Control Systems Engineering

By

Dr. ABID NAYEEMUDDIN. M

Associate Professor
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department
(Autonomous):Kurnool-7.
G.Pulla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous):Kurnool-
E-Mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Cell: 9393930904
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ABSENT
 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGIEERING

Course Outcomes
Course Outcomes : At the end of the course the student will be
able to
CO1: Understand the behavior of open loop and closed control
system and mathematical model of electrical and mechanical
systems.
CO2: Apply block diagram reduction techniques and Mason’s
gain formula for finding the transfer function of a given control
system.
CO3: Understand standard test inputs, controllers, transient and
steady state response for a 2nd order control system for unit
step input.
CO4: Apply analytical and graphical techniques to determine the
stability of control system in both time and frequency domains.

CO5: Understand concept of compensation, state model,

controllability & observability of a systems.
 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGIEERING
Syllabus
UNIT – I
Equations and Models of Open-loop and closed-loop systems, control system components, servomotor, tachometer, synchro,
Linear Systems: Transfer functions, Determination of transfer function of electrical and mechanical systems, problems.

Block Diagram & Signal Block diagram representation and manipulation, signal flow graphs-mason’s gain formula to determine
flow graph overall system gain of control system, problems.
problems
UNIT - II
Feedback Feedback and non-feedback
feedback systems, effects of feedback, regenerative feedback.
Characteristics
Time Response: Types of input, transient response of second order control system for unit step input, time-domain
specifications, steady state error and error constants, proportional, derivative and integral controls.

UNIT – III
Concept of Stability: Stability of systems - Routh Hurwitz criterion to determine stability of control systems, problems,
Relative stability.
Root Locus: Concept of root locus, Procedure to plot root locus, Stability analysis of control system by root locus
technique, problems.
UNIT - IV
Frequency Response: Co-relation between time and frequency response, frequency domain specifications, resonant peak (Mp)
and resonant frequency (Wp) for a second order system, gain margin (GM) and phase margin (PM).

Frequency Plots: Bode plots, Polar plots, Nyquist stability criterion for control system, problems.

UNIT - V
Compensation (Without The necessity of compensation, series and parallel compensation, Realization of basic lead, Lag and
Design): lead-Lag compensators.

State Variable Analysis: Introduction, concepts of state, state variables, state vector, state space, state space representation,
state model, state model of linear systems, state transition matrix, solution of state equations. Concept of
Controllability and Observability.
 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGIEERING
Syllabus OVERVIEW
UNITS
TOPICS Sub TOPICS
COVERED
TRANSFER •Electrical and Mech.
Mech Systems UNIT-1
FUNCTION •Block Diagram Reduction [20 Marks]
Techniques
•Mason’s Gain Formula
TIME Second order Systems UNIT-2
Response [20 Marks]

Stability •RH Cirteria UNIT-3

•Root Locus UNIT-4
•Bode Plot [40 Marks]
•Polar Plot
•Nyquist Plot
State •State Model UNIT-5
Variables •Solution of State Model [20 Marks]
•Controllability & Observability
 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGIEERING
RESULT OVERVIEW of Previous Batch (Seniors)

Input

Input

 The stimulus or excitation applied to a control

system from an external source in order to
produce the output is called input
Output

Input Output

 The actual response obtained from a

system is called output.
“System”

Input Output
SYSTEM

 A system is an arrangement of or a combination

of different physical components connected in a
planned manner so as to form an entire unit to
attain a certain objective.
objective
 Introduction to CONTROL SYSTEM

An example : Fan

230V/50Hz Fan Air Flow

Input (System) Output
AC Supply
 Can't Say A System

 A Fan without blades cannot be a “SYSTEM”

Because it cannot provide a desired/proper output

i.e. airflow

Input Output

230V/50Hz No Airflow

AC Supply (No Proper/ Desired

Output)
 Can be a System
 A Fan with blades but without regulator can be a
“SYSTEM” Because it can provide a proper output
i.e. airflow
 But it cannot be a“Control System” Because it cannot
provide desired output i.e. controlled airflow

Input Output
230V/50Hz
Airflow
AC Supply (Proper Output)
 Can be a Control System

 A Fan with blades and with regulator can be a “CONTROL

SYSTEM” Because it can provide a Desired output.

i.e. Controlled airflow

Control
Input Output
Element

230V/50Hz Controlled Airflow

AC Supply (Desired Output)

Control

 It means to regulate, direct or command a system

so that the desired objective is attained

 Combining above definitions

System + Control = Control System

Control System

Input Output
CONTROL
SYSTEM

 It is an arrangement of different physical elements

connected in a planned manner so as to regulate
input, to achieve a desired output.
 Difference between System and Control

Input Proper Input Control Desired

System System
Output
ut Output

(May or may not

be desired)
 Classification of Control Systems

Classification of Control System

(Depending on control action)

Open Loop Control Closed Loop Control

System System
(or)
Automatic Control
System
(or)
Feedback Control
System
 Open Loop Control Systems
Definition:
“A system in which the control action is totally
independent of the output of the system is called as
open loop system”

Controlled
Reference I/p Control o/p
Action
r(t) Process c(t)

Fig. Block Diagram of Open loop Control System

 OLC Example

 Electric hand drier –

Hot air (output) comes
out as long as you keep
your hand under the
machine, irrespective of
how much your hand is
dried.

 OLC Example

 Automatic washing machine

– This machine runs
according to the pre-set
pre
time irrespective of
washing is completed or
not.
 OLC Example

 Bread toaster -
This machine runs
as per adjusted time
e

irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
 OLC Example

 Automatic
tea/coffee Vending
Machine –
These machines also
function for pre
adjusted time only.
 Closed Loop Control Systems
Definition:
“A system in which the control action is
somehow dependent on the output is called as
closed loop system”

Reference I/p Controlled

+ Control o/p
Action
r(t) - Process c(t)

Feedback/
Sensor
 Open Loop Control Systems
Controlled
Reference I/p Control o/p
Action
r(t) Process c(t)

Closed Loop Control Systems

Reference I/p Controlled
+ Control o/p
Action
r(t) - Process c(t)

Feedback/
Sensor
Closed loop Control System
 CLCS

Automatic Electric Iron-

 Heating elements are controlled by output temperature of
the iron.
a Closed loop Control System
Home Heating Control System T0

VR : Reference temp. Controller

(Thermostat) VT
VR Temperature
VT : Measured temp. Sensor

TB : Disturbance Control TB
(heat transfer: door, signal T
window, wall, etc.) Fuel flow
Heater
Valve

Error Status Control action

VR - VT > 0 Cold Open valve

VR - VT < 0 Hot Close valve

TB
VR + Controlller +
+
Plant
Valve VT
- (Thermostat) (ROOM)

Temp.
Sensor
 Advantages of Open Loop Control System

Simple in construction and design as of

components required is very less.

 Economical.

 Generally stable.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System

 They are inaccurate

 They are unreliable

 Any change in output due to external

disturbances cannot be corrected

automatically.

 Effected by Noise.
 Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
 Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in
the presence of non-linearity.
linearity.
 Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to
presence of feedback/Sensor signal.

 Facilitates automation.
 The sensitivity of system may be made small to make
system more stable.
 This system is less affected by noise and external
disturbances.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System

 They are costlier.

 They are complicated to design.
 Stability is the major problem and more care is
needed to design a stable closed loop system.
 Overall gain is reduced due to presence of
feedback.
 Comparison Between OLCS & CLCS
Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
1. The open loop 1. The closed loop
systems are simple & systems are complex
economical. and costlier
2. They consume less 2. They consume mor
power. power. e
3. The OLC systems arre 3. The CLC systems are not
easier to construct Easy to construct
Because of it Because it requires
requires less number of more number of
components
Components
4. The open loop systems 4. The closed loop
are inaccurate & systems are accurate &
unreliable more reliable.
 Comparison Between OLCS & CLCS
Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control
System

5. Stability is not a major 5 Care should

problem in OL control be taken while
systems. Generally OL designing.
systems are stable.
6. Feedback element is 6. PRESENT

absent.
7. The changes in the output due 7. The changes in the output due
to external disturbances are NOT to external disturbances are
corrected automatically. So they corrected automatically. So they
are MORE sensitive to noise and are LESS sensitive to noise and
other disturbances. other disturbances.
Components of Closed Loop CS/ Feedback CS/Automatic CS

Error
Detector
Forward Path
Error Manipulated
Signal Signal
r(t) Amplifier,
Reference + Plant Controlled
I/p - e(t)
Controller &
m(t) c(t) O/p
Actuator

b(t) Feedback
Feedback System /
c(t)
Signal Sensor

Feedback Path
 Components of Closed Loop CS/ Feedback CS/Automatic CS

Error
Detector

+ Compares Reference Input and Actual Output obtained and generates error signal
-

Amplifier, Amplifies the error signal

Controller & Controls the amplified error signal
Actuator Converts the Controlled signal into acceptable form of plant

Feedback
System / Measures actual obtained output
Sensor

Plant It is the system on which control action is required.

