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ILP-2022
(Integrated Learning Program)

Value Add Notes (VAN)

HISTORY
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IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 5
PERIODISATION OF INDIAN HISTORY (TIMELINE) .............................................................. 10
Modern Histography: ....................................................................................................... 10
Sources to Study Ancient Indian History: .......................................................................... 11
STONE AGE.................................................................................................................................... 12
Paleolithic Age ................................................................................................................. 12
Mesolithic Age: (10,000 – 4000 BC) .................................................................................. 14
Sites: ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Neolithic Age: (7000 – 1000 BC) ....................................................................................... 15
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION.............................................................. 17
Discovery:........................................................................................................................ 17
Famous Sites ................................................................................................................... 17
Town Planning and Structures.......................................................................................... 24
Agriculture ...................................................................................................................... 28
Domestication of Animals ................................................................................................ 30
Technology ...................................................................................................................... 30
Crafts............................................................................................................................... 31
Trade ............................................................................................................................... 31
Political Organization ....................................................................................................... 32
Temples ........................................................................................................................... 33
Religious Practices ........................................................................................................... 33
The Harappan Script ........................................................................................................ 36
Weights and Measures .................................................................................................... 37
Harappan Pottery ............................................................................................................ 38
Seals ................................................................................................................................ 38
Images ............................................................................................................................. 38
Terracotta Figurines ......................................................................................................... 40
Reasons of Decline........................................................................................................... 41
Post Urban phase of Harappan Culture (1900-1200 BC) .................................................... 41
VEDIC PERIOD ............................................................................................................................... 42
Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC) ............................................................................................ 42

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Rig Veda .......................................................................................................................... 43

Aryans ............................................................................................................................. 44
Aryans in India ................................................................................................................. 44
Occupation/Economy of Rig Vedic Society ....................................................................... 46
Political Organization ....................................................................................................... 47
Religion and Faith ............................................................................................................ 51
Social Conditions ............................................................................................................. 53
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC).............................................................................................. 56
Archaeological Sources: ................................................................................................... 56
Literary Sources ............................................................................................................... 57
Living Pattern .................................................................................................................. 59
Political organization ....................................................................................................... 62
Social organization........................................................................................................... 63
Ashramas............................................................................................................................... 66
Gods, Rituals and Philosophy ........................................................................................... 67
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 69
Do you know?.................................................................................................................. 69
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM ............................................................................................................ 73
Causes of Origin ............................................................................................................... 73
Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism ................................................................................. 75
Jainism ............................................................................................................................ 75
Doctrines of Jainism ......................................................................................................... 78
Philosophy....................................................................................................................... 79
Spread of Jainism ............................................................................................................. 81
Contribution of Jainism .................................................................................................... 82
Gautama Buddha and Buddhism ...................................................................................... 84
Tripitakas .............................................................................................................................. 85
Stories of Buddha’s Earlier Life: ........................................................................................ 85
Doctrines of Buddhism..................................................................................................... 87
Decline of Buddhism ........................................................................................................ 94
Buddism and Jainism- Comparative Study ........................................................................ 95
Buddha’s Gestures ........................................................................................................... 99

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MAURYAN EMPIRE ..................................................................................................................... 106

Possible Dimensions from which a question can be asked on Mauryan Dynasty ............. 108
Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrochotus/Androchotus in Greek records) ........................... 111
Bindusara (Amitrachotus) .............................................................................................. 112
Ashoka .......................................................................................................................... 113
Arthashastra .................................................................................................................. 126
Mauryan Administration ................................................................................................ 128
Indica ............................................................................................................................ 131
Economic Regulations .................................................................................................... 131
Social and Cultural Life ................................................................................................... 133
Mauryan Art .................................................................................................................. 133
Causes of Decline of Mauryan Empire ............................................................................ 140
Points to Remember: ..................................................................................................... 141
POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS ..................................................................................................... 143
Indo – Greeks (Bactrians) ............................................................................................... 143
Shakas (Scythians – Central Asia) ................................................................................... 145
Parthians (Phalvas) – Persia ........................................................................................... 146
Kushanas (Yuthi Tribe) – Central Asia ............................................................................. 146
Some great scholars of this period: ................................................................................ 146
Contribution of Kushans: ............................................................................................... 146
Impact of Central Asian Contacts ................................................................................... 148
Origin of Mahayana Buddhism ....................................................................................... 150
Mathura School of Art ................................................................................................... 150
Gandhara School of Art .................................................................................................. 151
Amravati School of Art ................................................................................................... 152
Satavahanas/Andhras .................................................................................................... 155
Social Organization ........................................................................................................ 163
Administration .............................................................................................................. 164
Religion ......................................................................................................................... 164
Architecture .................................................................................................................. 165
Language ....................................................................................................................... 171
CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE ............................................... 171

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Trade with Eastern Roman Empire ................................................................................. 175

Foreign Trade ................................................................................................................ 176
Money Economy ............................................................................................................ 177
Urban Settlements......................................................................................................... 177
SANGAM AGE ............................................................................................................................. 178
Important Literary Pieces ............................................................................................... 179
Tolkappiyam .................................................................................................................. 180
Shilapaddigram ................................................................................................................... 180
Manimekalai ....................................................................................................................... 180
Political History ............................................................................................................. 181
Sangam Society ............................................................................................................. 184
Economy of the Sangam Age .......................................................................................... 186
GUPTA PERIOD ........................................................................................................................... 187
Background ................................................................................................................... 187
Gupta Administration .................................................................................................... 197
Economy ....................................................................................................................... 200
Social Developments ..................................................................................................... 201
Buddhism and Bhagvatism ............................................................................................. 202
Literature ...................................................................................................................... 203
Art ................................................................................................................................. 208
Architecture .................................................................................................................. 211
Paintings During Gupta Period ....................................................................................... 214
Decline of Gupta Empire ................................................................................................ 214
HARSHA AND HIS TIMES ............................................................................................................ 217
Administration .............................................................................................................. 219
Huen Tsang .................................................................................................................... 219
TEST YOUR CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................ 220
IMPORTANT POIINTS/TERMS FROM ANCIENT INDIA & CULTURE .................................... 221
Six School of Philosophy ............................................................................................................ 229

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INTRODUCTION

Hello Friends,

In this block, we will be discussing the Indian History. As we have already disused in the
introductory module of Geography, Geography and History as disciplines were born in Greece
where writers used to accompany the kings during their voyages and wars.

This art of writing events in a sequential order became histography.

As discussed before, History shapes our habits, culture, values, dressing, cuisine etc. As history
shapes our society, it has been kept in GS Paper 1 with geography and Indian society.

In this Module, we are going to learn about Ancient India. You will find a good number of
questions asked in UPSC Prelims from this section.

Let us look into few previous years’ questions to get an idea:

Q.1) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.

2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but
existed forever in a latent form.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q.2) The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated
paintings at

a) Ajanta
b) Badami
c) Bagh
d) Ellora

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Q.3) With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus
Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus
Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only
copper and iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley
people having been aware of this animal.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Q.4) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism

2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to
it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Q.5) Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha
Mudra’. It symbolizes

a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his
meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of
Mara

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c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve
into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context

Q.6) Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas.
What is the difference between the two?

a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks
b) (b)Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks
c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it
d) There is no material difference between the two

Q.7) Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:

1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did
not dominate the scene,
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q.8) Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization?

1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below.

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None of the statements given above is correct

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Q.9) The “dharma” and “rita” depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India, in this
context, consider the following statements

1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one’s duties to oneself
and to others.
2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it
contained.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q.10) The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of

a) Bhakti
b) image worship and Yajnas
c) worship of nature and Yajnas
d) worship of nature and Bhakti

Q.11) The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the Emblem of India is
taken from

a) Katha Upanishad
b) Chandogya Upanishad
c) Aitareya Upanishad
d) Mundaka Upanishad

Q.12) Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian
Philosophy?

a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
c) Lokayata and Kapalika
d) Sankhya and Yoga

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Q.13) The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by

a) Universal Law
b) Universal Truth
c) Universal Faith
d) Universal Soul

Q.14) With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following was/were common
to both Buddhism and Jainism?

1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment

2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals

Select the correct answer using the codes given below

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Q.15) Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha
Mudra’. It symbolizes

a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his
meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of
Mara
c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve
into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context

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IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – HISTORY MODULE 1

PERIODISATION OF INDIAN HISTORY (TIMELINE)

• Stone Ages - 5 lakh - 1000 BC

• Indus Valley Civilization - 2500 - 1750 BC
• Vedic culture: 1500 - 600 BC
• Jainism and Buddhism: 6th – 5th C BC
• Mahajanapadas before Mauryas: 6th – 4th BC
• Mauryan: 4th – 2nd C BC
• Post Mauryan History: 2nd – 3rd C AD
• Gupta Period: 4th – 6th AD
• Harshvardhan: 7th C AD
• Sangam Literature

MODERN HISTOGRAPHY:

Histography is the writing of History or the study of the written Histories.

In the late 18th century, especially after 1773, when East India Company officially got the
governing powers, British began the discovery of the Ancient Indian history to better understand
the local people and their culture. Several types of interpretations of the History were written:

Official History: It portrayed ancient Indian history in bad light. The main reason was to create a
mental impression that British culture and civilization is much superior and it has the natural right
to rule India. According to them, Indian history was dark history, backward, superstitious, idol
worshippers, snake charmers, uncivilized, Indians didn’t know how to rule themselves, were
always ruled by the outsiders, women was always suppressed etc.

Independent European Writers: They wrote Indian history with curiosity and appreciated the
rich and colorful culture.

Indian Scholars: They started writing in the latter half of the 19 th century. Secular Nationalists
glorified the ancient History and praised the Indian culture. They wanted Indians to be proud of
their cultural richness and not to feel inferior. Communal Nationalists over glorified the history,
hiding even the shortcomings.

Marxist Historians: They wrote history as class struggles in different phases-

• Ancient period – Masters vs. Slaves

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• Medieval period – feudal lords vs. peasants

• Modern period – capitalists vs. workers

Subaltern Writers: They did not write history focusing on kings and kingdoms, but their focus
was peasants, workers, artisans, regional kingdoms and smaller areas.

SOURCES TO STUDY ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY:

• Archaeological Sources
• Literary Sources

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
• Ruins of the buildings and cities: It is studied through excavations.
Excavations can be horizontal and vertical.
Horizontal excavation: It shows the proper areal extent of a civilization in a particular
time.
Vertical Excavation: It is helpful in showing different timelines.
Note: Vertical excavation is more prevalent in India because it is less costly. Also since
most of the land is in private hands people don’t allow the digging.
• Potteries: They tell about the local culture and technique.
• Graveyard/ Burial Grounds: It tells about the faith of contemporary civilization.
• Coins/Seals: Extent of empire, trade pattern and trade relations, symbols and language,
prosperity and economy.
• Buildings: It tells about the living standard and culture. It also tells about science and tech
and archaeological expertise of people.
• Tools and weapons: these again tell about the economy and wars. Also the extent of those
wars.
• Fossils

LITERARY SOURCES
Based on Literary sources, history is divided into three phases:

• Pre-history – a period for which no written records are available. e.g. Stone Age.
• Proto-history – a period for which written records are available but they have not yet
deciphered, e.g. Indus valley Civilization.
• History – a period for which not only written records are available but such texts have
been deciphered as well. This age starts from 6th C BC onwards.

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STONE AGE

In the context of Indian sub-continent, Stone Age is divided into following ages:

• Paleolithic Age: 5 lakh – 10,000 BC

• Mesolithic Age: 10000 BC – 4000 BC
• Neolithic Age: 7000 – 1000 BC
• Chalcolithic Age (Copper age): 2500 – 750 BC

(NOTE: the time line of these ages is overlapping because the ages started at different places at
different times.)

PALEOLITHIC AGE

Also known as Old Stone Age

SITES:
• Sohan Valley/ Soan Valley – Punjab (Pakistan)
• Narmada Valley
• Krishna Valley
• Chotanagpur plateau

Bori Valley in Maharashtra has the earliest evidence of human existence in Indian Sub-continent.

TOOLS:
• Hand Axes
• Borers
• Chopper
• Pebbles
• Flakes

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Tools were made of stones. A cutting edge was created by chipping and flaking the stone.

LIFE STYLE:
Food Habits: People were hunters and gatherers. They were omnivorous i.e. both vegetarian and
non-vegetarian.

Clothing: Used to wear leaves and hides of animals.

Housing: Caves – hence preferred hilly areas as they provided security and natural caves;
thatched huts (The information is gained by Bhimbetka cave paintings.)

Do you know?

• Narmada Man or Narmada Human is the earliest Homo species of Indian sub-continent.
This fossil was found on banks of Narmada River in Hathnora Village of Madhya Pradesh
in 1982.

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MESOLITHIC AGE: (10,000 – 4000 BC)

SITES:
• Adamgarh – Madhya Pradesh
• Bagore – Rajasthan
• Bhimbetka – Madhya Pradesh

Pic courtesy: entrancegeek.

TOOLS:
• Blades which were sharp on both edges
• Crescent
• Trapezes
• Arrow

(Note: the size of the tools became smaller (Microliths). They required more skill and precision
to make.)

LIFE STYLE:
• Life style was similar to Paleolithic man except one major change – domestication of
animals started.
• The economy of early period of Mesolithic age was based on hunting, fishing and food
gathering. Slowly domesticating crops and animals made their way into human life.

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• Human Burial- Mesolithic human burials have been found at Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj
in Gujarat, Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh etc.

NEOLITHIC AGE: (7000 – 1000 BC)

SITES:
• Chirand – Bihar (Only bone tools were found)
• Burzahom and Guftral – Kashmir
• Bhimbetka – M.P.
• Belan Valley – UP
• Mehrgarh – Balochistan (First agricultural evidence is found)
• Maski and Brahmagiri – Karnataka (Both Neolithic and chalcolithic tools are found)

TOOLS:
• Antelope horns – Kashmir
• Oval shaped – Southern India
• Polished Stone – Bihar

You can observe the sharpness and the fineness of the tools have changed.

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LIFE STYLE:
• Man became a food producer. First evidence of agriculture is found at Mehrgarh (Wheat
and Barley; 7000 – 6000 BC), Belan Valley (Rice; 6000 BC)
• Clothing: Animal skin, leaves, bark.
• Housing: Thatched houses made of mud were made.
• People started living in bigger groups because of agriculture. Pottery making started with
the help of a wheel.
• Unique burial methods were seen like the one shown on the cover page of the module. It
is a fossil of Dog at Burzahom. Dog burials were seen here.

CHALCOLITHIC AGE (2500 – 700 BC)

Chalcolithic is also known as Eneolithic period which saw the use of the metals among which the
Copper was first.

SITES:
• Ahar Culture ( Ahar, Gilund in Rajasthan)
• Jorwe Culture ( Inamgaon, Daimabad in Maharashtra)
• Malwa Culture ( Navdatoli, Eran, Kayatha in Madhya Pradesh)

TOOLS:
• Largely made of stone and copper
• Hand Axes, sickles, borers made of copper

LIFE STYLE:
• A developed village life started.
• Food: A variety of crops were grown – wheat, barley, rice, pulses, oil seeds, dates, peas
and water melon.
• Domestication of Animals: Cattle and pigs were domesticated.
• Clothing: Cotton was used in later period.
• Pottery: Ochre Colored Pottery and Black and Red Pottery was used. (OCP and BRP)
• Burials: they buried the dead bodies with the personal belongings of the person. This
shows that they must have believed in life after death. In western India, bodies were
buried in North – South Direction and in Southern India; they were buried in East – West
Direction.
• Housing: Mud and Mud brick houses were found.

Do you know?
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• Belan Valley is the place in India where all the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic sites
are found.
• Robert Bruce foot was the father of Indian pre-history.
• Dolmen, Cairn-circles and Menhirs etc. Megalithic Burials.
• Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) is connected with Late Harappans.
• The earliest evidence of settled agriculture in the subcontinent is found at Mehrgarh
• Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Cultures are found in sequence at Belan Valley
• The earliest evidence of Man in India is found at Narmada Valley.

THE HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION

DISCOVERY:
• Till 19th century, the Indus Valley Civilization was unknown and it was believed that Vedic
people were the oldest inhabitants of India.
• In 1850, during the construction work of railways, some artifacts were found which were
very old. It was an exciting discovery and an excavation was planned. But later, due to
WW-I the excavation as planned had to be postponed.
• In 1921, Harappa was excavated under the leadership of Sir John Marshal and D. R. Sahni.
Harappa is situated on the bank of River Ravi in Punjab (Pakistan).
• In 1922, Mohenjodaro was excavated in Larkana district of Sindh (Pakistan) under the
supervision of R. D. Bannerjee.
• Since similar town planning and artifacts were found, it was concluded that they belonged
to the same civilization despite being 480 miles apart.
• Since Harappa was excavated first, the civilization was named after it due to historical
precedence.

FAMOUS SITES

MOHENJODARO
Also known as "Mound of the Dead"

• Largest site to be excavated/ on river Indus

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Let’s do some advertising too.. :P :P

Since BABA was always there, and BABA will always be.. we predict that the savior of
Mohenjodaro will be born again as ‘Akbar’ in another Value Add :P

Important findings:

Great Bath: A great Bath i.e. a large bath tub was found in the city. It measures 11.88 meters x
7.01 meters and has a maximum depth of 2.43 meters. It is made up of burnt bricks of standard
size. It is believed that it might have been used for some ritual or holy bath.

Great Granary: A large granary is found, showing surplus food production. It also shows that
there was a proper civic administration, storage facilities, and trade and commerce.

Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of dancing girl was found. Apart from wearing necklace and
bangles, it is naked. It shows that dance was practiced. It also shows the artistic and metallurgical
capability of the civilization.

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Yes Mr Gowarikar.. Absolutely Identical!! :D

To cast that bronze image, lost wax technique was used. It is given in detail in the NCERT.

Largest Number of Seals:

• Seals were made of steatite (hard clay) and were probably used as currency (although
barter system prevailed) or as mark of authority for trade.
• Round, Square or Cylindrical shape
• The Harappan script, gods and animals are also depicted on seals giving detailed
information about their practices, beliefs and life in general.

Script: It is a pictographic script. It was written from right to left in one line and then left to right
in other and so on. This type of script is called ‘Boustrophedon’. It has not been deciphered so
far but around 400 unique symbols have been identified.

Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel.

Pashupati Seal: A seal depicting a human image, or Proto Shiva (Pashupati) was found. The image
is surrounded by Tiger, Elephant, Rhino and a Buffalo. It has two deer at his feet.

Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was found in fossilized form.

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Large Building: A large building (probably a palace or the Governor’s house) has been excavated
at the citadel. However, it is not clear whether the Harappan people were governed by a king or
a committee of citizens.

HARAPPA
Located on River Ravi

Important Findings:

• 12 granaries, kept in two rows. (6 in each row)

• To the South of the Granaries lay working floors consisting of rows of circular brick
platforms. These were meant for thrashing grains as wheat and Barley was found in the
crevices of the floor. Two roomed barracks were also found which probably
accommodated the laborers.
• Different types of Burial Practices were performed:
Direct Burial i.e. body was directly buried in the ground
Urn Burial i.e. Body was first cremated and then the ashes were buried in the urn
Coffin Burial
• Second largest numbers of seals were found from Harappa after Mohenjodaro.

KALIBANGAN
River Ghaggar (Rajasthan)

Important Findings:

• Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture

• Evidence of ploughed land is found. Wooden ploughs were used; hence the ploughs have
not survived.
• Evidence of Fire Altars
• Citadel is made of mud bricks. In all other sides, the citadel has been made of Burnt bricks.
• Bones of camel
• Rectangular and circular graves
• No drainage and brunt bricks evidence found here

LOTHAL
River Bhogwa (Gujarat)

Important Findings:

• Dockyard (made of burnt bricks) was used for shipping (artificial dock)
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• Persian seals have been found showing the evidence of Trade.

• Evidence of Rice Husk (This is the only place other than Rangapur in IVC where evidence
of rice is found)
• Entry to houses on the main street
• Evidence of double burial i.e. in one grave- MF (most common), MM, and FF. The reason
why this was done is unknown.
• Evidence of fire Altars

CHANHU DARO
River Indus (Sindh)

Important Findings:

• It is believed that it was the industrial town of the IVC.

• Factories of bangles and beads have been found.
• The only city in the Indus Valley civilization which does not have a citadel was Chanhu
Daro, located some 130 kilometers south of Mohenjo-Daro.

DHOLAVIRA
Important Findings:

• Kutch District, Gujarat.

• Its location is on the Tropic of Cancer
• It is located on Khadir Byet Island in the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann
of Kutch.
• The citadel of Dholavira is built of stone and is a monumental work and most impressive
among the Harappan citadels discovered so far.
• A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system
• One of the most important findings of Dholavira has been a signboard with Indus Script.
• It has a similar bath like Mohenjodaro, but smaller in size.

