Microbial Diversity o its deposits are used to make diatomaceous

Part 2: Eukaryotic Microbes earth, used in filtration systems, insulation, and

abrasive
Eukaryotic Microbes o has attractive, geometric, and varied appearance,
 include some species of algae, all protozoa, some so they are interesting to observe
species of fungi, all lichens, and all slime moulds microscopically
 not yet determined its first existence in world  Dinoflagellates (microorganism)
o microscopic, unicellular, flagellated, often
Algae (sing., alga) – photosynthetic photosynthetic algae
Characteristics and Classification o important members of the phytoplankton
 2nd kingdom Protista , some treated it as Chromista o produce much of the oxygen in our atmosphere
 referred to as protists and serving as important links in food chains
 phycology (or algology): study of algae o some produce light, referred to as fire algae
 phycologist (or algologist): studies algae o responsible for what are known as “red tides”
 algal cells consist of cytoplasm, a cell wall (usually),  Green algae include desmids, Spirogyra,
a cell membrane, a nucleus, plastids, ribosomes, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, and Euglena, all of which
mitochondria, and Golgi bodies can be found in pond water
 some algal cells have a pellicle (a thickened cell o Desmids - unicellular algae, some resemble a
membrane), a stigma (a lightsensing organelle, also microscopic banana
known as an eyespot), and flagella o Spirogyra - a filamentous (threadlike) alga,
 not plants, but more plantlike than protozoa often producing long green strands in pond
 lack true roots, stems, and leaves water
 it range in size from tiny, unicellular, microscopic o Chlamydomonas – unicellular, biflagellated
organisms (e.g., diatoms, dinoflagellates, desmids) (has 2 flagella) alga, contains 1 chloroplast & a
to large, multicellular, plantlike seaweeds (e.g., stigma
kelp), so not all algae are microorganisms o Volvox
 Ostreococcus tauri  multicellular alga (sometimes referred to as
o tiny green alga, as small as 1.0 µm in diameter a colonial alga or colony)
o one of the smallest eukaryotes ever discovered  consist of as many as 60,000 interconnected,
o contains one chloroplast, one mitochondrion, biflagellated cells, forming a hollow sphere
and one Golgi body.  its flagella beat in a coordinated manner,
 Tiny eukaryotes that range in size from 0.2 to 2 µm causing the Volvox colony to move through
in diameter are known as picoeukaryotes. They are the water in a rolling motion.
smaller than some prokaryotes  Sometimes, daughter colonies can be seen
 may be arranged in colonies or strands and are found within a Volvox colony.
in freshwater, salt water, in wet soil, and on wet rock o Euglena
 produce their energy by photosynthesis, using  interesting alga, because it has features
energy from the sun, carbon dioxide, water, and possessed by both algae and protozoa.
inorganic nutrients from the soil to build cellular  has chloroplasts, photosynthetic, and stores
material energy in the form of starch (like algae).
 few species use organic nutrients, and others survive  Have a primitive mouth (called a cytostome)
with very little sunlight and the absence of a cell wall (hence, no
 Most algal cell walls have cellulose, a cellulose) – like protozoa
polysaccharide not found in cell walls of any other  Has a photosensing organelle called a stigma
microorganisms (it can sense light) and a single flagellum (it
can swim into the light)
 Classified as green, golden (or golden brown),
 When there is no light, it can continue to
brown, or red (depends on photosynthetic pigment)
obtain nutrients by ingesting food through
 Diatoms (microorganism)
its cytostome
o Tiny, usually unicellular algae that live in both
 has no cell wall, but possess a pellicle,
freshwater and seawater which functions for protection like the cell
o important members of the phytoplankton wall
o have silicon dioxide in their cell walls; thus, they  algae are easy to find
have cell walls made of glass  include large seaweeds of various colors
 o brown kelp (up to 10 m in length) found along  Some ingest whole algae, yeasts, bacteria, and
ocean shores smaller protozoans as their source of nutrients;
o green scum floating on ponds others live on dead and decaying organic matter
o slippery green material on wet rocks  do not have cell walls, but some, including some
 can also be found in the hot waters of thermal flagellates and some ciliates, possess a pellicle,
features at Yellowstone National Park which serves the same purpose as a cell wall—
 important source of food, iodine and other minerals, protection
fertilizers, emulsifiers for pudding, and stabilizers  some flagellates and some ciliates ingest food
for ice cream and salad dressings; they are also used through a primitive mouth or opening, called a
as a gelling agent for jams and nutrient media for cytostome
bacterial growth  Paramecium spp. (common pond water ciliates)
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29999416/) possess both a pellicle and a cytostome.
