Science: Perspective and

UNIT 2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF Nature

SCIENCE TEACHING-LEARNING

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Aims of Science Education
2.4 Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning
2.5 Developing Learning Objectives
2.5.1 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy
2.5.2 How to Write Objectives
2.6 Shift in Pedagogic Approach
2.6.1 Effect on Nature of Teaching-Learning
2.6.2 Effect on Planning
2.6.3 Effect on Methods and Strategies
2.6.4 Effect on Assessment
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Unit End Exercises
2.9 References and Suggested Readings
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit one, we have discussed about the meaning and nature of science. This
unit aims to facilitate you in understanding the aims and objectives of science
teaching. As a science teacher, you should be aware of why science is placed in
secondary curriculum as an integrated area of study, how is it different from
elementary level, etc. The Unit will facilitate you in formulating learning
objectives according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy. Unit also discusses
the shift in pedagogical approach from behaviourism to constructivism. How
constructivist approach has affected nature of science teaching-learning, planning,
methods and strategies and assessment, all such issues will be discussed in this
unit.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• understand aims and objectives of science teaching-learning;
• compare teaching of science at elementary and secondary level;
• formulate learning objectives in science;
• understand the shift in science pedagogy from behaviourist to constructivist
approach; and
• analyse impact of constructivist pedagogy on nature of science teaching-
learning, planning, methods and strategies and assessment, etc.
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Understanding Science
2.3 AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) proposed five guiding principles
for curriculum development:
i) connecting knowledge to life outside the school;
ii) ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods;
iii) enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks;
iv) making examinations more flexible and integrating them with classroom
life; and
v) nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within the
democratic polity of the country.
The entire teaching-learning process at school level revolves around these five
guiding principles. NCF emphasized that “teaching of science should be recast
so that it enables children to examine and analyze everyday experiences. Concerns
and issues pertaining to the environment should be emphasized in every subject
and through a wide range of activities involving outdoor project work. Some of
the information and understanding flowing from such projects could contribute
to the elaboration of a publicly accessible, transparent database on India’s
environment, which would in turn become a most valuable educational resource.
If well planned, many of these learner projects could lead to knowledge
generation.”

It means, science teaching should be organized around learners’ experiences and

opportunities should be provided to learners to explore science around them.
This marks a clear shift from classroom and laboratory centered science pedagogy.
Integration in science teaching-learning is very important and scientific knowledge
should not be compartmentalized in subject domains like physics, chemistry,
biology, environmental science up to secondary level.

NCF-2005 and Position Paper of National Focus Group on Teaching of Science

(2006) have proposed 6 criteria for validity of a science curriculum i.e. cognitive,
content, process, historical, environmental and ethical. On this basis, following
general aims of science education have been conceptualized:

Science education should enable the learner to:

• know the facts and principles of science and its applications, consistent
with the stage of cognitive development,
• acquire the skills and understand the methods and processes that lead to
generation and validation of scientific knowledge,
• develop a historical and developmental perspective of science and to
enable her to view science as a social enterprise,
• relate to the environment (natural environment, artifacts and people),
local as well as global, and appreciate the issues at the interface of science,
technology and society,
• acquire the requisite theoretical knowledge and practical technological
skills to enter the world of work,
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 Aims and Objectives of
• nurture the natural curiosity, aesthetic sense and creativity in science and Science Teaching-Learning
technology,
• imbibe the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation, concern for life and
preservation of environment, and
• cultivate ‘scientific temper’-objectivity, critical thinking and freedom
from fear and prejudice.
Aims of Science Education, Position Paper, National Focus Group on
Teaching of Science (2006) p. 11.

If you will analyze these aims in order to understand the nature of science teaching
learning at school level, you will find that:

These aims are suggesting organization of science curriculum at different levels

keeping in mind the cognitive levels of learners. You can recall and link levels of
cognitive development suggested by Piaget here.

There is an emphasis on linkage of scientific knowledge with society i.e. scientific

knowledge should be a part of society and also verified and authenticated by the
learners themselves. It focuses on development of scientific process skills along
with nurturing natural curiosity and aesthetic sense. Along with development of
scientific attitude, equal focus is on development of universal values.