Other important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation are:

• Rakhigarhi, Ropar, Kot diji, Alamgir Pur, Sokhtagindor etc.

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DO YOU KNOW?
• Rakhigarhi in Hissar, Haryana has been recently declared as the largest site of Indus Valley.
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, a bearded man in steatite image has been found
Mohenjodaro
• Dholavira is the only site to be divided into three parts
• In the Indus Valley Civilization, the remains of Horse bones have been found from
Surkotada site. The site at Surkotada is located 160 km north-east of Bhuj, in the district
of Kutch, Gujarat.
• The Indus valley people knew the use of copper, bronze, silver, gold but not iron.
• The Harappa site is located in Montogomery district of Punjab in Pakistan.

The following map will show the important sites area of Indus valley civilization:

Geographical Extent

• The Harappan culture is older than chalcolithic culture i.e. Harappan culture time period
is 2800 B.C. – 1300 B.C. while chalcolithic age’s time period is 2200 B.C. to 700 B.C.
• It arose in north western part of Indian subcontinent.
• It was first discovered in 1921.
• It is called as Harappan civilization because in archaeology there is a convention that when
an ancient culture is described, it is named after the modern name of first site which

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revealed its existence. In this case Harappa (situated in province of west Punjab in
Pakistan) was the first site and so named Harappan civilization.
• The Harappan culture emerged in Sindh and Punjab. This was Pre Harappan culture and
Central zone of civilization which later developed into mature Urban civilization. It spread
into southward and eastward.
• In other words, Harappan civilization covered – Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.

Extension of Civilization

• North – Jammu, South – Narmada estuary, North-East – Meerut, West - Makrana coast
of Baluchistan. (see the above image)
• Area – 12,99,600 kms.
• The Harappa civilization was 20 times greater than Egypt and 12 times larger than
combining area of Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Sites

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• About 1500 Harappan sites were discovered out of which around 925 are in India.
• These sites belong to early, mature and late phases of Harappan culture but most of them
are late Harappa, post-urban sites. These lie on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra channel.
• Very few sites can be regarded as cities.
o Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two most important cities of Harappan
civilization. Mohenjo-Daro means mound of the dead. Both cities were linked by
Indus River.
o 3rd city – Chanhudaro in Sindh.
o 4th – Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
o 5th – Kalibangan which means black bangles, in northern Rajasthan.
o 6th – Banawali (Hissar, Haryana)
o The last two cities have seen Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.
• The Harappan culture in –
o Mature phase is found in coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada
o Later phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in Kathiwar peninsula in Gujrat.
• Dholvira in Gujarat shows Harappa fortification + all 3 phases of Harappan culture.
• Rakhigarhi in Haryana also shows all the 3 phases. But Rakhigarhi is bigger than Dholavira.

TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES

• Town planning was unique features of this civilization.

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• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro has citadel (a strong castle in or near a city, where people
can shelter from danger, especially during a war). There is a possibility that it can be
occupied by ruling class.

• Below the city there is a lower town consisting of bricks. These may be inhabited by
common people.
• The pattern in which houses were laid was grid or chessboard pattern. In this system the
road or streets cut each other at right angles i.e. 90°. The city was divided into many
blocks. Almost all the Indus settlements have this pattern.
• Mohenjo-Daro has more building structures compared to the Harappa.
• Mohenjo-Daro was able to mobilize labor and collect taxes.
• 2 room barracks found at Harappa were possibly for laborers inhabitation.

GREAT BATH
• Most important place of Mohenjo-Daro.
• It was a tank situated at citadel.
• Example of beautiful brickwork.

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• On both the sides of the great bath there were flights of steps to lead to the surface.
• There are side rooms to change cloths.
• Burnt bricks were used to made floor of the great bath.
• To fill bath with water, a nearby well was used.
• There was an outlet in the corner of the bath so that water can be drained when not
needed.
• It is believed that this bath was mainly for ritual bathing.

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GRANARIES
Mohenjo-Daro granaries

• These were the largest buildings in Mohenjo-Daro.

Harappa Granaries

• Harappa was having 6 granaries.

• The granaries at Harappa had same area as Great granary at Mohenjo-Daro.

• To the south of the Granaries, working floors were there which were used to thrash the
grains.
• How do we know this? – Remains of wheat and barley had been found in cervices of these
floors.

Kalibangan granaries

• In southern part of the city we found some brick platforms which could have been used
for storing grains indicating that granaries were an important part of Harappan cities.
• Probably, peasants paid their taxes in form of cereals which was stored in granaries for
payment of wages and emergency purposes. (In Mesopotamia barley was used for wage
payments)

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BURNT BRICKS USAGE

• Burnt bricks were used remarkably in construction of buildings in Harappa. While Egypt
used dried bricks for same purpose.
• Baked bricks were also used by Mesopotamia.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM
• Drainage system was impressive as almost all cities and towns were having drainage
system.
• In every city each small or big house had its own courtyard and bathroom with remarkable
quality.
• Kalibangan – many houses had their own wells.

• Water from houses flowed to the streets which had drains.

• These drains were covered with stones slabs or bricks. (you can see in above image)
• These street drains were also having manholes used for cleaning purposes.
• Remains of street and drains had also been found at Banawali.
• The drainage system of Harappa is very unique.
• Harappan’s attention to health and clean probably had no match by other Bronze Age
civilization.

AGRICULTURE
• It seems that in ancient times Indus region was very fertile.
• Evidences of it are prosperity of the villages and towns and information by Alexander’s
historian’s about prosperity of Sindh.

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• Present day Indus region has hardly 15 centimeters rainfall. While in ancient times
abundant vegetation attracted more rainfall but clearing of forests for agriculture, fuel,
timber, grazing had largely affected rainfall.
• The secret of fertility of Indus region was annual inundation by Indus River. Walls rose for
protection shows that flood takes place annually.
• The Indus carried more alluvial soil than Nile River.
• Nile River in Egypt supported its people. Similarly, Indus helped and fed Sindh people.
• After receding of flood water in month of November the Indus people sowed the seeds
and in month of April i.e. before coming of next flood they harvested wheat and Barley.

AGRICULTURE TOOLS
• No trace of any hoe or ploughshare but ploughed field found in Kalibangan shows that
fields were ploughed.

• Probably they would have wooden ploughshare which degraded with time.
• How these ploughshares were drawn i.e. by men or oxen is unknown.
• Maybe they have used stone sickles to harvest the crops.

IRRIGATION
• Nalas or Gabarbands enclosed by dams were used to store water in Baluchistan and
Afghanistan.
• Channel or canal irrigation – absent or not known to them.

FOOD GRAIN PRODUCTION

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• Harappan villages situated near flood plains produced sufficient food grains for
themselves as well as for other communities like artisans, merchants and others who lived
in the city and don’t produce their foods. (Just like today’s farmers).
• In other words, there was surplus of food grains.
• They produced wheat and barley (2 types), rai, peas, sesamum and mustard.
• In Lothal – rice was produced in 1800 B.C.
• Food grains were stored in granaries.
• Cotton’s earliest producers were Harappans. Greeks called it as Sindon (derived from
Sindh) because cotton was first produced by it.

DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
• Animals which were domesticated - Oxen, buffaloes, goats, ships and pigs.

• Animal favored by Harappans – Humped Bull.

• Pets – Dogs. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both are found.
• Animals for beasts of burden – Camel and ass.
• Horse evidences –Surkotada (Horse remains in 2000 B.C.)
• But Harappan culture was not horse-centered and there were no bones of horses in early
and mature phases of Harappan culture.
• Harappans knew Elephant and Rhinoceros.
• Similarity of Harappans with Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia – same food grains
production and same animals’ domestication.
• Difference – Harappans in Gujarat produce rice and domesticated elephant which wasn’t
in Mesopotamian cities.

TECHNOLOGY
• Harappan culture belongs to Bronze Age.
• They used the tools made of stone but they were also aware of manufacturing of Bronze
and use of bronze.

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• Bronze is made by mixing tin and copper. But both were not available locally and so the
numbers of bronze tools were less.
• Copper - was obtained from Khetri mines in Rajasthan’s Juhnjhunu district. It could have
been brought from Balochistan as well.
• Tin – it was brought from Afghanistan or Hazaribagh and Bastar.
• The bronze tools discovered from Harappan sites were having less percentage of tin.
• Bronze smiths – they were an important artisan group in Harappan society. They
produced images, utensils, axes, saws, knives and spears

CRAFTS

TEXTILE
• We read above that Harappans were earliest to produce cotton.
• A piece of woven cotton has been found from Mohenjo-Daro.
• Spindle whorls – it was used for spinning.
• Weavers – they weave cloths from wool and cotton.

OTHER CRAFTS
• Brick laying, masons, boat-making, seal making and terracotta manufacturers were
important crafts.
• Goldsmiths – they made jewelry from gold, Silver and precious stones. Gold and silver was
obtained from Afghanistan while precious stones were brought from South India.
• Bead making – Harappans were exporters in bead making.
• Pottery making – for pottery making potter’s wheel was used. Pottery was having its own
characteristic with glossy and shining.

TRADE
• Granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal, numerous seals, uniform scripts,
regulated weights and measures suggest importance of trade in Harappan civilization.
• Inland trade - They traded in stone, metal, shell etc.
• They didn’t possess raw material for the production of commodities.
• Money system – Today we have notes and coins but Harappans were not having any metal
money. Most probably they were having barter system, in which they procure metals in
exchange of food grains.
• Navigation – They practice navigation on coast of Arabian Sea.
• Wheel – They knew about wheel and it was used in carts.
• They used kind of modern ekka but not spoked wheel.

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TRADE WITH AFGHANISTAN, IRAN AND MESOPOTAMIA

• Commercial links with one area of Rajasthan, and also with Afghanistan and Iran.
• Trading colony – Harappans had setup a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which
facilitated trade with central Asia.
• Trade with Mesopotamia–because Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia.
• The trade between two mostly in lapis lazuli in 2300 B.C. Mesopotamian texts speak of
trading relations with Meluha which was ancient name of Indus region. They also told us
about two intermediate stations – Dilmun and Makan – between the Meluha and
Mesopotamia. Dilmun can probably be present Bahrain in Persian Gulf while Makan is
present Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
• There is no clear idea about the political organisation of the Indus Valley people. Unlike
the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians they have not left behind any inscription describing
their system of administration.

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• Perhaps the Indus valley people were more concerned with commerce and they were
ruled by a class of merchants. But it can be safely stated that there was an organisation
like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.

TEMPLES
• While Egypt and Mesopotamia were having temples there is no evidence of temple like
structure in Harappa's culture.
• In Lothal, there are evidences of practicing of fire cult but evidences of temples are
missing.

Figure fire altars are from Kalibangan and Lotha

• Probably Harappa was ruled by class of merchants, who were more concerned with
commerce than conquests. It must be noted that the Harappans lack in weapons.

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
• Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found from Harappa.
• In one of the figurines, a plant is growing out of the embryo of women representing earth
goddess. This goddess was connected with the origin and growth of plants.
• The Harappans worshipped earth goddess as fertility goddess and in similar manner as
Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.

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• But we are not sure that Harappa's like Egyptians were matriarchal or not.
• In Egypt daughter inherits the throne or property, but in Harappa who inherits this, we
have no knowledge about this.
• It is only in 6th century AD onwards that various mother goddesses such as Durga, Kali,
Chandi, Amba etc. came to be regarded as goddess in Puranas and Tantric literatures.

The Male Deity (Proto Shiva) in the Indus Valley

• In Harappan civilization the male deity was represented on seal

• The male deity was having three (3) horns head. He sits like a yogi on a stool in cross-
legged position.
• Animals like Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros and Buffalo surrounded him while two Deer are
under his stool.

Code to remember the animals in seal – DBT (Deer, Buffalo, Tiger) scheme in Russia and
England (Rhino and Elephant)
• The male deity in seal is identified as Pashupati Mahadev which is doubtful. Horned Gods
appear in other ancient civilization also.

Phallus worship
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• Phallus worship existed in Harappan times which later connected with Shiva.
• Evidences of phallus worship - numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs
made of stone.
• According to Rig-Veda Non-Aryan people were also worshippers of phallus.
• Phallus worship had been started by Harappans which later become respectable form of
worship in Hindu society.

Tree Worship

• Other than worshipping phallus, male deity and mother goddess, Harappans also
worshipped trees and animals.
• Pipal - most important tree which was worshipped and even worshipped today.
• Evidences - Deity represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of Pipal.

Animal Worship

• Like other worship evidences, animal worship can also be seen on seals.
• One horned unicorn - Most important animal to be worshipped. Identified with
Rhinoceros.

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• Humped bull - Next important animal which was worshipped.

• Animals in Pashupati seal indicates that they were also worshipped.
• These Gods in form of trees, animals, were not placed in temples while in Ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia it was common.
• Scholars have not said anything about religious beliefs of Harappan as their script is not
deciphered.
• Amulets – these were found in large numbers, probably because of belief in ghosts and
evil forces which could harm them and they used amulets which protected them from evil
spirit.
• Atharvaveda composed in Vedic period consists of many charms and spells and
recommends amulets for warning of diseases and evils forces.

THE HARAPPAN SCRIPT

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• Harappan like ancient Mesopotamians invented the art of writing.

• The Harappan script is a mystery because it has not been deciphered.
• Many have linked it with other languages like Dravidian or Proto Dravidian or Sanskrit or
Sumerian but it’s an indigenous product and has nothing to do with other languages.
• Because of non-decipherment of script, we can’t conclude anything about its religion,
ideas and beliefs.
• Most of the script is found on seals, using very few words. Seals were used for
authentication purposes. (for example if a packet is sealed, its contents are safe)
• Only one thing which we know about script is – it is pictographic and not alphabetic.
o There were 250 to 400 pictographs
o Each picture represents an idea or object.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

• We know that Harappans have some script and they also trade. The script must have
helped them to record the transactions, day to day activities, property details etc.
• There are number of articles found which were used for weights and measures
o 16 or its multiples – in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used. Example –
16, 64, 460, 320 and 640
o This tradition of 16 continued till post-independence era and 46 annas made one
rupee.

• They also knew about measurement.

• Evidences – sticks inscribed with measure marks. One of the sticks was made of bronze.

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HARAPPAN POTTERY

• Used potter’s wheel to made pots

• Numerous pots painted in various designs.
• Designs – trees and circles and also geometry

SEALS
• >2000 seals found
• Majority carried short inscription with pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, tiger,
rhinoceros, goat and elephant
• Square or quadrilateral.

IMAGES
• Made beautiful metal images
• Dancing girl made of bronze is master piece of Harappa.

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o She is naked
o Right arm on hip
o Left arm hanging down
o Wearing number of bangles
o Hair is plaited
o Masterpiece of Harappan art
o Drooping eyes
• Bearded priest

o Figure of the bearded man was interpreted as a priest

o He is draped in a shawl which is coming under right arm and covers the left
shoulder.
o Shawl decorated with trefoil pattern
o Eyes – little elongated and half closed like in mediation
o Nose – well-formed and medium size
o Mouth – average size, close cut moustache, short beard and whiskers
o Hair – parted in middle
▪ Plain woven fillet passed round head.
o Head – armlet in right hand

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TERRACOTTA FIGURINES

Terracotta figurines

• Large numbers from Harappan settlements

• Terracotta figurines of animals – birds, monkeys, sheep, dogs and cattles, humped and
• Humpless bulls
• Male and female figurines
• Terracotta bullock carts (today ‘s bullock cart’s ancestors)
• Quality- less than Mesopotamia

Beads

• Made of – agate, turquoise, carnelian and steatite

• Workshop- chanhudaro

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REASONS OF DECLINE
• Amount of rainfall
o 3000 BC – amount of rainfall in Indus region increased and then decreased
affecting the agriculture and stockbreeding
• Decreasing fertility
o Expansion of desert increased salinity which further decreased the fertility again
affecting the agriculture.
• Sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which caused floods
• Earthquake
o Earthquake caused changes in the course of Indus causing inundation of Mohenjo-
Daro hinterland.
• Decline due to foreign Invasion.
o According to this view Vedic Aryans who destroyed the Harappan culture.
o But it is lacked in evidences.

Reality of Decline of Harappan Civilization

• There were lot of factors which contributed in decline of Harappan civilization

• One of the important factors is – ecological imbalance
• Failure in the evolvement i.e. Harappan were conservative. No new technologies.

POST URBAN PHASE OF HARAPPAN CULTURE (1900 -1200 BC)

• Time period- 1900-1200 BC
• Also known as – sub Indus culture
• Earlier considered post Harappan but now more popularly called as late Harappan culture.
• Traits of post urban Harappan culture were found in Pakistan and central and western
India
o Manda, Jammu
o Sanghol in Punjab
o Daulatpur and mitthal, Haryana
o Almgirpur and Hulas in Saharanpur, UP
• It was primarily chalcolithic in which tools of stone and copper were used
• Tools – Axes, chisels, knives, bangles, curved razors, fish-holks and spear-heads
• Economic subsidence – agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing
• Gradual disappearance of measuring objects, human figurines etc.
o Objects to measure length were not found. For e.g. in later period – cubical stone
weights and terracotta cakes were absent in Gujarat.
o All Harappan sites lack human figurines

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o Faience – it went out of fashion

• End of Indus trade with West Asian centers
o Scarcity or absence of Lapis lazuli, chert, carnelian beads and copper and bronze
vessels
• Pottery
o New kinds of pottery occurred in last levels of post urban phase
o In Haryana and Punjab – grey ware and painted grey ware found- these were
associated with Vedic people
• It is said that barbarian horse riding people came from Iran and overran Harappan cities.
But careful examination of evidences revealed that this wasn’t true.
o Successive groups of people may have encountered the people belonging to the
late Harappan phase between 1500 BC and 1200 BC.

VEDIC PERIOD

Vedic period is broadly divided into

• Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC)

• Later Vedic (1000 – 600 BC)

EARLY VEDIC (1500 – 1000 BC)

Early Vedic period is the name given to the period of composition of Rig Veda and arrival of early
Aryans.

Rig Veda is the most important source to know about the early Vedic Period and early Aryans. It
is considered the purest form of Hindu Literature.

Manuscript of Rig Veda written on bark of a tree.

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RIG VEDA

The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’.

Features of Rig Veda –

• Oldest book of any kind in India.

• It was composed during 1500 – 1000 BC in the Punjab region. As a book it was compiled
much later.
• Since Aryans didn’t know how to write, it was preserved for centuries using an oral
tradition.
• In Rig Veda, there are 10 Mandals (chapters), 1028 Suktas (Hymns) and 10465 Shlokas
(verses)
• The Mandals from 2nd to 8th are older. While 1st and 10th mandals are the latest. The term
‘Shudra’, is mentioned for the first time in the 10th mandal.
• The book is written in Vedic Sanskrit. It is the earliest form of Sanskrit, perhaps without
Grammar.
o It has many things common with Avesta (oldest text in Iranian languages)
o Avesta and Rig-Veda had used common names for several gods and social classes.
• Gods and Goddesses are praised in the book. Modern Hindus believe that it is a revealed
book.
• Aryans: the word ‘Aryan’ literally means pure or noble. The name was given to the
linguistic group and not a race. It is believed that they originally came from Eurasia
(Central Asia) and settled in Punjab region. Hence rives Indus has been mentioned several
times in Rig Veda.
• Indus was the most important river for them. Also, river Saraswati has been praised the
most. It is referred as Naditama (Mother River).

OLD NAMES NEW NAMES

Sindhu Indus

Vitasta Jhelum

Askini Chenab

Paurusni Ravi

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Bipasa Beas

Shatudri Satluj

Saraswati Ghaggar

Kubha Kabul

• They were aware of Himalayas but not of Deserts and Seas. In Rig Veda, the word
‘Samudra’ meant a collection of water.
• Since early Aryans did not come from Far East or South, they were not aware of Narmada.
• Ganga is mentioned only once, since it was not socially important, it was not a holy river
then. Yamuna, since it was close to Punjab has been mentioned thrice.

ARYANS
• It was a racial group.
• Spoke – Indo-European language
• Lived in – Southern Russia to Central Asia
• Aryans were aware of rivers and forests
• Earliest life – pastoral
o Agriculture – 2nd occupation
• Important role of horse in their life
o Horse came in their life in 6th millennium BC in black sea and Ural mountain area
o 60000 horse bones appear in Ural area (in 3000 BC)
• Because of Horse’s swiftness, Aryans were able to inroad in West Asia.

ARYANS IN INDIA

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How do we know about their presence in India?

