard deviation of the mean y of the projected quantity y is

Sy = V5|, + 52^ + ■ ■ ■ + S|_ (10.41)

For multiplication of quantities (y = ^1X2 . . . x„), the standard deviation

Sy is

SI
= (X1X2. . ■ ^n) (10.42)
V xf xj Xn

For division of quantities (y = xfxf), the standard deviation Sy is

(10.43)

For exponent calculations of the form (y = x*), the standard deviation Sy

is

= kx^r^S:^, (10.44)

For exponent calculations of the form (y = the standard deviation

Sy is

S- = -^S- (10.45)
kx,
544 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Consider, for example, the cylinder where measurements of the diameter

have yielded jf, = 1 in., with a standard error .Sj, = 0.005 in., and measurements
of the length have yielded jc2 = 4 in., with a standard error = 0.040 in.
Since the volume V of the cylinder is

the standard error of the volume can be determined by using Eq. (10.42).
Thus,

'2(0.005)2 (0.040)2
= (1)^(4) (10.46)
(1)^ (4)2
= 0.0490 in.-^

This determination of for the volume of the cylinder can be used (by utilizing
the properties of a normal distribution) to predict the probability of producing
cylinders having volumes within specified limits and to predict the deviation of
the mean volume from a specified value.
The method of computing the standard error of a quantity as given by
Eqs. (10.41) to (10.45), which are based on the properties of the normal dis¬
tribution function, should be used where possible. However, in many engineering
applications, the number of measurements that can be made is small; therefore,
the data Xi, T2’• • • , x„ and 5^,, 5^, . . . , needed for statistical based estimtes
of the error are not available. In these instances, error estimates can still be
made but the results are less reliable.
A second method of estimating error when data are limited is based on the
chain rule of differential calculus. For example, consider a quantity y that is a
function of several variables

y = fixi, X2, . . xj (10.47)

Differentiating yields

, , dy ^ dy ,
dv = — dxi H-dx2 + • • • -I-dx^ (10.48)
5Xi dX2 dx^

In Eq. (10.48), dy is the error in y and dx^, dx2, . . . , dx^ are errors involved
in the measurements of Xj, X2, . . . , x„. The partial derivatives dyldx^,
 10.10 SUMMARY 545

dyldx2, . . . , dyldx„ are determined exactly from Eq. (10.47). Frequently, the
errors dx^, dx2, . . . , dx„ aVe estimates based on the experience and judgment
of the experimentalist. An estimate of the maximum possible error can be ob¬
tained by summing the individual error terms in Eq. (10.48). Thus

dy + ■ ■ +
—
-t- ^dx„n (10.49)
max dX2 dx„

Use of Eq. (10.49) gives a worst case estimate of error, since the maximum
errors dx^, dx2, . . ., dx„ are assumed to occur simultaneously and with the same
sign. A more realistic method of estimating error under these conditions is given
by the expression

dy (10.50)

Equation (10.50) cannot be derived; however, experience shows that it predicts

error more accurately than Eq. (10.49); therefore, it is commonly employed.

10.10 SUMMARY

Statistical methods are extremely important in engineering, since they pro¬

vide a means for representing large amounts of data in a concise form that is
easily interpreted and understood. Usually, the data are represented with a
statistical distribution function that can be characterized by a measure of central
tendency (the mean x) and a measure of dispersion (the standard deviation S'J.
A normal or Gaussian distribution is by far the most commonly employed;
however, in some special cases, other distribution functions may have to be
employed to adequately represent the data.
The most significant advantage resulting from use of a statistical distribution
function in engineering applications is the ability to predict the occurrence of
an event based on a relatively small sample. The effects of sampling error are
accounted for by placing confidence limits on the predictions and establishing
the associated confidence levels. Sampling error can be controlled if the sample
size is adequate. Use of Student’s t distribution function, which characterizes
sampling error, provides a basis for determining sample size consistent with
specified levels of confidence. The Student t distribution also permits a com¬
parison to be made of two means to determine whether the observed difference
is significant or whether it is due to random variation.
Statistical methods can also be employed to condition data and to eliminate
an erroneous data point (one) from a series of measurements. This is a useful
technique that improves the data base by providing strong evidence when some¬
thing unanticipated is affecting an experiment.
546 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Regression analysis can be used effectively to interpret data when the be¬
havior of one quantity (say, y) depends upon variations in one or more inde¬
pendent quantities (say, x^, X2, ■ ■ ■ , Even though the functional relationship
between quantities exhibiting variation remains unknown, it can be characterized
statistically. Regression analysis provides a method to fit a straight line or a
curve through a series of scattered data points on a graph. The adequacy of the
regression analysis can be evaluated by determining a correlation coefficient.
Methods for extending regression analysis to nonlinear functions and to multi¬
variate functions exist. In principle, these methods are identical to linear regres¬
sion analysis; however, the analysis becomes much more complex. The increase
in complexity is not a concern, however, since computer subroutines are available
that solve the tedious equations and provide the results in a convenient format.
Many distribution functions are used in statistical analyses to represent data
and predict population properties. Once a distribution function has been selected
to represent a population, any series of measurements can be subjected to a
test to check the validity of the assumed distribution. Accurate predictions can
be made only if the proper distribution function has been selected.
Finally, statistical methods for accessing error propagation were discussed.
These methods provide a means for determining error in a quantity of interest
y based on measurements of related quantities Xj, X2, , x„ and the functional
relationship y = f(xi, X2, ... , x„) between quantities.

REFERENCES

1. Blackwell, D.: Basic Statistics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969.

2. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran: Statistical Methods, 6th ed., Iowa
State University Press, Ames, 1967.
3. Zehna, P. W.: Introductory Statistics, Prindle, Weber & Schmidt, Boston,
1974.
4. Chou, Y.: Probability and Statistics for Decision Making, Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, New York, 1972.
5. Young, H. D.: Statistical Treatment of Experimental Data, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1962.
6. Bragg, G. M.: Principles of Experimentation and Measurement, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1974.
7. Durelli, A. J., E. A. Phillips, and C. H. Tsao: Theoretical and Experimental
Analysis of Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.
8. Bethea, R. M., B. S. Duran, and T. L. Boullion: Statistical Methods for
Engineers and Scientists, Dekker, New York, 1975.
 REFERENCES 547

9. McCall, C.H. Jr., Sampling and Statistics Handbook for Research, Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 1982.

EXERCISES

10.1 The air pressure (in psi) at a point near the end of an air-supply line
is monitored at 15-min intervals over an 8-h period. The readings are
listed in the four columns below;

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4

no 102 97 94
104 98 93 97
106 95 90 100
94 120 84 102
92 115 78 107
89 109 82 no
100 100 88 117
114 98 91 125

List the pressure readings in order of increasing magnitude. Rearrange

the data in five group intervals to obtain a frequency distribution.
Show both the relative frequency and the cumulative frequency in this
tabular rearrangement. Select the median pressure reading from the
data.
10.2 Construct a histogram for the data listed in Exercise 10.1. Superimpose
a plot of the relative frequency on the histogram.
10.3 Prepare a cumulatve frequency curve for the data of Exercise 10.1.
10.4 For the air-pressure data listed in Exercise 10.1:

(a) Compute the sample mean x of the individual columns.

(b) Compute the sample means of columns 1 -E 2 and columns 3 -f
4.
(c) Compute the sample mean of the complete set of data.
(d) Comment on the results of (a), (b), and (c).

10.5 Determine the mode for the air-pressure data of Exercise 10.1 and
compare it with the median and the mean of the data.
10.6 A quality control laboratory monitors the tensile strength of paper by
testing a small sample every 10 min. The data shown below were
reported over an 8-h shift.
548 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6

1030 937 1093 1018 970 983

1042 963 1081 1013 947 994
1019 1022 1049 1000 921 1030
979 1037 1040 992 897 1063
942 1071 1033 984 893 1093
910 1116 1032 986 918 1122
870 1129 1027 989 934 1141
912 1130 1021 972 957 1165

List the strength readings in order of increasing magnitude. Rearrange

the data in seven group intervals to obtain a frequency distribution.
Show both the relative frequency and the cumulative frequency in this
tabular rearrangement. Select the median strength reading from the
data.
10.7 Construct a histogram for the data listed in Exercise 10.6. Superimpose
a plot of relative frequency on the histogram.
10.8 Prepare a cumulative frequency curve for the data of Exercise 10.6.
10.9 For the tensile-strength data listed in Exercise 10.6,

(a) Compute the sample mean x of the individual columns.

(b) Compute the sample means of columns 1 + 2, 3 + 4 and 5 -L
6.
(c) Compute the sample mean of the complete set of data.
(d) Comment on the results of (a), (b), and (c).

10.10 Determine the mode for the tensile-strength data of Exercise 10.6 and
compare it with the median and the mean of the data.
10.11 The accuracy of a new flowmeter for diesel fuel is being checked by
pumping 100 gal of the fuel into a tank and measuring the true volume
with a calibrated sight glass. The readings from the sight glass were

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6

100.84 100.12 100.42 100.04 100.32 99.97

100.62 100.07 99.70 100.17 100.11 99.73
99.88 100.33 99.81 99.73 99.94 100.02
99.64 100.26 99.63 99.77 99.82 100.14
99.72 99.73 100.13 99.89 99.97 99.90
99.81 99.47 100.32 100.03 99.86 100.24
99.99 99.90 100.24 100.09 100.01 99.76
100.00 99.86 99.74 99.92 99.80 100.00
100.63 99.40 99.92 99.88 100.12 99.95
100.22 99.73 100.16 99.62 100.23 100.13
 REFERENCES 549

List the volume readings in order of increasing magnitude. Rearrange

the data in eight'group intervals to obtain a frequency distribution.
Show both the relative frequency and the cumulative frequency in this
tabular rearrangement. Select the median volume delivered. Comment
on the merits of the new flowmeter.

10.12 Construct a histogram for the data listed in Exercise 10.11. Super¬
impose a plot of relative frequency on the histogram.
10.13 Prepare a cumulative frequency curve for the data of Exercise 10.11.

10.14 For the volume-delivered data listed in Exercise 10.11,

(a) Compute the sample mean x of the individual columns.

(b) Compute the sample means of columns 1 -I- 2, 3 -H 4, and 5 -I-
6.
(c) Compute the sample means of columns 1 + 2 -I- 3, and 4-1-5
-i- 6.
(d) Compute the sample mean for the complete set of data.
(e) Comment on the results of (a), (b), (c), and (d).

10.15 Determine the mode for the volume-delivered data of Exercise 10.11
and compare it with the median and the mean of the data.

10.16 For the data presented in Exercise 10.1, determine:

(a) The standard deviation

(b) The range R
(c) The mean deviation
(d) The variance
(e) The coefficient of variation C^,

10.17 For the data presented in Exercise 10.6, determine:

(a) The standard deviation

(b) The range R
(c) The mean deviation
(d) The variance Si
(e) The coefficient of variation C,,

10.18 For the data presented in Exercise 10.11, determine:

(a) The standard deviation

(b) The range R
(c) The mean deviation d^
(d) The variance Si
(e) The coefficient of variation C^,

10.19 A quality control laboratory associated with a manufacturing operation

periodically makes a measurement that has been characterized as nor-
550 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

mal or Gaussian with a mean of 80 and a standard deviation of 4.

Determine the probability of a single measurement:

(a) Falling between 76 and 84

(b) Falling between 72 and 88
(c) Falling between 68 and 92
(d) Falling between 80 and 82
(e) Falling between 79 and 80
(f) Being less than 77
(g) Being greater than 86

10.20 Careful measurement of diameter was made after a large shipment of

electric motor shafts was received. Measurements of the bearing jour¬
nal indicate that the mean is 7 mm, with a standard deviation of 0.02
mm. Determine the probability of a journal measurement being

(a) Greater than 7.04 mm

(b) Greater than 7.03 mm
(c) Less than 7.00 mm
(d) Less than 6.94 mm
(e) Between 7.01 and 7.03 mm
(f) Between 6.96 and 6.99 mm
(g) Between 6.97 and 7.03 mm

10.21 Use the data for the flowmeter in Exercise 10.11 to determine the
probability of the pump delivering a volume that is

(a) In excess of the measured volume by 1.0 percent

(b) In excess of the measured volume bv 0.3 percent
(c) In excess of the measured volume by 0.2 percent
(d) In excess of the measured volume by 0.1 percent
(e) Less than the measured volume by 1.0 percent
(f) Less than the measured volume bv 0.5 percent
(g) Less than the measured volume by 0.2 percent
(h) Less than the measured volume by 0.1 percent

10.22 Determine the standard deviation of the mean .S'- (standard error) for
the data of

(a) Exercise 10.1

(b) Exercise 10.6
(c) Exercise 10.11

10.23 The data presented in Exercise 10.1 were drawn from a large popu¬
lation and provided an estimate .v of the true mean |j. of the population.
Determine the confidence interval if the mean is to be stated with a
confidence level of

(a) 99 percent (c) 90 percent

(b) 95 percent (d) 80 percent
 REFERENCES 551

10.24 Repeat Exercise 10.23 with the data presented in Exercise 10.6.
10.25 Repeat Exercise 10.23 with the data presented in Exercise 10.11.
10.26 A small sample {n < 20) of measurements from a drag coefficient
determination for an airfoil are listed below:

0.043 0.052
0.050 0.049
0.053 0.055
0.047 0.046
0.049 ' 0.051

(a) Estimate the mean drag coefficient.

(b) Estimate the standard deviation.
(c) Determine the confidence level for the statement that =
0.0495.