Now it will be easy for you to understand the objectives of science teaching-
learning at different levels.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1) What are the aims of science education related to values and scientific
attitude?
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2.4 OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING-

LEARNING
First aim of science education discussed in section 2.1, i.e., “Science education
should enable the learner to know the facts and principles of science and its
applications, consistent with the stage of cognitive development”, guides that
objectives, curriculum, methods, assessments, etc. should be different for different
levels.
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Understanding Science Main objectives of science curriculum upto secondary level is to make learners
‘scientifically literate” as science is a compulsory component of the curriculum
upto secondary level. Focus should be on “developing awareness among the
learners about the interface of science, technology and society, sensitizing them,
especially to the issues of environment and health, and enabling them to acquire
practical knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.” (NCF-2005).

Emphasis is more on acquiring process skills so that learners are able to deal
with every changing and expanding world of science. Keeping these key points
in mind, science curriculum at different level has been organized.

At the primary level, emphasis is on engaging the learners in joyfully exploring

the world around and harmonizing with it. The objectives at this stage are:
• to nurture the curiosity of the child about the world (natural environment,
artifacts and people),
• to have the child engage in exploratory and hands on activities to acquire
the basic cognitive and psychomotor skills through observation,
classification, inference, etc.;
• to emphasize design and fabrication, estimation and measurement as a prelude
to development of technological and quantitative skills of later stages; and
• to develop the basic language skills: speaking, reading and writing not only
for science but also through science.
At this level, Science and social science have been integrated as ‘Environmental
Studies’.

At the upper primary level, the emphasis is on engaging the learner in learning
principles of science through familiar experiences, working with hands to design
simple technological units and modules and continuing to learn more on
environment and health through activities and surveys.

As a science teacher, you will agree that scientific concepts are learnt better if
learners explore them through activities and experiments. Learners should be
given opportunity to explore science in their everyday experiences. You should
engage learners (preferably in groups) in meaningful investigations -particularly
of the problems they perceive to be significant and important.

As a science teacher, you should encourage discussions with the teacher and
peers. You can ask your learners to gather information from newspapers,
knowledgeable persons in the neighbourhood, and from easily available sources
and discuss about them in class with peers and teachers.

Role play, skits, cooperative learning strategies should be adopted to ensure larger
participation and sharing of learning outcomes. It is advised that biographical
narratives of scientists and inventors can be used. You should keep in mind that
efforts should be continued for development of the process skills of science.

It is suggested that at the secondary stage, you should engage your learners in
learning science as a composite discipline. As a science teacher at this level, you
should provide them opportunity to engage in activities and analysis on issues
surrounding environment and health.
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As secondary stage, systematic experimentation is suggested as a tool to discover/ Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
verify theoretical principles, and working on locally significant projects involving
science and technology.

Concepts, principles and laws of science should be introduced at this level with
an emphasis on comprehension and not on mere formal definitions. At this stage,
those concepts, which are beyond direct experience, should also be introduced
and learners should make understand that all scientific phenomena are not directly
observable; science also relies on inference and interpretation.

You should use experimentation as an important tool to discover/verify theoretical

principles at this stage. At this level, you should organize co-curricular activities
like some small group projects on local issues and use problem-solving approach.

At the higher secondary stage, curriculum has adopted disciplinary approach

with rigour and depth. There is strong emphasis on experiments, technology,
and investigative projects. You should organize co-curricular activities at this
stage by adopting a problem-solving approach on local issues involving science
and technology; encouraging participation of learners through creative/
investigative projects in national science fairs and participation in science
Olympiads. You should provide opportunity to your learners for participation in
debates and discussions on issues at the interface of science, technology and
society.