 Components of Closed Loop CS/ Feedback CS/Automatic CS
Open Loop Control Systems:

Input Controller Plant Output

Closed Loop Control Systems: (Automatic Systems/ Feedback Systems)

Error
Detector
Control Required
Error Signal Signal
Signal
Reference Desired
+
Controller Actuator Plant
Input - Output

Sensor
signal Sensor

Automatic/Closed Loop Control System

Error signal= Reference – Sensor signal

 Control Systems Engineering
UNIT
UNIT-1
Problematic Topics Theory Topics
 Transfer function
 Open-loop and closed-loop
systems
 Determination of TF of
 Control System Components
Electrical Systems
 Servomotor
Tachometer
 Determination of TF of
 Synchro
Mechanical Systems.

 Block diagram representation  Feedback Characteristics (UNIT2)

& Reduction to determine TF  Frequency Response (UNIT4)
 Compensation (UNIT(5)
 Signal flow graphs - Mason’s
Gain Formula to determine TF
 Laplace Transormation

 Developed mathematics in The French

astronomy, physics, and statistics Newton Pierre-
Simon Laplace
 Began work in calculus which led
to the Laplace Transform

 Focused later on
celestial mechanics

 One of the first scientists to

suggest the existence of black
holes
 Laplace
 To evaluatethe performanceof an automatic
control system commonly used mathematical
tool is “Laplace Transform”

 Laplace transform converts the differential

equation into an algebraic equation in ‘s’.

 Laplace transform exist for almost all

signals of practical interest.
Why Laplace
Laplace
Transformation

Time domain Frequency domain

unknown f(t), d/dt, Diff Eqs unknown F(s), Alg Eqs

Solve
Differential Solve
Equations Algebraic
Equations

Time domain Frequency domain

known f(t) known F(s)

Inverse
Laplace
Transform
Advantages of Laplace Transform
 Solution of intego differential equation of time
systems can be easily obtained.

 Initial conditions are automatically incorporated.

 Laplace transform provides an easy & effective
solution of many problems arising in automatic
control systems.
 Laplace transform allows the use ofgraphical
techniques, for predicting the
system Performance
Laplace Transform-
Transform Definition

The Laplace transform of a function, f(t), is defined as

∞
F (s) = L [ f (t) ] =  f (t) e −st dt (1-1)
0

where F(s)) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, L is the

Laplace transform operator, and f(t) is some function of time, t.

Note:: The L operator transforms a time domain function f(t)

into an s domain function, F(s). s is a complex variable:
s = a + bj, j B −1
Standard Laplace Transform
f (t) F ( s ) = L [ f (t )]
1 or u(t) 1
s 1
e−a t 1 e +a t s −a
s +a
Sin (bt) b
s2 + b 2
Cos(bt) s
s + b2
2

e −a t s i n bt b
(s + a )2 + b 2
e − a t cos b t s +a
(s + a )2 + b 2
t 1
s2
tn n!

sn++1
n
n!
−at n
e t (s + a )n+1

δ (t) 1
Inverse Laplace Transform

By definition, the inverse Laplace transform operator,

L-1, converts an s--domain function back to the
corresponding time domain function:

f (t ) = L−1 F (s)

 What is Engineering and How to Learn ?
 Engineering is the branch of science to solve practical problems
to make this world better and make human life easier.

• Engineering Goals are the development of roads, bridges, cars,

planes, machines, tools, processes, computers etc.
Engineering can be studied in THE following ways
Mathematics

Simulation Design or Hardware

Implementation
(Practical)
 Transfer Function

 The relationship between input & output of a

system is given by the transfer function.

 Definition: The ratio of Laplace transform of the

output to the Laplace transform of the input under

the assumption of zero initial conditions is defined

as Transfer Function.
Function
Transfer Function Of Open Loop Control System

r(t) c(t) LT
System R(s) System C(s)
G(t) G(s)

For the system shown,

c(t)= Actual output L{c(t)}= C(s)
r(t)= Reference input L{r(t)}= R(s)
G(t)= System function L{G(t)}= G(s)

Therefore transfer function G(s) for above system is given by,

Laplace of output C (s)

G(s)= = R(s)
Laplace of input
 Transfer Function of closed loop Control system
Error Gain for CL system is given by;
Signal
R(s) E(s) G(s) = C(s)
G(s) C(s) E(s)
+- Output ∴C(s) = G(s).E(s) − − − − − −(3)
Input

Substitute value of Eq. 1 in 3

B(s) H(s)
C(s) = G(s).(R(s) − B(s))
Feedback ∴C(s) =G(s).R(s)−G(s).B(s)−−−−−−(4)
Signal
Substitute value of B(s) from eq. 2 in 4
Error signal is given by; C( s) = G(s) R(s) − G(s).H(s).C(s)
E(s) = R(s) − B(s) − − − − − (1) G(s).R(s) = C(s) + G(s).H(s).C(s)
G(s).R(s) = C(s)(1 +G(s).H(s))
Gain of feedback network is given by;
Transfer function is given by;
B(s)
H(s) = C(s)

B(s) = H(s).C(s) − − − − − −(2) T.F.= C(s) = G(s)

R(s) 1 + G(s).H(s)
E(s)= Error Signal B(s)= Sensor Signal
H(s)= Transfer Function of Feedback System
 Transfer Function of Electrical System

 Element: The Physical Objects which we can see and

touch.

 Eg:- Wood, Iron, R, L, C

 Variable : The Objects which we can not see and touch.

Eg:- Force, Voltage, Current, Power.

Power

Electrical System
Group of elements and variables connected together in
a planned manner to form a circuit.
Eg: - Series circuit , Parrallel circuit, or both.
 Laplace Transform
 Resistors are time and frequency invariant.
Therefore, the transform of a resistor is the same as
the resistance of the resistor.
resistor

 v(t) =i(t) R
Applying Laplace Transformation
V(s)= I(s) R

L{Resistor}=R
Laplace Transform

Let us look at the relationship between voltage, current,

and capacitance, in the time domain:
dv
dv(t)
i(t) =C
dt
Solving for voltage, we get the following integral:
1∞
v(t) =  i(t) dt
C
to

Then, transforming this equation into the Laplace

domain, we get the following:
1 I (s)
V(s) = C s
Laplace Transform

Again, if we solve for the ratio V(s)/I(s), we get the following:

V(s) 1
=
I(s) sC

Therefore, the L transformfor a capacitor with

capacitance C is given by:
1
{capacitor} =
L{capacitor}
sC
Laplace Transform

Let us look at the relationship between voltage, current,

and inductance, in the time domain:

di(t)
v(t) = L
dt
Applying Laplace Transformation

V (s) = s L I(s)
And solving for our ratio
V (s) = s L

I(s)
Laplace Transform

Therefore, the transform of an inductor with

inductance L is given by:

{inductor} = sL
L{inductor}
 Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Electrical System

PROCEDURE to SOLVE THE PROBLEM

1. From the given Circuit Identify Elements and Variables.

2. From the List of Variables Identify/Assume the Input

variable and Output Variable.