 algae are nearly 50% oil, so scientists are studying  Some pond water protozoa (such as amebae and
them as a source of biofuels. Paramecium) contain an organelle called a
 agar used as a solidifying agent in laboratory culture contractile vacuole, which pumps water out of the
media is a complex polysaccharide derived from a cell
red marine alga  Vorticella spp. have a contractile stalk, where there
 Damage to water systems is frequently caused by is a primitive muscle fiber called a myoneme
algae clogging filters and pipes  typical protozoan life cycle consists of two stages
o trophozoite stage
Medical Significance (of algae)  motile, feeding, dividing stage
 Prototheca o cyst stage
o a genus of algae, and a very rare cause of human  nonmotile, dormant, survival stage
infections (causes a disease called protothecosis)  in some ways (e.g., the presence of a thick
o lives in soil and can enter wounds, especially outer wall), cysts are like bacterial spores
those located on the feet  some are parasitic protozoa, they break down &
o produces a small subcutaneous lesion that can absorb nutrients from body of host in which they
progress to a crusty, warty looking lesion live
o when it enters the lymphatic system, it may  Many parasitic protozoa are pathogens, such as those
cause a debilitating, sometimes fatal infection, that cause malaria, giardiasis, African sleeping
especially in immunosuppressed individuals sickness, and amebic dysentery
 Algae in other genera secrete substances  Some coexist with the host animal in a type of
(phycotoxins) that are poisonous to humans, fish, mutualistic symbiotic relationship—a relationship in
and other animals which both organisms benefit
- Ex: Protozoa digest the wood eaten by the
Protozoa (sing., protozoan) – nonphotosynthetic termite, enabling both organisms to absorb the
Characteristics nutrients needed for life. Without the intestinal
 Eukaryotic organism protozoa, the termite would be unable to digest
 classified in the second kingdom (Protista) the wood that it eats and would starve to death
 protozoology: study of protozoa
 protozoologist: studies protozoa Classification and Medical Significance
 unicellular, ranging in length from 3 to 2,000 µm  protozoa may be divided into groups (variously
referred to as phyla, subphyla, or classes) according
 most are free-living organisms, found in soil &
to their method of locomotion
water
 some move by pseudopodia, by flagella, by cilia,
 Protozoal cells are more animal-like than plantlike
other are nonmotile.
 protozoal cells possess a variety of eukaryotic
 Amebae (sing., ameba)
structures and organelles, including cell membranes,
o move by means of cytoplasmic extensions called
nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi
bodies, lysosomes, centrioles, and food vacuoles pseudopodia (sing., pseudopodium; false feet)
o first extends a pseudopodium in the direction it
 some protozoa possess pellicles, cytostomes,
contractile vacuoles, pseudopodia, cilia, and flagella. intends to move, and then the rest of the cell
slowly flows into it; ameboid movement
 have no chlorophyll so they cannot make their own
o ingests a food particle by surrounding the
food by photosynthesis
particle with pseudopodia, which then fuse
together; this process is known as phagocytosis
 o ingested particle, surrounded by a membrane, is o Malarial parasites are transmitted by female
referred to as a food vacuole (or phagosome) Anopheles mosquitoes, which become infected
o Digestive enzymes, released from lysosomes, when they take a blood from person with
then digest or break down the food into malaria
nutrients. o Cryptosporidium parvum, causes severe
 some WBC in our bodies ingest and digest materials diarrheal disease (cryptosporidiosis) in
in the same manner as amebae immunosuppressed patients, especially those
 When fluids are ingested in a similar manner, the with AIDS
process is known as pinocytosis o Other pathogenic sporozoans include
 Entamoeba histolytica  Babesia spp. (the cause of babesiosis),
o Medically important ameba  Cyclospora cayetanensis (the cause of a
o causes amebic dysentery (amebiasis) and diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis)
extraintestinal (meaning away from the  Toxoplasma gondii (the cause of toxoplasmosis)
intestine) amebic abscesses

 Ciliates
o move about by means of large numbers of