At the higher secondary stage, a transition from general science to discipline-

based curriculum takes place. Physics, Chemistry and Biology are being offered
as an elective subject. At this stage, the learners choose any discipline, with a
purpose of pursuing their future careers in basic sciences or professional courses
like medicine, engineering, technology and studying courses in applied areas of
science and technology at tertiary level. Hence, at this level, the learners should
be provided with sufficient conceptual background of disciplines which would
eventually make them competent to meet the challenges of academic and
professional courses after the higher secondary stage. At this level, focus is on:
• developing conceptual competence among the learners and making them
realize and appreciate the interface of Physics, Chemistry or Biology with
other disciplines;
• exposing the learners to different processes used in industrial and
technological applications;
• developing process-skills and experimental, observational, manipulative,
decision-making and investigatory skills in the learners;
• promoting problem-solving abilities and creative thinking to develop interest
in the learners in the study of various disciplines;
• helping learners to understand the relationship between nature and matter
on scientific basis, develop positive scientific attitude, and appreciate the
contribution of different science disciplines towards the improvement of
quality of life and human welfare;
Teaching-learning of various science subjects at the higher secondary stage enables
the learners to comprehend the contemporary knowledge and develop aesthetic
sensibilities and process skills. The experimental skills and process-skills 35
Understanding Science developed together with conceptual knowledge prepare the learners for more
meaningful learning experiences and contribute to the significant improvement
of quality of life. The learners would also appreciate the role and impact of
science and technology, and their linkages with overall national development.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
2) Compare the objectives of science teaching-learning at upper primary
and secondary level?
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2.5 DEVELOPING LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Discussion on aims and objectives of teaching-learning has given you a direction.
Now you should focus on developing teaching-learning objectives for science
classroom. We have discussed earlier that there is a shift in pedagogy in science
from behaviourist to constructivist approach due to which focus is now on
acquiring process skills. You have to formulate learning objectives in sync with
process skills to be developed while dealing with a particular content.

In your primary/elementary teacher education programme, you must have studied

about Bloom’s taxonomy of instructional objectives, which was suggested in
1956. In 2001, a new taxonomy of instructional objectives has emerged which
was proposed by Anderson and Krathwohl in their book “A taxonomy for learning,
teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives.” Anderson and Krathwohl revised the Bloom’s taxonomy by
removing the anomalies and giving more emphasis on verbs.

2.5.1 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy

Before starting discussion on new taxonomy, let us have a look at original Bloom’s
Taxonomy. In Bloom’s taxonomy, there were 6 categories under cognitive domain
i.e. Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation.
Except Application, all other 5 main categories were further divided into
subcategories. It was a hierarchical structure where categories were arranged
from simple to complex and concrete to abstract. It was assumed that attainment
of one category is a prerequisite for next category.
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 Aims and Objectives of
KNOWLEDGE Science Teaching-Learning

• Knowledge of specifics
o Knowledge of terminology
o Knowledge of specific facts
• Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
o Knowledge of conventions
o Knowledge of trends and sequences
o Knowledge of classifications and categories
o Knowledge of criteria
o Knowledge of methodology
• Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field
o Knowledge of principles and generalizations
o Knowledge of theories and structures
COMPREHENSION
• Translation
• Interpretation
• Extrapolation
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
• Analysis of elements
• Analysis of relationships
• Analysis of organizational principles
SYNTHESIS
• Production of a unique communication
• Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
• Derivation of a set of abstract relations
EVALUATION
• Evaluation in terms of internal evidence
• Judgments in terms of external criteria

Exhibit 2.1: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain

If you recall the objective statements, you will find that there were two major
components of an objective:
a) Some subject matter content (A Noun or Noun phrase)
b) A description of what is to be done with or to that content (A verb or verb
phrase)
For example, “a learner will be able to define motion.” In this objective
statement the noun phrase is “motion” and the verb is “define.” In original
taxonomy, noun and verb aspects was part of knowledge dimension.
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Understanding Science In the revised taxonomy, first change is that noun and verb dimensions are
separate. The noun is providing the basis for the Knowledge dimension and the
verb is forming the basis for the Cognitive Process dimension.

The Knowledge Dimension

The new knowledge dimension contains four categories i.e. factual, conceptual,
procedural and metacognitive. Metacognitive Knowledge involves knowledge
about cognition in general as well as awareness of and knowledge about one’s
own cognition.

A) FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE – The basic elements that learners must

know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it.
• Knowledge of terminology
• Knowledge of specific details and elements

B) CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE – The interrelationships among the

basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function
together.
• Knowledge of classifications and categories
• Knowledge of principles and generalizations
• Knowledge of theories, models, and structures

C) PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE – How to do something; methods

of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and
methods.
• Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms
• Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
• Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate
procedures

D) METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE – Knowledge of cognition in

general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition.
• Strategic knowledge
• Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual
and conditional knowledge
• Self-knowledge

Exhibit 2.2: The Knowledge Dimension

The Cognitive Process Dimension

In this dimension, like the original taxonomy, same number exists in the revised
taxonomy also. Let us see the following table to understand the changes in revised
taxonomy.

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 Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning

Table 2.1: Objectives in Bloom’s Taxonomy and Revised Taxonomy

In above table, you can see that ‘knowledge’ category is renamed as ‘remember’,
‘comprehension’ is renamed as ‘understand’, ‘Application, Analysis and
Evaluation’ are retained but in their verb form i.e. ‘apply, analyze and evaluate’.
Evaluation was last category in original taxonomy but here it is at 5th place and
‘synthesis’ is replaced by a new category named as ‘create’.

All these 6 categories are further divided into 19 subcategories and renamed as
cognitive processes. Let us have an overview of these cognitive processes.

Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create

Recognizing Interprecting Executing Differentiating Checking Generating

Recalling Exemplifying Implementing Organizing Critiquing Planning
Classifying Attributing Producing
Summarizing
Inferring
Comparing
Explaining

Another very important aspect of revised taxonomy is that here every objective
is represented in a “two dimensional table”. The Knowledge dimension forms
the vertical axis, whereas the Cognitive Process dimension forms the horizontal
axis. See the following table:
The Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
The Knowledge Dimension

Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge
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Understanding Science Let us examine following objectives:
1) Learners will be able to define the term speed.
2) Learners will be able to measure intervals of time in a wall clock.
3) Learners will be able to derive relationship between different units of speed.
Can you place all these objectives in the two dimensional table? If you start
placing them, you have to analyze every objective on knowledge dimension as
well as on cognitive process dimension. For example, in objective one, speed is
a concept, which will fall under conceptual knowledge and defining comes under
‘understand’ cognitive process, hence it will fall in as below. Try to analyze
other objectives also and fill the following table on your own.
The Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
The Knowledge Dimension

Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual Objective 1
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge

Activity 1
Select any topic from a science textbook of class IX or X. Formulate objectives
keeping in mind the nature of concept and cognitive process associated with
it. Analyze your objectives by placing them in the two dimensional table.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
3) What are four major knowledge dimensions in Anderson and Krathwohl
taxonomy?
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4) What are the major differences between Bloom’s taxonomy and Revised
Anderson and Krathwohl taxonomy of objectives in cognitive domain?
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2.5.2 How to Write Objectives Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
Discussion in section 2.5.1 will help to identify the cognitive processes and
knowledge dimension associated with any content. As a science teacher, you
have to formulate learning objectives in statement forms and also keep in mind
that they should be achievable.

Mager (1997, p. 4) identified three important characteristic of an instructional

objective:
• specific learning outcome (performance)
• circumstances under which learning occur (condition), and
• an element that specifies a level of proficiency (criterion).
Let us try to identify these elements with the help of few examples, which will
help you to improve your objective writing.

Objective 1: Learners will be able to understand the phenomenon of heat.

Can this objective help you to tell what the learners will understand? Will it be
concept or definition of heat, or heating effect? Will it be difference between hot
and cold? It is not easy to answer exactly what the learners will understand and
how you will assess it. The term “understand” lacks clarity and will not tell you
what and how learners will tell you what they know.

Terms which are not clearly stating “action” should be avoided. Many such terms
like “understand, know, appreciate, comprehend, learn, recognize” should be
avoided while stating an instructional objective. Let see an improved version of
objective.