10.27 Determine the sample size needed in Exercise 10.26 to permit speci¬
fication of the mean drag coefficient with a confidence level of

(a) 90 percent (c) 99 percent

(b) 95 percent (d) 99.9 percent

10.28 Measurements of flue-gas temperature from a power-plant stack are

listed below:

273°E 281°F
279°F 287°F
280°F 286°F
29 EE 287°F
282°F 276°F

(a) Estimate the mean flue-gas temperature.

(b) Estimate the standard deviation.
(c) Determine the confidence level for the statement that the flue¬
gas temperature is 282.2°F.

10.29 Determine the sample size required in Exercise 10.28 to permit spec¬
ification of the flue-gas temperature with a confidence level of

(a) 90 percent (c) 99 percent

(b) 95 percent (d) 99.9 percent

10.30 A manufacturing process yields aluminum rods with a mean yield

strength of 35,000 psi and a standard deviation of 1000 psi. A customer
places a very large order for rods with a minimum yield strength of
32,000 psi. Prepare a letter for submission to the customer that de¬
scribes the yield strength to be expected and outline your firm’s pro¬
cedures for assuring that this quality level will be achieved and main¬
tained.
552 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

10.31 An inspection laboratory samples two large shipments of dowel pins

by measuring both length and diameter. For shipment A, the sample
size was 40, the mean diameter was 6.12 mm, the mean length was
25.3 mm, the estimated standard deviation on diameter was mm, 0.022

and the estimated standard deviation on length was 0.140 mm. For
shipment B, the sample size was 60, the mean diameter was 6.04 mm,
the mean length was 25.05 mm, the estimated standard deviation on
diameter was 0.034 mm, and the estimated standard deviation on
length was 0.203 mm.

(a) Are the two shipments of dowel pins the same?

(b) What is the level of confidence in your prediction?
(c) Would it be safe to mix the two shipments of pins? Explain.

10.32 Repeat Exercise 10.31 for the following two shipments of dowel pins.

Shipment A Shipment B

Number 20 10
Diameter X = 6.05 mm, = 0.03 mm X = 5.98 mm, = 0.04 mm
Length X = 24.9 mm, = 0.22 mm X = 25.4 mm, 5^ = 0.18 mm

10.33 Employ Chauvenet’s criterion to statistically condition the following

sequence of measurements of atmospheric pressure (millimeters of
mercury) obtained with a mercury barometer.

764.3 764.6 764.4

765.2 764.5 764.5
765.7 765.4 764.8
765.3 765.2 764.9
764.6 765.1 764.6

10.34 After conditioning the data in Exercise 10.33, determine the mean and
the standard deviation.
10.35 The weight of a shipment of gold has been measured n times to obtain
X and S^. If the precision of the stated weight must be increased by a
factor of 1.5, how many additional measurements of the weight should
be made?
10.36 Repeat Exercise 10.36 if the required factor of improvement is

(a) 1.10 (c) 2.00 (e) 5.0

(b) 1.25 (d) 3.00 (f) 10.0

10.37 Prepare a graph showing relative precision as a function of the number

of measurements for a population with |jl = and cr = . .
1 0 1
 REFERENCES 553

10.38 Determine the slope m and the intercept b for a linear regression
equation y = mx +^b representing the following set of data.

a: 1.1 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.5 4.9 5.2
y 3.5 6.0 7.2 8.8 10.1 11.8 12.3 13.7 15.0 15.8

10.39 Determine the slope m and the intercept b for a linear regression
equation y ^ mx + b representing the following set of data.

X y X y X y
10.7 25.7 16.2 39.7 20.8 51.2
12.0 31.2 17.0 40.5 22.2 55.3
12.9 32.9 17.9 46.7 23.5 60.6
13.7 35.9 18.7 48.0 25.1 59.7
15.1 37.8 19.9 50.1 26.4 66.5

10.40 Determine the slope m and the intercept b for a linear regression
equation y = mx + b representing the following set of data.

JC y JC y X y

10.7 36.8 16.2 50.8 20.8 62.3

12.0 42.3 17.0 51.6 22.2 66.4
12.9 44.0 17.9 57.8 23.5 71.7
13.7 47.0 18.7 59.1 25.1 70.8
15.1 48.9 19.9 61.2 26.4 77.6

10.41 Determine the correlation coefficient r for the regression analysis of

Exercise 10.38.
10.42 Determine the correlation coefficient r for the regression analysis of
Exercise 10.39.
10.43 Determine the correlation coefficient r for the regression analysis of
Exercise 10.40.
10.44 The solvent concentration in a coating as a function of time is governed
by an equation of the form

C = ae~'^‘

where C is the concentration.

t is the time.
a and m are constants that depend upon the diffusion proc¬
ess.
554 STATISTICAL METHODS IN EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS

<(s) C{%) /(s) C(%)

10 1.98 50 1.88
20 2.01 100 1.81
30 1.95 200 1.60
40 1.93 500 1.21

For the given data, determine the constants a and m that provide the
best fit.

10.45 Determine the regression coefficients a, b^, b2, and bj for the following
data set.

y •fi X2 -^3

6.8 1.0 2.0 1.0

7.8 1.5 2.0 1.5
7.9 2.0 2.0 2.0
8.0 2.5 3.0 1.0
8.3 3.0 3.0 1.5
8.4 3.5 3.0 2.0
8.5 4.0 4.0 1.0
8.6 4.5 4.0 1.5
8.9 5.0 4.0 2.0
9.1 5.5 5.0 1.0
9.3 6.0 5.0 1.5
9.6 6.5 5.0 2.0

10.46 Determine the correlation coefficient r for the solution of Exercise 10.45.
10.47 Batteries from a production process are weighed prior to packing as
a routine quality check. The data from a typical 8-h run are listed
below:

Weight Number

Less than 30.60 lb 18

30.6 to 30.79 lb 512
30.8 to 30.99 lb 5,375
31.0 to 31.19 lb 10,200
31.2 to 31.39 lb 4,180
31.4 to 31.59 lb 719
Greater than 31.60 lb 12

(a) Find the mean and the standard deviation of the weights.
(b) Determine whether the weights of the batteries can be expressed
as a Gaussian distribution function.
 REFERENCES 555

(c) Would you expect quality control problems with batteries weigh¬
ing less than 30.6 lb or more than 31.6 lb?

10.48 A die-casting operation produces bearing housings with a rejection

rate of 4 percent when the machine is operated over an 8-h shift to
produce a total output of 3200 housings. The method of die cooling
was changed in an attempt to reduce the rejection rate. After 2 h of
operation under the new cooling conditions, 775 acceptable castings
and 25 rejects had been produced.
(a) Did the change in the process improve the output?
(b) How certain are you of your answer?
10.49 A gear-shaft assembly consists of a shaft with a shoulder, a bearing,
a sleeve, a gear, a second sleeve, and a nut. Dimensional tolerances
for each of these components are listed below:

Component Tolerance (mm)

Shoulder 0.050
Bearing 0.025
First sleeve 0.100
Gear 0.050
Second sleeve 0.100
Nut 0.100

(a) Determine the anticipated tolerance of the series assembly.

(b) What will be the frequency of occurrence of the tolerance of Part
(a)?
10.50 Estimate the error in a determination of the volume of a sphere having
a diameter of 50 mm if the diameter is measured with a standard
deviation of the mean (standard error) of = 0.05 mm.

10.51 The stress at a point on the free surface of a structure or machine

component can be expressed in terms of the normal strains and Sy
measured with electrical resistance strain gages as

i
I — V

If and By are measured within ±2 percent and E and v are measured

within ±5 percent, estimate the error in
 APPENDIX

TABLE A.1 Temperature-Resistance Data for a Thermistor

Temper- Temper- Temper-

ature °C Resistance ature °C Resistance ature °C Resistance

-80 2,210,400 -67 731,700 -54 268,560

-79 2,022,100 -66 675,060 -53 249,600
-78 1,851,100 -65 623,160 -52 232,110
-77 1,695,800 -64 575,610 -51 215,970
-76 1,554,500 -63 531,990 -50 201,030
-75 1,425,900 -62 491,970 -49 187,230
-74 1,308,900 -61 455,220 -48 174,450
-73 1,202,200 -60 421,470 -47 162,660
-72 1,105,000 -59 390,420 -46 151,710
-71 1,016,300 -58 361,890 -45 141,570
-70 935,250 -57 335,610 -44 132,180
-69 861,240 -56 311,400 -43 123,480
-68 793,590 -55 289,110 -42 115,410
 APPENDIX 557

TABLE A.1 [Continued]

Temper¬ Temper¬ Temper¬
ature °C Resistance ature °C Resistance ature °C Resistance
-41 107,910 2 8,850.0 45 1,311.0
-40 100,950 3 8,415.0 46 1,260.0
-39 94,470 4 8,007.0 47 1,212.0
-38 88,440 5 7,617.0 48 1,167.0
-37 82,860 6 7,251.0 49 1,122.9
-36 77,640 7 6,903.0 50 1,080.9
-35 72,810 8 6,576.0 51 1,040.1
-34 68,280 9 6,264.0 52 1,002.0
-33 64,080 10 5,970.0 53 965.10
-32 60,150 11 5,691.0 54 929.70
-31 56,490 12 5,427.0 55 895.80
-30 53,100 13 5,175.0 56 863.40
-29 49,890 14 4,938.0 57 832.20
-28 46,920 15 4,713.0 58 802.50
-27 44,160 16 4,500.0 59 773.70
-26 41,550 17 4,296.0 60 746.40
-25 39,120 18 4,104.0 61 720.00
-24 36,840 19 3,921.0 62 694.80
-23 34,710 20 3,747.0 63 670.50
-22 32,730 21 3,582.0 64 647.10
-21 30,870 22 3,426.0 65 624.90
-20 29,121 23 3,276.0 66 603.30
-19 27,483 24 3,135.0 67 582.60
-18 25,947 25 3,000.0 68 562.80
-17 24,507 26 2,871.9 69 543.90
-16 23,154 27 2,750.1 70 525.60
-15 21,885 28 2,633.1 71 507.90
-14 20,694 29 2,522.1 72 490.80
-13 19,572 30 2,417.1 73 474.60
-12 18,519 31 2,316.9 74 459.00
-11 17,529 32 2,220.9 75 443.70
-10 16,599 33 2,129.1 76 429.30
- 9 15,720 34 2,042.1 77 415.20
- 8 14,895 35 1,959.0 78 402.00
- 7 14,118 36 1,880.1 79 389.10
- 6 13,386 37 1,805.1 80 376.50
- 5 12,699 38 1,733.1 81 364.50
- 4 12,048 39 1,664.1 82 353.10
- 3 11,433 40 1,598.1 83 342.00
- 2 10,857 41 1,535.1 84 331.20
- 1 10,311 42 1,475.1 85 321.00
0 9,795.0 43 1,418.1 86 310.80
1 9,309.0 44 1,362.9 87 301.20
558 APPENDIX

TABLE A.1 [Continued]

Temper¬ Temper¬ Temper¬
ature °C Resistance ature °C Resistance ature °C Resistance

88 292.11 109 157.50 130 90.279

89 283.20 110 153.09 131 88.041
90 274.59 111 149.01 132 85.869
91 266.31 112 144.90 133 83.751
92 258.30 113 141.00 134 81.609
93 250.59 114 137.19 135 79.710
94 243.09 115 133.50 136 77.790
95 236.01 116 129.99 137 75.900
96 228.99 117 126.51 138 74.079
97 222.30 118 123.21 139 72.309
98 215.79 119 120.00 140 70.581
99 209.61 120 116.79 141 68.910
100 203.49 121 113.79 142 67.290
101 197.70 122 110.91 143 65.700
102 192.09 123 108.00 144 64.170
103 186.60 124 105.18 145 62.661
104 181.29 125 102.51 146 61.209
105 176.19 126 99.930 147 59.799
106 171.30 127 97.410 148 58.431
107 166.50 128 94.950 149 57.099
108 161.91 129 92.580 150 55.791
 APPENDIX 559

TABLE A.2 Thermoelectric Voltages for IrorvConstanton Thermocouples

with the Reference Junction at 0°C (32°F)
°c 0 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

-210 -8.096 -210

-200 -7.890 -7.912 -7.934 -7.955 -7.976 -7.996 -8.017 -8.037 -8.057 -8.076 -8.096 -200

-190 -7.659 -7.683 -7.707 -7.731 -7.755 -7.778 -7,801 -7.824 -7.846 -7.868 -7.890 -190
-180 -7.402 -7.429 -7.455 -7.482 -7.508 -7.533 -7.559 -7.584 -7,609 -7.634 -7.659 -180
-170 -7.122 -7.151 -7.180 -7,209 -7.237 -7.265 -7.293 -7.321 -7.348 -7.375 -7.402 -170
-160 -6.821 -6.852 -6.883 -6.914 -6.944 -6.974 -7.004 -7.034 -7.064 -7.093 -7.122 -160
-150 -6.499 -6.532 -6.565 -6.598 -6.630 -6.663 -6.695 -6.727 -6.758 -6.790 -6.821 -150

-140 -6.159 -6.194 -6.228 -6.263 -6.297 -6.331 -6.365 -6.399 -6.433 - 6.466 -6.499 -140
-130 -5.801 -5.837 -5.874 -5.910 -5.946 -5.982 -6.018 -6.053 -6.089 -6.124 -6.159 -130
-120 -5.426 -5.464 -5.502 -5.540 -5.578 -5.615 -5.653 -5.690 -5.727 -5.764 -5.801 -120
-110 -5.036 -5.076 -5.115 -5.155 -5.194 -5.233 -5.272 -5.311 -5.349 -5.388 -5.426 -no
-100 -4.632 -4.673 -4.714 -4.755 -4.795 -4,836 -4.876 -4.916 -4.956 -4.996 -5.036 -100