3. Write the required Differential equations using KVL & KCL.

4. Apply Laplace Transformation.

5. Rearrange the terms to get the ratio of Laplace of output

variable and input variable which is know as Transfer
Function.
 Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Electrical System

Example1 : Find the transfer Function Vo(s) / Vi(s) of given RC network

C
Vi(t) + i(t) Vo(t)
-

• In the above Circuit The Variables are Vi , i(t), Vo(t)

• And the elements are R and C

And given that Vi is Input Variable and Vo is the Output

•And
Variable
 Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Electrical System

Solution:-

C Taking Laplace transform above equation

Vi(t) 1
+ i(t) Vo(t)
- Vo(s)= I (s)
sC
∴ I (s) = S.C.Vo(s) − − − − − −(2)
Apply KVL for input loop,
1
= Ri(t) +
vi(t) C i(t)dt Substitute equation (2) in (1)
Taking Laplace transform above equation
1
Vi(s) = RI(s) + I (s) − − − − − −(1)
− 1
sC Vi(s) = Vo(s).sC.(R+ )
sC
Apply KVL for output loop,

vo(t) = 1/C .i(t)dt

Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Electrical System

Vo(s) 1
Transfer Function= G(s)= =
Vi(s) sC.(R+ 1 )
sC

Vo(s) 1
=
Vi(s) sC.( sCR + 1)
sC

Vo(s) 1
=
Vi(s) sCR + 1

Vi(s) 1 Vo(s)
sCR +1
Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Electrical System

Example: Find the TF of given RLC network

L
Apply KVL for input loop,
C
Vi(t) i(t) Vo(
o(t) 1
Vi(s) = RI(s)+sLI(s)+ I(s)
sC

Taking Laplace transform above network 1

∴Vi(s) = [R+ sL+ ]I(s) − − − − − − − (1)
sL
sC

Apply KVL for output loop,

1
Vi(s) I(s) Vo(
Vo(s) 1
sC Vo(s)= I(s) − − − − − −(2)
sC
Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Electrical System

From equation 1 and 2, 1 I (s)

Transfer Function= Vo ( s ) = sC
Vi (s) 1
[R+ sL+ ] I(s)
sC

1
s C
= [R+ sL+ 1 ]
sC

Vo ( s ) 1
=
Vi (s) sCR + s2 LC + 1

Vo ( s )  1
=
Vi (s) s2 LC + sCR +1
 Control Systems Engineering
UNIT
UNIT-1
Problematic Topics Theory Topics
 Transfer function  Open-loop and closed-loop
systems
 Determination of TF of  Control System Components
Electrical Systems
Servomotor
 Determination of TF of
Tachometer
Mechanical Systems.
 Synchro
 Block diagram representation
& Reduction to determine TF

 Signal flow graphs - Mason’s

Gain Formula to determine TF
 Mechanical Systems
It is the study of motion of physical body/object
Examples:

 Elevator (Lift)
 Plumbing
 Ventilating
 Escalator
 Automobiles ( cars, buses, bikes, cycles, etc)
Classification of Mechanical Systems

Mechanical Mechanical
Translational Systems Rotational Systems
 Mechanical Translational Systems
 Motion of a physical body along straight line.
 Mechanical Rotational Systems

 Motion of a physical body Around Fixed axis.

 Mechanical Translational Systems

ELEMENTS VARIABLES

1) Mass [M] 1) Force (F) -- Newton

2) Dashpot or Damper [B] 2) Displacement (X) - Meter
3) Spring [k]

The elastic
The Weight of The Friction exist in
deformation of the
Mechanical Systems Mechanical Systems
body is
is represented by is represented by
represented by the
Element Mass (M) Element dash-pot
dash (B)
Element Sprint (K)
 Mechanical Rotational Systems
ELEMENTS VARIABLES

1) Inertia [J] 1) Torque (T) -- N-m

2) Dashpot or Damper [B] 2) Angular Displacement (θ) -radians
3) Spring [k]

The elastic
The Weight of The Friction exist in
deformation of the
physical body is physical body is
physical body is
represented by represented by
represented by the
Element Mass (J) Element dash-pot
dash (B)
Element Sprint (K)
Mathematical Equations of Mechanical Translational Systems

Mechanical System Electrical System

1) Mass [M] 1) Force (F) -- Newton

2) Dashpot or Damper [B] 2) Displacement (X) - Meter
3) Spring [k]
Mathematical Equations of Mechanical Rotational Systems

Mechanical System Electrical System

1) Mass [M] 1) Force (F) -- Newton

2) Dashpot or Damper [B] 2) Displacement (X) - Meter
3) Spring [k]
 Procedure to Determine Transfer Function of Mechanical System

1. Assume displacements (x ) as Nodes.

2. Draw the free body diagram.

3. Write the required Differential equations at each NODE.

4. Apply Laplace Transformation.

5. Rearrange the terms in terms of ratio of Laplace of output

variable to Laplace of input variable which is know as
Transfer Function.
 Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Mechanical System

Problem-1:Find the transfer Function X(s) / F(s) of given Mechanical System.

1) Assume X as Nodes.

2) Draw free body Diagram at X.

3) Write differential equation at X.

4) Apply Laplace Transformation.

5) Re arrange the terms to get ratio

of Laplace of Output [X(s)] to
Laplace of Input [F(s)].
 Problems to Determine Transfer Function of Mechanical System

Problem-1 : Find the transfer Function θ (s)/T(s) of given Mechanical System.

1) Assume θ as Nodes.

K 2) Draw free body Diagram at θ.

J 3) Write differential equation at θ

4) Apply Laplace Transformation.

B θ
5) Re arrange the terms to get ratio
of Laplace of Output [θ(s)]
[ to
Laplace of Input [T(s)].
Electrical Analogous System of Mechanical System

 The System Becomes Analogous/Equivalent as long as

the differential equations governing the system are of
identical form.
************NOTE:-*******
*******
The Electric Analogue of any other kind of the system is of
great importance , since it is easier to solve and analyze
electrical models/circuits.
There are two types of Analogous Systems

Force- Voltage Analogy Force- Current Analogy

Or Or
Torque- Voltage Analogy Torque- Current Analogy
 Force- Voltage Analogy (Or) Torque-
Torque Voltage Analogy
Mechanical Translational Mechanical Rotational Electrical System
System System with Voltage Source

B θ

W.K.T.

J
 Force- Voltage Analogy (Or) Torque-
Torque Voltage Analogy

Mechanical Translational Mechanical Rotational Electrical System

System System with Voltage Source

(B) (B) θ
B

W.K.T.

J
 Force- Current Analogy (Or) Torque-
Torque Current Analogy
Mechanical Translational Mechanical Rotational Electrical System
System System with Current Source

B θ

W.K.T.

J
 Force- Current Analogy (Or) Torque-
Torque Current Analogy

Mechanical Translational Mechanical Rotational Electrical System

System System with Current Source

B θ
(B) (B)
R

W.K.T.

J
Problem:1 -- Obtain Electrical Analogous System

Write the differential equations governing the

mechanical translational system shown in Fig (1). Draw
the Force-Voltage and Force Current Analogous Electrical
Circuits and also verify the mesh or nodal equations.
 Control Systems Engineering
UNIT
UNIT-1
Problematic Topics Theory Topics
 Transfer function  Open-loop and closed-loop
systems
 Determination of TF of  Control System Components
Electrical Systems
Servomotor
 Determination of TF of Tachometer
Mechanical Systems.  Synchro
 Block diagram representation
& Reduction to determine TF

 Signal flow graphs - Mason’s

Gain Formula to determine TF
 Block Diagram

 Block Diagram: It is shorthand, Symbolic,

pictorial Representation, relating between input and
output of a physical system.

Input Output
BLOCK
 Block Diagram

Let Mathematically Output, Y(s)= 3s. X(s)

Then the block diagram representation of above equation is

Y(s)
X(s)
3s

The value of the input is multiplied to the value of

block gain to get the output.
Need of Block Diagram

 It is not convenient to derive a complete transfer

function for a complex control system using differential
equations method.
 Block diagram is a simple way to represent any
practically complicated system.
system
 In this each component of the system is represented
by a separate block known as functional block.

 These blocks are interconnected in a proper sequence

based on its mathematical relationship.
Block Diagram

 Summing Point:
Two or more signals can be added /
subtracted at summing point.
y
+
x output
+
Output =x+y-z
-
z
Block Diagram

 Take off Point: The output signal can be

applied to two or more points from a take off
point.

Z Z

Take off point

Z
Block Diagram
 Forward Path: The direction of flow of signal is
from input to output
Forward Path

R(s) + G1 G2
C(s)

H1

Feedback Path
Feedback Path: The
direction of flow of signal is
from output to input
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique
RULES
Rule 1: For blocks in cascade
Gain of blocks connected in cascade gets
multiplied with each other.