Objective 1A: Learners will be able to list the hot and cold items based on
their daily experiences.
If you analyze above statement in the light of three elements suggested by Mager,
you will find that this objective is clearly stating the expected learner outcome,
i.e. listing hot and cold items. This statement also hints at the circumstances i.e.
learners’ daily experiences, but this statement is lacking on third criterion i.e.
element to specify the level of proficiency because one learner may list 2 items
each whereas other may list 5 items. This objective statement can be refined
further as:

Objective 1B: Learners will be able to list the three hot and three cold items
based on their daily experiences at home.
Now this objective statement has refined second element i.e. hinting at the
circumstances and included the criterion i.e. element to specify the level of
proficiency by asking three items each.
Let us examine few sets learning objective statements and decide which one is
better:
1A. Learners will be able to learn about soil profile.
1B. Learners will be able to level four horizons of soil in a diagram showing
soil profile.

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Understanding Science 2A. Learners will be able to differentiate between amphibians and aquatic
animals on the basis of their breathing organs.
2B. Learners will be able to differentiate between amphibians and aquatic
animals.
3A. Learners will be able to demonstrate image formation by concave lens.
3B. Learners will be able to draw a ray-diagram showing image formation of
an object placed at 2F by concave lens.
In all three sets of objectives, you will find that 1B, 2A and 3B are better written
objectives. Can you identify the condition, performance and criterion elements
in these objectives? Let us do an exercise.

Activity 2
Go through the objective 1B, 2A and 3B and enlist the elements in the following
table:
Objective Condition Performance Criterion
1B
2A
3B

Sometimes you may find that all three elements are not present is an objective
statement, but you should ensure that at least condition and performance elements
are present in your objective statement. If you ensure presence of criterion element,
it will help your assessment more effective and objective.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
5) What are three important characteristics of a learning objective
statement?
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2.6 SHIFT IN PEDAGOGIC APPROACH

Behaviourism and Constructivism are often considered as two different
approaches of learning, which superficially seems to be contradictory in their
philosophical considerations. Behaviourism treats the learner as an organism
and acting entity, on the other hand the cognitivist thoughts emphasize the
importance of the mind in making sense of the material which it is presented.
Nevertheless, it presupposes that the role of the learner is primarily to assimilate
42 whatever the educator presents.
If you go through the theoretical constructs of behaviourism and constructivism, Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
you can easily interpret that the key difference between these two approaches.
Behaviourism is centred on transmission of knowledge from the instructor to
the learner (passive learner and a top-down or instructor-centred approach)
whereas constructivism is focused on the construction of knowledge by the learner
(active learner and a bottom-up or learner-centred approach).

Constructivism in education emerged after the behaviorist movement as a

welcome and refreshing view of learning that centres on the active learner within
the teaching-learning process. This emphasis on the individual (within the greater
social context) during instruction has drawn attention to the prior beliefs,
knowledge, and skills that individuals bring with them.

When National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) advocated the

constructivism, it highlighted following key aspects:
• Primacy of the active learner and Learner in context
• Teaching should be for construction of knowledge
These two points are like guiding principles, which have transformed all the
dimensions of teaching-learning process. For a science teacher, it is important to
understand the shift in various aspects of teaching-learning process, so that you
can organize learning experiences in more effective manner.

2.6.1 Effect on Nature of Teaching-learning

Recall your school or college days when teaching was the core activity at school
and teachers are supposed to transact the pre-identified knowledge with pre-
planned teaching-learning methods to achieve certain objectives. Focus was more
on teaching as it was believed that without teaching there is no learning.

Present discourse of learning has broken this jinx. Nowadays, focus is more on
learning. Teaching is not a stand-alone activity rather teaching is to facilitate
learning. In the constructivist perspective, learning is a process of the construction
of knowledge. Teaching has occupied a facilitating role.

A shift from teacher-centred instruction to learner-centred instruction is needed

to enable learners to acquire the new 21st century knowledge and skills.