-90 -4.215 -4.257 -4.299 -4.341 -4.383 -4.425 -4.467 -4.508 -4.550 -4.591 -4.632 -90
-80 -3.785 -3.829 -3.872 -3.915 -3.958 -4.001 -4.044 -4.087 -4.130 -4.172 -4.215 -80
-70 -3.344 -3.389 -3.433 -3.478 -3.522 -3.566 -3.610 -3.654 -3.698 -3.742 -3.785 -70
-60 -2.892 -2.938 -2.984 -3.029 -3.074 -3.120 -3.165 -3.210 -3.255 -3.299 -3.344 -60
-50 -2.431 -2.478 -2.524 -2.570 -2.617 -2.663 -2.709 -2.755 -2.801 -2.847 -2.892 -50

-40 -1.960 -2.008 -2.055 -2.102 -2.150 -2.197 -2.244 -2.291 -2.338 -2.384 -2.431 -40
-30 -1.481 -1.530 -1.578 -1.626 -1.674 -1.722 -1.770 -1.818 -1.865 -1.913 -1.960 -30
-20 -0.995 -1.044 -1.093 -1.141 -1.190 -1.239 -1.288 -1.336 -1.385 -1.433 -1.481 -20
-10 -0.501 -0.550 -0.600 -0.650 -0.699 -0.748 -0.798 -0.847 -0.896 -0.945 -0.995 -10
0 0.000 -0.050 -0.101 -0.151 -0.201 -0.251 -0.301 -0.351 -0.401 -0.451 -0.501 0

0 0.000 0.050 0.101 0.151 0.202 0.253 0.303 0.354 0.405 0.456 0.507 0
10 0.507 0.558 0.609 0.660 0.711 0.762 0.813 0.865 0.916 0.967 1.019 10
20 1.019 1.070 1.122 1.174 1.225 1.277 1.329 1.381 1.432 1.484 1.536 20
30 1.536 1.588 1.640 1.693 1.745 1.797 1.849 1.901 1.954 2.006 2.058 30
40 2.058 2.111 2.163 2.216 2.268 2.321 2.374 2.426 2.479 2.532 2.585 40

50 2.585 2.638 2.691 2.743 2.796 2.849 2.902 2.956 3.009 3.062 3.115 50
60 3.115 3.168 3.221 3.275 3.328 3.381 3.435 3.488 3.542 3.595 3.649 60
70 3.649 3.702 3.756 3.809 3,863 3.917 3.971 4.024 4.078 4.132 4.186 70
80 4.186 4.239 4.293 4.347 4.401 4.455 4.509 4.563 4.617 4.671 4.725 80
90 4.725 4.780 4.834 4.888 4.942 4.996 5.050 5.105 5.159 5.213 5.268 90

100 5.268 5.322 5.376 5.431 5.485 5.540 5.594 5.649 5.703 5.758 5.812 100
110 5.812 5.867 5.921 5.976 6.031 6.085 6.140 6.195 6.249 6.304 6.359 no
120 6.359 6.414 6.468 6.523 6.578 6.633 6.688 6.742 6.797 6.852 6.907 120
130 6.907 6.962 7.017 7.072 7.127 7.182 7.237 7.292 7.347 7.402 7.457 130
140 7.457 7.512 7.567 7.622 7.677 7.732 7.787 7.843 7.898 7.953 8.008 140

150 8.008 8.063 8.118 8.174 8.229 8.284 8.339 8.394 8.450 8.505 8.560 150
160 8.560 8.616 8.671 8.726 8.781 8.837 8.892 8.947 9.003 9.058 9.113 160
170 9.113 9.169 9.224 9.279 9.335 9.390 9.446 9.501 9.556 9.612 9.667 170
180 9.667 9.723 9.778 9.834 9.889 9.944 10.000 10.055 10.111 10.166 10.222 180
190 10.222 10.277 10.333 10.388 10,444 10.499 10.555 10.610 10.666 10.721 10.777 190

200 10.777 10.832 10.888 10.943 10.999 11.054 11.110 11.165 11.221 11.276 11.332 200
210 11.332 11,387 11.443 11.498 11.554 11.609 11.665 11,720 11.776 11.831 11.887 210
220 11.887 11.943 11.998 12.054 12.109 12.165 12.220 12.276 12.331 12.387 12.442 220
230 12.442 12.498 12.553 12.609 12.664 12.720 12,776 12.831 12.887 12.942 12.998 230
240 12.998 13,053 13.109 13.164 13.220 13.275 13.331 13.386 13.442 13.497 13.553 240

250 13.553 13.608 13.664 13.719 13.775 13.830 13.886 13.941 13.997 14.052 14.108 250
260 14.108 14.163 14.219 14.274 14.330 14.385 14.441 14.496 14.552 14.607 14.663 260
270 14.663 14.718 14.774 14.829 14.885 14.940 14.995 15.051 15.106 15.162 15.217 270
560 APPENDIX

TABLE A.2 [Continued]

°c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -c
Therinoeiectric Voltage (absolute mV)

280 15.217 15.273 15.328 15.383 15.439 15.494 15.550 15.605 15.661 15.716 15.771 280
290 15.771 15.827 15.882 15.938 15.993 i6.048 16.104 16.159 16.214 16.270 16.325 290

300 16.325 16.380 16.436 16.491 16.547 16.602 16.657 16.713 16.768 16.823 16.879 300
310 16.879 16.934 16.989 17.044 17.100 17.155 17.210 17.266 17.321 17.376 17.432 310
320 17.432 17.487 17.542 17.597 17.653 17.708 17.763 17.818 17.874 17.929 17.984 320
330 17.984 18.039 18.095 18.150 18.205 18.260 18.316 18.371 18.426 18.481 18.537 330
340 18.537 18.592 18.647 18.702 18.757 18.813 18.868 18.923 18.978 19.033 19.089 340

350 19.089 19.144 19.199 19.254 19.309 19.364 19.420 19.475 19.530 19.585 19.640 350
360 19.640 19.695 19.751 19.806 19.861 19.916 19.971 20.026 20.081 20.137 20.192 360
370 20.192 20.247 20.302 20.357 20.412 20.467 20.523 20.578 20.633 20.688 20.743 370
380 20.743 20.798 20.853 20.909 20.964 21.019 21.074 21.129 21.184 21.239 21.295 380
390 21.295 21.350 21.405 21.460 21.515 21.570 21.625 21.680 21.736 21.791 21.846 390

400 21.846 21.901 21.956 22.011 22.066 22.122 22.177 22.232 22.287 22.342 22.397 400
410 22.397 22.453 22.508 22.563 22.618 22.673 22.728 22.784 22.839 22.894 22.949 410
420 22.949 23.004 23.060 23.115 23.170 23.225 23.280 23.336 23.391 23.446 23.501 420
430 23.501 23.556 23.612 23.667 23.722 23.777 23.833 23.888 23.943 23.999 24.054 430
440 24.054 24.109 24.164 24.220 24.275 24.330 24.386 24.441 24.496 24.552 24.607 440

450 24.607 24.662 24.718 24.773 24.829 24.884 24.939 24.995 25.050 25.106 25.161 450
460 25.161 25.217 25.272 25.327 25.383 25.438 25.494 25.549 25.605 25.661 25.716 460
470 25.716 25.772 25.827 25.883 25.938 25.994 26.050 26.105 26.161 26.216 26.272 470
480 26.272 26.328 26.383 26.439 26.495 26.551 26.606 26.662 26.718 26.774 26.829 480
490 26.829 26.885 26.941 26.997 27.053 27.109 27.165 27.220 27.276 27.332 27.388 490

500 27.388 27.444 27.500 27.556 27.612 27.668 27.724 27.780 27.836 27.893 27.949 500
510 27.949 28.005 28.061 28.117 28.173 28.230 28.286 28.342 28.398 28.455 28.511 510

520 28.511 28.567 28.624 28.680 28.736 28.793 28.849 28.906 28.%2 29.019 29.075 520
530 29.075 29.132 29.188 29.245 29.301 29.358 29.415 29.471 29.528 29.585 29.642 530
540 29.642 29.698 29.755 29.812 29.869 29.926 29.983 30.039 30.096 30.153 30.210 540

550 30.210 30.267 30.324 30.381 30.439 30.496 30.553 30.610 30.667 30.724 30.782 550
560 30.782 30.839 30.896 30.954 31.011 31.068 31.126 31.183 31.241 31.298 31.356 560
570 31.356 31.413 31.471 31.528 31.586 31.644 31.702 31.759 31.817 31.875 31.933 570
580 31.933 31.991 32.048 32.106 32.164 32.222 32.280 32.338 32.396 32.455 32.513 580
590 32.513 32.571 32.629 32.687 32.746 32.804 32.862 32.921 32.979 33.038 33.096 590

600 33.096 33.155 33.213 33.272 33.330 33.389 33.448 33.506 33.565 33.624 33.683 600
610 33.683 33.742 33.800 33.859 33.918 33.977 34.036 34.095 34.155 34.214 34.273 610
620 34.273 34.332 34.391 34.451 34.510 34.569 34.629 34.688 34.748 34.807 34.867 620
630 34.867 34.926 34.986 35.046 35.105 35.165 35.225 35.285 35.344 35.404 35.464 630
640 35.464 35.524 35.584 35.644 35.704 35.764 35.825 35.885 35.945 36.005 36.066 640

650 36.066 36.126 36.186 36.247 36.307 36.368 36.428 36.489 36.549 36.610 36.671 650
660 36.671 36.732 36.792 36.853 36.914 36.975 37.036 37.097 37.158 37.219 37.280 660
670 37.280 37.341 37.402 37.463 37.525 37.586 37.647 37.709 37.770 37.831 37.893 670
680 37.893 37.954 38.016 38.078 38.139 38.201 38.262 38.324 38.386 38.448 38.510 680
690 38.510 38.572 38.633 38.695 38.757 38.819 38.882 38.944 39.006 39.068 39.130 690

700 39.130 39.192 39.255 39.317 39.379 39.442 39.504 39.567 39.629 39.692 39.754 700
710 39.754 39.817 39.880 39.942 40.005 40.068 40.131 40.193 40.256 40.319 40.382 710
720 40.382 40.445 40.508 40.571 40.634 40.697 40.760 40.823 40.886 40.950 41.013 720
730 41.013 41.076 41.139 41.203 41.266 41.329 41.393 41.456 41.520 41.583 41.647 730
740 41.647 41.710 41.774 41.837 41.901 41.965 42.028 42.092 42.156 42.219 42.283 740

750 42.283 42.347 42.411 42.475 42.538 42.602 42.666 42.730 42.794 42.858 42.922 750
760 42.922 760
 APPENDIX 561

TABLE A.3 Thermoelectric Voltages for Chromel-Alumel Thermocouples

with the Reference Junction at 0°C (32°F)
°c 0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 °C
Thermoetectric Voltage (absolute mV)

-270 -6.458 -270

-260 -6.441 -6.444 -6.446 -6.448 -6.450 -6.452 -6.453 -6.455 -6.456 -6.457 -6.458 -2:60
-250 -6.404 -6.408 -6.413 -6.417 -6.421 -6.425 -6.429 -6.432 -6.435 -6.438 -6.441 -250

-240 -6.344 -6.351 -6.358 -6.364 -6.371 -6.377 -6.382 -6.388 -6.394 -0.399 -6.404 -240
-230 -6.262 -6.271 -6.280 -6.289 -6.297 -6.306 -6.314 -6.322 -6.329 -6.337 -6.344 -230
-220 -6.158 -6.170 -6.181 -6.192 -6.202 -6.213 -6.223 -6.233 -6.243 -6.253 -6.262 -220
-210 -6.035 -6.048 -6.061 -6.074 -6.087 -6.099 -6.111 -6.123 -6.135 -6.147 -6.158 -210
-200 -5.891 -5.907 -5.922 -5.936 -5.951 -5.965 -5.980 -5.994 -6.007 -6.021 -6.035 -200

-190 -5.730 -5.747 -5.763 -5.780 -5.796 -5.813 -5.829 -5.845 -5.860 -5.876 -5.891 -190
-180 -5.550 -5.569 -5.587 -5.606 -5.624 -5.642 -5.660 -5.678 -5.695 -5.712 -5.730 -180
-170 -5.354 -5.374 -5.394 -5.414 -5.434 -5.454 -5.474 -5.493 -5.512 -5.531 -5.550 -170
-160 -5.141 -5.163 -5.185 -5.207 -5.228 -5.249 -5.271 -5.292 -5.313 -5.333 -5.354 -160
-150 -4.912 -4.936 -4.959 -4.983 -5.006 -5.029 -5.051 -5.074 -5.097 -5.119 -5.141 -150

-140 -4.669 -4.694 -4.719 -4.743 -4.768 -4.792 -4.817 -4.841 -4.865 -4.889 -4.912 -140
-130 -4.410 -4.437 -4.463 -4.489 -4.515 -4.541 -4.567 -4.593 -4.618 -4.644 -4.669 -130
-120 -4.138 -4.166 -4.193 -4.221 -4.248 -4.276 -4.303 -4.330 -4.357 -4.384 -4.410 -120
-no -3.852 -3.881 -3.910 -3.939 -3.968 -3.997 -4.025 -4.053 -4.082 -4.110 -4.138 -no
-100 -3.553 -3.584 -3.614 -3.644 -3.674 -3.704 -3.734 -3.764 -3.793 -3.823 -3.852 -100