R(s) C(s)
R(s) G1 R1(s) G2
C(s) G1G2

R1(s)=G1R(s)
C(s)= G1G2R(s)
C(s) =G2R1(s)
=G1G2R(s)
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)

Find Equivalent

R(s) G1G2G3 C(s)

 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s)

R1(s)

Find Equivalent

R(s) C(s) R(s) G1G2 G3 C(s)

G1G2G3

R1(s)
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique
Rule 2: For blocks in Parallel
Gain of blocks connected in parallel gets added
algebraically.
R1(s)
G1
+
R(s) R2(s) - C(s) R(s) G1-G2+G3 C(s)
G2
+
R3(s)
G3

C(s)= R1(s)-R2(s)+R3(s) C(s)= (G1-G2+G3) R(s)

= G1R(s)-G2R(s)+G3R(s)
C(s)=(G1-G2+G3) R(s)
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique
Rule 3: Eliminate Feedback Loop

R(s)
E(s) G C(s)
+ R(s) G C(s)
-/+ 1 ± GH

B(s) H

C(s) G
= In General
R(s) 1 ±GH
 From Shown Figure,

E(s) = R(s) −B(s)

and
R(s) E(s) C(s) C(s) = G.E(s)
+- G = G[R(s) −B(s)]
= GR(s) −GB(s)
But
B(s) B(s) = H.C(s)
H
∴C(s) = G.R(s)− G.H.C(s)

C(s) + G.H C(s) = GR(s)

∴C(s){1+ G.H} = G.R(s)

∴ C(s) G
For Negative Feedback =
R(s) 1 + GH
 From Shown Figure,
E(s) = R(s) +B(s)
and
R(s) E(s) C(s) C(s) = G.E(s)
+
+
G = G[R(s) + B(s)]
= GR(s) +GB(s)
But
B(s)
H B(s) = H.C(s)

∴C(s) = G.R(s) + G.H.C(s)

C(s) − G.H = GR(s)

∴C(s){1− G.H}= G.R(s)

For Positive Feedback ∴ C(s) = G

R(s) 1− GH
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

Rule 4: Shift a take off point before block

R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)

G G

G
X
X

C(s)=GR(s) C(s)=GR(s)
and and
X=C(s)=GR(s) X=GR(s)
 Block Diagram Reduction

Rule 5: Shift a take off point after block

R(s) C(s)
(s) R(s) C(s)
G G

1/G
X

C(s)=GR(s)
C(s)=GR(s) and
and X=C(s).{1/G}
X=R(s) =GR(s).{1/G}
= R(s)
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

Rule 6: Shift summing point before block

R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G G
+ +
X 1/G

C(s)=R(s)G+X C(s)=G{R(s)+X/G}
=GR(s)+X
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

Rule 7: Shift summing point after block

R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G G
+ +

X G
X

C(s)=G{R(s)+X} C(s)=GR(s)+XG
=GR(s)+GX =GR(s)+XG
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

Rule 8: Associative Law for Summing Points

The order of summing points can be changed if two or
more summing points are in series

R(s) + X + C(s) R(s) + X + C(s)

- -
B1 B2 B2 B
X=R(s)-B1 X=R(s)-B2 1
C(s)=X-B2 C(s)=X-B1
C(s)=R(s)-B1-B2 C(s)=R(s)-B2-B1
 Rule: 9
By
By corollary, one can split a summingpoint
to two summing point and sum in any order

B
B
+
R(s) + G C(s) + +
R(s) + G C(s)
- -

H
H
 Block Diagram Reduction Technique

 While solving block diagram for getting single

block equivalent, the said rules need to be applied.

After each simplification a decision needs to be taken. For

each decision we suggest preferences to reduce in the

following order

1) Eliminate Series blocks

2) Eliminate Parallel blocks

3) Eliminate Feedback blocks

Block Diagram Reduction Technique (First Choice)

In The Block Diagram Search for Blocks having

First Preference: Rule 1 (For series)

Second Preference: Rule 2 (For parallel)

Third Preference: Rule 3 (For Feedback)

Block Diagram Reduction Technique

Second Choice
(No possible combination of Series or parallel or feedback blocks)

Rule4/5 ----->Shifting take off point before/after block

Rule 6/7 -----> Shifting summing point before/after block

Rule 8/9 -----> Adjusting summing order

Problem:1 -- Obtain the transfer function using Block
diagram Reduction Technique.

G4

+
R(s) + + G1 G2 G3 + C(s)
G6

- - +

H1 G5

H2
Rule 1 cannot be used as there are
no immediate series blocks.
Hence
Hence Rule 2 can be applied to G4, G3,
G5 in parallel to get an equivalent of
G3+G4+G5
 Example cont

Apply Rule 2
Blocks in Parallel G4

+
R(s) + + G1 G2 G3 + C(s)
G6

- - +

H1 G5

H2
 Example cont

Apply Rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) + + G1 G2 C(s)
G3+G4+G5 G6

- -

H1

H2
 Example cont

Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop

R(s) + + G1 C(s)
G2(G3+G4+G5) G6

- -

H1

H2
 Example cont

Apply Rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) + G1 G2(G3+G4+G5) G6
C(s)

1 + G1H1
-

H2
 Example cont

Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop

R(s) +
2(G3 + G 4 + G 5)
G1G2(G3 G6 C(s)

- 1 + G1H1

H2
Example cont

Apply Rule 1 Blocks in series

G1G2(G 3 + G 4 + G 5) G6
C(s)
R(s)
1+G1H1+G1G G2H2(G3+G4+G5)
Example cont

R(s) 6(G 3 + G 4 + G 5)
G1G2G6(G C(s)

1+ G1H1+G
G1G2H2(G3+G4+G5)
Example cont

Hence the Transfer Function is

C(s) = G1G2G6(G 3 + G 4 + G 5)
R ( s ) 1 + G1
1H1+ G1G2H 2(G 3 + G 4 + G 5)
Problem:2 &3 - Obtain the transfer function using Block
diagram Reduction Technique.

TRY TO SOLVE AN UNSOLVED PROBLEM

FROM
TEXT BOOK
Problem:4 Find the Transfer Function using BRT

G4

+
R(s) + + G1 G2 G3 + C(s)

+ -

H1

H2
 Example cont
Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for Series blocks G1G2.
G4

+
R(s) + G1 G2 G3 + C(s)

+ -

H1
Apply Rule 1
Blocks in series
H2
 Example cont
Step 2 − Use Rule 2 for Parallel blocks G3G4.
G4

+
R(s) + + G1G 2 G3 + C(s)

+ -

Apply Rule 2
Blocks in parallel H1

H2
 Example cont
Step 3 − Use Rule 3 to eliminate Feedback
H1. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

R(s) + + G1G2 G3+G4 C(s)

+ -
Apply Rule 3
Elimination of H1
feedback loop
H2
 Example cont
Step 4 − Use Rule 1 for Series blocks.
blocks

R(s) + G1G
G2 G3+G4 C(s)

+ 1+ G1G2
2H1
Apply Rule 1
Blocks in
series
H2
 Example cont
Step 5 − Use Rule 3 to eliminate Positive Feedback H2.

R(s) + G2(G 3 + G 4)
G1G C(s)

+ + G1G2H1
1+

Apply Rule 3
Elimination
of feedback
H2
loop
 Example cont

R(s) C(s)
G1G2(G 3 + G 4)
G
1+ G11G2H1− G1G2G3H2 −
G1G2G4H2
Example cont

C(s)
= G1G2(G3 + G 4)
H1−G1G2G3H2 − G1G2G4H2
R(s) 1+ G1G2H
Follow these STEPS for simplifying (reducing) the block
diagram, which is having many blocks, summing points
and take-off points.
Step1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and
simplify.
Step 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and
simplify.
Step 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop
and simplify.
Step 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off
take point while
simplifying, shift it towards right/left.
Step 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while
simplifying, shift it towards left/right.
Step 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified
form, i.e., single block.
Problem:5 Find the Transfer Function using BRT

G5

+
R(s) + G1 + G2 G3 + G4 C(s)

- -

H1

H2
 Example cont
Step 1 − Use Rule 3 to eliminate Feedback H1.
G5

+
R(s) + G1 + G2 G3 + G4 C(s)

- -
Apply Rule 3
Elimination
of feedback H1
loop
H2
 Example cont
Step 2 − Use Rule 1 to eliminate Series Blocks.
G5

+
R(s) + G1 G2 G3 + G4 C(s)
1 + G2H1
-

Apply Rule 1
Blocks in
series
H2
 Example cont
Step 3− Use Rule 2 to eliminate parallel Block G5.
G5

+
R(s) + G1G2G3
G + G4 C(s)
1 G2H1
1+
-

Apply Rule 2
Blocks in
parallel
H2
 Example cont
Step 4 − Use Rule 1 to eliminate Series Block G4.

G1G2G3
R(s) + G5 + G4 C(s)
1+ G2H1
-
Apply Rule 1
Blocks in series

H2
 Example cont
Apply
Step 5 − Use RuleRule
3 to3eliminate Feedback H2.