• What has been written in Rig-Veda about Aryans?

o Aryan term occurs 36 times
o It was considered a cultural community
• Earliest example of Indo-European language is found in an inscription of 2200 BC from
Iraq. Later example occurs in following inscriptions -
• Coming of Aryans has no clear and definite archaeological evidence
• They came to India in 1500 BC
• Maybe they have used socketed axe, bronze dirks and swords – found in North western
India
• Horse and horse sacrifices archaeological evidences – Southern Tajikistan (central Asia)
and swat valley.
• Earliest Aryan lived – eastern Afghanistan, NWFP, Punjab and fronts of UP

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•
• On region in which Aryan first settled in India is called as Saptasaindhwa or land of the 7
Rivers (Indus + its 5 tributaries + Sarswati)

Dasas and Dasyus

• After coming into India, they had differences with indigenous inhabitants called Dasas,
dasyus etc.

OCCUPATION/ECONOMY OF RIG VEDIC SOCIETY

• Early Aryans were pastoral nomads. Domestication of Animals was the most important
activity.
• They knew farming, but it was not very developed. Only one crop is mentioned in Rig
Veda, Yava i.e. Barley.
• Gau (Cow) is mentioned several times showing the importance of Cow and cattle. Cow
was the most important property. The wars were not fought for land but for cattle.
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• Some important terms mentioned in Rig Veda related to cow:

Gavisti: Search/conflict for the cow.
Godhuli: Evening time when cows used to return to their shed – measurement of time.
Dudhitra: Milker of the cow.
Gavyanti: Distance travelled by cow in a day – measurement of distance.
Aghanya: Not to be killed.
• Rig Veda mentions certain occupations like – carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers,
Potters and weavers. There is no clear evidence of trade like it is found during IVC.
• Aryans introduced a new mode of Transport, the chariots run by horses. Because of this
they could best the indigenous people with much ease. And that made them a dominating
force. But we don’t find any archaeological evidence of above-mentioned things.

Spoked wheel - Probably 1st to introduce spoked wheel

Copper Possible supply – Khetri mines (Rajasthan)

Craftsmen

• RV mentions
o Carpenter
o Chariot maker
o Weaver
o Leather worker
o Potter etc.
• Practiced all crafts
• Metal working was also known to them.

Trade

• No evidences of regular trade

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

Early Aryans were grouped into tribes based on the cattle. Collectively the tribe was called Jana.
And the leader of it was called a ‘Rajana’.

Territory Leader

Jana Rajana

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Vis Vispati

Gram (War between grams was called Gramani

Sangram)

Kul Kulpati

The post of the Rajana was not hereditary and Gramanis played a major role in making him a
Rajan. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.

The Rajana was assisted by ‘Senapati’ (the head of the army) and ‘Purohit’ (The chief advisor of
the king).

The Rajana was also assisted by some Tribal Assemblies –

a) Vidhati – Oldest assembly, both men and women were a part of it.
b) Sabha – An assembly of Brahmans. Probably both men and women
c) Samiti – Assembly of Villagers, both men and women.

The Rajana collected ‘gifts’ known as ‘Bali’ from his people. These were voluntary and were a
precursor of the taxes. There was no separate office for tax collection or administration of justice.

Note- Status of women in early Vedic period was much better than later Vedic period

TRIBAL CHIEF – RAJANA

• Tribal chief – center of administration machinery
• Successful leadership in war
• Called as Rajana
• He was just a chief with not unlimited power
• He had to reckon with tribal organizations
• Election of king by tribal assembly
• King was protector of his tribe
• He protects tribes’ cows
• Fought war for tribe
• Offer pray to god on behalf of tribe.

PUROHITA
• One of important functionary to help chief or king in day to day administration.
• Vashista and vishwamitra are believed to be two most important priests during Rig Vedic
times.

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• Vasishta – Conservative
• Vishwamitra – Liberal
• He composed the Gayatri mantra to widen the Aryan world.
• They inspired kings for action and praise their exploits expecting rewards from king in the
form of women slaves and cows.

SENAPATI
• Senani is the next important functionary
• He used spears, axes, swords etc.

TAXES
• There is no evidence found for the officer who collects taxes.
• Bali – In the early Vedic period the king collected taxes regularly from his subjects.
The taxes were called bali and consisted of 1/6 the agricultural produce or cattle for a
given person.
Note: Bali during Rig Vedic period was voluntary.
• War booty was distributed among kings and its people

JUSTICE
• No officer
• There were cases of theft and burglary and theft of cows. Rig Veda mentions traditional
rules were used to deal with it.
• Spies were employed to keep an eye on unsocial activates.

ARMY
• The king didn’t maintain any regular or standing army.
• In times of war, king mustered military whose military function were performed by
different tribal groups vrata, gana, grama and sardha.

In other words, the tribal polity’s military element was stronger. No civil system or territorial
admin because of nomadic life of people.

BATTLE OF 10 KINGS
A battle of 10 kings has been mentioned in Rig Veda.

• Bharatas and Tristu – ruling clans of Aryans and got support by Vasishtha.
• Bharatvarsha country was named after tribe Bharata – 1st appeared in Rig Veda
• 10 chiefs (5 were head of Aryan tribes and the rest were non-Aryan people) opposed
Bharat ruling clan.

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• The battle was fought on banks of river Parushani, identical with river Ravi
• Winner – Sudas won and supremacy of Bharatas was established.
• Purus – one of the tribes who got defeated.

The battle of ten kings was between Sudas, a Bharata king of the Tritsu family and the
confederacy of ten well-known tribes- Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas,
Shiva and Vishanin. The former five are said to be Aryan tribe while the later 5 are said to be Non-
Aryan tribes.

• The Anus, Druhyus, Yadus and Turvasas were the allies of the Purus against the Bharatas.
These five are the five peoples (Panchjanah) of the Rig-Veda.

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RELIGION AND FAITH

• They believed in One God as evident from Rig Veda – Eva Eka Dvitya (He is one and not
two)
• They believed in a formless God – Na Pratima Asti (He has no image).
• Overall, 33 other Gods and Goddesses are mentioned in Rig Veda.
Name Power

Indra Rain + Destroyer of Forts. Weapon –

Thunder bolt.

Agni God of fire. An intermediary between

man and supreme one God.

Varuna God of water/Cosmos and God of Rita

(moral Order)

Soma God of Plants – An intoxicating drink

named after him.

Prithvi Goddess of Earth

Usha Godess of morning/Dawn

Aditi Mother Goddess

Vishnu Sun God

None of these Gods have been mentioned as supreme to each other. However, Indira has been
mentioned the greatest number of times in Rig Veda followed by Agni and Varuna.

MODE OF WORSHIPPING
• Recitation of prayers and offerings of sacrifices was dominant mode.
• Prayers were important and both collective and individual prayers were made.
• Every tribe or clan had a special God. Even today we have special God for most of tribe or
clans. For e.g. in Rajasthan there is Karni clan. The chief deity of their clan is Karni mata
o Whole clan offers prayers to God in singing manner. Similarly, whole clan also offer
sacrifices to God. Sometimes even animals were also sacrificed. You would have
heard many times bhais bali (buffalo sacrifice)
• Agni and Indra were also invited to take the sacrifices made by whole tribe.
• There is no sign of a temple like structure but a ritual called ‘Yajna’ is mentioned where
sacrifices were made near the fire altars.
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YAJNAS
Some important Yajnas are:

• Raj Suya Yajna: It was held during coronation of a king and to commemorate the
coronation every year.
• Ashwamedha Yajna: It was done to show the strength of the king. A horse was taken to
mark the king’s territory. It was used by ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial
sovereignty: a horse accompanied by the king's warriors would be released to wander for
a period of one year. In the territory traversed by the horse, any rival could dispute the
king's authority by challenging the warriors accompanying it. After one year, if no enemy
had managed to kill or capture the horse, the animal would be guided back to the king's
capital. It would be then sacrificed, and the king would be declared as an undisputed
sovereign.
• Vajpayee Yajna: It was done to gain Strength (Divine Power) for the king. A chariot race
used to take place where the royal chariot was made to win against his kinsmen.
• In Each yajna, hundreds of cattle were sacrificed.
• Sixteen priestly classes are mentioned in Rig Veda. Brahmans, Hotras, Udgatras etc. In
later Vedic period, as the number of Yajnas and sacrifices increased, the other 15 classes
were sidelined and Brahmans dominated as only a Brahman could supervise a Yajna.
• Niyoga – In the absence of a child, a widow was allowed to live with her brother in law.
• Polygamy was practiced. There is evidence of both polygyny (A man having multiple
wives) and polyandry (A women having multiple husbands)

RIG VEDIC GODS

• Early Vedic Aryans were not able to explain the reasons of natural forces and so they
found their faith in the surroundings.
• Because they were not able to understand the rains, sun and moon they personified these
natural forces.
o They gave them human or living being attributes.

INDRA
• Also known as Purandara or breaker of forts.
• They played the role of war lord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons.
• 250 hymns were devoted to him
• Rain of god i.e. he was responsible for causing rainfall

AGNI
• 200 hymns devoted to him

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• God of fire
• Fire use – burning forests, cooking, rituals etc.
• Cult of fire - it occupied a central place in India and Iran.
• He was considered as intermediary between gods and people
• The sacrifices to god were carried by smoke to the sky, thus transmission to gods.
• Rig Veda starts from the name of Agni.

VARUNA
• He was the 3rd most important god.
• He was the god of water.
• He was supposed to uphold the natural order.
• It was considered that whatever happened in world were because of desires of Varuna
god.

SOMA
• God of plants
• An intoxicating drink was made from plants brought from Himalayas and it was named
after Soma god

MARUT
• God of storm

Female Deities

• E.g. of female divinities

o Aditi
o Usha – represented appearance of the dawn
• But these were not prominent in the time of RV
• Because of patriarchal society the male gods were more important than female.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

JANA
• Kingship – it was the basis of the social structure
• Man was identified by his clan.
• Tribe was called as ‘jana’ and people’s primary loyalty was to tribe
• Total no. of members in a jana and people’s primary loyalty was to tribe
• Total no. of members in a tribe about 100
• Term Jana occurs 75 times in RV. While term janapada not used even once

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• Because of non-evolvement of king or territory people’s attachment was to the tribe.

VIS
• This was another name for tribe. It had been mentioned 170 times in RV
• Vis was divided into many grama (smaller tribal units for fighting)
• War or samgrama – clashing of gramas with one another

FAMILY
• Kula – term for family. It was rarely mentioned in RV
• The family system during EVA times was that of joint family. Everyone from mother,
father, sons to grandson, cousin live under one roof.
• Griha – this term was used for family in EVA times.
• In earliest Indo-European language one word was used for nephew, grandson, cousin etc.
indicating differentiation in family relationship leading to nuclear families had not started.
• Father – head of the family.
• Patriarchal society
o Because of patriarchy, birth of son was desired again and again
o People prayed for a brave son who could fight in wars.
• In Rig Veda desire for children and cattle is repeating but no desire express for daughters

POSITION OF WOMAN
• They attended assemblies
• Some rituals were not considered complete without company of wife. (for example, in
Yagya pooja)
• Vishavara and lopamudra were the girls who have composed hymns of Rig Veda.
• A hymn during that period was composed orally and no literary evidences exist.

MARRIAGE INSTITUTION
• Institution of marriage was established.
• Symbols of primitive practices also survived
• Instances of polyandry were also found.
• Marriage was indissoluble and the concept of divorce was absent.
• Child marriage – absent
• Widow Remarriage – allowed

SOCIAL DIVISIONS
• Consciousness about physical appearance had started in 1500 – 1000 BC
• Varna – It was the term used for color.

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• Aryans were fair in color while original inhabitants of country were dark in color.
• Color may have been used for different social orders. Western writers have exaggerated
this racial distinction.
• Factor which contributed most to the creation of social divisions was the conquest of
indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans
• E.g. – Dasas and Dasyus conquered by the Aryans were treated as slaves and Shudras
• According to RV there were two varnas – Arya varna and Dasa varna
• Another factor was more share of king and priests in war booty, which created social
inequalities in the tribe
• Society was divided in 3 groups –
o Brahmana – Priest
o Kshatriya – Warrior – administration and military
o Vaishya – people – production activities
o The 4th division shudra appeared in last phase of EVA. References of it are found
in the Purusukta hymn of 10th mandala of RV.

Slaves

• Slaves were given as gifts to the priests

• Women slaves – they were only for domestic proposes
• Slaves were not used directly in agriculture or other producing activities.

DIVISION BASED ON OCCUPATION

• Division on based of occupation was there but it wasn’t sharp. Anyone could change his
profession.
• One of the members of a family says - “I am a poet, my mother is corn grinder and my
father is a physician. We belong to different varnas by our profession but still love
together”
• Since economy was pastoral and surplus was also not significant, there were less ways to
collect regular tribute from people.
• Gifts of land and cereals were rare.
• Social division based on tax collection or accumulation of landed property – absent.
• Society was tribal and egalitarian.

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LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 – 600 BC)

• Later Vedic (V) period history is also based on Vedic texts but we are not talking about RV,
we are talking about the other three Vedas which were composed after the Rig Veda age.
• Samhitas - the collection of the Vedic hymns or mantras. Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest
Samhita.
• Other than RV there were 3 more Vedas – Sama Veda, Yajurveda and Atharava Veda.
Sources to understand Later Vedic Period:

• Archeological
• Literary

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES:

Sites: Atranjikheda

Hastinapur All found in Western UP

Ahichatra

Noh/Nuh – Haryana

Pottery – Painted Grey Ware (PGW) are found at almost all sites in Western UP.

Painted Grey ware

Grains – Barley, Wheat and Rice evidences are found. Rice (vrihi) suddenly gained a lot of
importance.

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Tools: At around 1000 BC, the discovery of a new metal, revolutionalised the complete Vedic
Society and enabled them to lead a settled life. This new metal was IRON. Now, weapons and
agricultural tools were made of IRON which was much stronger than copper.

PAINTED GREY WARE CULTURE (PGW) SITES

The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) is an Iron Age culture of the western Gangetic plain and
the Ghaggar – Hakra valley.

• During 1000-500 BC in the Gangetic basin digging and exploration had revealed 700 sites
which were inhabited.
• These 700 sites are called as PGW sites because they were inhabited by people who used
earthen bowls and dishes made of painted Grey pottery.
• They also used Iron weapons. It should be noted that use of iron was started in Later
Vedic age rather than Rig Vedic Period.

LITERARY SOURCES

Since the Vedic Society has expanded, it reached upper Gangetic basin from Indus Valley. All the
later Vedic texts were composed in Upper Gangatic Basin only.

YAJURVEDA:
• This was the second Veda to be composed after the Rig Veda. It consists of rituals of
sacrifices and yajna.
• It is broadly divided into two parts – ‘Sweta’ Yajurveda and ‘Shyam’ Yajurveda.
• Shweta Yajurveda is in Poetic form while Shyama Yajurveda is in prose form.

(Note: Rig Veda was composed completely in poetic form.)

SAMAVEDA:
• Samveda consists of musical hymns which could be sung. Most of the hymns were taken
from Rig Veda itself.
• Samveda can also be considered as the oldest text on music.

ATHARVA VEDA:
• Atharvaveda is folk literature.
• It consists of charms, spells and magic to ward off evil spirits and diseases.
• First time Ayurveda is mentioned in Atharvaveda.

Note: the previous three Vedas were written by Aryans while Atharvaveda is written by non –
Aryans. So, its contents also throw a light on the beliefs and practices of non – Aryans.
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BRAHMANAS:
• Brahmanas are the commentary on Vedas. They explain the complex verses of the Vedas.
They are the first complete literature in prose.
• The most famous Brahmana is the ‘Shatpat’ Brahmana of the Yajurveda.

Aranyakas (jungle book/hermit book) were originally the part of the Brahmans but later
considered as a separate part.

UPANISHADS: The literal meaning of ‘Upanishad’ is to sit down near someone.

Originally there were 108 books. It is historically believed that they came out as a result of the
increasing grip of Brahmans on the society. They discuss about the importance of rituals and
sacrifices. They deal with metaphysics i.e. relation between man and God.

Some famous Upanishads:

Brihadranayaka Upanishad (The oldest), Chandokya, Jabala, Katha, Ken, Isa etc.

Brahmanas are regarded as the basis of the Hindu philosophy along with the Rig-Veda. In
Upanishads, Brahma (the creator) is the most important God.

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Note: ‘Sirr – I – Akbar’ is the collection of translation of 50 Upanishads done by ‘Dara Shikoh’,
the eldest son of Shah Jahan.

All of these later Vedic texts compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in during time period 1000-
500BC. This period is later than RV period and so called as Later Vedic period.

LIVING PATTERN
• With the literary evidences (later Vedic texts) and archaeology evidences (PGW iron-
phase) we can get to know that how people live in first millennium BC in western UP and
adjoining areas of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.
• According to Later Vedic texts Aryans covered area between Punjab to Ganga - Yamuna
doab.
Spread toward east

• During the ending of LVA period i.e. around 600 BC the Vedic people spread from doab to
further Kosala (Eastern UP) and Videha (north Bihar)
• During the spread towards eastern and western side, LVA came into conflict with local
inhabitants
o In Eastern UP – people who used copper implements and black and red earthen
pots
o In western UP – people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper
implements
o They also encountered thin habitations of some people using black and red ware
o They also came against users of late Harappan culture, which were actually
conglomerate culture
o Whoever was the opponent but they were not in large no. or covered area greater
than LVA
• LVA were more successful in expansion than EVA because they used iron weapons and
horse drawn chariots

IRON AND LATER VEDIC ARYANS

• After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles
could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to settle at the western
Gangetic plains
• Burials with iron implements are found in large numbers.
• Also found in Baluchistan, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP and Rajasthan.

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• Arrow heads and spear head have been discovered in western UP – 800 BC
• Iron weapons were used to defeat adversaries which were faced during expansion.
• Iron axe to clear the forests in upper Gangetic basin.
• Few iron tools were used in agriculture.
Spread of iron in Eastern part

• During the end of LVA period knowledge of iron spreads to eastern UP and Videha
• Earliest iron implements from here belong to 7th C BC. Iron was called as Shyama or
Krishna ayas in LV texts

AGRICULTURE
• It was the chief means of livelihood. But still very few agricultural tools made of iron have
been discovered.
• Ploughing was done with wooden ploughshare which would have worked for light soil of
upper Gangetic plains.
• Ploughing rituals – You must have seen whenever we do a new thing like starting a new
business or new machine, we do some prayers and rituals similarly there were ploughing
rituals which were done before ploughing. Evidence of it are found in Shatapata
Brahmana text.
• But in later times ploughing was restricted to lower Varna. In other words; it was
prohibited for the members of upper Varna.
• They continued to produce Barley.
• Wheat and rice became chief crop in this period.
• In Punjab and UP wheat was staple food
• Lentil was also produced by them
• They became familiar with rice in Ganga – Yamuna doab region.
• It is called Vrihi in Vedic texts.
• It remains discovered from Hastinapur (8th C BC) and Atranjikhera.

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• Rice was used in Vedic rituals but wheat’s use was rare.

CRAFTS
• Rise of diverse arts and crafts like smiths, smelters, weaving, carpenter, pottery and
jewelry workers.
Smiths and smelters

• Worked with iron in about 1000 BC

• Copper was the 1st metal to be used by people
• Founding of copper tools of pre 1000 BC period suggested existence of copper smiths in
LV period
• It is believed that they used copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan.
• Copper objects had also been discovered in Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites.
• Main purpose of these objects was – war, hunting and as ornaments.
Pottery

• LV people know about 4 types of Pottery – Black and red ware, black slipped ware, PGW
and red ware
• Red ware was most popular and found all over western UP
• PGW was most distinctive pottery. Bowls and dishes made of it were used by upper
classes for eating and rituals.
• Glass hoards and bangles were treated as prestige objects
Jewel workers

• Mentioned in later Vedic texts.

• Possibly they were to serve the needs of richer section of society.
Others

• Weaving – confined to women and not on large scale

• Leather workers and carpenters also existed.

SETTLEMENT
• Later Vedic people had a settled life because of agriculture and various crafts.
• PGW sites were widespread in Kuru- Panchal near (eastern UP and Delhi), Madrea area
(Punjab and Haryana), Matsya area (Rajasthan).
• More than 700 PGW sites have been found but only few like Atranjikhera, Hastinapur and
Noh were excavated

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• There debris thickness is on to three layers showing settlements would have lasted from
1 to 3 centuries
• These settlements were new. In other words, they were not having any predecessors
• Living – mud brick houses were made.
• Structure of houses was poor.
• PGW people who seem to be similar to Later Vedic (LV) people were agricultural and had
settled life.
• Food production – not in surplus because of wooden ploughshare use.
Emergence of Towns

• Towns had started emerging only in the end period of LV

• For e.g. Hastinapur and Kausambhi were the primitive towns. They can be called as proto
– urban sites.
• Sea and sea voyages - references were found in Vedic texts indicating that because of rise
of new arts and crafts some kind of commerce had started.
• In summary – compared to EV period, LV had registered a great advance in material life.
o Pastoral and semi nomadic to agriculture and settled life (agriculture – primary
source of livelihood)
o Permanently settled in upper Gangetic plains
o Peasants produce enough surplus to sustain themselves and for those who are
engaged in other works

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

ASSEMBLIES
• Rig Vedic assemblies lost their importance (Vidatha completely disappeared)
• Royal power increased at the cost of these assemblies.
• Sabha and samiti were dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.
• Sabha was dominated by nobles and Brahamans and women were not allowed.