hairlike cilia on their surfaces
o exhibit an oarlike motion
o most complex of all protozoa
o Balantidium coli
 Pathogenic ciliate
 causes dysentery in underdeveloped countries Fungi – not plants
 usually transmitted to humans from drinking Characteristics
water that has been contaminated by swine feces  Kingdom Fungi
 the only ciliated protozoan that causes disease
 Mycology: study of fungi
 Blepharisma, Didinium, Euplotes, Paramecium,
Stentor, and Vorticella spp.  Mycologist: studies fungi
 found almost everywhere on Earth
 Flagellates  saprophytic fungi live on organic matter in
o Flagellated protozoa move by means of whiplike water/soil, source of food is dead and decaying
flagella. organic matter
o A basal body (or kinetosome or kinetoplast)  parasitic fungi live on and within animals and plant
anchors each flagellum within the cytoplasm  live on many unlikely materials, causing
o Flagella exhibit a wavelike motion deterioration of leather and plastics and spoilage of
jams, pickles, and many other foods
o Some flagellates are pathogenic
 important in the production of cheeses, beer, wine,
 Trypanosoma brucei subspecies gambiense,
and other foods, as well as certain drugs (e.g., the
transmitted by the tsetse fly, causes African
immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine) and
sleeping sickness in humans
antibiotics (e.g., penicillin
 Trypanosoma cruzi causes American
trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)  diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that include
 Trichomonas vaginalis causes persistent yeasts, moulds, and mushrooms.
sexually transmitted infections (trichomoniasis)  “garbage disposers” of nature—the “vultures” of
of the male and female genital tracts the microbial world
 Giardia lamblia (Giardia intestinalis) causes a  By secreting digestive enzymes into dead plant and
persistent diarrheal disease (giardiasis) animal matter, they decompose this material into
absorbable nutrients for themselves and other living
 Sporozoa organisms; thus, they are the original “recyclers.”
o Nonmotile protozoa—protozoa lacking  Not photosynthetic, no chlorophyll/ photosynthetic
pseudopodia, flagella, cilia—are classified here pigments, its cell walls do not contain cellulose
o most important sporozoan pathogens are the  Its cell walls contain a polysaccharide called chitin
Plasmodium spp. that cause malaria in many (found in exoskeleton of arthropods), which is not
areas of the world found in the cell walls of any other microorganisms
o Plasmodium vivax, causes a few cases of  many fungi are unicellular (e.g., yeasts), but others
malaria annually in the United States. grow as filaments called hyphae (sing., hypha),
 which intertwine to form a mass called a mycelium  live in water (“water moulds”) and soil
(pl., mycelia) or thallus; different from bacteria,  2 phyla known as “higher fungi”
which are always unicellular. (moulds are o Ascomycotina (or Ascomycota)
multicellular)  include certain yeasts and some fungi that cause
 some fungi have plant diseases (e.g., Dutch Elm disease)
o septate hyphae o Basidiomycotina (or Basidiomycota)
 the cytoplasm within the hypha is divided into  include some yeasts, some fungi that cause plant
cells by cross-walls or septa) diseases, and the large “fleshy fungi” that live in
o aseptate hyphae the woods (e.g., mushrooms, toadstools, bracket
 the cytoplasm within the hypha is not divided fungi, puffballs)
into cells; no septa. contain multinucleated  “Fungi Imperfecti”
cytoplasm (described as being coenocytic) o Deuteromycotina (or Deuteromycota)
o important “clue” when attempting to identify a  contains fungi having no mode of sexual
fungus that is isolated from a clinical specimen reproduction, or in which the mode of sexual
 classified taxonomically with the type of sexual reproduction is not known
spore that they produce or the type of structure on  include certain medically important moulds such
which the spores are produced as Aspergillus and Penicillium

Yeasts
 eukaryotic unicellular organisms that lack mycelia
 Individual yeast cells (blastospores or blastoconidia)
can be observed only through a microscope
 usually larger than bacteria (ranging from 3 to 8 µm
in diameter) and are usually ovalshaped; some may
be observed in the process of budding
Reproduction  Usually reproduce by budding, but occasionally do