-90 -3.242 -3.274 -3.305 -3.337 -3.368 -3.399 -3.430 -3.461 -3.492 -3.523 -3.553 -90
-80 -2.920 -2.953 -2.985 -3.018 -3.050 -3.082 -3.115 -3.147 -3.179 -3.211 -3.242 -80
-70 -2.586 -2.620 -2.654 -2.687 -2.721 -2.754 -2.788 -2.821 -2.854 -2.887 -2.920 -70
-60 -2.243 -2.277 -2.312 -2.347 -2.381 -2.416 -2.450 -2.484 -2.518 -2.552 -2.586 -60
-50 -1.889 -1.925 -1.961 -1.996 -2.032 -2.067 -2.102 -2.137 -2.173 -2.208 -2.243 -50

-40 -1.527 -1.563 -1.600 -1.636 -1.673 -1.709 -1.745 -1.781 -1.817 -1.853 -1.889 -40
-30 -1.156 -1.193 -1.231 -1.268 -1.305 -1.342 -1.379 -1.416 -1.453 -1.490 -1.527 -30
-20 -0.777 -0.816 -0.854 -0.892 -0.930 -0.968 -1.005 -1.043 -1.081 -1.118 -1.156 -20
-10 -0.392 -0.431 -0.469 -0.508 -0.547 -0.585 -0.624 -0.662 -0.701 -0.739 -0.777 -10
0 0.000 -0.039 -0.079 -0.118 -0.157 -0.197 -0.236 -0.275 -0.314 -0.353 -0.392 0

0 0.000 0.039 0.079 0.119 0.158 0.198 0.238 0.277 0.317 0.357 0.397 0
10 0.397 0.437 0.477 0.517 0.557 0.597 0.637 0.677 0.718 0.758 0.798 10
20 0.798 0.838 0.879 0.919 0.960 1.000 1.041 1.081 1.122 1.162 1.203 20
30 1.203 1.244 1.285 1.325 1.366 1.407 1.448 1.489 1.529 1.570 1.611 30
40 1.611 1.652 1.693 1.734 1.776 1.817 1.858 1.899 1.940 1.981 2.022 40

50 2.022 2.064 2.105 2.146 2.188 2.229 2.270 2.312 2.353 2.394 2.436 50
60 2.436 2.477 2.519 2.560 2.601 2.643 2.684 2.726 2.767 2.809 2.850 60
70 2.850 2.892 2.933 2.975 3.016 3.058 3.100 3.141 3.183 3.224 3.266 70
80 3.266 3.307 3.349 3.390 3.432 3.473 3.515 3.556 3.598 3.639 3.681 80
90 3.681 3.722 3.764 3.805 3.847 3.888 3.930 3.971 4.012 4.054 4.095 90

100 4.095 4.137 4.178 4.219 4.261 4.302 4.343 4.384 4.426 4.467 4.508 100
no 4.508 4.549 4.590 4.632 4.673 4.714 4.755 4.796 4.837 4.878 4.919 no
120 4.919 4.960 5.001 5.042 5.083 5.124 5.164 5.205 5.246 5.287 5.327 120
130 5.327 5.368 5.409 5.450 5.490 5.531 5.571 5.612 5.652 5.693 5.733 130
140 5.733 5.774 5.814 5.855 5.895 5.936 5.976 6.016 6.057 6.097 6.137 140

150 6.137 6.177 6.218 6.258 6.298 6.338 6.378 6.419 6.459 6.499 6.539 150
160 6.539 6.579 6.619 6.659 6.699 6.739 6.779 6.819 6.859 6.899 6.939 160
170 6.939 6.979 7.019 7.059 7.099 7.139 7.179 7.219 7.259 7.299 7.338 170
180 7.338 7.378 7.418 7.458 7.498 7.538 7.578 7.618 7.658 7.697 7.737 180
190 7.737 7.777 7.817 7.857 7.897 7.937 7.977 8.017 8.057 8.097 8.137 190

200 8.137 8.177 8.216 8.256 8.296 8.336 8.376 8.416 8.456 8.497 8.537 200
210 8.537 8.577 8.617 8.657 8.697 8.737 8.777 8.817 8.857 8.898 8.938 210
220 8.938 8.978 9.018 9.058 9.099 9.139 9.179 9.220 9.260 9.300 9.341 220
230 9.341 9.381 9.421 9.462 9.502 9.543 9.583 9.624 9.664 9.705 9.745 230
240 9.745 9.786 9.826 9.867 9.907 9.948 9.989 10.029 10.070 10.111 10.151 240

250 10.151 10.192 10.233 10.274 10.315 10.355 10.396 10.437 10.478 10.519 10.560 250
260 10.560 10.600 10.641 10.682 10.723 10.764 10.805 10.846 10.887 10.928 10.969 260
270 10.969 11.010 11.051 11.093 11.134 11.175 11.216 11.257 11.298 11.339 11.381 270
280 11.381 11.422 11.463 11.504 11.546 11.587 11.628 11.669 11.711 11.752 11.793 280
290 11.793 11.835 11.876 11.918 11.959 12.000 12.042 12.083 12.125 12.166 12.207 290
562 APPENDIX

TABLE A.3 [Continued]

°c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

300 12.207 12.249 12.290 12.332 12.373 12.415 12.456 12.498 12.539 12.581 12.623 300
310 12.623 12.664 12.706 12.747 12.789 12.831 12.872 12.914 12.955 12.997 13.039 310
320 13.039 13.080 13.122 13.164 13.205 13.247 13.289 13.331 13.372 13.414 13.456 320
330 13.456 13.497 13.539 13.581 13,623 13.665 13.706 13.748 13.790 13.832 13,874 330
340 13.874 13.915 13.957 13.999 14.041 14.083 14,125 14.167 14.208 14.250 14.292 340

350 14.292 14.334 14.376 14.418 14.460 14.502 14.544 14.586 14.628 14.670 14.712 350
360 14.712 14.754 14.796 14.838 14.880 14.922 14.964 15.(X)6 15.048 15.090 15.132 360
370 15.132 15.174 15.216 15.258 15.300 15.342 15.384 15.426 15.468 15.510 15.552 370
380 15.552 15.594 15.636 15.679 15.721 15.763 15.805 15.847 15.889 15.931 15,974 380
390 15.974 16.016 16.058 16.100 16.142 16.184 16.227 16.269 16.311 16.353 16.395 390

400 16.395 16.438 16.480 16.522 16.564 16.607 16.649 16.691 16.733 16.776 16.818 400
410 16.818 16.860 16.902 16.945 16.987 17.029 17.072 17.114 17,156 17.199 17.241 410
420 17.241 17.283 17.326 17.368 17.410 17.453 17.495 17.537 17.580 17.622 17.664 420
430 17.664 17.707 17.749 17.792 17.834 17.876 17.919 17.%1 18.004 18.046 18.088 430
440 18.088 18.131 18.173 18.216 18.258 18.301 18.343 18.385 18.428 18.470 18.513 440

450 18.513 18.555 18.598 18.640 18.683 18.725 18.768 18.810 18.853 18.895 18.938 450
460 18.938 18.980 19.023 19.065 19.108 19.150 19.193 19.235 19.278 19.320 19.363 460
470 19.363 19.405 19.448 19.490 19.533 19.576 19.618 19.661 19.703 19.746 19.788 470
480 19.788 19.831 19.873 19.916 19.959 20.001 20.044 20.086 20.129 20.172 20.214 480
490 20.214 20.257 20.299 20.342 20.385 20.427 20.470 20.512 20.555 20,598 20.640 490

500 20.640 20.683 20.725 20.768 20.811 20.853 20.896 20.938 20.981 21.024 21.066 500
510 21.066 21.109 21.152 21.194 21.237 21.280 21.322 21,365 21.407 21.450 21.493 510
520 21.493 21.535 21.578 21.621 21.663 21.706 21.749 21.791 21.834 21.876 21.919 520
530 21.919 21.962 22.004 22.047 22.090 22.132 22.175 22.218 22.260 22.303 22.346 530
540 22.346 22.388 22.431 22.473 22.516 22.559 22.601 22.644 22.687 22.729 22,772 540

550 22.772 22.815 22.857 22.900 22.942 22.985 23.028 23,070 23.113 23.156 23.198 550
560 23.198 23.241 23.284 23.326 23.369 23.411 23.454 23.497 23.539 23.582 23.624 560
570 23.624 23.667 23.710 23.752 23.795 23.837 23.880 23.923 23.965 24.008 24.050 570
580 24.050 24.093 24.136 24.178 24.221 24.263 24.306 24.348 24.391 24.434 24.476 580
590 24.476 24.519 24.561 24.604 24.646 24.689 24.731 24.774 24.817 24.859 24.902 590
600 24.902 24.944 24.987 25.029 25.072 25.114 25.157 25.199 25.242 25.284 25.327 600
610 25.327 25.369 25.412 25.454 25.497 25.539 25.582 25.624 25.666 25.709 25.751 610
620 25.751 25.794 25.836 25.879 25.921 25.964 26.006 26.048 26.091 26.133 26.176 620
630 26.176 26.218 26.260 26.303 26.345 26.387 26.430 26.472 26.515 26.557 26.599 630
640 26.599 26.642 26.684 26.726 26.769 26.811 26.853 26.896 26.938 26.980 27.022 640

650 27.022 27.065 27.107 27.149 27.192 27.234 27.276 27.318 27,361 27.403 27.445 650
660 27.445 27.487 27.529 27.572 27.614 27.656 27.698 27.740 27.783 27.825 27.867 660
670 27.867 27.909 27.951 27.993 28.035 28.078 28.120 28.162 28.204 28.246 28,288 670
680 28.288 28.330 28.372 28.414 28.456 28.498 28.540 28.583 28.625 28.667 28.709 680
690 28.709 28.751 28.793 28.835 28.877 28.919 28.961 29.002 29.044 29.086 29.128 690

700 29.128 29.170 29.212 29.254 29.296 29.338 29.380 29.422 29.464 29.505 29.547 700
710 29.547 29.589 29.631 29.673 29.715 29.756 29.798 29.840 29.882 29.924 29,965 710
720 29.965 30.007 30.049 30.091 30.132 30.174 30.216 30.257 30.299 30.341 30.383 720
730 30.383 30.424 30.466 30.508 30.549 30.591 30.632 30.674 30.716 30.757 30.799 730
740 30.799 30.840 30.882 30.924 30.965 31.007 31.048 31.090 31.131 31.173 31.214 740

750 31.214 31.256 31.297 31.339 31.380 31.422 31.463 31.504 31.546 31.587 31.629 750
760 31.629 31.670 31.712 31.753 31.794 31.836 31.877 31.918 31.960 32.001 32.042 760
770 32.042 32.084 32.125 32.166 32.207 32.249 32.290 32.331 32.372 32.414 32.455 770
780 32.455 32.496 32.537 32.578 32.619 32.661 32.702 32.743 32.784 32.825 32.866 780
790 32.866 32.907 32.948 32.990 33.031 33.072 33.113 33.154 33.195 33.236 33.277 790

800 33.277 33.318 33.359 33.400 33.441 33.482 33.523 33.564 33.604 33.645 33.686 800
810 33.686 33.727 33.768 33.809 33.850 33.891 33.931 33.972 34.013 34.054 34.095 810
820 34.095 34.136 34.176 34.217 34.258 34.299 34.339 34.380 34.421 34.461 34.502 820
830 34.502 34.543 34.583 34.624 34.665 34.705 34.746 34.787 34.827 34.868 34.909 830
840 34.909 34.949 34.990 35.030 35.071 35.111 35.152 35.192 35.233 35.273 35.314 840

850 35.314 35.354 35.395 35.435 35.476 35.516 35.557 35.597 35.637 35.678 35.718 850
860 35.718 35.758 35.799 35.839 35.880 35.920 35.960 36.000 36.041 36.081 36.121 860
870 36.121 36.162 36.202 36.242 36.282 36.323 36.363 36.403 36.443 36.483 36.524 870
880 36.524 36.564 36.604 36.644 36.684 36.724 36.764 36.804 36.844 36.885 36.925 880
890 36.925 36.965 37.005 37.045 37.085 37.125 37.165 37.205 37.245 37.285 37.325 890
 APPENDIX 563

TABLE A.3 [Continued]

°c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

900 37.325 37.365 37.405 37.445 37.484 37.524 37.564 37.604 37.644 37.684 37.724 900
910 37.724 37.764 37.803 37.843 37.883 37.923 37.963 38.002 38.042 38.082 38.122 910
920 38.122 38.162 38.201 38.241 38.281 38.320 38.360 38.400 38.439 38.479 38.519 920
930 38.519 38.558 38.598 38.638 38.677 38.717 38.756 38.796 38.836 38.875 38.915 930
940 38.915 38.954 38.994 39.033 39.073 39.112 39.152 39.191 39.231 39.270 39.310 940

950 39,310 39.349 39.388 39.428 39.467 39.507 39.546 39.585 39.625 39.664 39.703 950
960 39.703 39,743 39.782 39.821 39.861 39.900 39.939 39.979 40.018 40.057 40.096 960
970 40.096 40.136 40.175 40.214 40.253 40.292 40.332 40.371 40.410 40.449 40.488 970
980 40.488 40.527 40.566 40.605 40.645 40.684 40.723 40.762 40.801 40.840 40.879 980
990 40.879 40.918 40.957 40.996 41.035 41.074 41.113 41.152 41.191 41.230 41.269 990