TRIBE CONNECTED TO TERRITORY

• Formation of bigger kingdom made chief or king more powerful.
• Territory was named after the dominant tribe, though the tribe was ruled by chief and
prince.
• Other tribes might be inhabited in that territory like minority.
• Territory name was given after the first tribe which settled there.
• Example – Panchala was name of people but then it became the name of a region.
• Rashtra term indicating territory first appeared in this period.

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ELECTION OF KING
• The one who was best in physical and other qualities was elected as raja during early
phase of LV period.
• Bali as tax became compulsory rather than voluntary.
• Number of yajnas increased and sacrifices increased which caused huge drain of wealth
from Vaishya and Shudra communities.
• Chief or king tried to ever last the right to receive presents and enjoy other privileges by
making his office hereditary.
Administration at higher levels

• It seems that during this period taxes and tributes were common.
• It was deposited with an officer called as Sangrihitri.
• At the time of big sacrifices princes made large scale distributions.
• Most of the wealth was accumulated by the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas.
• Priest, commander, chief queen and few other higher functionaries assisted king in
discharging his duties.

Administration at lower levels

• Village assemblies carried out lower level administration.

• These assemblies were headed by chiefs of dominant clans.
• Local cases were also tried by them.

ARMY
• Even in this period the king doesn’t have standing army.
• Tribal units were mustered when a war was declared i.e. only when required.
• According to one ritual king have to eat with his people (vis) from same plate.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

SOCIETY
• Later Vedic society was divided into 4 varnas – Brahmins, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas
and Shudras.

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• Later Vedic texts draw a demarcation line between upper three varnas and shudras.
• But there are many rituals of king’s coronation on which shudras participated.
• Certain sections of artisans such as chariot-maker or Rathakara was given a high status
and also entitled to sacred thread ceremony.
• Varnas became hereditary and rigid during LV period. People were forced to take the
same occupation of their ancestors.

BRAHMINS
• Priests, scholars and teachers
• Growing cult of sacrifices increased their importance in society.
• Initially Brahmins were one of the 16 classes of priests but later they overshadowed them
and emerged as most important class.
• This development in Brahmins was not found in Aryan society outside India.
• It is believed that non-non-Aryan elements had a role in formation of Brahmins Varna.
• work –
o Conducting rituals and sacrifices.
o Officiating festivals associated with the agricultural operations
o Praying success of their patron in war.

KSHATRIYAS
• Rulers, warriors and administrators
• He tried to assert his power over all the three other varnas.

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• According to Aitareya Brahmana (a text of later Vedic age), Brahmin was described as
seeker of livelihood and acceptor of gifts but removable at will of king.
• While Shudra was described as tribute payer, meant for beaten and to be oppressed at
will.
• Sometimes the upper two Varnas fought for supremacy but when it comes to deal with
lower varnas they quickly made up their differences. From the end of the later Vedic
period it was emphasized that the Brahmins and Kshatriyas should cooperate with each
other to rule over rest society.

VAISHYAS
• They were the common people.
• They were assigned the producing functions like agriculture, trade, cattle breeding etc.
• Some worked as artisans also.
• During the end of the later Vedic period the Vaishyas started trade activities.
• Vaishyas were just to pay tributes (like we taxpayers) and Brahmins and Kshatriyas were
to collect tributes (tribute collectors).
• The mass tribe men were reduced to tribute payers.
• Several rituals were there which made the people submissive to king.
• The upper three Varnas were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread
according to the Vedic mantras while the 4th one, shudra, was deprived of it and Gayatri
mantra’s recitation.

SHUDRAS
• Laborers and service providers
• Shudras were reserved for worst position
• They were meant for serving the three higher varnas and were barred from the Vedic
studies.
• Their masters could beat them at will.
• They appear as domestic slaves, craftsmen and hired labors in post Vedic times.
• They were called cruel, greedy and thieving in habits and some of them were treated as
untouchables.
• The higher the varna the more privileges and purer a person was. The lower the varna,
the more severe punishment.

FAMILY
• Power of father increased. He could now disinherit his son.
• Princely families – rule of primogeniture strengthened.
• Male ancestors were started to be worshipped.

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POSITION OF WOMEN
• They were given a lower position.
• Ordinarily women were considered as inferior and subordinate to men.
• Some women theologians took part in philosophical discussions and some queens
participated in coronation rituals.

INSTITUTION OF GOTRA
• It appeared in later Vedic times.
• Gotra means cow-pen or the place where cattles belonging to whole clan are kept but in
course of time its signified descent from a common ancestor.
• Gotra exogamy practice started and marriage between same gotra or lineage was not
allowed.

ASHRAMAS

• Four stages of life or Ashramas were not strengthened during the Vedic times.
• In later Vedic times, 4 ashramas were there – Brahmachari (student), grihastha
(householder), vanaprastha (hermit) and sannyasin (asetic).
• Later Vedic contains only 3 of them. Ascetic life was also known to them.
• In the later Vedic times only the stage of householder was commonly practiced by all the
varnas.

Ashram or stage Age (years) Rituals of transition

Brahmacharya Till 24 Upanayanaat entry. Samavartanaat exit.

(student life)

Grihastha 24-48 Hindu wedding at entry.

(household life)

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Vanaprastha 48-72
(retired life)

Sannyasa 72+
(renounced life) (or anytime)

GODS, RITUALS AND PHILOSOPHY

• Two important Gods of Rig Vedic period – Indra and Agni lost its importance.
• Now Prajapati occupied supreme position.
• Prajapati – creator of world.
• Rudra – God of animals
• Vishnu – preserver and protector of people
• Also, in this period some objects were started to be worshipped as symbols of divinity;
symbols of idolatry.
• As the society divided into varna system, some sections came with their own deities.
• For example – Pushan, God who was supposed to protect cattle, came to be regarded as
god of the Shudras.

SACRIFICES
• Same reasons what was in early Vedic period.
• Mode of worship changed.
• Prayers were continued to recite but without sacrifices they were of no meaning
(sacrifices became important).
• In public sacrifices people and king was involved.
• Sacrifices involved killing of animals leading to loss of cattle wealth.
• Ghoghana – guest or the person who was fed on cattle.
• Sacrifices were accompanied by formulae which need to be correctly pronounced.
• Yajmana was the term used for sacrifice.
• It was believed that success of performer of yajna depended on magical power of the
words uttered correctly in sacrifices.
• Some rituals were similar to Indo-European people but most was developed by Indian
priests.

BRAHMANS AND RITUALS

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• Brahmins had a very big role in inventing, modifying and expanding the formulas and
sacrifices.
• The reason for such elaborated rituals and sacrifices is not clear but selfish motives can’t
be ignored. Near about 2,40,000 cows were given as dakshina or gift to priest in Rajasuya
sacrifice.
• Brahmins claimed monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise.
• Gifts, gold, cloth and horses were also given to priests.
• According to shatapata Brahman, north, east, south, west, all should be given to Brahman.

RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY

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• During the end of the later Vedic period, there was strong reaction against priestly
domination, cults and rituals.
• It was most in Panchala and Videh where in 600 B.C., the Upanishads (philosophical text)
were compiled.
• These philosophical texts had criticized the rituals and emphasized on the value of right
belief and knowledge.
• They also emphasized that the knowledge of the self or atma must be realized and
relation between atma and Brahma should be properly understood.
• Brahma – emerged as powerful God.
• Their teachings also promoted the cause of the stability and integration.
• Emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibility and immortality of the atma or soul had
served the cause of stability. This stability was very necessary for rising state power.
• Stress on relation of atma with brahma served the cause of loyalty to superior authority.

SUMMARY

Emerging of territorial kingdoms

• In later Vedic period, territorial kingdoms started emerging.

• Now the kingdoms fought war for not only possession of cattles but also for territory.

Change

• The early Vedic society of predominantly pastoralists changed to agriculturalists in later

Vedic age.
• Tribe chiefs grew at the expense of tributes by peasants and other sections of society.
• Shudras – still a small serving order.
• Tribal society → Varna divided society
• Kshatriyas, even after the support of the Brahmans, were not able to establish a state
system.
• A state cannot exist without regular taxation system and a professional army (like today
India is a state having its own regular taxation system and with a professional army)
• This wasn’t the case in later Vedic age as the existing mode of agriculture didn’t produce
much surplus to pay taxes.

DO YOU KNOW?
• The Arctic Home in the Vedas (Geeta Rahasya) is a book on the origin of Aryans by
Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak The book was written at the end of 1898, but was first
published in March 1903 in Pune. It propounded the theory that the North Pole was the

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original home of Aryans during pre-glacial period which they had to leave due to the ice
deluge around 8000 B.C. and had to migrate to the Northern parts of Europe and Asia in
search of lands for new settlements. In support to his theory, Tilak has presented certain
Vedic hymns, East Iranian passages, Vedic chronology and Vedic calendars with
interpretations of the contents in detail.
• Somaand Haoma: (It is the 9th Mandal of Rigveda which contains 114 hymns). The
fermented juice of the plant called Soma appears to have been the only intoxicating drink
used in Vedic times. So much were the ancient Aryans addicted to this drink, that Soma
was soon worshipped as a deity both in India and in Iran (under the name Haoma in the
latter country), and we find one entire Mandala, or Book, of the Rig-Veda, dedicated to
this deity.
• Patanjali Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism. Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali is a key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism. Patanjali was the founder
of Yoga philosophy.
• Anuloma vivah: A marriage between a higher caste man and a lower caste woman. A
Pratiloma Vivah is a marriage between a lower caste man and a higher caste woman.
• Adhvaryu: In the operational aspects of Vedic fire rites, the Adhvaryu was a central figure
because he was the one who measured the sacrificial ground, built all that was needed
and prepared materials to be used like, articles of oblation, utensils, woods and water. He
also kindled the fire for expected offerings. Thus, success of a Yajna was dependent on
correct duties of the Adhvaryu priest.
• Hotri was the priest chanting the hymns of Rig Veda; adhvaryu chanting the hymns of
Yajur Veda; Udgatri chanting the Sama Veda hymns. Brahman priest was the most and
supervisor of the entire ceremony and the one chanting the hymns of Atharva Veda.
• Purusha sukta is the Xth mandal of the Rig Veda that explains the origin of four varnas
viz. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.
• Earliest evidence of Banking in India is found from the period of Vedic Civilization. During
those days, loan deeds called rnapatra (ऋणपत्र) or rnalekhya (ऋणलेख्य) were prevalent.
Interest rates as well as usury (सूदखोरी) was prevalent in Vedic India. The Vedic word
Kusidin refers to an usurer (सूदखोर).
• Six Vedangas (limbs of Vedas) evolved for the proper understanding of the Vedas. These
are Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarna (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda
(metrics) and Jyotisha (astronomy).
• The Satapatha Brahamana states that the wife is half her husband and completes him.
• Jabala Upanishad: In Jabala Upanishad, there is a clear reference of four Ashrams i.e.
Brahmachari, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasi.

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• Gayatri Mantra comes from the third Mandala of the Rigveda.

• According to the later Vedic traditions, the gods were from different castes. For example,
Agni is Brahmin; Indra and Varuna are Kshatriya; Rudra and Maruts are Vaishya while
Pushan is a Sudra god.
• Pushan (पष
ू न) is a solar deity and one of the Adityas; responsible for journeys, marriage
and a carrier of souls to other world. He also protected the travellers in their journeys.
• Prajapati was the important diety occupied the supreme position. Prajapatis were elected
democratically. First such elected Prajapati was Lord Vishnu, followed by Lord Bràhma
and Lord Shankar. There were total 26 Prajapatis mentioned in Vedas.
• In the Early Vedic age, ‘Raja’ was known as Gopati.
• Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-
Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other
classes of coins of circulation. Barter system continued in spite of the presence of metallic
coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately
charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.
• Satya Mev Jayate is mentioned in Mundaka Upanishad.
• Division on India into Five parts is mentioned in Aitareya Brahmana.
• Samsara (transmigration of soul)- mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
• Doctrine of Trimurti- Maitrayani Upanishad.
• First three ‘ashramas’ (Brahmacharin, Grihastha, Vanaprastha)- Chandogya Upanishad
• Origin of kingship – Aitareya Brahmana

Important Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa

Senani Supreme Commander of army

Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land

Jivagribha Police Officer

Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers

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Gramani Head of the village

Kulapati Head of the family

Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes

Bhagadugha Revenue collector

Sangrahitri Treasurer

Mahishi Chief Queen

Suta Charioteer and court minstrel

Govikartana Keeper of games and forests

Palagala Messenger

Kshatri Chamberlain

Akshavapa Accountant

Sthapati Chief Justice

Takshan Carpenter

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JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

• During the second half of the 6th century B.C. number of sects arose in Gangetic plains.
• It is said that about 62 religions existed in that period. (In some accounts more than 150
distinct faiths are mentioned)
• Most of these were based on regional customs and rituals.
• Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivika were the most important among them and emerged as
most potent religious reform movements.

(Note: Ajivika Sect did not have any followers after 14th C AD.)

CAUSES OF ORIGIN

Domination of priestly class

• We have read about Varna system in the previous parts. Brahmans claimed highest status
in society. They demanded several privileges, including those of receiving gifts and
exemption from taxation and punishment.
• All the other three Varnas never liked the Brahman’s domination. But it was Kshatriyas
who reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination of the Brahmans.
• Mahavira, founder of the Jainism and Gautam Buddha, founder of the Buddhism
belonged to the Kshatriya clan and both disputed the authority of the Brahmanas.

Loss of cattle wealth

• This was the most important reason for the rise of new religions.
• In the 6th century B.C. the use of the iron axes enabled people to clear forest and a new
agriculture economy started which was based on the use of ploughshare.
• But use of iron ploughshare required use of bullocks and cattle. Without animal
husbandry, agriculture could not flourish.
• As most of the cattle and bullocks were sacrificed in rituals, peasants were not able to
produce surplus.
• There was resentment in agricultural class against rituals and priestly class. Buddhism and
Jainism were according to their aspirations and also they condemned the rituals and
sacrifices.

Vaishya class’ want of improvement in their status

• In eastern part of India number of cities started emerging.

• For example - Kaushambi, Kusinagar, Banaras, Vaishali, Chirand and Rajgir. (see map)
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• Traders and artisans started emerging from these cities and also started using coins
during 5th century B.C. They were the earliest coins and are called as punch marked coins.
• Because of the trading the importance of Vaishya increased.
• They now wanted to improve their positions and started looking for a new religion which
could do this.
• The merchants gave handsome gifts to Gautama Buddha and his disciples. Reasons for
this was –
o In initial stages Jainism and Buddhism not attached any importance to the existing
Varna system.

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o Both preached gospel of non - violence which would put end to wars and as a
result will increase the trade and commerce.
o Brahmanical texts like Dharmasutras decried the lending money on interests.

Return to primitive life

• The old people didn’t like the accumulation of coins (made of gold, silver etc.), new
dwellings and dresses, new system of transport, war and violence.
• The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to
the masses.
• So, the common people wanted to go back to their simple life. And this opportunity was
provided to them by Jainism and Buddhism.
• The philosophy of Jainism and Buddhism allowed only that much which was sufficient for
living.
• In other words, there was reaction against changes in material life in north eastern India
in 6th century B.C. similar to reaction by man when machines were invented. (It is the
nature of human to oppose the change. It’s never easy to adapt to change)

VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA AND JAINISM

JAINISM

• Jainism believed in 24 Tirthankara or great teachers or leaders of their religion

• 1st Tirthankara – Risabhdeva or Rishabhnatha (born in Ayodhya)
o He laid foundations of orderly human society
• Historical records of only last two Tirthankaras are found – Parsavnath (23rd) and
Vardhaman Mahavir (24th)

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PARSAVNATH JI:
• Parsavnath was the 23rd Tirthankar. He was born at Kashi (Banaras).
• Historically he was separated from Vardhaman by 250 years.
• His followers were called Nirgranthis (Free from all bonds).

VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA:
• Vardhaman is believed to the real founder of the modern Jainism. His followers are called
Jains. He was later known as ‘MAHAVIRA’.

BIOGRAPHY OF VARDHAMAN:
Vardhaman himself was born to Nirgranthi parents (Followers of Parsavnath). The information
about his life is received from Jain texts – Purvas, Angas and Upangas, written in 4th – 6th C AD
in Prakrit language. Prakrit was the language of the masses while Sanskrit was the language of
the elite class.

Other source is the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela (Odisha) in 1 st C BC. It is one of the
oldest cave temples found in India. It is presented in Kavya style, and in the language Brahmi,
which is very much like Pali. The Hathigumpha Inscription is like the history of Kharavela as a king,
a conqueror, a patron of culture and a champion of Jainism.

Relation Name

Father Siddharth

Mother Trishala

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Clan Janantrika

Caste Kshatriya

Wife Yashoda

Daughter Priyadarshika

Son In law Jamali (First disciple of Vardhman)

• Born – 540 B.C.

• Place – Kundagram (now Basokund) near Vaisali in Bihar.
• Father – Siddhartha (head of famous Kshatriya clan Jnatrika and ruler of his own area)
• Mother – Trishala (sister of lichchhavi chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded to
Bimbisara)
• Contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
• Initially he lived life of household but at the age of 30 he abandoned house in search of
the truth and became an ascetic.
• For the next 12 years he meditated and practiced the austerities of life.
• At the age of 42 years, he attained the Supreme knowledge (Kaivalya) under a Sal tree in
498 BC at a place called Trimbhigram on the bank of River Rijupalika (Jharkhand). Through
kaivalya he conquered misery and happiness.
• Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina i.e. the
conqueror of senses, and his followers are known as Jainas.
• He propagated this religion for 30 years and during this period he visited to Koshala,
Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc.
• He preached for the first time in the five hills of Nalanda – Vipulchak.
• At the age of 72 (468 BC) he attained Nirvana (died) at Pavapuri (Nalanda).

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DOCTRINES OF JAINISM

• 5 doctrines –
o Non – Violence: Not to kill or harm any living creature. At that period, trees were
considered non-living so cutting of trees was allowed. However, it was advised not
to do agriculture as ploughing of land might kill the small organisms and insects.
Hence, peasants were not attracted towards this new faith and it was more
famous amongst traders and businessmen.
o Not to Steal: Do not try to take what is not yours rightfully.
o Not to Accumulate: Leads to a problem of haves and have nots. It discouraged
hoarding or keeping more than what is required.
o Not to tell a lie: Not to give wrong information to others.
o Celibacy: Celibacy in Jainism is slightly different than that of Hinduism. In Hinduism
celibacy means not to marry or not to have a relationship with the other sex.
o In Jainism, apart from the above two, some more conditions are there like:
▪ Not to see the opposite sex.
▪ Not to talk to the opposite sex.
▪ Not to touch the opposite sex.
▪ Not to feel about the opposite sex.
• Only 5th doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other 4 were taken over by him from
previous teachers.
• Non-injury to living beings is most important to Jainism. But sometimes it resulted in
absurd results like Jain kings ordered execution of persons guilty of killing animals.

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• Parshvanath had asked is followers to cover upper and lower part of body while Mahavira
had asked them to discard cloth completely as he wanted to have a more austere life for
his followers.
• On the basis of this clothing the Jainism was divided into two sects –
o Shvetambaras – those who wear white cloths. (shveta meaning white and ambar
meaning cloth)
o Digambaras – those who remained naked.

PHILOSOPHY

The Creator: There is no creator. It does not believe in a supreme God. Tirthankars are the highest
authority.

The Universe: The universe is eternal. It has no beginning and no end and it is moving in a cyclic
fashion. It moves in phases of Highs and Lows:

• High phase: Avsarpani – during this phase people have a long life (200 – 300 years) and
they are very tall (40-50 ft).
• Low phase Utsarpani – During this phase people have shorter life span (15 – 20 years) and
short height (2 -3 feet)

Universe is composed of living and non – living elements.

The Soul: Soul exists in living and non – living elements.

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Where ever there is soul, there is suffering (Dukha). There are three types of elements – rocks
and metals (One soul), Trees (two souls) and Animals/humans (three souls). It is prohibited to kill
the elements which have three souls.