R(s) + G1G2G3 C(s)

G 4(G5 + )
- 1+ G2H1
Elimination of
feedback loop

H2
Example cont

R(s) G4G5+ G2
2G4G5H1+G1G2G3G4 C(s)
1+G2H1+G4G5H22+G2G4G5H1H2+G1G2G3G4H2
Example cont

C(s) G4G5 + G2G4G5H1+G1G2G3G4

=
R(s) 1+G2H1+G4G5H
H2+G2G4G5H1H2+G1G2G3G4H2
Problem:6 Find the Transfer Function using BRT

R(s) + + - G1 + G2 C(s)

- -

H1 H2
 cont
Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop

-
R(s) + + G1 G2
C(s)
+
- -

H1 H2
Example cont

R(s) + + - C(s)
G1 G2
- 1 + G2H 2

H1
Now Rule 1, 2 or 3 cannot be used
directly.
There are possible ways of going
ahead.
a. Use Rule 8 & interchange order of
summing so that Rule 3 can be used on
G.H1 loop.
b. Shift take off point after G 2 block
reduce 1 + G2H 2

by Rule 1, followed by Rule 3.

Which option we have to use????
Example cont
Exchange summing order [ Rule 8]

1 2
R(s) + + - G2 C(s)
G1
1 + G2H 2
-

H1
Example cont
Apply Rule 3 Elimination feedback loop

2 - 1
R(s) + G1 G2 C(s)

+ 1 + G2H 2
-

H1
Example cont
Apply Rule 1 Bocks in series

2 -
R(s) G11 G2 C(s)
1+ G1H11 1 + G2H 2
+
Example cont

2 -
R(s) G1G2 C(s)

+ 1 + G1H11+ G2H 2 + G1G2H1H 2

Now which Rule will be applied

-------It is blocks in parallel OR
-------It is feed back loop
Example cont
Let us rearrange the block diagram to understand
Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feed back loop

2
R(s) + G1G2 C(s)
1 + G1H11+ G2H 2 + G1G2H1H 2
-
Example cont

R(s) G1G2 C(s)

1 + G1H1+ G2H
G 2 + G1G2H1H 2 +
G1G2
Example cont

C(s) G1G2
=
R(s) 1+G1H1+G
G2H2+G1G2H1H2+G1G2
Problem:7 Find the Transfer Function using BRT
Simplify, by splitting second
summing point as
H1
said in Rule9

-
R(s) + + G1 G2 G3 C(s)

- -

H2

H3
 Example cont
Apply rule 3
H1 Elimination of feedback loop

+ + + - G1 G2 G3 C(s)
R(s)
- -

H2

H3
 Example cont

Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

+ + G1 G2 G3 C(s)
R(s)
- 1 + G1H1
-

H2

H3
 Example cont
Apply rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop

+ + G1G22
G3
1 + G1H
H1 C(s)
R(s) - -

H2

H3
 Example cont

Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

+ G1G2 G3
1+G1H1+G1
1G2H2 C(s)
R(s) -

H3
 Example cont
Apply rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop

+ G1G2G3
R(s) 1 + G1H1
G + G1G2H 2 C(s)
-

H3
Example cont

R(s) G1G2G3 C(s)

1 + G1H1+ G1G2H
G 2 + G1G2G3H3
Example cont

C(s) G1G2G3
=
R(s) 1 + G1H1 + G1G2H 2 + G1G2G3H 3
Problem:8 Find the Transfer Function using BRT
Apply rule 5
Shift take off point after block G3
G5

+
R(s) + G1 + G2 G3 G4 + C(s)

- -

H1

H2
Example cont

Blocks in series
1/ G
G3 5

+
R(s) + G1 + G2 G3 G4 + C(s)

- -

H1

H2
Example cont

Blocks in parallel
G5
/G3

+
R(s) + G1 + G2G3 G4 + C(s)

- -

H1

H2
Example cont

Feedback loop

G4+(G5/
R(s) + G1 + G2G3 G3) C(s)

- -

H1

H2
Example cont
Apply rule 1
Blocks in series

G4+(G5/
R(s) + G1 G2G3 G3) C(s)
1+G2G3H1
-

H2
Example cont

R(s) + G2G3
)(G4+
G5
)
C(s)
(G1))(
1+G2G3H1 G3
-

H2
Example cont

= (G1)( G2G3 )(G4+ G5)

1+ G2G3H
H1 G3

= (G1)( G2G3 )(G 4G3+ G5)

1+ G2G33H1 G3

2(G 4 G 3 +G 5)
G1G2(G
=
1 1+ G2G3H1
G
Example cont

Apply rule 3 Feedback loop

R(s) + G1GG2(G 4 G 3 + G 5) C(s)

-
1+ G2G3H1
G

H2
Example cont

C(s)
R(s) G2(G 4 G 3 + G 5)
G1G
1 + G2G3H1 + G1G2H 2(G 3G 4 + G 5)
Example cont

C(S) G
G1G2(G 4 G 3 + G 5)
=
R(S) 1 + G2G3H
H1 + G1G2H 2(G 3G 4 + G5)
Problem:9 Find the Transfer Function using BRT
Apply rule 5 Shift take off point after block G4

H2

-
R(s) + G1 + G2 + G3 G4

- - C(s)

H3

H1
Example cont
Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

H2 1/
G4
-
R(s) + G1 + G2 + G3 G4

- - C(s)

H3

H1
Example cont

Apply rule 3 Feedback loop

H2/
G4

-
R(s) + G1 + G2 + G3G4

- - C(s)

H3

H1
Example cont

Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

H2/
G4

-
R(s) + G1 + G2 G3G4
1 + G3G4H 3 C(s)
-

H1
Example cont
Apply rule 3 Feedback loop

H2/
G4
-
R(s) + G1 + G2G3G4
1 + G3G4H 3
C(s)
-

H1
Example cont

Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) + G2G3G4 C(s)

G1
1 + G3G4H 3 + G2G3H 2
-

H1
Example cont
Apply rule 3 Feedback loop

R(s) + G1G2G3G4 C(s)

1 + G3G4H 3 + G2G3H 2
-

H1
Example cont

R(s) G1G2G3G4
G C(s)
1 + G3G4H 3 + G2G3H
G 2 + G1G2G3G4H1
Example cont

C(S) G1G2G3G4
=
R(S) 1 + G3G4H 3 + G2G3H 2 + G1G2G3G4H1
Problem:10 Find the Transfer Function using BRT
Simplify, by splitting 3rd summing point as given in Rule 9
G3

3
1 2 +
R(s) + + G1 G2 + G4 C(s)

- - -

H2 H1
 Example cont
Elimination of Feedback loop
G3

+ +
R(s) + + G1 G2 + G4 C(s)

- - -

H2 H1
Example cont
Apply Rule 5 Shift take off point after block
G3

+
R(s) + + G1 G2 + G4 C(s)
1 + G4H1
- -

H2
Example cont
Apply Rule 1
Blocks in series
G3/
G2

+
R(s) + + G1 G2 + G4 C(s)
1 + G4H1
- -

H2
Example cont
Now which rule we have to use?
G3/
G2

+
R(s) + + G1G2 + G4 C(s)
1 + G4H1
- -

H2
Example cont
Apply Rule 2
Blocks in parallel
G3/
G2

+
R(s) + + G1G2 1 + G4 C(s)
1 + G4H1
- -

H2
Example cont
Apply Rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) + + G1G2 G3 + 1 G4 C(s)

G2 1 + G4H1
- -

H2
Example cont

Apply Rule 3 Elimination of Feedback Loop

R(s) + + G1G2
(G 3 + G 2)G4 C(s)
G 2(1 + G4H1)
- -

H2
Example cont
Apply Rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) + G1G22 (G 3 + G 2)G4 G C(s)

1 + G1G22H 2 2(1 + G4H1)
-
Example cont
Apply Rule 3 Elimination of Feedback loop

R(s) + G1G4(G 3 + G 2) C(s)

(1+ G1G 2 H 2)(1 + G4H1)
-
Example cont

R(s) G1G4(G3+ G2)

G1 C(s)
1+G4H1+G1G2H22+G1G2G4H1H2+G1G4(G2+G3)
Example cont

C(s) G1G4(G3 + G 2)
=
R(s) 1+G4H1+G1G22H2+G1G2G4H1H2+G1G4(G2+G3)
Problem 11
Find the transfer function of the following block
diagram using Block diagram reduction technique