1,000 41.269 41.308 41.347 41.385 41.424 41.463 41.502 41.541 41.580 41.619 41.657 1,000
1,010 41.657 41.696 41.735 41.774 41.813 41.851 41.890 41.929 41.968 42.006 42.045 1,010
1,020 42.045 42.084 42.123 42.161 42.200 42.239 42.277 42.316 42.355 42.393 42.432 1,020
1,030 42.432 42.470 42.509 42.548 42.586 42.625 42.663 42.702 42.740 42.779 42.817 1,030
1,040 42.817 42,856 42.894 42.933 42.971 43.010 43.048 43.087 43.125 43.164 43.202 1,040

1.050 43.202 43.240 43.279 43.317 43.356 43.394 43.432 43.471 43.509 43.547 43.585 1,050
1,060 43.585 43.624 43.662 43.700 43.739 43.777 43.815 43.853 43.891 43.930 43.968 1,060
1,070 43.968 44.006 44.044 44.082 44.121 44.159 44.197 44.235 44.273 44.311 44.349 1,070
1,080 44.349 44.387 44.425 44.463 44.501 44.539 44.577 44.615 44.653 44.691 44.729 1,080
44.729 44.767 44.805 44.843 44.881 44.919 44.957 44.995 45.033 45.070 45.108 1,090
1,090

45.146 45.184 45.222 45.260 45.297 45.335 45.373 45.411 45.448 45.486 1,100
1,100 45.108
45.486 45.524 45.561 45.599 45.637 45.675 45.712 45.750 45.787 45.825 45.863 1,110
1,110
45.863 45.900 45.938 45.975 46.013 46.051 46.088 46.126 46.163 46.201 46.238 1,120
1,120
46.275 46.313 46.350 46.388 46.425 46.463 46.500 46.537 46.575 46.612 1,130
1,130 46.238
46.649 46.687 46.724 46.761 46.799 46.836 46.873 46.910 46.948 46.985 1,140
1,140 46.612

47.022 47.059 47.096 47.134 47.171 47.208 47.245 47.282 47.319 47.356 1,150
1.150 46.985
47.393 47.430 47.468 47.505 47.542 47.579 47.616 47,653 47.689 47.726 1,160
1,160 47.356
47.763 47.800 47.837 47.874 47.911 47.948 47.985 48.021 48.058 48.095 1,170
1,170 47.726
48.169 48.205 48.242 48.279 48.316 48.352 48.389 48.426 48.462 1,180
1,180 48.095 48.132
48.499 48.536 48.572 48.609 48.645 48.682 48.718 48.755 48.792 48.828 1,190
1,190 48.462

48.901 48.937 48.974 49.010 49.047 49.083 49.120 49.156 49.192 1,200
1,200 48.828 48.865
49.265 49.301 49.338 49.374 49.410 49.446 49.483 49.519 49.555 1,210
1,210 49.192 49.229
49.627 49.663 49.700 49.736 49.772 49.808 49.844 49.880 49.916 1,220
1,220 49.555 49.591
49.988 50.024 50.060 50.096 50.132 50.168 50.204 50.240 50.276 1,230
1,230 49.916 49.952
50.347 50.383 50.419 50.455 50.491 50,526 50.562 50.598 50.633 1,240
1,240 50.276 50.311

50.741 50.776 50.812 50.847 50.883 50.919 50.954 50.990 1,250

1,250 50.633 50.669 50.705
51.061 51.096 51.132 51.167 51.203 51.238 51.274 51.309 51.344 1,26U
1,260 50.990 51.025
51.450 51.486 51.521 51.556 51.592 51.627 51.662 51.697 1,270
1.270 51.344 51.380 51.415
51.803 51.838 51.873 51.908 51.943 51.979 52.014 52.049 1,280
1,280 51.697 51.733 51.768
52.154 52.189 52.224 52.259 52.294 52.329 52.364 52.398 1,290
1,290 52.049 52.084 52.119

52.503 52.538 52.573 52.608 52.642 52.677 52.712 52.747 1,300

1 300 52.398 52.433 52.468
52.851 52.886 52.920 52.955 52.989 53.024 53.059 53.093 1,310
1,310 52.747 52.781 52.816
53.197 53.232 53.266 53.301 53.335 53.370 53.404 53.439 1,320
1,320 53.093 53.128 53.162
53.507 53.542 53.576 53.611 53.645 53.679 53.714 53.748 53.782 i,JJu
1,330 53.439 53.473
53.885 53.920 53.954 53.988 54.022 54.057 54.091 54.125 1,340
1,340 53.782 53.817 53.851

54.228 54.262 54.296 54.330 54.364 54.398 54.432 54.466 1,350

1 350 54.125 54.159 54.193
54.569 54.603 54.637 54.671 54.705 54.739 54.773 54.807 1,360
1.360 54.466 54.501 54.535
1,370 54.807 54.841 54.875

1
564 APPENDIX

TABLE A.4 Thermoelectric Voltages for Chromel-Constantan

Thermocouples with the Reference Junction at 0°C (32°Fj
°c 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 “C
> Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

-270 -9.835 -270

-260 -9.797 -9.802 -9.808 -9.813 -9.817 -9.821 -9.825 -9.828 -9.831 -9.833 -9.835 -260
-250 -9.719 -9.728 -9.737 -9.746 -9.754 -9.762 -9.770 -9.777 -9.784 -9.791 -9.797 -250

-240 -9.604 -9.617 -9.630 -9.642 -9.654 -9.666 -9.677 -9.688 -9.699 -9.709 -9.719 -240
-230 -9.455 -9.472 -9.488 -9.503 -9.519 -9.534 -9.549 -9.563 -9.577 -9.591 -9.604 -230
-220 -9.274 -9.293 -9.313 -9.332 -9.350 -9.368 -9.386 -9.404 -9.421 -9.438 -9.455 -220
-210 -9.063 -9.085 -9.107 -9.129 -9.151 -9.172 -9.193 -9.214 -9.234 -9.254 -9.274 -210
-200 -8.824 -8.850 -8.874 -8.899 -8.923 - 8.947 -8.971 -8.994 -9.017 -9.040 -9.063 -200

-190 -8.561 -8.588 -8.615 -8.642 -8.669 -8.696 -8.722 -8.748 -8.774 -8.799 -8.824 -190
-180 -8.273 -8.303 -8.333 -8.362 -8.391 -8.420 -8.449 -8.477 -8.505 -8.533 -8.561 -180
-170 -7.963 -7.995 -8.027 -8.058 -8.090 -8.121 -8.152 -8.183 -8.213 -8.243 -8.273 -170
-160 -7.631 -7.665 -7.699 -7.733 -7.767 -7.800 -7.833 -7.866 -7.898 -7.931 -7.963 -160
-150 -7.279 -7.315 -7.351 -7.387 -7.422 -7.458 -7.493 -7.528 -7.562 -7.597 -7.631 -150

-140 -6.907 -6.945 -6.983 -7.020 -7.058 -7.095 -7.132 -7.169 -7.206 -7.243 -7.279 -140
-130 -6.516 -6.556 -6.596 -6.635 -6.675 -6.714 -6.753 -6.792 -6.830 -6.869 -6.907 -130
-120 -6.107 -6.149 -6.190 -6.231 -6.273 -6.314 -6.354 -6.395 -6.436 -6.476 -6.516 -120
-110 -5.680 -5.724 -5.767 -5.810 -5.853 -5.896 -5.938 -5.981 -6.023 -6.065 -6.107 -no
-100 -5.237 -5.282 -5.327 -5.371 -5.416 -5.460 -5.505 -5.549 -5.593 -5.637 -5.680 -100

-90 -4.777 -4.824 -4.870 -4.916 -4.963 -5.009 -5.055 -5.100 -5.146 -5.191 -5.237 -90
-80 -4.301 -4.350 -4.398 -4.446 -4.493 -4.541 -4.588 -4.636 -4.683 -4.730 -4.777 -80
-70 -3.811 -3.860 -3.910 -3.959 -4.009 -4.058 -4.107 -4.156 -4.204 -4.253 -4.301 -70
-60 -3.306 -3.357 -3.408 -3.459 -3.509 -3.560 -3.610 -3.661 -3.711 -3.761 -3.811 -60
-50 -2.787 -2.839 -2.892 -2.944 -2.996 -3.048 -3.100 -3.152 -3.203 -3.254 -3.306 -50

-40 -2.254 -2.308 -2.362 -2.416 -2.469 -2.522 -2.575 -2.628 -2.681 -2.734 -2.787 -40
-30 -1.709 -1.764 -1.819 -1.874 -1.929 -1.983 -2.038 -2.092 -2.146 -2.200 -2.254 -30
-20 -1.151 -1.208 -1.264 -1.320 -1.376 -1.432 -1.487 -1.543 -1.599 -1.654 -1.709 -20
-10 -0.581 -0.639 -0.696 -0.754 -0.811 -0.868 -0.925 -0.982 -1.038 -1.095 -1.151 -10
0 0.000 -0.059 -0.117 -0.176 -0.234 -0.292 -0.350 -0.408 -0.466 -0.524 -0.581 0

0 0.000 0.059 0.118 0.176 0.235 0.295 0.354 0.413 0.472 0.532 0.591 0
10 0.591 0.651 0.711 0.770 0.830 0.890 0.950 1.011 1.071 1.131 1.192 10
20 1.192 1.252 1.313 1.373 1.434 1.495 1.556 1.617 1.678 1.739 1.801 20
30 1.801 1.862 1.924 1.985 2.047 2.109 2.171 2.233 2.295 2.357 2.419 30
40 2.419 2.482 2.544 2.607 2.669 2.732 2.795 2.858 2.921 2.984 3.047 40

50 3.047 3.110 3.173 3.237 3.300 3.364 3.428 3.491 3.555 3.619 3.683 50
60 3.683 3.748 3.812 3.876 3.941 4.005 4.070 4.134 4.199 4.264 4.329 60
70 4.329 4.394 4.459 4.524 4.590 4.655 4.720 4.786 4.852 4.917 4.983 70
80 4.983 5.049 5.115 5.181 5.247 5.314 5.380 5.446 5.513 5.579 5.646 80
90 5.646 5.713 5.780 5.846 5.913 5.981 6.048 6.115 6.182 6.250 6.317 90

100 6.317 6.385 6.452 6.520 6.588 6.656 6.724 6.792 6.860 6.928 6.996 100
no 6.996 7.064 7.133 7.201 7.270 7.339 7.407 7.476 7.545 7.614 7.683 no
120 7.683 7.752 7.821 7.890 7.960 8.029 8.099 8.168 8.238 8.307 8.377 120
130 8.377 8.447 8.517 8.587 8.657 8.727 8.797 8.867 8.938 9.008 9.078 130
140 9.078 9.149 9.220 9.290 9.361 9.432 9.503 9.573 9.644 9.715 9.787 140

150 9.787 9.858 9.929 10.000 10.072 10.143 10.215 10.286 10.358 10.429 10.501 150
160 10.501 10.573 10.645 10.717 10.789 10.861 10.933 11.005 11.077 11.150 11.222 160
170 11.222 11.294 11.367 11.439 11.512 11.585 11.657 11.730 11.803 11.876 11.949 170
180 11.949 12.022 12.095 12.168 12.241 12.314 12.387 12.461 12.534 12.608 12.681 180
190 12.681 12.755 12.828 12.902 12.975 13.049 13.123 13.197 13.271 13.345 13.419 190

200 13.419 13.493 13.567 13.641 13.715 13.789 13.864 13.938 14.012 14.087 14.161 200
210 14.161 14.236 14.310 14.385 14.460 14.534 14.609 14.684 14.759 14.834 14.909 210
220 14.909 14.984 15.059 15.134 15.209 15.284 15.359 15.435 15.510 15.585 15.661 220
230 15.661 15.736 15.812 15.887 15.963 16.038 16.114 16.190 16.266 16.341 16.417 230
240 16.417 16.493 16.569 16.645 16.721 16.797 16.873 16.949 17.025 17.101 17.178 240

250 17.178 17.254 17.330 17.406 17.483 17.559 17.636 17.712 17.789 17.865 17.942 250
260 17.942 18.018 18.095 18.172 18.248 18.325 18.402 18.479 18.556 18.633 18.710 260
270 18.710 18.787 18.864 18.941 19.018 19.095 19.172 19.249 19.326 19.404 19.481 270
280 19.481 19.558 19.636 19.713 19.790 19.868 19.945 20.023 20.100 20.178 20.256 280
290 20.256 20.333 20.411 20.488 20.566 20.644 20.722 20.800 20.877 20.955 21.033 290
 APPENDIX 565

TABLE A.4 [Continued]

°c 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
•
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

300 21.033 21.111 21.189 21.267 21.345 21.423 21.501 21.579 21.657 21.735 21.814 300
310 21.814 21.892 21.970 22.048 22.127 22.205 22.283 22.362 22.440 22.518 22.597 310
320 22.597 22.675 22.754 22.832 22.911 22.989 23.068 23.147 23.225 23.304 23.383 320
330 23.383 23.461 23.540 23.619 23.698 23.777 23.855 23.934 24.013 24.092 24.171 330
340 24.171 24.250 24.329 24.408 24.487 24.566 24.645 24.724 24.803 24.882 24.961 340

350 24.961 25.041 25.120 25.199 25.278 25.357 25.437 25.516 25.595 25.675 25.754 350
360 25.754 25.833 25.913 25.992 26.072 26.151 26.230 26.310 26.389 26.469 26.549 360
370 26.549 26.628 26.708 26.787 26.867 26.947 27.026 27.106 27.186 27.265 27.345 370
380 27.345 27.425 27.504 27.584 27.664 27.744 27.824 27.903 27.983 28.063 28.143 380
390 28.143 28.223 28.303 28.383 28.463 28.543 28.623 28.703 28.783 28.863 28.943 390