 reproduce by budding, hyphal extension, or so by a type of spore formation
formation of spores  Sometimes a string of elongated buds is formed
 2 categories of fungal spores called a pseudohypha (pl., pseudohyphae) –
o Sexual pores resembles a hypha, but it is not a hypha
 produced by the fusion of two gametes (2  Some yeasts produce thick-walled, sporelike
nuclei) structures called chlamydospores
 have a variety of names (e.g., ascospores, (chlamydoconidia)
basidiospores, zygospores), depending on the  found in soil, water, skins of fruits and vegetables
exact manner in which they are formed  Wine, beer, and alcoholic beverages had been
o Asexual pores produced for centuries before Louis Pasteur
 Also called conidia (sing., conidium) discovered that naturally occurring yeasts on the
 formed in many different ways, but not by the skin of grapes – other fruits and grains were
fusion of gametes responsible for these fermentation processes
 Fungal spores  common yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (“baker’s
o Some fungi produce both asexual and sexual yeast”) ferments sugar to alcohol under anaerobic
o very resistant structures that are carried great conditions (does not require molecular oxygen)
distances by wind.  under aerobic conditions, (require molecular O2)
o resistant to heat, cold, acids, bases, chemicals yeast breaks down simple sugars to carbon dioxide
o many people are allergic to fungal spores and water; for this reason, it has long been used as a
leavening agent in bread production
Classification  good source of nutrients for humans because they
 Kingdom Fungi: divided into 5 phyla based produce many vitamins and proteins
primarily on their mode of sexual reproduction  Candida albicans
 2 phyla known as “lower fungi” o Human pathogen, causes infections
o Zygomycotina (or Zygomycota) o most frequently isolated from human clinical
 include the common bread moulds and other specimens, and is also the fungus most
fungi that cause food spoilage frequently isolated from human clinical
o Chytridiomycotina (or Chytridiomycota) specimens
 not considered to be true fungi by taxonomists
 To distinguish between a yeast colony and a agricultural importance because of the diseases they
bacterial colony, a wet mount can be performed. cause in humans, animals, and plants
o small portion of the colony is mixed with a drop  Many diseases of crop plants, grains, corn, and
of water or saline on a microscope slide potatoes are caused by moulds (referred to as blights
o a coverslip is added and rusts)
o preparation is examined under the microscope  fungi destroy crops, and some produce toxins
o Alternatively, the preparation can be stained (mycotoxins) that cause disease in humans/ animals
using the Gram staining procedure  moulds and yeasts also cause a variety of infectious
diseases of humans and animals—called mycoses
Moulds
 fungi often seen in water and soil and on food Fungal Infections of Humans
 grow in the form of cytoplasmic filaments or hyphae  known as mycoses (sing., mycosis),
that make up the mycelium of the mould  categorized as superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous,
 hyphae or systemic mycoses
o aerial hyphae
 extend above the surface of whatever the mould
is growing on
 Reproduction is by spore formation, either
sexually or asexually
 sometimes referred to as reproductive hyphae
o vegetative hyphae
 extend beneath the surface of whatever the
mould is growing on
 various species of moulds are found in each of the
classes of fungi except Basidiomycotina
 under spp. Ascomycotina are many antibiotic-
producing moulds, such as Penicillium and
Acremonium
 used to produce large quantities of enzymes (such as
Superficial and Cutaneous Mycoses
amylase, which converts starch to glucose), citric
 Superficial Mycoses
acid, and other organic acid
o fungal infections of the outermost areas of the
 flavor of cheeses such as bleu cheese, Roquefort,
human body: hair, fingernails, toenails, and the
camembert, and limburger is the result of moulds
dead, outermost layers of the skin (epidermis)
that grow in them
 Cutaneous Mycoses
Fleshy Fungi o fungal infections of living layers of skin
 large fungi that are encountered in forests, such as ( dermis)
mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, and bracket fungi  dermatophytes, a group of moulds, cause tinea