After life: They believe in after life and rebirth. One is trapped in the cycle of life. Till one doesn’t
get free from Dukka, one cannot get Nirvana (freedom from the cycle of Death).

How to get NIRVANA?

• According to Jainism, Soul is surrounded by Karma (Action).

• Karma has four aspects – Inherent and outside as well as Good or bad.
• In order to get Nirvana, one has to free himself from all Karma, whether good or bad,
inherent or outside. This state of no Karma is called the state of Shunya.
• There are certain Dos and Don’ts to achieve this:
• Dos – Live an Ascetic life, to give up clothes.
• Don’ts – One should have no attachments.

JAINISM ON VARNA SYSTEM

• Jainism recognized god’s existence but placed them lower than Jina.
• Did not condemn Varna system.

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• According to Mahavira a person born in higher or lower Varna depends on sins or virtues
by him in his previous births.
• According to him lower castes can liberate themselves through pure and meritorious life.
• Main aim of Jainism – freedom from worldly bonds. This can be achieved by three jewels
or triratna of Jainism and no rituals are required.
• 3 jewels or triratnas of Jainism
o Right knowledge
o Right faith
o Right action or conduct (5 doctrines are part of it)

• It prohibited war and even agriculture because of killings of living beings. And so, Jainism
confined to traders only.

SPREAD OF JAINISM

SPREAD IN SOUTHERN PART

• To spread teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order in which both men and
women were admitted.
• Mahavira was not having a large number of followers (just 14000).
• Spread – in south India and west India where Brahmanical religion was weak.
• According to a tradition, the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta
Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.).
• During his last years of life emperor became a Jaina and led Jainas ascetic life in Karnataka.
• 200 years after the death of Mahavira, there was a famine in Magadha. It lasted for about
12 years and in order to protect them, many Jaina visited to south under the leadership
of the Bhadrabahu.
• After the end of the famine Jainas came back to Magadha and there emerged differences
between those who visited to south and those who stayed in Magadha.

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• To sort out differences and to compile the teachings of Jainism a council was convened at
Patliputra but it was boycotted by southern Jainas.
• From then onwards the southern Jainas were called as Digambar and those at Magdhans
were called as Shvetambars.
• The tradition belonged to drought is considered as doubtful but it was sure that the Jainas
were divided into 2 sects.
• The epigraphic evidence for the spread of the Jainism in Karnataka was not before 3rd
century A.D.
• After the 5th century, numerous Jaina monastic establishments called ‘Basadis’ spread in
Karnataka. Kings granted land in expectation of support.
• In the 2nd and 1st century B.C. it also spread to southern district of Tamil Nadu.

SPREAD IN OTHER PARTS

• In 4th century B.C. – kalinga in Orissa
o Kalinga king Kharavela gave patronage to it in 1st century B.C.
• In later centuries Jainism penetrated into Malwa, Gujrat and Rajasthan (in these places
they reside even today engaging in trade)
• It didn’t receive as much patronage as Buddhism and could not spread very fast in early
times.
• It still holds its place where it spread while Buddhism completely disappeared from Indian
subcontinent.

CONTRIBUTION OF JAINISM

IN PRAKRIT LANGUAGE
• Tried to mitigate the evils of Varna order and ritualistic Vedic religion.
• Discarded Sanskrit which was patronized by Brahmans.
• Adopted Prakrit language of common people to preach Jainism doctrines.
• Religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi.
• Texts were compiled at valabhi, Gujarat in 6th century B.C.
• Adoption of Prakrit helped in development of language and its literature.
• Many regional languages had also developed from Prakrit. Shauraseni is one of them.
Maratha emerged from shauraseni.

IN OTHER LANGUAGES
• Jainas earliest important works were composed in Apabhramsha. They also composed its
grammar.
• Jaina literature consists of Epics, Puranas, Novels and Dramma.

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• Large portion of Jaina writing is still in manuscript form and not published and still exists
in Gujarat and Rajasthan’s shrines.
• During medieval time they wrote in Sanskrit.
• They also contributed to growth of Kannada.

WORSHIPPING
• Initially no image worshipping but later started worshipping Mahavira and 23
Tirthankaras.
• Beautiful images were sculpted for this purpose in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and
Madhya Pradesh.
• Jaina art in ancient times was not as beautiful as Buddhism was. But they contributed
significantly to art and architecture during medieval times.

Do You Know?

• Parshvanath was the twenty third (23) Jain Tirthankara. He was a Kshatriya and son of
Ashvasena, King of Banaras (Varanasi).

• Muni Hiravijayji Suri was the supreme pontiff of Tapa Gachcha order of Jain Svetambara
tradition. He is famous for propounding the Jain philosophy to Emperor Akbar and turning
him towards vegetarianism. Akbar was so impressed with Hiravijaya Suri that he
bestowed on him the title of Jagatguru. Akbar almost denounced meat eating and almost
turned to vegetarianism due to inspiration from him.

• Rishabhdev Lord Rishabhdev was the first Tirthankara of Jainism. He was born at
Ayodhya in the Ikshwaku Kula or clan. In Hinduism he is known to be an avatara or
incarnation of Vishnu. The name of Rishabh’s parents has been mentioned in the
Bhagvata Purana.

• At the age of 42, Mahavira attained Kaivalaya under a Sal tree on the bank of river
Rijupalika near Jrimbhikgrama in Modern Bihar. At the age of 72 in 468 BC, Tirthankar
Mahavira passed away at Pavapuri, Bihar.

• The Jain Tirthankaras, Lord Aristanemi (22nd Tirthankar) and Lord Rishabh Nath (1st
Tirthankar) has been mentioned in Rigveda.

• Vardhamana Mahavir belonged an aristocratic family and Kshatriya clan called Naya or
Jnatri. He was born in Kudagrama, near modern Patna and his father was King of this area.
His mother, Trishala was sister of Chetak (Cetakka) an eminent Lichchvi prince of Vaisali.

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• The first Jain council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third
century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to (sections or limbs) to replace
the lost Purvas (former texts).

• The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi under the chairmainship of Devaradhi
Kshamasramana in 512 AD and resulted in finl compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

• Jainism is divided into two major sects viz. the Digambara (sky clad) sect and the
Shvetambara (white clad) sect. Under the leadership of Sthalabahu, Shvetambara sect
formed. Under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, the Digambara sect was formed.

• The Jainism was spread in South India under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.

• Emperor Samprati was the grandson of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from 224–274 BCE.
and accepted Jainism.

• Tirthankara Parswanath was the 23rd Tirthankar who preached four teachings of Jainism:
not to kill, not to lie, not to steal and not to own property. His idol is recognized by the
symbol of serpent.

• Anekantavada is a core theory and philosophy of Jainism. Anekāntavāda refers to the Jain
doctrine about metaphysical truths that emerged in ancient India. It states that the
ultimate truth and reality is complex, has multiple aspects.

• Samsāra, as per Jain faith is worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and
reincarnations in various realms of existence. The mundane existence is full of suffering
and misery and hence is worth renunciation. Moksa is the only liberation from Samsāra.

GAUTAMA BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM

• Also known as Siddhartha.
• Contemporary of Mahavira.
• Born – 563 B.C.
• Place – Lumbini in Nepal (near kapilvastu)
• Kshatriya family – Shakya clan
• Father – Suddhodana (probably elected ruler of Kapilvastu)
• Mother – Mahamaya (princess from Koshalan dynasty). She was birth mother while
Gautami was the one who brought him up.
• Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gautami was the first woman to be ordained as a
bhikkhuni.
• Buddha from childhood showed a meditative bent mind.

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SOURCES TO LEARN ABOUT BUDDHISM

Literary sources to know about Buddha and Buddhism are –

Tripitakas

(literally – three baskets): These are the three major texts on Buddhism.

• Vinaya pitaka – rules of monasteries

• Sutta pitaka – Teachings of Buddha
• Abhidhamma Pitaka – Metaphysics and philosophy of Buddhism.

Jataka Tales

They are the part of Sutta Pitaka but contain all the stories of Buddha’s previous life (more than
550 births in all).

Ashokan Dhamma

Mahavastu and Divyadane (texts written in Sri Lanka)

Buddha Charitra

This is an autobiography of Buddha, written in 1-2 C AD, by Ashvaghosa in Sanskrit.

The problem with all these literary sources is that, they have not been written in Buddha’s time,
so they do not give the exact picture.

STORIES OF BUDDHA’S EARLIER LIFE:

Four sites of Buddha:

• Old man
• Sick man
• Dead body
• A monk

These sites made him realize that there are sorrows in the world. And he wanted to find the
solution for these.

• At 29, he left his house with a charioteer ‘Channa’ and a horse ‘Kanthaka’. The act of
leaving the house is called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’.
• He met four Brahmans and meditated with them.

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• Later, at the age of 35, he sat under a ‘Peepal’ tree on the bank of river Niranjana at
Bodhgaya.
• ‘Mara’, a demon, tried to disturb Buddha and brought Hurricane, flood, Earthquake, bad
news and finally, he brought his three beautiful daughters. But all of that failed to move
Buddha.
• After a time span of 49 days, Siddhartha got enlightenment and became – ‘Buddha’ i.e.
the enlightened. This is called the state of Nirvana in Buddhism (Note: it is different from
the Nirvana of Jainism)
• After enlightenment, he meditated again for 49 days.
• He then went to Sarnath and gave his first sermon to Channa and the four Brahmans.
They became his first disciples. Ananda and Upali were two of his closest disciples.
• The first sermon at Sarnath is called ‘Dharma Chakra Parivartan’ i.e. setting the wheel in
motion.
• He preached in most parts of the modern day UP and Bihar. For next 40 years
continuously, he kept on wandering, preaching and meditating and rests only in rainy
season.
• He followed several rules in his schedule – Never stayed for more than one night in a
village and three nights in a city. He preached in all seasons except monsoon. He stayed
for maximum nights at Shravasti.
• In 483 BC, at the age of 80, he attained ‘Mahaparinirvan’ i.e. died at Kushinagar Dist. Of
Eastern UP.

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DOCTRINES OF BUDDHISM

Note: Buddha is older than Mahavira, but Jainism is older than Buddhism.

Bimbisar and Ajatashatru were contemporaries of both Mahavira and Buddha.

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TEACHINGS AND PRINCIPLES

According to Buddhism, there are four noble truths (Arya Satya)

1. Existence of Sorrow – Dukkha

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2. Cause of Sorrow – Desire or Maya

3. There is a way to get rid of Sorrow – Hope
4. Follow the eight-fold path to get Nirvana and Mahaparinirvana.

ASHTANGIKA MARG

• Right Thought/Views
• Right Resolve
• Right Speech
• Right Concentration
• Right Livelihood
• Right Exercise
• Right Recollection
• Right Memory

Note: The eight-fold path can be remembered through the code – ‘VRS CLERM’

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FAMOUS BUDDHIST COUNCILS

1st Council

• Period: 483 BC- just after the death of Buddha.

• Place – Rajgriha
• Presided by Mahakasappa

2nd Council

• Period: 383 BC
• Place: Vaishali
• Presided by Shatakhambri

3rd Council

• Period: 250-262 BC
• Place: Patliputra
• Presided by Moghiputta Tissa

4th Council

• Period: 1st Century AD

• Place: Kunzalwar
• Presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha
• At the fourth council the Buddhism got divided into two sects: Hinayana and Mahayana

Hinayana (lower vehicle) is followed in Southern parts (Srilanka, Combodia, Thailand etc). They
are stricter and objected to making of idols of Buddha.

Mahayana (higher vehicle) is followed in northern parts (china, India, Tibet etc.). They started
making idols and were liberal in approach.

INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism became popular very quickly in India. Some of the reasons for its popularity are:

• Asked for non-accumulation of wealth creating lesser social inequalities

• Asked for non-violence → peace and stability (saved cattle wealth and avoided wars)
• It had a simple philosophy and it was free from rituals.
• It followed a balanced approach i.e. neither too harsh like Jainism and nor too mild like
Ajivikas.

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• Tried to mitigate the evils resulting from the new material life in the 6th century B.C. by
taking full account of the new changes in the material life.
• It was open for all Varnas and did not have caste differentiation.
• It was also open for all classes and gender – rich or poor, male or female.
• Royal Patronage: It received a lot of Royal patronage. Kings built many Stupas and
monasteries, sent ambassadorial monks and also there was a tendency of people to align
with the rulers.
• Traders gave a lot of donations to promote Buddhism.
• It used the language of masses, Pali, so that everyone could connect and understand the
teaching, unlike Sanskrit, which was the language of the elites.
• Objective was to secure the salvation of the individual or nirvana.
• Created and developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture (thinking with
logic and rational)

IMPORTANCE OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

• Development of residential universities like Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar and Valabhi
in Gujarat.
• Development and rich literature in Pali language.
• Probably developed first human statue worshipping in India. It was of Buddha. (panels at
– Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (M.P.))
• New kind of art by Greek and Indian sculptors on the North West frontier of India –
Gandhara Art.
• Cave architecture (monk’s residence) – Barabar hills in Gaya and at Nasik

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BUDDHIST ART

Features Mathura Gandhara Amravati

Time period 2nd C. BC 1st C. BC 1st C. BC

North western part

Valley of Krishna
Flourished in Mathura region of Indian
and Godavari
subcontinent

Amravati,
Prominent Taxila, Bimaran, Nagarjunikonda,
Mathura and Jamalpur village
places Jalabad and Hada Goli, Ghantasala
and Vengi.

Buddhist images Mathura’s artists 1st to make Adopted from Adopted from
adopted from the images of Buddha Mathura Mathura

Initially – local rulers but later Shakas and Vakatakas and

Patronization by
by Shakas and Kushanas Kushanas Ikshavakus

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Greeko-Roman and
Initially indigenous but after so also known as
No one;
the Shakas and Kushanas Greeko Roman,
Influenced by Indigenous from
patronization, influence of Indo-Roman and
beginning to end.
Greeko-Roman Greeko Buddhist
school of art.

Type of Stone
White spotted Red sandstone Blue-Grey Stone White marble
used

Religious or
Both Only religious Both
Secular images

Physical beauty Physical beauty

Facial expression
• Muscular • Expression
Emphasis or • Clean shave and head
body through
focus on • Abhaymudra and
• Transparent postures
Dharmachakraparivartana
cloth • Erotic images
Mudra
• Curly hairs

Destroyed by Huna Got transformed

Continued till early Medieval
Continuation invasions in 5th into Pallava and
age
century AD Chola architecture

BUDDHIST SANGHA
Buddhist Sangha was the Buddhist religious order in which Buddhist monks had to live in a certain
manner.

Rules for entering the Sangha:

• Age should be at least 15 years.

• No criminal charges should be pending. If a person was convicted and has served the term
than he is allowed.
• Person should not be under debt.
• Must not be suffering from a communicable disease.

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Code of Conduct:

• Meal was served only once a day.

• Not to sleep on comfortable bed.
• Not to wear any ornaments
• Not to drink
• Not to indulge in any corrupt practices
• Not to have any relationship with the opposite sex
• Dress code: simple unstitched clothes
• Had to ask for bhiksha (begging) from nearby villages. It was believed that asking for
bhiksha killed the ego.

Significance of the code of Conduct:

• To establish a disciplined order

• It helped in resolving the conflicts of the contemporary society like differences between
rich and poor, and powerful and weak.
• It is believed, that possibly Buddha wanted to replicate the same in the society.

However, later, the money started pouring in, in the Sangh and monks got inclined towards the
materialistic pleasures. From this point the pure Buddhism started decaying.

DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

Buddhism declined greatly by the 12th century in India.

Several reasons can be attributed to the decline of Buddhism in India like:

• It lost its own identity: gradually the religion became more ritualistic and also started
practicing the rituals of Brahmanical and Vedic religion.
• Monks took Sanskrit language.
• From the first century AD, they practiced idol worship on a large scale and received
numerous offerings from devotees.
• Buddhist monasteries - dominated by ease-loving people and became centers of corrupt
practices
• Invasion of monasteries by Turkish because of monasteries’ richness.
• Sangh lost way: There were cracks in the Sangh, there was no more discipline.
• Revival and Reform of Brahmanism: Brahmanical religion was revived during Gupta Period
and the new Religion adopted many practices of Buddhism like vegetarianism etc.

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• Lack of Patronage: Palas were the last rulers which provided patronage to Buddhist
monasteries. Once the Brahmanical religion was revived, Buddhism lost its grip. Also
many kings suppressed them with force. In 7th Century, a Shaivite King ‘Shashank’
chopped the Bodhgaya Pipal tree.

BUDDISM AND JAINISM- COMPARATIVE STUDY

Similarities and differences between Buddhism and Jainism

On God

• Buddhism: The original Buddhist doctrine does not entail any godly figures, though the
later Buddhist sects introduced some Godly figures. Later Buddhists believe in the Godlike
figures or the Bodhisattvas, who take interest in the welfare of the world and work for its
liberation. In essence, Buddhism neither accepted nor denied the existence of GOD.

• Jainism: Jainism denies the existence of God, though they acknowledge the presence of
the Jinas or Kevalins, who are higher than human beings in status but subject to change
and evolution. However, unlike the Bodhisattvas, the Kevalins are rather indifferent to
the prayers and problems and remain unaffected.

On Nirvana

• Buddhism: In Buddhism, nirvana is freedom from the cycle of rebirth, when a being turns
into a state of non-being, or Sunya, loses its identity and becomes nothing.

• Jainism: In Jainism, nirvana is a state of moksha, where a being loses its identity and is
free from the cycle of birth and death.

On Liberation

• Buddhism: The path of liberation in Buddhism goes through good conduct and good
deeds, as mentioned in Eightfold path, Four Noble Truths, Five Perceptions and other
moral conducts.

• Jainism: Similarly, the path of liberation in Jainism is to follow right perception, right
knowledge, and right conduct. One has to overcome the worldly desires and feelings to
attain liberation or to become a perfect soul.

On Yogic Practices

• Buddhism: Buddhism emphasizes on the practice of mediation and other forms of Yoga
to concentrate on inner self.

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• Jainism: In Jainism as well, meditation and other yogic practices are essential for self-
purification and liberation.

On Non-Violence

• Buddhism: Buddhism is a peaceful religion with non-violence at the heart of its thoughts
and behavior.

• Jainism: Non-violence followed in action, thought, and speech is the highest morale in
Jainism.

On Karma

• Buddhism: Buddhism believes in the universality of Karma, which is a result of one's

action.

• Jainism: Jainism also believes in the universality of karma and its effect on human beings.
But, unlike Buddhism, karma, according to Jainism, is not a mere effect of one's actions,
but a real substance that flows into each individual body or jiva. This karmic substance
remains with a being until good conduct and self-purification eliminates them.

On Soul

• Buddhism: According to Buddhism, soul is an individuality that does exist in plants and
animals, but not in non-living or inanimate things.

• Jainism: According to Jainism, soul is present in every animate and inanimate object of
the universe including its elements - earth, water, wind, fire and air.

On The Status and Evolution of Individual Beings

• Buddhism: After Nirvana, there is no soul, but the individuality of an individual that passes
into nothingness, which is beyond any description and speculation.

• Jainism: After Nirvana, the soul continues to remain as an individual soul, but in the
highest state of purity and enlightenment.

Survival and Disappearance: Over a period of time, while Buddhism disappeared from the Indian
soil, Jainism survived in India, with its teachings intact, mostly untouched by the overwhelming
philosophy and practices of Hinduism, at the same time imparting to the later some of its noblest
ideas.

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Besides, a major difference lies in the dominions of both the religions. Though both, Buddhism
and Jainism, originated and developed individually in the same geographical area of India, but
difference lies in their spread. While Buddhism crossed the frontiers of its motherland and went
to other parts of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, far eastern countries, and parts of North
America and Europe as well, whereas Jainism, on the other hand, remained confined to India, the
land of its origin.

THINK!

• Why Buddhism vanished from India and Jainism survived the test of time to retain its
presence India?

Do You Know?

Doctrine of Anatta

• Anatta, Sanskrit anatman, in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no

permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. Instead, the individual is
compounded of five factors that are constantly changing.
• The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (“the
self”).
• The absence of a self, anicca (the impermanence of all being), and dukkha (“suffering”)
are the three characteristics of all existence (ti-lakkhana).
• Recognition of these three doctrines—anatta, anicca, and dukkha—constitutes “right
understanding.”

• Existence of God as creator, survivor and destroyer of universe is not accepted in Jainism.

• Existence of an eternal, essential and absolute soul, self or atman is not accepted in
Buddhism but Jainism believes in it.

• The doctrine that “Karma as implication of past actions that affects our present and future
life” is common in Buddhism and Hinduism, but in Jainism it is different and not really
related to actions but Karma is a subtle matter.

• Buddhism, as well as, Jainism had no faith in Vedic religion and in divinity of Vedas. They
reject the belief that Vedas are the sources of ultimate and whole truth.