400 28.943 29.023 29.103 29.183 29.263 29.343 29.423 29.503 29.584 29.664 29.744 400
410 29.744 29.824 29.904 29.984 30.065 30.145 30.225 30.305 30.386 30.466 30.546 410
420 30.546 30.627 30.707 30.787 30.868 30.948 31.028 31.109 31.189 31.270 31.350 420
430 31.350 31.430 31.511 31.591 31.672 31.752 31.833 31.913 31.994 32.074 32.155 430
440 32.155 32.235 32.316 32.396 32.477 32.557 32.638 32.719 32.799 32.880 32.960 440

450 32.960 33.041 33.122 33.202 33.283 33.364 33.444 33.525 33.605 33.686 33.767 450
460 33.767 33.848 33.928 34.009 34.090 34.170 34.251 34.332 34.413 34.493 34.574 460
470 34.574 34.655 34.736 34.816 34.897 34.978 35.059 35.140 35.220 35.301 35.382 470
480 35.382 35.463 35.544 35.624 35.705 35.786 35.867 35.948 36.029 36.109 36.190 480
490 36.190 36.271 36.352 36.433 36.514 36.595 36.675 36.756 36.837 36.918 36.999 490

500 36.999 37.080 37.161 37.242 37.323 37.403 37.484 37.565 37.646 37.727 37.808 500
510 37.808 37.889 37.970 38.051 38.132 38.213 38.293 38.374 38.455 38.536 38.617 510
520 38.617 38.698 38.779 38.860 38.941 39.022 39.103 39.184 39.264 39.345 39.426 520
530 39.426 39.507 39.588 39.669 39.750 39.831 39.912 39.993 40.074 40.155 40.236 530
540 40.236 40.316 40.397 40.478 40.559 40.640 40.721 40.802 40.883 40.964 41.045 540

550 41.045 41.125 41.206 41.287 41.368 41.449 41.530 41.611 41.692 41.773 41.853 550
560 41.853 41.934 42.015 42.096 42.177 42.258 42.339 42.419 42.500 42.581 42.662 560
570 42.662 42.743 42.824 42.904 42.985 43.066 43.147 43.228 43.308 43.389 43.470 570
580 43.470 43.551 43.632 43.712 43.793 43.874 43.955 44.035 44.116 44.197 44.278 580
590 44.278 44.358 44.439 44.520 44.601 44.681 44.762 44.843 44.923 45.004 45.085 590

600 45.085 45.165 45.246 45.327 45.407 45.488 45.569 45.649 45.730 45.811 45.891 600
610 45.891 45.972 46.052 46.133 46.213 46.294 46.375 46.455 46.536 46.616 46.697 610
620 46.697 46.777 46.858 46.938 47.019 47.099 47.180 47.260 47.341 47.421 47.502 620
630 47.502 47.582 47.663 47.743 47.824 47.904 47.984 48.065 48.145 48.226 48.306 630
640 48.306 48.386 48.467 48.547 48.627 48.708 48.788 48.868 48.949 49.029 49.109 640

650 49.109 49.189 49.270 49.350 49.430 49.510 49.591 49.671 49.751 49.831 49.911 650
660 49.911 49.992 50.072 50.152 50.232 50.312 50.392 50.472 50.553 50.633 50.713 660
670 50.713 50.793 50.873 50.953 51.033 51.113 51.193 51.273 51.353 51.433 51.513 670
680 51.513 51.593 51.673 51.753 51.833 51.913 51.993 52.073 52.152 52.232 52.312 680
690 52.312 52.392 52.472 52.552 52.632 52.711 52.791 52.871 52.951 53.031 53.110 690

700 53.110 53.190 53.270 53.350 53.429 53.509 53.589 53.668 53.748 53.828 53.907 700
710 53.907 53.987 54.066 54.146 54.226 54.305 54.385 54.464 54.544 54.623 54.703 710
720 54.703 54.782 54.862 54.941 55.021 55.100 55.180 55.259 55.339 55.418 55.498 720
730 55.498 55.577 55.656 55.736 55.815 55.894 55.974 56.053 56.132 56.212 56.291 730
740 56.291 56.370 56.449 56.529 56.608 56.687 56.766 56.845 56.924 57.004 57.083 740

750 57.083 57.162 57.241 57.320 57.399 57.478 57.557 57.636 57.715 57.794 57.873 750
760 57.873 57.952 58.031 58.110 58.189 58.268 58.347 58.426 58.505 58.584 58.663 760
770 58.663 58.742 58.820 58.899 58.978 59.057 59.136 59.214 59.293 59.372 59.451 770
780 59.451 59.529 59.608 59.687 59.765 59.844 59.923 60.001 60.080 60.159 60.237 780
790 60.237 60.316 60.394 60.473 60.551 60.630 60.708 60.787 60.865 60.944 61.022 790

800 61.022 61.101 61.179 61.258 61.336 61.414 61.493 61.571 61.649 61.728 61.806 800
810 61.806 61.884 61.962 62.041 62.119 62.197 62.275 62.353 62.432 62.510 62.588 810
820 62.588 62.666 62.744 62.822 62.900 62.978 63.056 63.134 63.212 63.290 63.368 820
830 63.368 63.446 63.524 63.602 63.680 63.758 63.836 63.914 63.992 64.069 64.147 830
840 64.147 64.225 64.303 64.380 64.458 64.536 64.614 64.691 64.769 64.847 64.924 840

850 64.924 65.002 65.080 65.157 65.235 65.312 65.390 65.467 65.545 65.622 65.700 850
860 65.700 65.777 65.855 65.932 66.009 66.087 66.164 66.241 66.319 66.396 66.473 860
870 66.473 66.551 66.628 66.705 66.782 66.859 66.937 67.014 67.091 67.168 67.245 870
880 67.245 67.322 67.399 67.476 67.553 67.630 67.707 67.784 67.861 67.938 68.015 880
890 68.015 68.092 68.169 68.246 68.323 68.399 68.476 68.553 68.630 68.706 68.783 890
566 APPENDIX

TABLE A.4 [Confinuecf]

°c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

900 68.783 68.860 68.936 69.013 69.090 69.166 69.243 69.320 69.396 69.473 69.549 900
910 69.549 69.626 69.702 69.779 69.855 69.931 70.008 70.084 70.161 70.237 70.313 910
920 70.313 70.390 70.466 70.542 70.618 70.694 70.771 70.847 70.923 70.999 71.075 920
930 71.075 71.151 71.227 71.304 71.380 71.456 71.532 71.608 71.683 71.759 71.835 930
940 71.835 71.911 71.987 72.063 72.139 72.215 72.290 72.366 72.442 72.518 72.593 940

950 72.593 72.669 72.745 72.820 72.896 72.972 73.047 73.123 73.199 73.274 73.350 950
960 73.350 73.425 73.501 73.576 73.652 73.727 73.802 73.878 73.953 74.029 74.104 960
970 74.104 74.179 74.255 74.330 74.405 74.480 74.556 74.631 74.706 74.781 74.857 970
980 74.857 74.932 75.(X)7 75.082 75.157 75.232 75.307 75.382 75.458 75.533 75.608 980
990 75.608 75.683 75.758 75.833 75.908 75.983 76.058 76.133 76.208 76.283 76.358 990

1,000 76.358 1,000

TABLE A.5 Thermoelectric Voltages for Copper-Constontan

Thermocouples with the Reference Junction at 0°C [32°F]
°c 0123456789 10 °C
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

-270 -6.258
-270
-260 -6.232 -6.236 -6.239 -6.242 -6.245 -6.248 -6.251 -6.253 -6.255 -6.256 -6.258 -260
-250 -6.181 -6.187 -6.193 -6.198 -6.204 -6.209 -6.214 -6.219 -6.224 -6.228 -6.232 -250

-240 -6.105 -6.114 -6.122 -6.130 -6.138 -6.146 -6.153 -6.160 -6.167 -6.174 -6.181 -240
-230 -6.007 -6.018 -6.028 -6.039 -6.049 -6.059 -6.068 -6.078 -6.087 -6.096 -6.105 -230
-220 -5.889 -5.901 -5.914 -5.926 -5.938 -5.950 -5.962 -5.973 -5.985 -5.996 -6.007 -220
-210 -5.753 -5.767 -5.782 -5.795 -5.809 -5.823 -5.836 -5.850 -5.863 -5.876 -5.889 -210
-200 -5.603 -5.619 -5.634 -5.650 -5.665 -5.680 -5.695 -5.710 -5.724 -5.739 -5.753 -200

-190 -5.439 -5.456 -5.473 -5.489 -5.506 -5.522 -5.539 -5.555 -5.571 -5.587 -5.603 -190
-180 -5.261 -5.279 -5.297 -5.315 -5.333 -5.351 -5.369 -5.387 -5.404 -5.421 -5.439 -180
-170 -5.069 -5.089 -5.109 -5.128 -5.147 -5.167 -5.186 -5.205 -5.223 -5.242 -5.261 -170
-160 -4.865 -4.886 -4.907 -4.928 -4.948 -4.969 -4.989 -5.010 -5.030 -5.050 -5.069 -160
-150 -4.648 -4.670 -4.693 -4.715 -4.737 -4.758 -4.780 -4.801 -4.823 -4.844 -4.865 -150

-140 -4.419 -4.442 -4.466 -4.489 -4.512 -4.535 -4.558 -4.581 -4.603 -4.626 -4.648 -140
-130 -4.177 -4.202 -4.226 -4.251 -4.275 -4.299 -4.323 -4.347 -4.371 -4.395 -4.419 -130
-120 -3.923 -3.949 -3.974 -4.000 -4.026 -4.051 -4.077 -4.102 -4.127 -4.152 -4.177 -120
-no -3.656 -3.684 -3.711 -3.737 -3.764 -3.791 -3.818 -3.844 -3.870 -3.897 -3.923 -no
-100 -3.378 -3.407 -3.435 -3.463 -3.491 -3.519 -3.547 -3.574 -3.602 -3.629 -3.656 -100

-90 -3.089 -3.118 -3.147 -3.177 -3.206 -3.235 -3.264 -3.293 -3.321 -3.350 -3.378 -90
-80 -2.788 -2.818 -2.849 -2.879 -2.909 -2.939 -2.970 -2.999 -3.029 -3.059 -3.089 -80
-70 -2.475 -2.507 -2.539 -2.570 -2.602 -2.633 -2.664 -2.695 -2.726 -2.757 -2.788 -70
-60 -2.152 -2.185 -2.218 -2.250 -2.283 -2.315 -2.348 -2.380 -2.412 -2.444 -2.475 -60
-50 -1.819 -1.853 -1.886 -1.920 -1.953 -1.987 -2.020 -2.053 -2.087 -2.120 -2.152 -50

-40 -1.475 -1.510 -1.544 -1.579 -1.614 -1.648 -1.682 -1.717 -1.751 -1.785 -1.819 -40
-30 -1.121 -1.157 -1.192 -1.228 -1.263 -1.299 1.334
- -1.370 -1.405 -1.440 - 1.475 -30
-20 -0.757 -0.794 -0.830 -0.867 -0.903 -0.940 -0.976 -1.013 -1.049 -1.085. -1.121 -20
-10 -0.383 -0.421 -0.458 -0.496 -0.534 -0.571 -0.608 -0.646 -0.683 -0.720 -0.757 -10
0 0.000 -0.039 -0.077 -0.116 -0.154 -0.193 -0.231 -0.269 -0.307 -0.345 -0.383 0
0 0.000 0.039 0.078 0.117 0.156 0.195 0.234 0.273 0.312 0.351 0.391 0
10 0.391 0.430 0.470 0.510 0.549 0.589 0.629 0.669 0.709 0.749 0.789 10
20 0.789 0.830 0.870 0.911 0.951 0.992 1.032 1.073 1.114 1.155 1.196 20
30 1.196- 1.237 1.279 1.320 1.361 1.403 1.444 1.486 1.528 1.569 1.611 30
40 1.611 1.653 1.695 1.738 1.780 1.822 1.865 1.907 1.950 1.992 2.035 40
50 2.035 2.078 2.121 2.164 2.207 2.250 2.294 2.337 2.380 2.424 2.467 50
60 2.467 2.511 2.555 2.599 2.643 2.687 2.731 2.775 2.819 2.864 2.908 60
70 2.908 2.953 2.997 3.042 3.087 3.131 3.176 3.221 3.266 3.312 3.357 70
80 3.357 3.402 3.447 3.493 3.538 3.584 3.630 3.676 3.721 3.767 3.813 80
90 3.813 3.859 3.906 3.952 3.998 4.044 4.091 4.137 4.184 4.231 4.277 90
 APPENDIX 567

TABLE A.5 {Confinuecf}

-c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 °C
Thermoelectric Voltage (absolute mV)

100 4.277 4.324 4.371 4.418 4.465 4.512 4.559 4.607 4.654 4.701 4.749 100
no 4.749 4.796 4.844 4.891 4.939 4.987 5.035 5.083 5.131 5.179 5.227 no
120 5.227 5.275 5.324 5.372 5.420 5.469 5.517 5.566 5.615 5.663 5.712 120
130 5.712 5.761 5.810 5.859 5.908 5.957 6.007 6.056 6.105 6.155 6.204 130
140 6.204 6.254 6.303 6.353 6.403 6.452 6.502 6.552 6.602 6.652 6.702 140