 not microorganisms infections, which are often referred to as
“ringworm” infections
 Mushrooms
o class of true fungi that consist of a network of  Tinea Infections: named in accordance with the part
of the anatomy that is infected; examples include:
filaments or strands (the mycelium) that grow in
o tinea pedis (athlete’s foot)
the soil or in a rotting log, and a fruiting body
(the mushroom that rises above the ground) that o tinea unguium (fingernails and toenails)
forms and releases spores o tinea capitis (scalp)
o Each spore, like the seed of a plant, germinates o tinea barbae (face and neck)
into a new organism o tinea corporis (trunk of the body)
o Delicious to eat, but others, including some that o tinea cruris (groin area)
resemble edible fungi, are extremely toxic and  C. albicans
may cause permanent liver and brain damage or o opportunistic yeast that lives harmlessly on the
death if ingested skin and mucous membranes of the mouth,
gastrointestinal tract, and genitourinary tract
Medical Significance o flourishes when conditions cause a reduction in
 variety of fungi (including yeasts, moulds, and some the number of indigenous bacteria at these
fleshy fungi) are of medical, veterinary, and anatomic locations, leading to yeast infections of
 mouth (thrush), skin, and vagina (yeast  combination of two organisms: an alga (or a
vaginitis) cyanobacterium) and a fungus—living together in
o This type of local infection may become a focal such a close relationship that they appear to be one
site from which the organisms invade the organism
bloodstream to become a generalized or  Symbiotic Relationship
systemic infection in many internal areas of the o Close relationships of lichens (alga and fungus)
body are referred to as symbiotic relationships, and
the partners in the relationship are referred to as
Subcutaneous and Systemic Mycoses symbionts
 more severe types of mycoses o represents a particular type of symbiotic
 Subcutaneous Mycoses relationship known as mutualism—a
o fungal infections of the dermis and underlying relationship in which both parties benefit
tissues o alga or cyanobacterium in a lichen is sometimes
o quite grotesque in appearance referred to as the photobiont (the photosynthetic
o ex: Madura foot (a type of eukaryotic partner in the relationship), and the fungus is
mycetoma), in which the patient’s foot becomes referred to as the mycobiont
covered with large, unsightly, fungus-containing  20,000 different species
bumps  may be gray, brown, black, orange, various
 Systemic or generalized mycoses shades of green, and other colors, depending on
o fungal infections of internal organs of the body the specific combination of alga and fungus
o sometimes affects two or more different organ  foliose lichens: leaflike, crustose lichens:
systems simultaneously (e.g., simultaneous crusty, fructicose lichens: shrubby
infection of the respiratory system and the  classified as protest
bloodstream)  don’t cause disease, shown to have antibacterial
 Spores of some pathogenic fungi may be inhaled properties
with dust from contaminated soil or dried bird and
bat feces (guano), or they may enter through wounds Slime Moulds
of the hands and feet. If the spores are inhaled into  found in soil and on rotting logs
the lungs, they may germinate there to cause a  have both fungal and protozoal characteristics and
respiratory infection similar to tuberculosis. very interesting life cycle
o Ex: blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis,  not known to cause human disease
cryptococcosis, and histoplasmosis.
o the pathogens may invade further to cause
widespread systemic infections, especially in
immunosuppressed individuals

Dimorphic Fungi
 dimorphism: can either as yeasts or as moulds,
depending on growth condition
 exist as unicellular yeasts and produce yeast colonies
when grown in vitro at body temperature (37°C)
 exist as moulds, producing mould colonies (mycelia)
when grown in vitro at room temperature (25°C)
 exist as yeast in vivo ( within human body)
 Dimorphic fungi that cause human diseases include
o Histoplasma capsulatum (causes histoplasmosis)
o Sporothrix schenckii (causes sporotrichosis)
o Coccidioides immitis (causes
coccidioidomycosis)
o Blastomyces dermatitidis (causes blastomycosis)

Lichens
 appear as colored, often circular patches on tree
trunks and rocks