H2

R(s) A Y(s)
G1 G2 G3
B

H1

G4
Step 1. Moving pickoff point A after block G3

H2

R(s) A Y(s)
G1 G2 G3
B

1
C H1
G3
G4

Now Feedback H1 cannot be eliminated as same

signal is extended towards G1
Solution:

Step 2. Splitting the take off point C

I
H2

R(s) A B Y(s)
G1 G2 G3
1
C
H1 G3
1
H1 G3
G4
2. Eliminate loop I & Simplify

H2

B
G2 G3 B G2G3

1 H1
+H
H1 G3 G3
2

II
R(s) G 2G 3 Y(s)
G1
1+ G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2

H1
G3
G4
3. Eliminate loop II

R(s) G1G2G3 Y(s)

1 + G 2 H 1 + G 2 G 3 H 2 + G1G2 H 1

G4

Y (s) G1G2G3
T (s) = = G 4+
R(s) 1+ G2H1 + G2G3H2 +G1G2H1
 PROBLEM-12:12: Multiple Input System.
Determine the output C due to inputs R and U

TO FIND C/R
PUT; U=0
TO FIND C/U
PUT; R=0
 PROBLEM-12:12: Multiple-Input
Multiple System.
Determine the output C due to inputs R, U1 and U2

TO FIND C/R
TO FIND C/U1
TO FIND C/U2
PROBLEM-13: Multi-Input
Input Multi-Output
Multi System.
Determine C1 and C2 due to R1 and R2.
TO FIND C1/R1 & C1/R2
 TO FIND C2/R2 & C2/R2

When R2 = 0,

When R1 = 0,
Problem:14 Find the Transfer Function using BRT
Apply rule 2 Blocks in Parallel

+
R(s) + G1 + G2 + G3 C(s)

- + - -

G5 H1
H2

H3
Example cont
Apply rule 3 Elimination of Feedback Loop

R(s) + G1+G4+ + G2 + G3
G5
- - C(s)
-
H1
H2

H3
Example cont
Apply rule 1 Blocks in Series

R(s) + G1+G4+G5 G2 G3 C(s)

1 + G2H1 1+ G3H 2
-

H3
Example cont
Apply rule 3 Elimination of Feedback loop

R(s) +
G2GG3(G1 + G 4 + G 5) C(s)
(1+ G2H1)(1
G + G 3 H 2)
-

H3
Example cont

R(s) G3(G1+ G 4 + G 5)
G2G C(s)
1+ G2H1 +G3H2+G2
2G3H1H2+G2G3H3(G1+G4+G5)
Example cont

C(s) G2G3(G1 + G 4 + G 5)
=
R(s) 1+ G2H1 + G3H 2 + G2G3H1H 2 + G2G3H3(G1+ G 4 + G5)
Problem:15 Find the Transfer Function using BRT
Apply rule 2 Blocks in Parallel

-
R(s) G1 + G2 G3 +
-
- C(s)

+
H1 H3

+
Example cont
Apply rule 3 Elimination of Feedback Loop

R(s) G + G2 1+G3
-
- C(s)

+
H H3

+
Example cont
Apply rule 5 Shift take off point after block

R(s) G1 + G2
G 1+G3
- + G2
1+
C(s)
-

+
H1 H3

+
Example cont
Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) G1 + G2
G 1+G3
- + G2
1+
- C(s)

1
1 + G3

+
H1 H3
+
Example cont
Apply rule 2 Blocks in Parallel

R(s) G1 + G2(1 + G 3)
- 1 + G2
- C(s)

1
1 + G3
+
H1 H3

+
Example cont
Apply rule 1 Blocks in Series

R(s) G1 + G2(1 + G 3)
- 1 + G2
- C(s)

H1 1
H 2+
1 + G3
Example cont
Apply rule 3 Elimination of Feedback loop

R(s) G1 + G2(1 + G 3)
- 1 + G2
- C(s)

H
H1(H 2 + H 2 G 3 + 1)
1 + G3
Example cont

Apply rule 1 Blocks in series

R(s) G1
G2(1 + G 3)
1 + G2 + G2H1(1 + H 2 + H 2 G 3)
C(s)
Example cont

C(s)
R(s) G1G2(1 + G 3)
1 + G2 + G2H1(1 + H 2 + H 2 G 3)
Example cont

C(s) G1G2(1+ G 3)
=
R(s) 1 + G2 + G2H1(1 + H 2 + H 2 G 3)
 Control Systems Engineering
UNIT
UNIT-1
Problematic Topics Theory Topics
 Transfer function  Open-loop and closed-loop
systems
 Determination of TF of  Control System Components
Electrical Systems
Servomotor
 Determination of TF of Tachometer
Mechanical Systems.  Synchro

 Block diagram representation

& Reduction to determine TF
 Signal flow graphs - Mason’s
Gain Formula to determine TF
 Determination of Transfer Function
Transfer Function can be determine in three ways

1) Using Differential Equation & Laplace Equation

Not Convenient to
rearrange the
equations & variables
if equations are more

2) Block Diagram Reduction Technique

In every STEP
need to
redraw the
block diagram 3) Mason’s Gain
Formula
 Signal Flow Graphs
• Alternative method to block diagram representation,
developed by Samuel Jefferson Mason.

• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which

nodes are connected by directed branches.

• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a

system to another and gives the relationships among
the Input and Output signals.
signals
 How Signal Flow Graph is obtained?

1
V1 ( s ) = I1 ( s ) + I1 ( s ) R
Cs
CsV1 ( s ) − CsV 2 ( s ) = I 1 ( s )
V2 ( s ) = I1 ( s )R
− Cs

Cs R

V1 (s ) I1 ( s ) V2 ( s )
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow
graph: y = ax

• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by
a Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
unidirectional
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which
no node is passed more than ones. i.e
e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates
on the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
 Terminologies

• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a

self loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a
path. i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop
gain of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they
have no nodes in common.
 Signal-Flow
Flow Graph Construction

xo is input and x4 is output

x1 = ax0 + bx1 + cx2 f

x2 = dx1 + ex3
c
x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x3 = fx0 + gx2
x4 = hx3 b e
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are required
to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated branches.
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

• There are two forward path gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

• There are four loops

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

• Nontouching loop gains;

Consider the signal flow graph below and identify
the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
 Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

b) Output node
(c) Forward Paths
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(e) Self Loop(s)
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)

• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive

application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow
graph to a single transfer function requires the application of
one formula.
• The formula was derived by S.
S J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
 Mason’s Gain Formulae
• The Mason’s Gain Formulae to determine the transfer function,
C(s)/R(s), of a system is; n

C (s) P∆ k k
= k =1
R(s) ∆
Where
n = number of forward paths. ; Pk = the K th forward-path gain.

∆ = 1- (Sum of loop gains of all individual Loops)+(Sum of loop gains of all

possible combination of pairs of two non touching loops)-(Sum of loop
gains of all possible combination of pairs of three non touching loops)
+(Sum of loop gains of all possible combination of pairs of four non
touching loops) - ...................

∆k = Same as ∆ but formed by the loops NOT touching the kth forward path
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow
graph: y = ax

• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by
a Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
unidirectional
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
Procedure to determine T.F. from Signal Flow Graph
1. Find Number of Forward Paths
2. Calculate forward path gain Pk for each forward
path k.
3. Identify all individual loops
4. Indentify pairs of TWO non-touching loops
5. Indentify pairs of THREE non-touching loops
6. etc
7. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
8. Calculate Δk as portion of Δ, but NOT touching
forward path k
9. Apply all above data in mason’s gain formula
 Problem-1:1: Apply Mason’s Rule to obtain the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

C (s) P∆ k k
= k =1
R(s) ∆
Therefore, C P1 ∆ 1 + P2 ∆ 2
=
R ∆
There are three feedback loops

L1 = G1G 4 H 1 , L 2 = − G1G 2 G 4 H 2 , L3 = − G1G 3 G 4 H 2

 Problem-1:1: Apply Mason’s Rule to obtain the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are no non-touching

touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

∆ = 1 − (L1 + L 2 + L3 )

∆ = 1 − (G1G 4 H 1 − G1G 2 G 4 H 2 − G1G 3 G 4 H 2 )

 Problem-1:1: Apply Mason’s Rule to obtain the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
Problem- 1: Continue
 Problem-2:
2: Apply Mason’s Rule to obtain the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

path
P1 = G1G 2 G 3 G 4 (path 1) and P2 = G 5 G 6 G 7 G8 (path 2)