• Buddhism focuses on moral progress independent of GOD. The existence of GOD is

neither accepted nor denied in Buddhism.

• Symbols of FIVE great events of Buddha’s Life

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o Buddha’s Birth: Lotus & Bull

o The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana): Horse

o Enlightenment (Nirvana): Bodhi Tree

o First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan): Wheel

o Death (Parinirvana): Stupa

• Bodhisattva: Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightenment. Anyone who has
a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very
popular subject in Buddhist art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightenment and refers to all
who are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another life. There are celestial
bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha.

• Buddha Charita: Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa and was
compiled in second century BC. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many
works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly deals
with Buddha’s Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which
deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.

• The Thanboddhay Pagoda in Myanmar has 582,357 Buddha statues.

• The 3 tallest statues in the world are of Buddha

o Spring Temple Buddha (Vairocana)- China

o Laykyun Setkyar-Myanmar

o Ushiku Daibutsu-Japan

• Buddhism sees humans as part of nature, not as separate from it

• Kanishka, was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism

• Srilanka- Buddhism propagated for the first-time outside India

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BUDDHA’S GESTURES

Both Hand Gesture

"Gesture of Meditation"

(dhyana) It is also called Samadhi or Yoga Mudra. Both hands are

placed on the lap, right hand on left with fingers fully stretched and
the palms facing upwards. This is the characteristic gesture of
Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitaba and the Medicine
Buddhas.

"Gesture of Meditation with bowl"

The Gesture of Meditation is also shown with a begging bowl, but
not with any other kind of bowl.

"Gesture of Teaching"

(dharmacakrapravartana) In this gesture both hands are held

against the chest, the left facing inward, covering the right facing
outward. The index finger and the thumb of each hand making a
circle. It is characteristic of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana. It is also a
gesture of hands exhibited by Lord Buddha while preaching the first
sermon in Sarnath.

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"The Embracing Gesture"

(vajrahûmkara) also called "The Om Sound Gesture". The wrists are

crossed at the breast. The hands hold the Vajra (=thunderbolt,
male) and Ghanta (= bell, female). The right hand crosses over the
left at the wrist, palms facing inwards towards the chest and usually
over the heart, symbolizing the union of method and wisdom. This
is the gesture of Adi Buddha Vajradara, Samvara and
Trailokyavijaya.

"Gesture of Knowledge Fist"

(vajramudra) The right hand makes a fist, thumb enclosed, index

finger extended upward, palm out; the left hand forms a fist, palm
inward and encloses the extended index finger. You will find this
gesture very often mirror-inverted.

"Gesture of Perfection"

(uttarabodhi) This gesture is also called "best-perfection" mudra. In

this position all fingers are intertwined. The index fingers extend
straight up and are together. Frequently, Shakyamuni Buddha as
liberator of the Nagas presents this mudra.

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"Gesture of Nectar Sprinkling"

(kshepana) Also called "Sprinkling of Ambrosia" mudra. The two

hands join, palm to palm, and the index fingers extend together and
usually point downwards toward a vase or container. The other
fingers and the thumbs are interwined.

"Gesture of Praying"

(namaskara or anjali) Also called the simple namaste (prayer)

position (means "I bow to you.") In this gesture, the hands are kept
close to the chest in devotional attitude with the palms and fingers
joined. This is the special gesture of Avalokiteshvara with more
than two arms.

"Gesture of Holding the Jewel"

(manidhara) The hands are arched and hold a wishing jewel, which
can not be seen because of its transparency. This is a mudra of
Avalokiteshvara, and is often confused with the similar gesture of
greeting.

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"Warding Off Evil Gesture"

(Bhûtadâmara) Also called "Trailokyavijaya" or awe-inspiring

mudra. It shows the hands crossed at the wrist, the right hand over
the left hand, palms turned outwards. Usually the two middle
fingers are slightly bent and the hands may both hold additional
symbols like Vajras and Ghanta. This gesture is frequently seen in
the representations of Vajrapani and Bhutadamaravajrapani

Left Hand Gestures

"Gesture of leisure"
(avakasha) The sitting person is holding the left hand on his/her
lap, palm upwards.

"Flower-holding Gesture"
(kataka) A fist-like mudra in which the fingers bend together until
the thumb and the index finger meet, forming an open tube. This
position is frequently used in icons in which fresh flowers or other
venerated objects are inserted.

Right Hand Gestures

"Gesture of Protection"

(abhaya) This gesture is also called "Gesture of Fearlessness" or

"blessing" or "fearless mudra". Generally, this position is shown
with the palms(s) facing outward and the fingers extended
upwards. The arm is elevated and slightly bent. You can find
abhayamudrâ sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. This mudra is

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characteristic of Buddha Shakyamuni and Dhyani Buddha

Amogasiddhi.

"Gesture of Argument"

(vitarka) Also called "The Gesture of Debate" or "discussion"

mudra. In this gesture the tips of thumb and index finger touched
forming a circle. All the other fingers are extended upwards. This is
the mystic gesture of Taras and Bodhisattvas, often used when
explaining the Buddha’s teachings.

"Gesture of Witness"

(bhumisparsha) This gesture is also called "touching the earth"

mudra or "calling the earth to witness" mudra. The right arm hangs
down over the right knee. The hand with the palm turned inward
and all the fingers extended downward with the finger touching the
lotus throne. The left hand lies on the lap with palm upward. This
gesture symbolizes Shakyamunis victory over Mara. The Dhyani
Buddha Akshobhya shows the same Mudra.

"Gesture of Charity"

(varada) This gesture is also called "Gift bestowing Gesture of

Compassion" or "conferring boon" or "grace" mudra. The arm is
extended all way down with palm facing outwards. You can find
varadamudrâ sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. This is the
mudra of Dhyani Buddha Ratnasamhava, Bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara and (sometimes) standing Buddha Shakyamuni.

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"Gesture of ascetic"

(shramanamudrâ) This gesture is also called renunciation mudra.

The hand points downward away from the body as a symbol for
renunciation of secular pleasures.

"Gesture of Understanding"

(cincihna) In this mudra, the thumb and index finger grasp a fine
object as a a grain of truth. This is a symbol for spiritual
understanding.

"Gesture of Threatning"

(tarjana) This gesture is also called "warning" mudra. Only the index
finger is raised either horizontally or vertically, while the other
fingers are locked up in the fist. You can find abhayamudrâ
sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. This mudra is characteristic
of most of the wrathful deities.

"Gesture of Banishing"

(karana) also called the "The Gesture Warding off Evil", this mudra
indicates with the hand stretched out, either horizontally or
vertically, palm turned forward. The thumb presses down the
middle two fingers (like the horns of a Yak against an enemy), while
the index and little fingers extend straight upwards. You can find
abhayamudrâ sometimes also as a left-hand gesture. Ekajata and
Yama, as well as Vajrapani and Bhutadamaravajrapani are
frequently shown in this mudra.

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"Gesture Beyond Misery”

(Buddhashramana) Also called the ascetic’s Gesture of

Renunciation.. In this mudra the right hand is lifted in line with the
shoulder, the wrist bends backwards and the fingers and the palm
face upwards. The fingers point outward, away from the body. The
is the gesture of Vasudhara and Usnishijaya.

"The Performance of Homage Gesture"

(tarpana) The arms are bent at the elbow with hands raised even
with shoulders. The fingers are slightly bent with the fingertips
extending toward the shoulders. The palms of the hands face
downwards. A mudra frequently used by Namasangiti.

"The Lion Gesture"

(harina) In this mudra the thumb along with the second and third
fingers touch the tips, forming a ring. The little and the index fingers
extend upwards. Frequently, symbols or emblems are held in this
manner. Also denotes rabbit or hare, or elephant.

"Gesture of Knowledge"

(Jnana) The tips of the index finger and the thumb join, forming a
circle, the other fingers are extended straight. This mudra is held
against the chest, palm towards the chest. In this way, it differs
from the vitarka mudra in which the palm faces away from the
body.

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"Gesture of Discord"

(kartari) This mudra is held with the hands at shoulder level. The
thumb and the ring finger (third finger) touch the tips forming a
circle. The index and middle finger extend straight resembling
rabbits ears or the horns of a deer. Frequently, symbols appear
between these two fingers.

MAURYAN EMPIRE

Before the Mauryan period, the Janapadas got condensed into larger kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas. There were 16 major Mahajanapadas and out of them 5 were very strong and
important.

• Magadha
• Avanti
• Kashi
• Koshala
• Vajji

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Since the details of Mahajanapadas and Alaxander invasion is covered nicely in the old NCERT,
we will directly go to Mauryan Age, important from examination point of view.

POSSIBLE DIMENSIONS FROM WHICH A QUESTION CAN BE ASKED ON MAURYAN

DYNASTY
• Contributions of Chandragupta and Ashoka
• Source of information
• Literary evidences – Arthashastra, Indica by Megasthanes
• Archaeology evidences - Mauryan Art and Ashokan edicts
• Decline of Mauryan empire

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Mauryan Kings (324 BCE – 180 BCE)

1. Chandragupta (322–297 BCE)

2. Bindusara (297–272/268 BCE)

3. Ashoka (272/268–232 BCE)

4. Dasharatha (232–224 BCE)

5. Samprati (224–215 BCE)

6. Shalishuka (215–202 BCE)

7. Devavarman (202–195 BCE)

8. Shatadhanvan (195–187 BCE)

9. Brihadratha (187–180 BCE)

10. Pushyamitra (180–149 BCE)

(Shunga Empire)

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CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (SANDROCHOTUS/ANDROCHOTUS IN GREEK RECORDS)

• He defeated Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) and founded Mauryan Empire.

• He was trained by Chanakya or Vishnugupta, a Brahmin Guru at Taxila.

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• He defeated Seleucus Necator, the successor of Alexander, and conquered Kabul,

Kandhahar, Herat and Baluchistan.
• Later, they became friend and exchanged gifts. In one record it is mentioned that
Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to Seleucus Necator.
• Megasthanes was the Greek ambassador of Selucus Nicator, to the court of Chandraguta
Maurya.
• For the first time in Indian history, he laid down the foundation of a centralized
Administration.
• According to a Jain text, he came to Shravanbelagola, in Karnataka, with the Jain monk
Bhadrabahu and performed Santhara (Sallekhana). (Covered in Jainism.)

BINDUSARA (AMITRACHOTUS)
• He invaded Southern and Western India, as per Tamil Sources (Sangam literature)
• He requested a Syrian King, Antiochus I, through an ambassador to send three things:
Philosopher, Sweet Wine and Figs. Sweet wine and figs were sent, however, a philosopher
wasn’t sent.
• Bindusara was the follower of Ajivika Sect. It was the third important sect apart from
Buddhism and Jainism.

AJIVIKA SECT
• Founded by Maskariputra
• Maskariputra was a friend of Vardhaman Mahavira, and two had many debates.
• It was a materialistic sect and did not believe in life after death.
• Till 12th Century, it was more popular than Jainism, but then it suddenly declined.

Note: If we observe the trend, we find that the religions of the three successive Mauryan
Kings, belonging to same family, were different. Chandragupta – Jain, Bindusara – Ajivika
and Ashoka – Buddhism. This shows how tolerant and accepting the society was.

Imagine, in today’s society, is this possible that a son is allowed to take a different religion
from his father?

You can quote this in Essay or Mains wherever the context is required.

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ASHOKA

Undoubtedly one of the Greatest kings of India. We have fairly good information about the
Ashokan rule because of the written material left from his times.

Important Events:

• Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara. After Bindusara’s death, a bloody struggle
for the throne started.
• A Buddhist legend says that Ashoka killed 99 of his brothers to usurp the throne.
• He was initially a believer of Shiva, and later got converted to Buddhism.
• In the 8th year of his coronation, 261 BC, Kalinga War was fought. This is mentioned in
major Rock Edict No 13th. According to that, one lakh (Shatr sahtra) people were killed
and many more injured. After seeing such devastation, he had a change of heart and he
gave up ‘Bherighosha’ – policy of waging wars and adopted ‘Dhamma Ghosha’ – policy
of conquering the hearts of the people or policy of cultural conquest.
• After his conversion to Buddhism, in the 10th year of coronation, he visited Bodh Gaya.
• In the 13th year of his coronation, he appointed a new officer – Dhammamahamatras –
to implement the codes of Dhamma.
• In the 20th year of his coronation he visited Lumbini and exempted it from Bali (a form of
tribute) and reduced the rate of Bhaga (the royals’ share of the produce) to 1/8th of the
previous rate.

(NOTE: During Ashoka’s period, the image of a king was seen as that of a warlord. So, following
a path of peace Ashoka actually revolutionized the role of the King.)

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ASHOKAN DHAMMA:
• Dhamma is a Pali word which is written as Dharma in Sanskrit. In correct sense, Ashokan
Dhamma, is not exactly a religion, but a ‘Moral code of conduct’.
• Through this, Ashoka wanted to establish a peaceful and coherent society in which every
sect should respect and honour the other sect.
• He emphasized compassion towards animals and proper behavior towards relatives.
• Broad objective of Dhamma was to preserve the social order.
• Non – Violence against man as well as animals.
• Protection of trees
• Obeying the parents
• Respecting Brahmanas and Buddhist monks
• Showing mercy to slaves and servants.
• Living with the neighbours and slaves.

Methods to spread Dhamma

• To implement this code, he appointed a new officer called ‘Dhammamahamatras’.

• Ashokan rock edicts
• Dhamma yatra took by Ashoka

Impact of Dhamma

• Peace and stability

• Moral upliftment

Note: It can be understood that Ashokan Dhamma was not exactly the extension of the Buddhism
as new officers were appointed for preaching rather than using the Buddhist monks.

ASHOKAN EDICTS OR INSCRIPTIONS:

Edicts can be understood as ancient notice boards ☺ which were put so that public can read and
understand the government orders. Following types of edict are found:

1. Rock Edicts
2. Cave Edicts
3. Pillar edicts

Ashokan inscription were first deciphered by – James Princep

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Rock edicts are of 2 types – Major Rock Edict and Minor Rock Edict

Major Rock Edicts (MRE):

• 14 Major Rock Edicts are found at ten places.

• In major rock edicts – big paragraph or bigger information
• Three languages were used – Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic

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(Aramaic is old Hebrew. Mother tongue of Jesus Christ)

Place Language Script

Shahbazgadhi (Pakistan) Prakrit Kharoshti

Mansehra (Pakistan) Prakrit Kharoshti

Kandahar (Afghanistan)

Kalsi (Dehradun) Pali Brahmi

Sopara (Maharashtra) Prakrit Brahmi

Yeragudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Girnar (Gujarat)

Dhauli (Odisha)

Jaugada (Odisha)

Sannati (Karnataka)

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• Major Rock edicts contain the directives to his Subjects. Ashoka had promised to follow
this himself.

Important rock edicts and messages – (can also see in image)

• MRE 1 – Nonviolence – not to kill animals.

• MRE 7 and MRE 12 – Talks about religious tolerance
• MRE 13 – Talks about Kalinga war. (Ashoka’s opponent in this war is not known.)
• MRE 14 – Importance of Dhamma

Minor rock Edicts:

• These rock edicts have only single piece of information or one paragraph.
• Minor rock edicts have been found from more than 15 places in India.
• They are written in Prakrit in Brahmi script.

The distinction between major and minor rock edict is made by the modern historians on the
basis of content. The major rock edicts are more detailed as compared to minor ones.

• The name ‘Ashok’ was discovered for the first time on a minor rock edict.
• In 1915, Maski in Karnataka, the name Ashoka was mentioned along with his title –
Ashoka Devanampiya Piyadassi. (Devanampiya – dear to Gods; Piyadassi – Good looking).
• Otherwise in all other edicts only the title – ‘Devanampiya Piyadassi’ is mentioned.

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Pillar Rock Edicts:

• Pillar rock edicts found from more than 10 places contains 7 edicts that talk of Dhamma.

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LIST OF PILLARS

No. Name and description Image

Sarnath Pillar Inscription - near Varanasi,

Uttar Pradesh, four lions
1.

Sanchi - near Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, four

lions
2.

3. Rampurva, Champaran, Bihar, bull

Vaishali, Bihar, single lion, with no

inscription
4.

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Sankissa, Uttar Pradesh, elephant capital

only
5.

Lauriya-Nandangarth, Champaran, Bihar,

6. single lion

Delhi-Meerut, Delhi ridge, moved from

Meerut to Delhi by Firuz Shah Tughluq in
7. 1356

Allahabad pillar, Uttar Pradesh (originally

located at Kausambi and probable moved
8. to Allahabad by Jahangir)

Maker, Chhapra, Bihar, Column with no

inscription No images available
9.

Kandahar, Afghanistan (fragments of Pillar

10. Edicts VII) No images available

11. Ranigat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan No images available

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Delhi-Topra, Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi

12. (moved from Topra to Delhi by Firuz Shah No images available
Tughluq)

13. Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar No images available

14. Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh No images available

SARNATH PILLAR INSCRIPTION

• The Lion Capital discovered more than 100 years ago at Sarnath, near Varanasi, is
generally referred to as Sarnath Lion Capital.
• Built by Ashoka.
• Built in commemoration of the 1st sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the
Buddha at Sarnath.

5 component parts:

1. The shaft (which is broken in many parts now),

2. A lotus bell base,
3. A drum on the bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise,
4. The figures of four majestic lions, and
5. The crowning element, Dharamchakra, a large wheel, was also a part of this pillar.
• However, this wheel is lying in a broken condition and is displayed in the site museum at
Sarnath.
• The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been adopted as the
National Emblem of Independent India.

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• The capital has:

4 lions: Lion is a symbol of power (Kshatriyahood

of Buddha) and 4 heads in every direction showing
that buddhas message is spreading in every
direction.

Horse: depicting leaving of the house of Buddha –

Mahabhinishkraman.

Bull: Sunsign of Buddha – Taurus

Elephant: Conceiving Buddha.

Wheel: Dharma chakra Parivartan.

Every Pillar capital has an engraved pillar, an abacus

which can be bell shaped or lotus shaped and an animal
motif on the top called the capital.

CAVE ROCK EDICTS

• They are found at six places in Afghanistan.

• They are bilingual edicts, written in Greek and Armaic.
• Ashokan inscriptions are called Dhammalipi which covers religion, morality, social and
administrative matters.
• They can be compared to Dharmashastras or law books written in Sanskrit under
Brahmanical influence.

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ARTHASHASTRA

DISCOVERY
• Discovered in 1893 – 94 by H C Shastri. A curator in the museum of Mysore. A person
came to his office, kept the manuscript on his table and left.
• Later, when he saw that it is actually an ancient manuscript, he tried to find the man who
brought that manuscript but he was never found. So, we don’t have a clue of where
exactly it was kept all these years.
• In the book it is mentioned that it was written by Kautilya. Historians have drawn
inference from the type of state authority mentioned in the book matched with that of
the Mauryan rule, it is believed that ‘Kautilya’ might be ‘Chanakya’.
• Kautilya is also called as Vishnugupta.
• Also since there is no mention of Mauryas, Chandragupta and Bindusara, with whom
Chanakya was associated, it is still doubtful whether Kautilaya and Chanakya are the same
person.
• Further the later part of book is written in a form that was prevalent during the Gupta
period.
• The book is about state craft and general administration.
• It is written in Sanskrit
• The theory of Saptang is mentioned in the book. Saptang literally means seven limbs or
wings of a state. They are – King, ministers, treasures, Army, Forts, Friends and territory.
• Condition of a king and his duties.
• Officials at center and provincial to local level.

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• Espionage system
• Taxation
Conditions required for becoming a King:

• Must belong to a noble family.

• Must have the knowledge of Artha (Economics) and Shastra (war).

Duties of a King:

• Must be the protector of Dharma i.e. moral code of conduct.

• He must discharge his duties at all times. i.e. 24 * 7.

Ministers:

• For choosing Minister Arthashastra suggests that he

• Must have talent

• Must be loyal

But the king must have spies to check the activities of his ministers.

Kautilya gave a list of top officials at the center. After the king the most important officials
were called the Tirthas (18), followed by Adhyakshas (28).