150 6.702 6.753 6.803 6.853 6.903 6.954 7.004 7.055 7.106 7.156 7.207 150
160 7.207 7.258 7.309 7.360 7.411 7.462 7.513 7.564 7.615 7.666 7.718 160
170 7.718 7.769 7.821 7.872 7.924 7.975 8.027 8.079 8.131 8.183 8.J235 170
180 8.235 8.287 8.339 8.391 8.443 8.495 8.548 8.600 8.652 8.705 8.757 180
190 8.757 8.810 8.863 8.915 8.968 9.021 9.074 9.127 9.180 9.233 9.286 190

200 9.286 9.339 9.392 9.446 9.499 9.553 9.606 9.659 9.713 9.767 9.820 200
210 9.820 9.874 9.928 9.982 10.036 10.090 10.144 10.198 10.252 10.306 10.360 210
220 10.360 10.414 10.469 10.523 10.578 10.632 10.687 10.741 10.796 10.851 10.905 220
230 10.905 10.960 11.015 11.070 11.125 11.180 11.235 11.290 11.345 11.401 11.456 230
240 11.456 11.511 11.566 11.622 11.677 11.733 11.788 11.844 11.900 11.956 12.011 240

250 12.011 12.067 12.123 12.179 12.235 12.291 12.347 12.403 12.459 12.515 12.572 250
260 12.572 12.628 12.684 12.741 12.797 12.854 12.910 12.967 13.024 13.080 13.137 260
270 13.137 13.194 13.251 13.307 13.364 13.421 13.478 13.535 13.592 13.650 13.707 270
280 13.707 13.764 13.821 13.879 13.936 13.993 14.051 14.108 14.166 14.223 14.281 280
290 14.281 14.339 14.396 14.454 14.512 14.570 14.628 14.686 14.744 14.802 14.860 290

300 14.860 14.918 14.976 15.034 15.092 15.151 15.209 15.267 15.326 15.384 15.443 300
310 15.443 15.501 15.560 15.619 15.677 15.736 15.795 15.853 15.912 15.971 16.030 310
320 16.030 16.089 16.148 16.207 16.266 16.325 16.384 16.444 16.503 16.562 16.621 320
330 16.621 16.681 16.740 16.800 16.859 16.919 16.978 17.038 17.097 17.157 17.217 330
340 17.217 17.277 17.336 17.396 17.456 17.516 17.576 17.636 17.696 17.756 17.816 340

350 17.816 17.877 17.937 17.997 18.057 18.118 18.178 18.238 18.299 18.359 18.420 350
360 18.420 18.480 18.541 18.602 18.662 18.723 18.784 18.845 18.905 18.966 19.027 360
370 19.027 19.088 19.149 19.210 19.271 19.332 19.393 19.455 19.516 19.577 19.638 370
380 19.638 19.699 19.761 19.822 19.883 19.945 20.006 20.068 20.129 20.191 20.252 380
390 20.252 20.314 20.376 20.437 20.499 20.560 20.622 20.684 20.746 20.807 20.869 390

400 20.869 400

 INDEX
Acceleration: hot-film, 466-468
angular, 292, 295 hot-wire, 466-468
definition of, 292 laser-doppler, 497-503
instantaneous, 294 reference beam, 499-500
linear, 292 Angular acceleration, definition of, 295
measurement of, 336-340 Angular displacement, definition of, 294
Accelerometer calibration: Angular motion:
with a constant input, 364-365 of a line, 294
with a sinusoidal input, 365-367 measurement of, 80-81, 84-85
with a transient input, 367-371 Angular velocity:
Accelerometers, theory of, 331-334 definition of, 295
Accumulated error, 7-9 measurement of, 328
Accuracy: Apparent strain, 227-228
of a digital voltmeter, 34 Arithmetic mean, 520
of a strip chart recorder, 37 Armour D alloy, 89
of an x-y recorder, 38 Automatic control, 6
Accuracy limits, 8 Axial sensitivity, 226
Acurex Corporation, 260
Adhesives, 196 Bandwidth, 63
Adiabatic exponent, 466 Beam-type load cell, 246-248
Advance alloy, 88, 89, 223-225 Bell Telephone laboratories, 101
AGA Corporation, 440 Bernoulli’s Equation, 461, 481, 489, 490
Air, properties of, 506 Bimetallic strip thermometer, 417-418
Alloy sensitivity, 88, 225 BLH electronics, 86, 229, 247, 266, 404
Ammeter, 27-28 Blocking capacitor, 343
Ampex Corporation, 69 Bode plot, 355-356
Amplifiers: Bourdon-tube pressure gage, 262-263
AC-coupled, 142 Break frequency, definition of, 327
charge, 350-354 Bruel and Kjaer, 338, 366
current, 317
DC-coupled, 142 Calibration:
differential, 143, 146-147 of accelerometers, 364-371
differentiating, 152-153 of load cells, 284-285
integrating, 151-152 of pressure gages, 285-287
inverting, 145-146 of seismic instruments, 364-377
MOSFET, 354 of strain-measuring systems, 212-214
non-inverting, 146-147 of a system, 15, 377-382
operational, 144-153 of temperature sensors, 441-445
servo, 36 Calibration error, 13
summing, 150-151 Calibrator:
unity-gain, 148-150, 343-350 gravimetric, 369
Amplitude, of a vibration, 300 portable, 365
Analog devices, 164 Capacitance sensor, 91-94
Analogic Corporation, 165, 166, 168 Capillary flowmeter, 494-495
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) conversion, 35-36, Cathode follower, 343-350
162-167 Cathode-ray oscilloscope, 60-69
Anchor terminals, 196 Charge amplifier, 269, 350-354
Anemometer: Charge sensitivity, 343
constant-current, 468-470 Chauvenet’s criterion, 533-534
constant-temperature, 470-473 Central tendency, analysis of, 520
differential-doppler, 501-502 Chi-square testing, 539-542
 INDEX 569

Circuit: Debouncer switch, 318-319

potentiometer, 125-131 Decibel, definition of, 25
Wheatstone bridge, 131-139 Degrees of freedom, 301, 529, 539
Clamp-on probe, 28-29 Delta rosette, 232-233
Clock, 112 Demodulation, 161-163
Closed-loop control, 6 Deviation, definition of, 8, 522
Coefficient of variation, definition of, 522 Diaphragm pressure gage, 263-267
Coefficient of velocity, 482, 490 Differential-doppler anemometer, 501-503
Common-mode rejection, 223 Differential Transformers:
Comparison of means, 532 Direct Current (DCDT), 84, 87
Conference on weights and measures, 112 Linear Variable (LVDT), 81-84, 86
Confidence intervals, 526-532 Rotary Variable (RVDT), 84-85, 88
Confidence level, 528-529 Digital Counting Unit (DCU), 171-172
Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation, 50 Digital multimeter, 33-36
Constantan alloy, 88, 89 Digital oscilloscope, 66-68
Constant-current circuits: Digital voltmeter, 33-36
potentiometer, 125-130 Digital-to-Analog (D/A) conversion, 167-170
Wheatstone bridge, 135-139 Dimensional measurements, definition of, 304
Continuity equation, 481, 489 Discharge coefficient, 490, 491
Contraction coefficient, 485-490 Dispersion, measures of, 521-522
Converter: Displacement:
Analog-to-Digital (A/D), 163-167 angular, 292, 294
Digital-to-Analog (D/A), 167-170 linear, 292, 295
Coordinate system: Displacement measurements:
cylindrical, 299 with capacitance gages, 91-94, 316
normal and tangential, 297 definition of, 304
polar, 297 with differential transformers, 81-85, 315
rectangular, 296, 298 with interference methods, 305-307
spherical, 300 with microswitch position sensors, 317-319
Correlation coefficient, definition of, 536 with multiple-resistor methods, 314-315
Count, 176-178 with photoelectric transducers, 316-317
Counter, 171-172 with pneumatic gages, 307-308
Crack-propagation gages, 328-331 with resistance potentiometers, 310-314
Critical damping, 53 with variable-inductance gages, 81-85, 315
Crystal oscillator, 118 with variable-resistance gages, 314-315
Cumulative frequency, 519-520 Distribution, gaussian or normal, 522
Current meters, 476-478 Do All Company, 309
Curvilinear motion, 295 Doppler shift, 497-499
Cyber Systems, Inc., 43 Doric Scientific Division, 42
Cycle, definition of, 300 Drag coefficient, 473
Drag-force velocity transducers, 473-476
Dale Electronics, Inc., 108 Drift stability, 125
Damping, of a galvanometer, 52-54 Dual element gages, 404
Damping coefficient, 48, 51 Dual sensitivity errors:
Damping ratio, 52 due to secondary loads, 276-277
D’Arsonval galvanometer, 26-27 due to temperature, 275-276
Data Acquisition Systems, 42-44 Dual-slope integration, 35
Data loggers, 40-42 Dummy gage, 197, 200-201
Data processors, 3 Dynamic calibration:
Data reduction methods, for strain gages, 230-234 of accelerometers, 365-371
Data transmission, 257-261 of force transducers, 371-377
Deadband, 38 of pressure gages, 286-287
Dead weight tester, 285-286 Dynamic response, of a galvanometer, 48-60
570 INDEX

Dynamic voltmeters: Events per Unit Time (EPUT), 170, 175

oscillographs, 44-61 Expansion factor, 493
oscilloscopes, 60-69 Experimental error:
accumulation of error, 7-9
Eaton Corporation, 243-258 dual sensitivity, 12-14
Eddy current: effects of the transducer on the process, 11-12

sensors, 94-96 electronic noise, 14

tester, 97 improper functioning of instruments, 9-10
EG&G Electro-optics, 107 lead wire effects, 14
Elbow meters, 486-487 operator error, 14
Electrical noise, 14, 220-223 External resistance for galvanometers, 46, 51, 211
Electrical resistance strain gages:
axial sensitivity, 225 Filters, electrical:
calibration methods, 212-214 high-pass RC, 155-158
construction details, 193-194 low-pass RC, 158-159
data reduction methods, 230-234 RL, 153-155
gage factor, 226 Wein-bridge notched, 159-160
heat dissipation, 198-199 Fischer and Porter, 475
installation procedures, 194-196 Fixed points, temperature, 399-400
lead wire effects, 214-218 Flat load cells, 252-254
materials, 89 Flexural rigidity, of a plate, 12
recording instruments, 202-212 Flow measurement:
signal conditioning, 196-202 compressible flow, 465-466
temperature compensation, 223-225 incompressible flow, 461-465
transverse sensitivity, 226-228 Flowmeters:
transverse sensitivity factor, 226 nutating-disk, 495-496
waterproofing, 196 orifice, 484-486
wiring details, 196 positive-displacement, 495-496
Electrical response, of a circuit, 360-364 turbine, 478-479
Electromagnetic-damped galvanometers, 46 vortex-shedding, 479-481
Electromagnetic oscillator, 117-118 Flow nozzles, 483-484
Electronic counter, 171-172 Flow Technology, Inc., 479
Electronic Instrument System, 2-4 Fluid-damped galvanometers, 47
Emerson Electric Company, 42 Flux density, 325
Emissivity, 438 Force and moment, measurement in combination,
Engineering analysis: 270-273
combined approach, 5 Force and torque, measurement in combination
experimental approach, 4-5 273-274
theoretical approach, 4 Forced vibration, definition of, 300
Equivalent time constant, 363 Force transducer calibration:
Error: with a constant input, 371
accumulated, 9 with a sinusoidal input, 371-373
amplifier, 9 with a transient input, 373-377
calibration, 13 Force transducers:
definition of, 8 beam-type, 246-248
dual sensitivity, 12-14 link-type, 244-246
range, 11 piezoelectric, 340-346
recorder, 8-9 ring-type, 249-252
signal conditioner, 9 Shear-web type, 252-254
transducer, 9 Frankel defects, 409
zero offset, 9 Free vibration:
Error propagation, 543-545 definition of, 300
Euler equation, 465 frequency of, 300
 INDEX 571

Freezing point method, of calibration, 441 Interferometry:

Frequency: holographic, 324
break, 327 Moire, 324
doppler shift, 498-499 International practical temperature scale:
resonant, 301 primary fixed points, 399-400
undamped natural, 300 secondary fixed points, 400
Frequency response: Isoelastic allow, 89
of an amplifier, 141
definition of, 24-25 Karma alloy, 89, 223-225
of a galvanometer, 56 Karman Vortex Street, 479, 480
of a transducer, 279-284 Keithley Instruments, Inc., 31, 33, 34
of a voltage measuring instrument, 24-26 Kelvin, Lord, 85
Fringe order: Kistler Instrument Corporation, 268
interference, 306, 501 Kulite Semiconductor Products, 103
Moire, 320-324
Laser-Doppler anemometer:
Gage blocks, 308-310 dual-beam, 501-503
Gage factor, 91, 226 reference-beam, 499-500
Gain, 139-140 Latch, definition of, 318
Galvanometers: Lead wires, effects of, 214-218
characteristics of, 46-47 Least-squares method, 535
construction details, 27, 49 Lebow Products, 243, 258
damping of, 46-47 Linear differential transformer, 81-85
external resistance for, 46-47 Linear displacement, definition of, 295
frequency response of, 46-47 Linearity:
transient response of, 48-59 of differential transformers, 82-84
Gases, properties of, 507 of potentiometer circuits, 126, 131
Gate process, 170, 172, 176-178 of Wheatstone bridge circuits, 133, 137
Gravimetric calibration, of accelerometers, Linear velocity transducer, 325-328
367-371 Line regulation, 125
Link-type load cells, 244-246
Hagen-Poiseuille Law, 494 Liquid-in-glass thermometers, 416-417
Hall-effect transducer, 28 Liquids, properties of, 505
Heterodyning, 499-501 Lissajous figures, 180-182
Hewlett Packard, 45 Load cells:
Histogram, 519 beam-type, 246-248
Honeywell Test Instruments Division, 46, 61, 70 calibration of, 284-285
Hot-film: design concepts, 243-254
anemometer, 466-468 link-type, 244-246
mass flow transducer, 496-497 ring-type, 249-252
Hottinger-Baldwin Measurements, Inc., 243 sensitivity of, 245, 248, 250
Hot-wire anemometer, 466-468 Shear-web type, 252-254
Load effect, 30, 124
Impedance: Load effects, on strain gage circuitry, 128-129
definition of, 21 Load error, 21-23
input, 21 Load regulation, 124
output, 125 Loss factor, 129
Impedance transducer, 342-343
Index of refraction, 306 Mach number, 466
Indium antimonide detector, 441 Magnetic fields, effects on strain gages,
Input impedance, 21 220-223
Interference effects, 305-307 Magnetic fields strength, 325
Interferometer, 305-307 Magnetic recording process, 69
572 INDEX