2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1 = G 2 H 2 , L2 = H 3 G 3 , L3 = G 6 H 6 , L4 = G 7 H 7

3. Consider two non-touching

touching loops.
L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3 242
 Problem-2:
2: continue

4. Consider three non-touching

touching loops.
None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

∆ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 + L 4 ) + (L1 L3 + L1 L4 + L2 L3 + L2 L4 )

∆ = 1 − (G 2 H 2 + H 3 G 3 + G 6 H 6 + G 7 H 7 )+
(G 2 H 2 G 6 H 6 + G 2 H 2 G 7 H 7 + H 3G3G 6 H 6 + H 3G3G 7 H 7 )

243
 Problem-2:
2: continue
Eliminate forward path-1

∆ 1 = 1 − (L3 + L4 )
∆ 1 = 1 − (G 6 H 6 + G 7 H 7 )

Eliminate forward path-2

∆ 2 = 1 − (L1 + L2 )

∆ 2 = 1 − (G 2 H 2 + G 3 H 3 )

244
 Problem-2:
2: continue

Y ( s ) P1 ∆ 1 + P2 ∆ 2
=
R( s ) ∆

Y (s) G1G 2 G 3 G 4 [1 − (G 6 H 6 + G 7 H 7 )] + G 5 G 6 G 7 G8 [1 − (G 2 H 2 + G 3 H 3 )]
=
R ( s ) 1 − (G 2 H 2 + H 3 G 3 + G 6 H 6 + G 7 H 7 ) + (G 2 H 2 G 6 H 6 + G 2 H 2 G 7 H 7 + H 3 G 3 G 6 H 6 + H 3 G 3 G 7 H 7 )

245
 Problem
Problem-3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow
graph in figure below using Mason’s Gain Formula
 Problem
Problem-3
• There is only one forward Path.
Path

P1 = G1 ( s )G 2 ( s )G 3 ( s )G 4 ( s )G 5 ( s )
 Problem
Problem-3
• There are four feedback loops.
loops
 Problem
Problem-3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
 Problem
Problem-3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
 Problem
Problem-3

Eliminate forward path-1

C ( s ) P1∆ 1
=
R(s) ∆
 Problem-4 : Obtain the transfer function for the
block diagram using Mason’s Gain Formula.
H1

R(s) E(s) － C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－
－
H2

H3

Assume the Nodes X1,X2,X3...

At each summing point and takeoff point
Problem-4 : Assume X1,X2,X3... At each summing
point and takeoff point
H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2

H3

－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－ H2
－ H3
 Problem-4
Problem
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow
Signal Graph Models
－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－ H2

－ H3

∆ = 1 + ( G 1G 2 G 3 G 4 H 3 + G 2 G 3 H 2 + G 3 G 4 H 1 )
P1 = G 1G 2G 3G 4 ; ∆1 = 1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G= =
R( s ) 1 + G1G2G3G4 H 3 + G2G3 H 2 + G3G4 H1
Problem-55 : Obtain the transfer function for the
block diagram using Mason’s Gain Formula.
－
－ X1 G1 Y1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ －X +
2
G2
－ Y2

-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1
 Problem 5
Problem-
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1
There are 7 loops:

3 ‘2 non-touching
touching loops’ :
 Problem
Problem-5
-1
X1 G Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) 1 -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G
2

-1 -1

Then: Δ = 1 + 2G 2 + 4G 1 G 2
4 forward paths:
p1 = ( − 1) ⋅ G1 ⋅ 1 Δ1 = 1 + G2
p2 = ( − 1) ⋅ G1 ⋅ ( − 1) ⋅ G2 ⋅ 1 Δ2 = 1
p3 = 1 ⋅ G 2 ⋅ 1 Δ3 = 1 + G 1
p4 = 1 ⋅ G 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ G 1 ⋅ 1 Δ4 = 1
 Problem
Problem-5

We have
C (s)  pk∆k
=
R(s) ∆
G 2 − G 1 + 2 G 1G 2
=
1 + 2 G 2 + 4 G 1G 2
 Problem-6:
6: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram
below by signal flow graph techniques.

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
P1, hence

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore
 Problem7: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.

• The two forward path gains are

• The five feedback loop gains are

• There are no non-touching loops, hence

• All feedback loops touches the two forward

paths, hence

• Hence the control ratio T =

 Control Systems Engineering
UNIT
UNIT-1
Problematic Topics Theory Topics
 Transfer function  Open-loop and closed-loop
systems
 Determination of TF of  Control System Components
Electrical Systems
Servomotor
 Determination of TF of  Synchro
Mechanical Systems. Tachometer

 Block diagram representation

& Reduction to determine TF

 Signal flow graphs - Mason’s

Gain Formula to determine TF
SERVO
MOTOR
 SERVOMOTORS

▪ WHAT IS SERVO MOTOR ?

▪ It is a special type of motor.
▪ It Converts Electrical Signal (Control Voltage)
applied to it into an angular displacement of shaft.
Based
▪ on Supply it is classified into DC Servomotor & AC
Servomotor
DC Servomotor is used for large power applications
Eg:- Robotics, Machine tools
AC Servomotor is used for low power applications
Eg:- tape drives, printers, xy recorders, cd disc drives
 1) DC SERVOMOTORS
It is classified as ,
A) Armature Controlled DC Servo Motor.
B) Field Controlled DC Servo Motor.
 A) ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC
SERVO MOTORS

▪ Armature winding control signal.

▪ Field winding constant current source.

FEATURES
▪ Small time constant.
▪ Closed loop system.
▪ Preferred for large rate motors.
 B) Field Controlled DC Servo Motor.

▪ Field winding control signal.

▪ Armature winding constant current.

FEATURES
▪ Large time constant.
▪ Open loop system.
▪ Preferred for smaller rate motors.
 A) Transfer Function of Armature Controlled
D.C Servo Motor
Ra La Tmotor

Input: Armature voltage; Va B

ia
Output: Angular displacement θ Va eb T J
θ
Elecrical Subsystem (loop method):

di a
Va = R a ia + L a + eb , where e b = back-emf v oltage
dt
Mechanical Subsystem

d θ 2
dθ
Tmotor =J 2 +B
dt dt
 A)Transfer Function of Armature Controlled
D.C Servo Motor
R L a a
We Know that B
ia
u eb T J
Torque-Current: Tmotor = K t ia θ
Voltage-Speed: dθ
eb = K b
dt
where Kt: torque constant, Kb: velocity constant For an ideal motor Kt = Kb
Combing previous equations results in the following mathematical
model:
 di a dθ
 L a dt + R a i a + K b dt = Va

J d 2
θ dθ
+B = K t ia
 dt 2
dt
 A) Transfer Function of Armature Controlled
D.C Servo Motor
Taking Laplace transform of the system’s differential equations
with zero initial conditions gives:
 (L a s + R a )I a (s) + K b s θ (s) = Va(s)

 ( Js + B )s θ (s)
 = I a (s)
 Kt
Substituting Ia in Va(s) and re arranging the equation

θ(s) Kt
=
Va(s) ( Js 2 + Bs )(La s + Ra ) + K t K b s
 B) Transfer Function of Field Controlled
D.C Servo Motor
Rf Ra La

if
Vf Lf Tm J ea
B ω

Applying KVL at field circuit

di f
Vf = if Rf + Lf
dt
Mechanical Subsystem d θ2
dθ
Tm = J 2 + B
dt dt
 B)Transfer Function of Field Controlled
D.C Servo Motor
We Know that

Torque-Current: Tm = K f i f

where Kf: torque constant

Combing previous equations and taking Laplace transform

(considering initial conditions to zero) results in the following
mathematical model:
V f ( s ) = R f I f ( s ) + sL f I f ( s )
 2
 Js θ ( s ) + Bs θ ( s ) = K f I f ( s )
 B) Transfer Function of Field Controlled
D.C Servo Motor
V (s)
= I
f
(s) Substituting If(S) in below eqn.
+ SL
f
R
Js θ ( s ) + Bs θ ( s ) = K f I f ( s )
f f
2

Vf
( Js + Bs )θ ( s ) = K
2

R f + sL
f
f

θ (s) K
=
f

V f (s) (Js 2
)
+ Bs ( L f s + R f )
 2) AC SERVO MOTORS
❑ Induction motor with low (X/R) ratio.
❑ Consists of two main parts
as follows,

STATOR
❑ Two windings displaced by 90 degree.

▪ Reference winding constant AC supply.