SOME IMPORTANT TIRTHAS:

Post Work

Mantrim and Purohita Prime Minister and Chief Priest

Samaharta Chief collector of revenue

Samvidhata Chief of treasury

Yuvaraj Crown Prince

Senapati Chief of the army

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SOME IMPORTANT ADHYAKSHAS:

Post Work

Sita Adhyaksha Incharge of crown’s agricultural land

Lavana Adhaksha Incharge of salt

Mudra Adhyaksha Incharge of Passport

Maudra Adhyaksha Incharge of Currency

Rupdarshak Incharge of mint

Pautra Incharge of weights and measures

Nauvna Incharge of boats

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
• The Brahmanical law-books stressed that the king should be guided by Dharmasastras
laws.
• Kautilya called the king as dharmapravartaka or promulgator of the social order.
• Policy of military conquest was followed and Anga, Vaisali, Kasi, Kosala, Avanti, Kalinga,
etc., were annexed one by one.
• Power of sword was required to rule on such a large scale and Magadha was the one
having such power.
• A vast bureaucracy was there which no other period of ancient history had. This
bureaucracy-maintained control over all the spheres of life.
• Spies were maintained by state to check the activities of officials and also about foreign
enemies.
• Tirthas - Important functionaries
• Most officers were paid in cash (in panas (Pana being a Silver coin equal to 3/4th of a tola
(10 or 12 grams)))
• Highest functionaries –
o Mantrin (Minister)
o Purohita (Priest)
o Senapati (Commander- in -Chief)
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o Yuvraja (Crown-prince)
• Highest functionaries were paid about 48000 panas while lower functionaries get 60
panas and lowest get even 10 or 20 only.

The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces.

• Uttarapatha – Taxila (capital)

• Dakshinapatha – Suvarnagiri

• Pashchimapath – Ujjaini

• Prachyapatha – Tosali

• Madhyapatha – Patliputra

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Officer Department

Mahabaladhikrita Head of the army

Bhattaswapti Head of cavalry

Mahapihipati Head of elephant army

Ranbhandarika Chancellor of military exchequer

Dandpasika Head of police

Mahadandnayak Head of Judiciary

Kanchuki Head of queen’s Haram

Mahasandhivigrahika Minister of war and peace

TIkina Head of roadways

Dhruvadhikarna Head of Revenue department

Panyadhyaksha Head of Commerce/fixed prices

Sulkadhyaksha Head of Tolls/customs

Akaradhyaksha Head of Mines

Lohadhyaksha Head of iron

Sitadaksha Head of crown lands

Akash Patala adhyaksha Accounts

Lakshanadhyaksha Mint

Sutradhyaksha Textile

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Sansthadyaksha Market

Pautvadhyaksha Weights and measures

INDICA
• It was originally written by Megasthenes in Greek but the original book has been lost.

• The book is available through the references of other contemporary Greeco-Roman

writers.

• Arian, Pliny, Justin, Diodorus, Plutarch and Strabo ( APJ Abdul Kalam, DPS (Delhi Public
School ☺))

• The author informs about the city of Patliputra and wrote in praise that it was more
beautiful than any city of the west. The geographical description given by Megasthanes
matches the archeological findings of the city.

• He wrote that Indian society was divided into seven classes – Philosophers, peasants,
herdsmen, artisans, soldiers, inspectors and councilors.

Indian historians have rejected his classification as:

• Indian society was not divided on the basis of the class but on the basis of Varnas which
were four.

• There was no class of philosophers in India.

• The position of soldiers was very high in India, unlike what Megasthenes have written.

• He wrote in detail about Patliputra’s administration which is not available in other

Indian sources.

• He wrote that Patliputra was administered by six councils and each council had five
members. Each council was responsible for different duties.

• He also mentions about similar administration in armed forces. There were councils for
Navy, Commissariat, Infantry, Cavalry, Elephants and Chariots.

ECONOMIC REGULATIONS
• According to Arthasastra of Kautilya - state appointed 27 superintendents (adhyakshas)
to regulate the economic activities of the state.

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• These adhyakshas controlled and regulated agriculture, trade and commerce, weights
and measures, crafts such as weaving and spinning, mining, and so on.

AGRICULTURE
• The state maintained farms, on which numerous slaves and hired labourers were
employed. It is said that 150,000 (this may be exaggeration) war-captives brought by
Asoka from Kalinga were engaged in agriculture.
• The state also provided irrigation facilities and regulated water supply for the benefit of
agriculturists. Megasthenes informs us that the officer measured the land as in Egypt and
inspected the channels through which water was distributed into smaller channels.

CONNECTIVITY
• Patliputra was at a strategic position which enables its royal agents to sail up and down
in four directions.
• Royal road – Patliputra to Nepal (through Vaishali and Champaran)
• Rroad at the foothills of the Himalayas – passing though Vaishali, Champaran to
‘Kapilavastu, Kalsi (in Dehradun district), Hazara, and eventually to Peshawar.
• Road connecting north-western India with Patna – literary evidences by Megasthenes’
texts.
• Roads connecting Patna with Sasaram and from Sasaram they connect to central India
through Mirzapur.
• Patliputra through eastern Madhya Pradesh was connected with Kalinga which was
connected with Andhra and Karnataka.
• For such long distances horse may have helped them.

TRANSPORTATION
• Mauryan pillars were made of Single Stone Block and so they were heavy also.
• To establish them at different places was challenge because of transporting.
• But they were established at different parts of India showing great transportation
equivalent to Mughals and perhaps East India Company.

TAXATION SYSTEM
• According to Kautliya there were number of taxes imposed on peasants, artisans, traders
etc.
• So it created need of efficient assessment, collection and storage.
• Mauryans considered assessment more important than depositing.
• Samharta – he was the highest officer in charge of assessment of taxes.
• Sannidhata – He was the chief custodian of the state treasury and store-house.

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• Tax was 1/4th to 1/6th of production.

CURRENCY
• Punch marked silver coins.
• Coins contained images of peacock, hill, crescent.
• Discovered in large numbers.
• Helped in collection of taxes and payment of officers in cash.
• It may have also helped in exchange.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

POSITION OF SLAVES
• Slaves were employed in agriculture.
• Megasthenes had never seen a slave but truth is slaves were there in that period and
megasthenes failed to note that.
• What slaves did in Rome and Greece was done by the Shudras in India.
• The sudras were regarded as the collective property of the 3 higher Varnas.
• They were compelled to serve them as slaves, artisans, agricultural labourers, and
domestic servants.

MAURYAN ART

Mauryan Art can be broadly divided into two themes:

• Royal Art – Patronized by the throne

• Folk Art – taken by common people

ROYAL ART
Royal Art covers 3 aspects –

• Stupas and Chaityas

• Royal palace and city of Patliputra

• Ashokan pillars

STUPA:
• Stupas are dome shaped pre – Buddhist structures which were made to keep a relic of a
monk.

• Later they were associated only with Buddhist holy sites.

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There were four types of Stupas found in ancient India:

• Stupa which contain bodily remains of Buddha.

• Stupa which contains personal remains of Buddha like his cloth, vessel etc.

• Stupa of a monk.

• Stupas built by monks to commemorate any important event in the life of Buddha.

The greatest existing Stupa was built by Ashoka at Sanchi.

PARTS OF A STUPA:

• The Hemispherical dome is called the Anda.

• Above it the caged balcony like structure is called Harmika. It is the abode of God, under
which the remains of Buddha are kept.

• The umbrella like structure enclosed in Harmika is called Chatri. It has three parts –
showing Sandha, Dhamma and Buddha.

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• An enclosed path around Anda is called Pradakshina Path. People walk anticlockwise
around it chanting the verses.

• The outer circular wall is called a Medhi.

Stone carvings in Torana Dwar

• There are four gates. One is present in each direction. These gates are called ‘Toran’.
These gates are carved showing Buddha’s life stories.

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CHAITYAS:

• Chaityas are the prayer halls of the Buddhists.

• They are generally semicircular in shape with pillars at both the sides and a stupa at the
center.

• The most famous Chaitya is at Karve hills in Nasik.

• Mauryans, especially Ashoka, gave a lot of grants for the construction of Chaityas for the
Buddhist monks.

PATLIPUTRA CITY
• The city was fortified with regular gates, the remains of which have been found.

• Most of the construction in the city was of wood.

• The remains of Chandragupta’s palace have been found from ‘Kumhrar’, a place in central
Patna. It had a hall of 80 pillars. One of these is still standing in the garden.

• Megasthenese and Fa-Hien, both have mentioned about a wooden throne of

Chandragupta. Fa – Hien even wrote that this throne was made in Heaven.

MAURYAN PALACE
• Mauryans introduced stone masonry on a wide scale (in Pillars, Palace etc.)
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• According to the Megasthenes – the Maurya palace at Pataliputra was as splendid as that
in the capital of Iran.

• Fragments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating the existence of an 80-plllared hall, have
been discovered at Kumrhar, on the outskirts of modern Patna.

• These remains reminded us the high technical skill attained by the Maurya artisans in
polishing the stone pillars, which are as shining as Northern Black Polished ware.

AHOKAN PILLARS:

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• These pillars were made of sandstone, brought from Chunar (Eastern UP)

• The pillars are monolithic i.e. made of a single stone except the capital.

• The pillars were installed at different Buddhist holy place. Also they were not a part of
any structure but an independent standing structure in themselves.

• Generally, these pillars were 50 – 60 feet tall and weighed 50 – 55 tonnes.

• These pillars are round in shape with a taper from bottom to top.

• These pillars are shining because polishing art was well developed in Magadhan Empire.

• The ‘capital’ i.e. top of the pillar, was made with different animals like bull, lion, elephant
etc. depicting different aspects of Buddha’s life.

• The pillar art of the Mauryan period was an independently and indigenously developed
art and not an extension of the Iranian art as told by early British Historians.

• The remains of these pillars reminded us the high technical skill attained by the Maurya
artisans in polishing the stone pillars, which are as shining as Northern Black Polished
ware.

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• It would have been a very difficult task to carry the huge blocks of stone from the quarries
and to polish and embellish them when they were placed erect. All this seems to be a
great feat of engineering.

FOLK ARTS
• Sculptural art was developed during the Mauryan period but only few remains have
survived.

• The best specimen which have survived is a Terracotta figurine of a female, popularly
known as Yakshini, a goddess popular in all the three religions i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism
and Jainism.

• The Yakshini is kept in Patna Museum and its one hand is broken.

•
• It is believed that it was an image of an ideal women carrying ‘Chanwar’ in one hand. A
‘Chanwar’ is a long soft brush shaped fan.

• Potteries of Mauryan times have also been found from different places mostly of
‘Northern Black Painted Ware’ type (NBPW).

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• The Mauryans knew the art of making wells lined with bricks, which made it possible for
them to live away from the river and more habitable areas developed in the interior.

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF MAURYAN EMPIRE

Several reasons are given to explain the decline of the empire. Some of the important once are:

BRAHMANICAL REACTION
• It emerged because of the policies adopted by Ashoka.
• Prohibition on killing of animals and birds by Ashoka and anti-ritualistic attitude of
Buddhism affected the income of the Brahmanas.
• Shungas, Knavas, Satavahanas who rose on the remnants of Mauryan Empire were
brahmanas.

FINANCIAL CRISIS
• Large army and Bureaucracy required to be paid regularly which created financial crisis.
• This was further aggravated by large grants by Ashoka to Buddhist monks and
monasteries.

OPPRESSIVE RULE
• During the reign of Bindusara, the citizens of Taxila complained against the misrule of
wicked bureaucrats (dushtamatyas).
• The complaint was raised again during the reign of Ashoka. Ashoka was very concerned
about this and asked his officers to not disturb someone without reason.
• But this didn’t reduce the oppression and resentment against state continues to
accumulate.

NEGLECT OF THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER AND THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

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• Ashoka was mostly busy with missionary activities, propagating dhamma and dhamma
yatras and so wasn’t able to pay attention to the north western frontier.

• Over centralization of a vast empire.

• Spread of material knowledge outside Magadhan Kingdom, which reduced their

dependence on Magadh and as such could survive on their own.

• Lack of strong successors after Ashoka.

• The attacks of Shunga Dynasty over the Mauryan territory. Pushyamitra Shunga killed the
last Mauryan ruler and founded a new Shunga Dynasty.

POINTS TO REMEMBER:
• Bimbisara was the contemporary of both Buddha and Mahavira.

• “All Indians are Free and not even one of them is a slave”- Megasthenes.

• There is only one edict, in which Ashoka refers himself as King of Magadha (Laja Magadhe
– Minor Rock Edict of Mashi.

• King of Magadha, at the time of Mahaparinirvana of Gautam Buddha- Ajatshatru

• Ashvaghosha, who has written the marvelous work “Buddhacharita” was a court poet of
Kanishka

• Senguttuvan (also knoown as Red Chera) was the greatest Chera king who is remembered
for building a temple of ‘Kannagi’ the Goddess of Chastity and founded the famous Pattini
cult.

• The epic Tamil poem, Jivaka Cintamani (also known as Civaka Cintamani) is a Jain religious
epic authored by Jain saint Tiruttakrdeva. This epic is considered one of the classic epics
of Sangam Literature. The poem means “fabulous gem”and is also known as Manannul
(Book of Marriages).

• The history of ancient Tamil kingdoms i.e. Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas came to be known
from Sangam Literature.

• Seethalai Saathanaar was the author of the book ‘Manimekalai’. The book is a poem in 30
cantos. Its story is a sequel of an epic ‘Silappatikaram’ that tells the story of the conversion
to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

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• The author of an epic Silappadikarma is Ilango Adigal. The epic deals with the love story
of Kovalan (Son of a wealthy merchant in Puhar) and Madhavi (a beautiful courtesan
dancer) of Kaveripattinam. It is also called Illiyad of Tamil Poetry.

• The story of Manimekalai is a sequel of an epic ‘Silappatikaram’ that tells the story of the
conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. Seethalai Saathanaar
was the author of the book ‘Manimekalai’ (is considered as the ‘Odyssus of Tamil poetry’).

• The book, ‘Bharatam’ was written by Perudevanar. The author had also composed the
invocatory versus for the Sangam classics Ahnanuru, Puranamuru, Kuruntogai, Narrinai
and Aingurunuru.

• The Pattini cult i.e. the worship of Kannagi as an ideal wife, was started by Senguttuvan,
the ruler of Chera.

• Tolkāppiyam is a work on the grammar of the Tamil language. It deals with orthography,
phonology, morphology, semantics, prosody and the subject matter of literature. It
belongs to second tamil Sangam.

• Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram is based on some events of the reign of Pusyamitra Sunga,

a dynasty which followed the Mauryas.

• Barabar cave (Gaya, Bihar) Inscription- Donation of the caves to Ajivikas

• Bhabru Edicts- Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism and his reverence for his religion

• Ashoka has created 3 new posts

o Pradeshika — District Magistrate.

o Rajjuka — Reveneue officer, who also looks after the judicial things.

o Yukta — Correspondence clerk

• The Allahabad pillar (brought from Kausambi) contains the inscription of Samudragupta
and Jahangir.

EPIGRAPHY is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs as writing; it is the science of identifying

graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural
contexts, and drawing conclusions about the writing and the writers.

o Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph

as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition.

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POST MAURYAN KINGDOMS

After The decline of Mauryan Empire, many new foreign rulers arrived and had a deep impact
on the Indian society and culture. Most important of them were –

• Indo – Greeks (Bactrian kings – Greeks – 2nd C BC)

• Shakas – Scythians – Central Asia – 1st C BC
• Parthians – Pahalvas – Persia – 1st C AD
• Kushans – Yutchi tribe – Central Asia – 1st C AD

INDO – GREEKS (BACTRIANS)

• They came 2nd C BC and got settled in Northwestern India (Afghanistan) and made Taxila
their Capital.
• The first known king was Demetrius – 2nd C BC.
• Their greatest king was Menander, known as Milind in Indian literature.
• In his period, a great Buddhist scholar Nagasena, also called Nagarjuna, wrote a book
‘Milindpanho’ in Pali.
• Milindpanho literally means questions of Milind. It is a book on Buddhist philosophy,
where Milind is asking questions to a Buddhist monk about life.

CONTRIBUTION OF BACTRIANS:
Coins: They were the first to use gold coins in India. They were also the first to use date and
images on coins.

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Astronomy: They helped in the development of astronomy and astrology. They made a week of
7 days (Greek influence).

Art: They developed Gandhara School of sculptural art also known as Hellenistic Art.

• Hellenistic = Greek + Persian + Indian

• Themes – Buddha and his life were themes of this art.
• These statues were found in Kabul – Banmiyan (this was destroyed by Taliban few years
ago), Kandahar, Bagram, Heart and Taxila.
• They were mostly made of mud, schist, sandstone and plaster.
• The statues were mostly made in standing position.
• They depicted Buddha in Greco – Roman style. (In 2013, a question was asked in GS 1 that
what were the Greco – Roman influences in the Gandhara School of Art?)

• Hairstyle – Curly (Greek)

• Ears – Long elongated (Roman)
• Eyes – Sharp (Greek)
• Faces – Flat and expressionless (Greek)
• Muscles – muscular (Roman and Greek Gods like apolo and Zeus)

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This art was developed most during the Shakas and Kushans, during which the tallest Buddhist
statue was built in Bamiyan. After it was destroyed, the tallest is at China.

SHAKAS (SCYTHIANS – CENTRAL ASIA)

• Shakas came to India from Central Asia in 1st C AD and settled in Punjab to Gujarat region.
The wall of China was built in the south to protect china from Shaka attack in 3 rd C.
• There were many dynasties in Shakas which ruled. Shakas were a group of people and not
a single dynasty like Mauryas and Mughals.
• They had two major headquarters in India – Ujjain and Mathura.
• They introduced the concept of ‘Kshatrapi’ system – military governorship appointed by
the king.
• They had a system of two rulers at a time, Father – son, two brothers etc.
• Rudhradaman was the greatest king of Shakas in 2nd C AD.

Junagarh inscription gives information about him.

• The inscription is in Chaste Sanskrit.

• It informs about a dam repaired by Rudradaman on Sudarshan lake in Kathiawar Region.
• This dam was originally built under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya in 4th C BC.
• Rudradaman performed an Ashwamegha yajna.

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PARTHIANS (PHALVAS) – PERSIA

• They came from Persia and settle in the western part of India.
• Takht – e – Bahi inscription tells about them.
• Most famous king is Gondopherous.
• It is believed that the first Christian missionary, Saint Thomas, came to his court around
52 AD. According to a Christian tradition, Saint Thomas was sent by the Christ himself.

KUSHANAS (YUTHI TRIBE) – CENTRAL ASIA

• They came from Central Asia and occupied area from Afghanistan, Kashmir to Prayag
(Allahabad).
• Amongst the foreigners they had the largest empire.
• They had two headquarters – Peshawar and Mathura.
• Kanishka was the most powerful king of Kushans. And ruled in 1st – 2nd C.

IMPORTANT EVENTS:
• During his period the 4th Buddhist council was held at Kashmir.
• The Buddhists were divided into Hinayana and Mahayana.
• He preserved some holy relics of Buddha including his tooth.
• He built several stupas.
• He was a follower of Mahayana.

SOME GREAT SCHOLARS OF THIS PERIOD:

Charak: ‘Charak Samhita’

• It is the first scientific book on medicine in India. It describes in detail the symptoms,
causes, and cure of the diseases.
• Many surgical process and instruments are also mentioned in the book.
• The book is known as the encyclopedia of medicine in India.

Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha (Buddhist Scholars)

• Asvaghosa wrote Buddha Charita. The first biography of Buddha. It was written in
Sanskrit.

CONTRIBUTION OF KUSHANS:
• They accepted Indian religion and language. As they themselves were tribesmen they did
not have an organized religion before.

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• They also followed Vaishnavism as it was more liberal than Shaivism. For the first time
there is a mention of ‘Vasudev Krishna’ in Mathura.
• Horse riding was introduced by them. Use of stirrup, saddle and reins was introduced.
Chariots became outdated.
• A new fashion and costumes were introduced. Hat, leather boots, pants and overcoat.

Statue of Kanishka showing new attire

• They patronized Mathura and Amravati school of art.

• They introduced the tradition of worshipping ancestors called ‘Dev Kul’ tradition.
• They issued numerous gold coins. They metal was found to be the purest amongst all gold
coins even that of Gupta period.

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IMPACT OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS

Structures

• Advanced in building activities.

• Use of burnt bricks for flooring and of tiles for both flooring and roofing.
• Construction of brick—wells

Pottery

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• Red ware is typical pottery with plain and polished.

• Know red pottery techniques
• The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels.

Better cavalry

• The Sakas and Kushans added new ingredients to Indian culture and enriched it
immensely.
• They Settled in India and assimilated with its culture.
• Because they don’t have their own script, language and religion they adopted these from
India.
• Became integrated part of Indian society.
• Introduced cavalry and use of riding horse on large scale
• Use of reins and saddles in the Buddhist sculptures.
• Possible used stirrup
• Introduced turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coat (see the effect - the Afghans and
Panjabis wear turbans, and the sherwani (successor of the long coat) even today)

Trade and agriculture

• Created trade contacts between Indian and Central Asia

• Result – India received gold from Altai mountains
• Profit in roman trade as received gold coins
• Income from silk route (controlled it)
• Promoted agriculture
• Large scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Western Asia.

Polity

• Development of a feudatory organization.