In the following table, Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer, 1997 have identified
the shifts take place due to changing from a focus on teaching to a focus on
learning.

Now analyze your role as a science teacher in the light of shift discussed in the
above table. You will find that shift of focus from teaching to learning has created
more interactive learning environment where learners can be engaged in
construction of knowledge more meaningfully and actively. This has transformed
the traditional role of teacher as well as perception about learner. Nowadays,
learner is perceived as active learner.

Role of teacher has also changed from transmitter of knowledge to facilitator

for knowledge creation. Now teachers’ role is assumed as facilitator, guide,
knowledge navigator and co-learner along with children. Teachers are supposed
to be involved fully as a part of group of learners and facilitate by creating
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Understanding Science conducive learning environment where children can share, construct and reflect
on knowledge by their own. It does not mean that new knowledge will not be
introduced by teacher. A teacher’s role has changed and s/he has to create a
situation where children can explore, observe, identify and create the desired
knowledge with the support of teacher.

Table 2.2: Shifts in Role of Teacher and Learner

CHANGE IN ROLE OF TEACHER

A shift from A shift to:
Knowledge transmitter, primary Learning facilitator, collaborator,
source of information, content expert coach, mentor, knowledge navigator
and source of all answers and co-learner
Teacher controls and directs all Teacher gives learners more options
aspects of learning and responsibilities for their own
learning.
CHANGE IN ROLE OF LEARNER
A shift from A shift to:
Passive recipient of information Active participant in the learning
process
Reproducing knowledge Producing and sharing knowledge,
Learning as a solitary activity participating at times as expert
Learning collaboratively with others

For creating such learning environment, you as teachers need to acquire necessary
skills for planning, and designing learning situations where children can learner
on their own.

2.6.2 Effect on Planning

Planning of teaching-learning has also changed with shift towards constructivist
pedagogy. Classroom experiences are to be organized around learner and learner’s
experiences. Traditional unit planning has changed and is now uses concept
mapping strategy. Idea of concept mapping was proposed by a constructivist
thinker Joseph D. Novak. Novak (1982) was of the view that concept maps not
only represent changes in knowledge structure of learners but also helped them
“learn how to learn”. Concept map provides an opportunity to link various
concepts and sub-concepts and facilitate integration. Thematic approach in science
teaching-learning for class VI-X adopted by NCERT is promoting use of concept
mapping which is one of the major impact of NCF-2005 on science teaching-
learning. Unit 5 and 6 of Block 2 is discussing it in details.
Behaviourist lesson planning approaches like Herbert and Bloom have been
replaced with modern 5-E Approaches. 5-E is an inquiry based instructional
model where 5-E stands for Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate.
In order to develop scientific process skills and using learners’ experiences and
knowledge for facilitating them in construction of new knowledge, 5-E is a very
useful lesson planning model. Unit 5 of Block 2 will discuss about it in more
44 details.
2.6.3 Effect on Methods and Strategies Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
Along with shifts in planning, a major shift has been observed in teaching-learning
approach. Remember your school days, a number of competitions were the part
of school activities. Classroom was filled with a competitive environment.
Teachers gave lectures and gave some drill and exercises after explaining certain
concepts. Parents were obsessed with competitiveness and were after their wards
to make them more competitive by nature.

Under the influence of constructivist pedagogy, active learning is being promoted.

Child-centred learning methods to promote construction of knowledge by the
learners themselves are advised. Questioning and inquiry has become central to
the classroom. Development of scientific process skills has become the objective
of teaching-learning in science.

Cooperative learning strategy has brought a fresh air in the science teaching-
learning environment. Focus has been shifted to cooperative learning
environment. Social constructivist approach has emphasized that social contexts
of learning and the knowledge is mutually built and constructed. Peer tutoring
and cooperative learning become important methods of learning. You are expected
to follow these methods while designing learning experiences.

In a science classroom, experiential learning, problem solving, naturalistic inquiry,

investigatory projects are being promoted. All these have been discussed in detail
in Unit 7 of Block 2.