▪ Control winding control voltage from servo
amplifier.
 ROTOR
✓ It is classified into two types as follows
1) SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
✓ Use of aluminium reduces weight.
✓ Low inertia.
✓ Air gap is small.
✓ High resistance.
2) DRAG CUP ROTOR
✓ Two air gaps.
✓ Used in low power application
applicatio ns.
✓ Made up of aluminium.
 WORKING

▪ The voltage applied to stator creates RMF which

makes rotor shaft to rotate.
▪ Torque-Speed
Speed characteristics.
✓ Linear for low (X/R) ratio.
✓ Non-linear
linear for high (X/R) ratio.
▪ Linear characteristics depends on control
voltage.
▪ It is operated in low speed range.
 AC SERVO MOTOR FEATURES

o Small (X/R) ratio & high efficiency.

o Smooth, Less weight & low cost.
o Robust construction & noise free working.

APPLICATIONS OF AC SERVO MOTORS

o Recorders,Computers and Robotics.
 2) Transfer Function of AC Servo Motor
Input: Armature voltage; Vc
Output: Angular displacement θm

The Torque developed by the motor is

d θ m (t ) θ
Tm = KV c (t ) + m
dt Tm

The Total Torque developed by the rotor is

d θ m (t )
2
d θ m (t )
Tm = J 2
+ Bo
dt dt
Where m= slope of speed-torque
torque characteristics
K= slope of Vc-torque characteristics
 2) Transfer Function of AC Servo Motor
Equating the torque equations

d θ m (t ) d θ m (t )
2
d θ m (t )
KV c ( t ) + m =J 2
+ Bo
dt dt dt
Applying Laplace Transformations

KVc ( s ) + ms θ m ( s ) = ( Js + Bo s )θ m ( s )
2

Re arranging
KVc ( s ) = ( Js 2 + Bo s − ms )θ m ( s )

θ m (s) K
Transfer Function is; =
Vc ( s ) ( Js + Bo s − ms )
2
SYNCHROS
 Synchros
Synchros is a transducer which converts angular
displacement to voltage. It is similar to three phase
alternator.

They can be used in following two ways

1.To control the angular position of load from a remote
place.
2.For automatic correction of changes due to disturbance
in the angular position of the load.
 Synchro:: Schematic Diagram

Transmitter Receiver
 Synchro Transmitter
Salient
Pole

❖The
The input to the synchro transmitter is the angular
position of its rotor shaft.
❖By
By measuring and identifying the set of
voltages at the stator terminal
 Synchro Transmitter

❑ When therotor is
excited by ac voltage, the
rotor current flows, and
a magnetic field is
produced.

❑ The rotor magnetic field

induces an emf in the stator
coils by transformer action.
 Synchro Receiver or Control Transformer

➢The generated emf of

the synchro is applied as
input to the stator coils Cylindrical
of control transformer.
➢This emf can be
measured used to
drive a motor so that
the position of the
load is corrected.
 Application: Synchro as Error Detector

The Error is given by .

Application: Synchro as Error Detector
▪ The synchro error detector is formed by
interconnection of a synchro transmitter and
synchro receiver/ synchro control transformer.

▪ Initially the shaftsof transmitter and control

transformer are assumed to be in
aligned position.
▪ The null position of a Synchro receiver control
transformer in a servo system is that position of
its rotor forwhich the output voltage on the rotor
winding is zero
 TACHO
GENERATOR
 Tachogenerator
• The word Tachogenerator comes from Greek word
‘TACHO’.

• In Greek, Tacho means speed.

speed Generator means an
instrument which generate power.

• Tachogenerator, is a device which is used for

measuring the speed of a shaft and converting into a
voltage so that it can be measured.
measured

• In other words, it converts angular velocity into

voltage.
 Tachometer// Tachogenerator
USES

Tachometer is used for measuring rotational speed

Can be used to measure speed of a rotating shaft

Can also be used to measure flow of liquid by

attaching a wheel with inclined vanes
 Histo
ory

 The inventor is the German engineer Dietrich Uhlhorn

 He used it for measuring the speed of machines in 1817

 Since 1840, it has been used to measure the speed of

locomotives
 Classification

 Tachometers can be classified on the basis of

1) Contact or non contact types

2) Analog or Digital type

3) DC or AC Tachometer
1) Classification Based on Data
Acquisition Technique

Contact
Contact type – The wheel of
the tachometer needs to be
brought into contact with the
rotating object
Non
Non Contact type – The
measurement can be made
without having to attach the
tachometer to the rotating
object
 2) Comparison Between Analog
and Digital Tachometers

• Analog Tachometer • Digital Tachometer

• Has a needle and dial • Has a LCD or LED readout
type of interface • Memory is provided for
• No provision for storage storage
of readings • Can perform statistical
• Cannot compute functions like averaging,
average, deviation, e tc etc
Digital Tachometers
 Analog Tachometers
These are generally the
ones that display the
speed of a car

The interface is needle

and dial arrangement

2
9
 3) DC Tachogenerator

• A DC Tachogenerator is a small DC generator, which

has to generate electrical voltage corresponding to
the speed of rotating machine.
machine

• The produced voltage is dynamically-induced

dynamically EMF.

• When the conductor is in motion and the field is in

stationary an EMF is induced in the conductor and
this type of EMF is called Dynamically-induced
Dynamically EMF.
Schematic Diagram
 Operating Principle
• The operating principle of DC tachogenerator is
same as that of DC generator and is based on the
principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction.
• According to the law, when an conductor move in
a magnetic field it cuts the magnetic lines of force,
due to which an EMF is induced in the conductor.
As the induced voltage is proportional to angular speed
Therefore V=Kg θ ; where Kg is constant
Applying Laplace Transformation
V(s)= Kg θ(s)
Then Transfer Function of DC Tachogenerator is given by
V(s)/ θ(s)= Kg
 DC Tachogenerator: Continued
• The field system may be in the form of electromagnet or
permanent magnet, and it is the stationary part of the DC
Tachogenerator.
• The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of
rotation.
• The commutator collects current from armature
conductors and converts internally induced AC EMF into
DC (unidirectional) EMF.
• The brushes are used to collect current from commutator
and make it available to external circuitry of the DC
tachogenerator.
• The series resistance is used to limit the current under
output short circuit condition.
condition
 3) AC Tachometers

• The AC tachogenerator is a small

brushless alternator with a rotating multi-
pole permanent magnet.
magnet The output
voltage is again measured by a voltmeter
although the varying frequency will affect
the accuracy of this instrument.
 Construction

It consists of:
• Permanent Magnet
• Coil (Stator)
• Rectifier Bridge
• Moving Coil (MC) Voltmeter
Schematic Diagram
 Working

• In AC tachogenerator, the armature is provided

with an AC winding, either single phase or three
phase windings.
• When the rotor is stationary and primary
winding excited by an AC input voltage, the
induced voltage in secondary is zero. Due to
relative position of two winding being placed at
900 to each other.
 AC Tachogenerator: Continued
• As the rotor rotates, a voltage is induced in the
secondary winding whose magnitude is
proportional to the rotor speed.
• The emf induced in quadrature coil is directly
proportional to the rotor speed and is in phase
with applied voltage to the reference coil.
Vt = Kgθ (t)
Applying Laplace Transformation
V(s)= Kg θ(s)
Then Transfer Function of AC Tachogenerator is given by
V(s)/ θ(s)= Kg
 Differences
ences

AC Tachogenerator DC Tachogenerator
It is use to measure speed only in It is use to measure speed in both
one direction only. direction.
Need of rectifier to convert AC Output is in DC form therefore no
output into DC. need of rectifier.

Ripples are reduced. Small ripples are appearing at

output.
No problem of brush friction and Problem of wear and tear brushes
brush bounce. at high speed.

Maintenance is difficult. Easy to maintenance.

Pictures
 Control Systems Engineering
UNIT
UNIT-1
Problematic Topics Theory Topics
 Transfer function  Open-loop and closed-loop
systems
 Determination of TF of  Control System Components
Electrical Systems
Servomotor
 Determination of TF of  Synchro
Mechanical Systems. Tachometer

 Block diagram representation

& Reduction to determine TF

 Signal flow graphs - Mason’s

Gain Formula to determine TF
Prepared by Dr. ABID NAYEEMUDDIN.M
Reference

 Control System Engineering

- J. J. Nagrath, M. Gopal
 Feedback Control System
- R. A. Barapate
 ModernControl Engineering

- K. Ogata