Magnetic tape recorders: Nortec Corporation, 97

AM-type, 70-71 Nozzle, ASME flow, 483-484
digital-type, 71-73 N-type oxide semiconductors, 409
FM-type, 71-73 Null-balance bridge, 203-205
Mass flow rate, 457-458 Nutating-disk flowmeter, 495-496
Maurey Instrument Corporation, 80
Mean, definition of, 520 Omega Engineering, Inc., 403, 444
Mean Solar Day, 112 Open-loop control, 5-6
Mechanical response, of a system, 357-359 Operational amplifier, 144-153
Median, definition of, 520 Optical interference, 305-307
Melting-wire method, of calibration, 442 Optical pyrometers, 434-439
Metal-foil strain gages, 85, 86, 89-90, 193-194 Optimum strain gage characteristics, 192-193
Michigan Scientific Corporation, 221 Orifice coefficient, 485-488
Micro-Measurements, Inc., 90, 195, 196, 199,229, Orifice meter, 484-486
231, 232, 238, 265, 329, 330, 405, 408 Oscillators:
Micrometer, 305 electromagnetic, 117-118
Microscope, 305 piezoelectric crystal, 118
Microswitch position sensor, 317-319 Oscillograph recorders:
Mode, definition of, 521 direct-writing type, 44-45
Modulation, 161-163 fiber-optic type, 60-61
Moire fringe patterns: light-writing type, 45-48
definition of, 321-323 Oscilloscopes:
interpretation of, 323 digital-type, 66-69
Moire methods, 319-324 storage-type, 63
MOSFET amplifier, 354 Overranging, of a digital voltmeter, 34
Motion:
angular, 294 Pacer Industries, Inc., 29
curvilinear, 295 PCB piezotronics, 369, 370, 374
periodic, 300-304 Peltier effect, 421, 422
plane curvilinear, 296-298 Pendulum:
rectilinear, 293 physical, 113-114
simple harmonic, 303 simple, 114
space curvilinear, 298-300 torsional, 114-115
vibratory, 300-304 Period, definition of, 112
Motion measurement: of a vibration, 300
with a fixed reference, 310 Periodic motion, 300
without a fixed reference, 329 Phase angle, 58
Multimeters: Phase shift, 59"
analog, 29-30 Phasor, 303-304
digital, 33 Photoconductive cells, 104-105
Multiplexing: Photoelectric sensors:
frequency-division, 259-261 photoconductive, 104-105
time-division, 261 photoemissive, 104
photovoltaic, 105-107
National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 112, 304 Photoemissive cells, 104
radio stations, 112 Photon detectors, 439-441
Nicholet Instrument Corporation, 66, 68, 69 Photovoltaic cells, 105-107
Nichrome V alloy, 89 Piezoelectric sensor circuits:
Noise, electrical, 14, 220-223 cathode follower, 343-350
Nonlinearity: charge amplifier, 350-354
of potentiometer circuit, 126 integrated circuit amplifier, 354-357
of Wheatstone bridge circuit, 133, 137 Piezoelectric sensors:
Normal distribution, 522-526 for acceleration measurements, 336-340
 INDEX 573

for force measurements, 340-343 strip chart, 36-38

for pressure measurements, 267-269, 340-343 x-y, 38-40
Piezometer ring, 462 Recording instruments:
Piezoresistive coefficients, 102 general characteristics, 21-26
Piezoresistive sensors, 101-103 frequency response, 24-26
Pitot tubes, 461-466 input impedance, 21-23
Pitot-static tubes, 462 sensitivity, 23-24
Planck’s Law, 435 range, 24
Platinum-Tungsten alloy, 89 zero drift, 24
Pneumatic displacement gage, 307-308 Rectangular rosette, 231-234
Pooled variance, definition of, 532 Reference beam anemometer, 499-500
Population, of data, 523 Regression analysis:
Positive-displacement flowmeter, 495-496 linear, 534-537
Potentiometer circuits: multiple, 537-539
constant-current, 125-130 Regulation line, see Source Effect
constant-voltage, 130-131 Regulation load, see Load Effect
linearity, 126-127, 131 Relative frequency, 519
load effects, 128-129 Relative motion analysis, 293
output, 126, 130 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs),
sensitivity, 127, 131 107-108, 110, 402-408
Potentiometers: Resistivity, temperature coefficient of, 224
angular, 79-81 Resolution:
linear, 79-81 of a digital voltmeter, 34
Potentiometric recorders: of a potentiometer, 79, 81
strip-chart, 36-38 Resonance, definition of, 301
x-y, 38-40 Response:
Power loss, 21 electrical, 360-364
Power supplies, 2, 124-125 mechanical, 357-359
Pressure transducers: Response time:
diaphragm-type, 263-267 for a galvanometer, 53-54
displacement-type, 262-263 for a strip-chart recorder, 37
piezoelectric-type, 267-269 Reynolds number, 459
Primary inertial system, 293 Ring-type load cell, 249-252
Probability, 524-526 Rise time, definition of, 358
Process control: Rosettes, 231-233
automatic, 6 Rotameter, 473-476
closed-loop, 6 Rotary-vane flowmeter, 496
open-loop, 5-6 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
Process controllers, 3 (RVDT), 84-85, 88
P-type oxide semiconductors, 409
Pyrometer, 434-439 Sample mean, definition of, 520
Sampling error, 527
Random error, 517 Schmidt trigger, 172-175
Range: Schottky defects, 409
definition of, 10, 521 Second, definition of, 112
of a voltage-measuring instrument, 24 Seebeck, effect, 109, 419, 422
Ratio, 170, 176-177 Seismic instruments:
Reciprocal sensitivity, 23-24 definition of, 329
Reciprocity calibration, 365 phase shift associated with, 335, 337, 340
Recorders: response to acceleration of, 336-340
magnetic tape, 67-73 response to displacement of, 334-336
oscillograph, 44-61 response to transients of, 357-364
oscilloscope, 60-69 response to velocity of, 336
574 INDEX

Seismic transducers: Sluice gate, 489-490

acceleration-type, 336-340 Soltec Corporation, 38, 39, 204
displacement-type, 334-336 Source effect, 125
force-type, 340-343 Space curvilinear motion, 298-300
pressure-type, 340-343 Span, definition of, 10
theory of, 331-334 Spectral radiation intensity, 435
velocity-type, 336 Speed, definition of, 296
Seismic Transducer Theory, 331-334 Stagnation pressure, 461
Selected-melt gages, 223-225 Standard deviation, definition of, 521
Semiconductor strain gages, 101-103 Standard error, definition of, 528
Sensitivity: Statistical distribution functions:
of a capacitance sensor, 92-94 binomial, 522
charge, 98 chi-squared, 539-541
of a D’Arsonval galvanometer, 27 gaussian, 522
definition of, 23 normal, 522-525
of a digital voltmeter, 34 student’s t, 529-531
of an eddy-current sensor, 95-96 Weibull, 522
of an LVDT, 82 Statistical methods, 517
of a metal or alloy, 88 Stefan-Boltzmann Law, 436
of an oscillograph, 46-47 Strain gages:
of an oscilloscope, 65 electrical resistance, 85-91, 192-238
of a potentiometer circuit, 127, 128, 131 semiconductor, 101-103
of a resistance strain gage, 91 Strain indicators, 202-206
strain, 88-89 Strain sensitivity:
of a strip-chart recorder, 37 of resistance gages, 91, 225-228
thermoelectric, 110 of semiconductor gages, 103
voltage, 23, 98 Strainsert Company, 253
of a voltage-measuring instrument, 23-24 Stress gage, 229-230
of a Wheatstone bridge circuit, 134, 138 Strip chart recorders:
of an x-y recorder, 38 accuracy, 37
Sensitivity drift, 13 response time, 37
Sensors: sensitivity, 37
eddy-current, 94-97 Strouhal number, 479
photoelectric, 104-107 Student’s t distribution, 529-532
photoresistive, 101-103 Switches, effects of, 218-219
piezoelectric, 96-101 Systematic error, 517
resistance temperature, 107-109 System calibration, voltage insertion method,
variable capacitance, 91-94 377-382
variable inductance, 81-88
variable resistance, 79-81, 85-91 Tektronix, Inc., 64
Shear-web type load cells, 252-254 Teledyne gurley, 476
Shock tube, 286-287 Teledyne philbrick, 144
Signal conditioning circuits: Telemetry systems, 258-261
cathode follower, 343-350 Temperature:
charge amplifier, 350-354 definition of, 399
potentiometer circuits, 125-131 fixed points, 399-400
voltage follower, 148-150 measurement of, 400
Wheatstone bridge, 131-139 secondary points, 400
Signal filtering, 153-160 Temperature compensated strain gages, 223-225
Simple harmonic motion, 303 Temperature effect coefficient, 125
Slewing speed, 39, 40 Temperature sensors:
Slip rings, 219-221 expansion thermometers, 416-419
construction details, 221 photon detectors, 439-441
 INDEX 575

pyrometers, 434-439 for velocity measurements, 324-328, 336

resistance detectors, 107-108, 110,402-408 Transducer ringing, 358
thermistors, 108-110,408-416 Transfer function, definition of, 155, 327
thermocouples, 109-111, 419-432 Transient input:
Thermistors, 108-110,408-416 definition of, 357
Thermocouples, 109-111, 419-432 half-sine, 359
laws for use of, 422-426 teminated-ramp, 281-283
tables, 558-567 triangle, 359-360
Thermoelectric sensitivity, 110 unit-step, 358-359
Thermometers: Transient response, of a galvanometer, 48-59
bimetallic strip, 417-418 Transverse sensitivity, 225-228
liquid-in-glass, 416-417 Transverse sensitivity factor, 226
pressure, 418-419 Truth tables, 319
resistance, 107-108, 110, 402-408 TSI, Inc., 467, 497, 498
thermistors, 108-110,408-416 Tuning fork, 115-116
thermocouples, 109-111,419-432 Turbine flowmeters, 478-479
Thermometries, Inc., 410, 412 Turbulence measurements, 469-470
Thevenin’s theorem, 21, 208 Two-element strain rosette, 231
Thompson effect, 422, 431
Three-element strain rosette, 231-234 Universal flat load cells, 252-254
Three-lead wire system, 217-218
Time: Variance, definition of, 522
definition of, 112 Velocity:
emphemeris, 112 angular, 292, 295
sidereal, 112 definition of, 292
solar, 112 instantaneous, 294
Time constant, definition of, 361-363 linear, 292
Time-Interval Measurements (TIM), 170, 175-176 measurement of, 324-328
Time lag, 445 Velocity profile, 458-459
Torque, measurement of, 254-257 Vena contracta, 485, 489
Torque transducers, 254-257 Venturi meter, 482-483
data transmission, 257-261 Vernier calipers, 305
design concepts, 254-257 Vibration, definition of, 300
Totalize and count (GATE), 170, 72, 176-178 Vibratory motion, 300-304
Transducer error: 11-14 Vishay Instruments, Inc., 203, 206
bridge balance, 277-278 Voltage follower, 148-150
dual sensitivity, 12-14, 275-277 Voltage insertion method, of system calibration,
span adjust, 278 377-382
span change, 278-279 Voltmeter loading error, 30-31
zero shift, 277 Voltmeters:
Transducers: amplified analog, 31-32
for acceleration measurements, 336-340 analog, 28-31
calibration of, 364-377 digital, 33-36
definition of, 78 dynamic, 44-73
for displacement measurements, 81-85, potentiometric, 32-33
304-324, 334-336 quasi-static, 36-44
for flow measurements, 460-503 static, 26-36
for force measurements, 243-254, 340-343 Volume flow rate, 481
for pressure measurements, 262-269, 340-343 Vortex-shedding transducers, 479-481
for strain measurements, 192-237
for temperature measurements, 107-111, Water, properties of, 504
399-447 Weir:
for torque measurements, 254-257 rectangular, 490-492
576 INDEX

Weir (Continued) deadband, 38

triangular, 492 sensitivity, 38
Weir head, 490 slewing speed, 39, 40
Wheatstone bridge:
constant-current, 135-139 Yaw Angle, effect on pressure probes,
constant-voltage, 131-135 463
linearity, 133, 137
null-balance, 203-205 Zero drift, definition of, 13
sensitivity, 133-135, 138 for a voltage-measuring instrument,
temperature compensation, 200-201,216-218 24
Zero offset, definition of, 9
X-Y recorders: for a voltage-measuring instrument,
accuracy, 38 24
Complimentary Copy For

PECF. PAUL LYNCH

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