2.6.4 Effect on Assessment

Earlier practices were associating term “evaluation” with examination, grading
and resulting in anxiety and stress among children. Heavy load of examination
and fear of failure has brought a lot of criticism for our education system. Major
focus was on “assessment of learning.”

Now we have shifted from “assessment of learning” to “assessment for learning”.

Now assessment and evaluation has become integral part of teaching learning
and we are practicing a new system popularly known as “Continuous
Comprehensive Evaluation”.

The proposed benefits of launching new system were conceptualized as it is for:

(CBSE, 2010)
• reducing stress on learners so as to maximize learner’s educational output;
• constantly looking over learner’s performance at small intervals of course
for better growth of learner;
• preventing teachers on using negative comments on learner’s performance
so that he/she doesn’t get demoralized;
• teaching learner through various techniques and examples so that he/she
understands the concept completely;
• increasing the participation of learners in the learning process so they
experience everything themselves; and
• participation of learner in more and more co-curricular activities so as to
recognize the abilities of an academically non-performer into other fields.
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Understanding Science It is your responsibility as a teacher to understand this idea and act on it effectively.
It has been observed that few teachers do not have epistemological understanding
of CCE and they are just replacing their earlier practices with the practices under
CCE. For example, monthly tests are being replaced by unit tests and trimester
examination by FA-1 or FA- 2. This was not conceptualized when CCE was
introduced. It’s a whole new philosophy was different and focus was on learner
and learning.

Different assessment strategies have been suggested for different levels. Focus
is on criteria based short tests in place of formal examination. It is also being
suggested to teachers that children’s own self-evaluation can be the part of report
card. Strategies like portfolio, worksheets, rubrics and informal observation are
being promoted for practicing assessment.

We will discuss about it in detail in Unit 9: Assessment in Science. It is expected

from you that you should apply the appropriate strategy and promote assessment
for learning.

Check Your Progress

Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
6) What are shifts in role of a learner in constructivist pedagogy?
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2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, discussion started with aims of science education as per National
Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005). These aims help in deriving objectives of
science teaching-learning at different levels. While formulating learning
objectives, you should use revised taxonomy of objectives, which has been
discussed in details. This revised taxonomy focuses on knowledge dimension
and cognitive process dimension both. Discussion in section 2.5.2 will help you
in how to write objectives in behavioural terms. It has been suggested that your
statement of objective should have condition, performance and criterion elements.
In last section of the unit, discussion is on pedagogical shift from behaviourist to
constructivist approach and how it has affected various aspects of teaching-
learning process like planning, selection of methods and strategies and assessment.
These will be elaborated in various units of block 2 in more details.

2.8 UNIT END EXERCISES

1) What are the five guiding principles of national Curriculum Framework-
2005? Critically analyze your secondary level science curriculum in the
46 light of these principles.
2) What are the major differences in objectives of secondary and senior Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
secondary science curriculum?
3) Compare Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives with the revised
Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy.
4) Critically analyze the effects of constructivist pedagogical approach on
various aspects of science teaching-learning.

2.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

• Mager, R. (1997). Preparing instructional objectives: A critical tool in
effective instruction, Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.
• Goldston, M. J. and Downey, L. (2013). Your science classroom: becoming
a elementary/middle school science teacher, Sage Publication.
• Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview,
Theory into Practice, 41, (4), pp. 212-218.
• NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005).
• NCERT (2006). Position paper-National Focus Group on Teaching of
Science, NCERT Publications.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) The two aims are:
• to imbibe the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation, concern for life
and preservation of environment, and
• to cultivate ‘scientific temper’-objectivity, critical thinking and freedom
from fear and prejudice
2) At upper primary level, focus is on exploring science in surrounding whereas
as secondary level focus has been shifted on introducing scientific concepts
and phenomenon, through experimentation, exploration and observation.
3) Factual, conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive
4) Analyze table 2.1 and answer.
5) The three important characteristics of an instructional objective are:
• specific learning outcome (performance)
• circumstances under which learning occur (condition), and
• an element that specifies a level of proficiency (criterion).
6) Analyze table 2.2 and answer.

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