• Adopted the pompous title of king of kings to indicate their supremacy over numerous
small princes.
• Strengthened the divine origin of kingship
• Called themselves as sons of gods. (while Asoka called dear to gods)
• Introduced satrap system of government (empire divided into satrapies under a satrp)
• Introduced hereditary dual rule (two kings ruling in the same kingdom at one and the
same time) (like son and father jointly ruled)
• Introduced practice of Military governorship.

New elements in Indian society

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• They become Indianized completely

• Absorbed in society as warrior class

Religious developments

• Most of the rulers were converted to some religions.

• Example – Indo – Greeks worshipped Vishnu
• Menander became a Buddhist
• Kushan ruler worshipped Shiva and Buddha and also Vishnu.
• Some rulers worshipped as incarnation of god

ORIGIN OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

• In post Mauryan times Indian religion underwent major change because of 2 things –
o Due to a big leap in trade and artisan
o Large influx of people from Central Asia.
• Buddhism affected greatly. Monks and nuns could not afford to lose the cash donations
from growing traders.
• Buddhists welcomed non-vegetarians meaning laxity in the code of conduct of Buddhism.
• Slowly they moved towards money and then women and in this way degeneration
started. This form was called as Mahyana Buddhism.
• Image worship of Budhha started.

MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART

• An indigenously developed sculptural art.
• Related to all the three contemporary religions – Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.
• The evidences came from Mathura and Kankalitila.
• The sculptures were mostly made of mud and red sandstone (spotted red sandstone)
• Buddha is depicted with hair locks and better facial expressions.
• Jain tirthankars – 23rd (Parsavnath) and 24th (Mahavira) are found regularly.

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• Vaishnavite deities were represented more than the Shaivite – Vishnu, surya and Kuber
are found regularly.

• Mathura school includes Wema Kadphises and Kaniska, Parkham Yaksa, Maholi
Bodhisattva and seated Kubera.

• The life of common people, costumes, flora and fauna have been depicted in a better way
in Mathura school of Art.

• The Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jinas, the images of Vaishnava and Shaiva, The Standing
Buddhas of the Sravasthi Sarnath and Kausambhi are some of the finest examples of
Mathura School.

GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART

• It was distinctive Gandhara style of Buddhist art, which developed from a merger of
Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian artistic influences. (Greco-Roman influence)

• Grey sandstone (Blue-grey Mica schist) is used in Gandhara School of Art.

• The Gandharan style flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushana period, from
the 1st to the 5th centuries.
• It declined and was destroyed after the invasion of the White Huns in the 5th century.

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Figure Greco-Buddhist statue of standing Buddha, Gandhara (1st–2nd century),

AMRAVATI SCHOOL OF ART

• Main centers: Amravati, Goli, Ghantishila and Guntur are the important centers from
which the remains have been found.
• Buddha and Bodhisatva were the most important themes.

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Figure - The above sculptor depicts a heroic story in a narrative form. An elephant goes berserk
and people are running for safety, then Buddha enters and elephant kneels before Buddha.

• Some of the statues were independently build but some as a part of the building like
stupas, pillars, walls etc.
• The depiction of common life is much better than Gandhara and Mathura art.
• This was patronized by Satavahanas and Ishkavakus after them.
• They used sandstone and marble.

Features Mathura Gandhara Amravati

Time period 2nd C. BC 1st C. BC 1st C. BC

North western part of Valley of Krishna

Flourished in Mathura region
Indian subcontinent and Godavari

Amravati,
Prominent Taxila, Bimaran, Nagarjunikonda,
Mathura and Jamalpur village
places Jalabad and Hada Goli, Ghantasala
and Vengi.

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Buddhist
Mathura’s artists 1st to make Adopted from Adopted from
images adopted
the images of Buddha Mathura Mathura
from

Patronization Initially – local rulers but later Vakatakas and

Shakas and Kushanas
by by Shakas and Kushanas Ikshavakus

Greeko-Roman and
Initially indigenous but after so also known as
No one;
the Shakas and Kushanas Greeko Roman, Indo-
Influenced by Indigenous from
patronization, influence of Roman and Greeko
beginning to end.
Greeko-Roman Buddhist school of
art.

Type of Stone
White spotted Red sandstone Blue-Grey Stone White marble
used

Religious or
Both Only religious Both
Secular images

Physical beauty Physical beauty

Facial expression
• Muscular • Expression
Emphasis or • Clean shave and head
body through
focus on • Abhaymudra and
• Transparent postures
Dharmachakraparivartana
cloth • Erotic images
Mudra
• Curly hairs

Got transformed
Destroyed by Huna
Continued till early Medieval into Pallava and
Continuation invasions in 5th
age Chola
century AD
architecture

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SATAVAHANAS/ANDHRAS
• They ruled in the modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh from
1st C BC to 3rd C AD.
• They claimed that they were Brahmins.
• Gautamiputra Satkarni was their greatest ruler in 2nd C AD. This society was probably
matriarchal as their names were prefixed by the names of their mother. Gautamiputra
means son of Gautami.
• Capital – Pratisthan/ Paithan
• Official language was Prakrit and they followed Vedic Religion.
• They were the first in India who gave land grants to priest class – both Brahmins and
Buddhist.
• They patronized Amravati school of Arts.
• Two seaports were developed during their reign – Sopara (Maharashtra) and Baruch
(Gujarat).

THE AGE OF THE SATAVAHANAS

Capital Pratishthana, Amaravati

Languages Prakrit

Religion Brahmanism, Buddhism

Government Monarchy

Emperor

• 230–207 BCE Simuka

• 190s CE Madhariputra Svami Sakasena

Historical era Antiquity

• Established 271 BCE or 30 BCE

• Disestablished 220 CE

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Preceded by Succeeded by

Maurya • Vakataka
Empire dynasty
• Ikshvaku
dynasty
• Chutu
dynasty
• Western
Satraps

POLITICAL HISTORY
• After the Mauryan Empire decline, among the important successors, Satavahana was one
of them.
• They were identical with the Andhras who are mentioned in the Puranas.
• In Puranas we found only about Andhra rule and not of the Satavahana rule.
• And also the name Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions.

PRE - SATAVAHANA SETTLEMENTS

• Red ware, Black and red ware and rusted coated painted ware were found from Deccan.
• Most of these were associated with the iron using megalith builders who were stimulated
to new activity by contacts with material culture from north.
• Use of iron ploughshare, paddy transplantation and coming of urbanism, writing etc.
created the conditions for the state formation under the Satavahanas.

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Satavahana Kings (271 BCE – 220 CE)

Simuka (1st century BCE)

Kanha (1st century BCE/CE)

Satakarni (1st-2nd century CE)

Sivasvati (1st century CE)

Gautamiputra Satakarni (1st-2nd century CE)

Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (2nd century CE)

Vashishtiputra Satakarni (2nd century CE)

Shivaskanda Satakarni (2nd century CE)

Yajna Sri Satakarni (2nd century CE)

Vijaya (2nd century CE)

According to Puranas Satavahanas ruled for 300 years.

• This period is called as rule of Satavahana dynasty.

• Earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas – 1st century B.C. – it tells us about victory of
Satavahanas over Kanvas and establishment of Satavahanas in Central India.
• Early Satavahana kings appeared in Maharashtra (coins and inscriptions found)

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Figure - Satakarni issue, Maharashtra – Vidarbha type

• Power setup at - upper Godavari valley (presently produces rich and diverse crops in
Maharashtra)
• From Godavari valley to they gradually extended their power over Karnataka and Andhra.
• Greatest competitors - Sakas (upper Deccan and western India).

GAUTMIPUTRA SATAKARNI (A.D. 106-130)

• Once Sakas had dispossessed Satavahanas from their home but later it was restored by
Gautamiputra Satakarni.
• He called himself the only Brahmana
• He defeated the Sakas and has destroyed the Kshatriya lineage to which his adversary
Nahapana belonged.
• More than 8,000 silver coins of Nahapana, found near Nasik, bear marks of being restruck
by the Satavahana king.
• Malwa and Kathiawar were under the control of the Sakas. Satakarni defeated them
possessed the control over the two.
• Empire under him – Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south.
• Possibly he also enjoyed general authority over Andhra.

VASISHTHIPUTRA PULUMAYI (AD 130 - 154)

• The successors of Gautamiputra ruled till AD 220.
• Vasishthiputra was the immediate successor of Gautamiputra.
• Coins and inscriptions of Vasishthiputra Pulumayi are found in Andhra.

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• This shows that by the middle of the 2nd century this area had become a part of the
Satavahana kingdom.
• Set up capital at – Paithan or Pratisthan (on the banks of Godavari, Aurangabad district)
• The fight between Sakas and Satavahanas again started for the possession of the Konkan
coast and Malwa.
• Rudradaman I (AD. 130-150), the Saka ruler had defeated the Satavahanas 2 times, but
did not destroy them because of account of matrimonial relations.
• The 2nd last ruler of Satavhanas i.e. Yajna Sri Satakarni (AD. 165-194) recovered north
Konkan and Malwa from the Saka rulers.
• His coins showed his love for overseas trade and navigation.
• His coins have been found from – Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

•
Figure - Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring
and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE

MATERIAL CULTURE
• It was a fusion of local elements and northern ingredients.

Iron

• The megalith builders of the Deccan were fairly acquainted with the use of iron and
agriculture.
• Socketed hoes, sickles, spades, ploughshares, axes, adzes, razors, etc., belong to the
Satavahana layers.
• Tanged and socketed arrowheads as well as daggers have also been discovered from
Deccan.
• A blacksmith’s shop has been discovered at the site of Karimanagar. The Satavahanas may
have exploited the iron ores of Karimnagar and Warangal.

Gold

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• Evidence of ancient gold workings has been found in the Kolar fields in the early
Christian centuries.
• Bullion - Satavahanas may have used gold as bullion. They had not issued gold coins
as the Kushans did.
• But they issued coins made of lead (mostly), potin, copper and bronze money.
• It seems that both – lkshvakus and Satavahanas - had exploited the mineral resources
of the Deccan.

AGRICULTURE
• Deccan people knew paddy transplantation.
• Great rice bowl – in the 1st two centuries, the area between the Krishna and the
Godavari formed a great rice bowl.

• They also produced cotton.

• According to foreign accounts – Andhra is considered to be famous for its cotton
products.
• So, it seems that Deccan developed a very advanced rural economy.

CONTACTS WITH NORTH

• Because of contacts with the north the people of the Deccan learnt the use of coins, burnt
bricks, ring wells, etc.
• Regular use of fire-baked bricks and use of flat, perforated roof tiles were found at
Peddabankur (200 B.C – A D. 200) (in Karimnagar district).
• 22 brick wells belonging to the 2nd century AD have also been discovered from this site.
• What else we found –
o Dense habitations
o Covered drains underground to lead waste water into soakage pits.
o Towns in Maharashtra (1st century BC)
o About 2nd and 3rd C BC towns – only from inscriptions and excavations
o Increasing trade – indicated by numerous Roman and Satavahana coins found in
the Godavari-Krishna area.
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SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

BRAHMANAS AND RULERS

• Probably Satavahanas were a local tribe who were converted to Brahmanism.
• The orthodox Brahmanas of the north looked upon the Andhras as a mixed caste. This
shows that the Andhras were a tribal people who were brought within the fold of Hindu
society as a mixed caste
• Gautamiputra Satakarni have established the 4 - fold Varna system which had fallen into
disorder. He had put an end to the intermixture between the people of different social
orders.
• Allowing Sakas in Brahmanical society of Satavahanas as Kshatriyas helped Sakas to marry
with Satavahanas.
• It was a Brahmanical society where Buddhism also exists.
• The Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make land grants to the Brahmanas,
although we have more instances of grants being made to Buddhist monks.

MERCHANTS
• Merchants and artisans came to front because of increase in trade and commerce.
• They took pride in naming themselves after the town they belonged to (like IITians,
Stephenians etc. :P )
• Story behind surname Gandhi - Among the artisans the gandhikas or the perfumers are
repeatedly mentioned as donors to Buddhist cause. At a later stage the term gandhika
became general as to denote all kinds of shopkeepers. The modern title Gandhi is derived
from this ancient term.

FAMILY STRUCTURE OF SATAVAHANAS

• Aryan society – Patriarchal society
• Satavahanas – Patriarchal society with Matrilineal social structure i.e. mother enjoyed a
greater importance. It was customary for their king to be named after his mother. For
example - Gautamiputra and Vasisthiputra indicate that in their society mother enjoyed
a great deal of importance.
• Queens made important religious gifts in their own rights, and some of them acted as
regents.
• Even after so many favors to Women, why we are calling it as patriarchal society? Because
the succession to the throne passed to the male member.

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ADMINISTRATION
• King – upholder of Dharma.
• He was assigned few divine attributes like Rama, Bhima, Arjun etc.
• The effects of Mauryan rule were felt in administration as well as in other parts of the life.
• Retained some of the administrative units found in Ashokan times like –
• District was called ahara
• Officials were known as Amatyas and Mahamatras, as they were known in Mauryan
times.
• Senapati was appointed as provincial governor.
• Administration in the rural areas - by Gaulmika – who was the head of a military regiment
consisting of nine chariots, nine elephants, 25 horses and 45 foot-soldiers.
• Kataka and Skandhavaras - These were military camps and settlements which served as
administrative centres.

GRANTS
• The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas and
Buddhist monks.
• These grants acted as small independent islands within the Satavahana kingdom as they
were declared free from molestation by royal policemen and soldiers.
• Buddhist monks - Possibly they preached peace and rules of good conduct among the
people they lived with, and taught them to respect political authority and social order .
• Brahmanas – They helped in enforcing the rules of the Varna system which made society
stable.

FEUDATORIES
• 3 grades of feudatories –
• King - highest grade – right to strike coins
• 2nd grade – Gramabhoja
• 3rd grade – Senapati
• It seemed that these feudatories and landed beneficiaries enjoyed some authority in their
respective localities.

RELIGION
• Satavahanas were Brahmans and so they (kings and queens) performed Vedic sacrifices
such as the ashvamedha, vajapeya, (covered in Vedic chapter) etc.
• Worshipped – Vaishnava Gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva, and others.
• Paid liberal sacrificial fees to the Brahmans.

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• Promoted Buddhism – by granting land to Buddhist monks.

• Mahayana Buddhism existed.
• Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati – Important seats of Buddhist culture under Satavahanas
and Ikshavakus (Satavahanas successor).
• Nasik and Junar (both in Maharastra) – Buddhism flourished here.

ARCHITECTURE

Chaityas and Viharas

• Satavahanas period, in Maharastra, many Chaityas were cut form solid rocks.
• This process was started in about 200 B.C.

• Chaityas - a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a Stupa at one end. In modern texts on
Indian architecture, the term chaityagriha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer
hall that houses a Stupa.

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Figure Karle caves, Maharashtra

Figure Worship at Karle caves

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• The most famous Chaitya is – Karle in the western Deccan. Its dimensions are 40*15*15
(length*width*height).
• It is most impressive specimen of massive rock cut architecture.
• Vihara - Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded
place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering
monks during the rainy season.

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• The Viharas or monasteries were excavated near the chaityas for the residence of monks
in the rainy season.
• At Nasik we have 3 Viharas. They belong to 1st and 2nd century AD as revealed by the
inscriptions which they carry of Nahapana and Gautamiputra.

Stupas

• Rock-cut architecture also found at Andhra in the Krishna—Godavari region, but it is really
famous for independent Buddhist structures, mostly for Stupas.
• Most famous of these Stupas are Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
• Stupa - a large round structure erected over some relics of the Buddha (already covered
in detail in royal art section of Mauryan empire)

• The Amaravati stupa began in about 200 B C but was completely reconstructed in the
second half of the second century AD.

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Figure ruins of Amravati stupa

Figure Model of original stupa as imagined by archaeologists

• Its dome measured 53 meters across the base, and it seems to be 33 meters in height.
• The Amaravati Stupa is full of sculptures which depict the various scenes from the life of
the Buddha. (see image below)

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Figure - Sculptures at the Archaeological Museum, Amaravati

• Nagarjunakonda prospered most under the Ikshvakus, the successors of the Satavahanas.
• It contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the earliest Brahmanical brick temples

Figure - Buddhist Site 3rd century AD, Nagarjunakonda

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LANGUAGE
• Official language of the Satavahanas - Prakrit.
• All inscriptions were composed in Prakrit language and written in the Brahmi script (same
was the case in Ashokan times)
• Some Satavahana kings may have composed Prakrit books.
• Gathasaptasati – A Prakrit text attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.
• It consisted of 700 verses, all written in Prakrit, but it seems to have been finally
retouched much later, possibly after the sixth century A D.

CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST -MAURYA AGE

CRAFTS
• The age of the Sakas, Kushans, Satavahanas (200 B.C.—A D. 200) and the first Tamil states
was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India.
• Arts and crafts witnessed a remarkable growth.

LITERARY EVIDENCES
• In the earlier texts we do not come across so many kinds of artisans as are mentioned in
the writings of this period.
• This period texts mentioned about growth in crafts –
o The Digha Nikayb (belongs to pre-Maurya times) - it mentions about two dozen
occupations.
o Maharastu - it catalogues 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir.
o The Milinda Panho or the Questions of Milinda enumerates as many as '75
occupations, 60 of which are connected with various kinds of crafts.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS
• Most of texts talks about craftsmen in town only while excavations had showed that they
also lived in villages as well.
• For example - In a village settlement in Karimnagar in Telangana carpenters, blacksmiths,
goldsmiths, potters, etc., lived in Separate quarters and agricultural and other labourer
lived at one end.
• Inscriptions of the period mentioned - Weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, Workers in metal and
ivory, jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, smiths and perfumers as constructors of caves and
donors of pillars, tablets, cisterns, etc., to the Buddhist monks. All these suggest that their
crafts were in a flourishing condition.

ADVANCEMENT IN TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE

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• Various crafts associated with different metals like gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass,
iron and precious stones or jewels, brass, zinc, antimony and red arsenic.
• This was possible only because of great advance and specialization in mining and
metallurgy. Technological knowledge about the work of iron, had made great progress.
• Large number of Iron artifacts have been discovered from Satavahana sites like
Karimnagar and Nalgonda (try to recall what iron implements were they)
• Exports to Abyssinian ports - Indian iron and steel including cutlery.

TEXTILES
• Cloth-making, silk-weaving and the making of arms and luxury articles also made
progress.

• Shataka cloth – it was a special type of cloth.

o Mathura was a great manufacturing center of it.
• Dyeing – a thriving craft in some south Indian towns.
o Brick-built dyeing vat has been excavated from – Uraiyur (a suburb of Tiruchirapalli
town, Tamil Nadu) and Arikamedu.
o They belong to 1st and 3rd centuries A D. during which handloom textile industry
was booming in these towns. (Just like in present Surat).
• Oil manufacturing – It increased because of the use of the oil wheel.

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HANDICRAFTS
• Handicrafts meant for manufacturing luxury articles – Ivory work, glass manufacture and
bead cutting.
• Indian ivories founded in Afghanistan and Rome.

Glass Works

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Figure - ancient glass beads

• In India the knowledge of glass blowing comes in beginning of Christian era.

• Roman glass objects appear in Taxila and in Afghanistan.
• Large numbers of beads of semi-precious stones appear in post-Maurya layers.
• Beads and bangles made of shell belong to same layers.

COIN MINTING
• It was an important craft, and this period was noted for numerous types of coins made of
gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin.
• Like today we have fake currencies, the craftsmen of that period also made fake Roman
coins.
• A coin-mould from the Satavahana level shows that through it half a dozen coins can be
made at a time.

TERACOTTA

• Beautiful Terracotta figurines were found in many numbers.

• They have been found in almost all Kushan and Satavahana sites.
o Yelleshwaram (in Nalgonda district) – here we find the largest number of
terracottas and the moulds in which they were manufactured.
o Also found at Kondapur (near Hyderabad)
• Terracottas were meant mostly for the use of upper classes in towns.

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• Such terracotta almost went out of fashion after the decline.

GUILDS
• Guilds were and are associations of artisans or merchants who control the practice of
their craft in a particular town. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities
of tradesmen.
• Artisans were organized into guilds.
• According to the different texts of the period, near about 2 dozen guild was there.

TRADE WITH EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

• It was the most important economic development of the period.
• Initially it was carried by land, but the movement of the Sakas, Parthians and Kushans
from the 1st century BC disrupted trade by land route.
• Parthians of Iran imported iron and steel from India.
• But they presented great obstacles to India’s trade with the lands further west of Iran.
• From 1st century AD Sea route was used to trade.

• Monsoon discovered around Early Christian era helped in sailing and reduced the travel
time from eastern coast to western coast of India.
• Eastern coast ports – Broach (most important port among all) and Sopara
• Western coast ports – Arikamedu and Tamralipti
• Whether it is Satavahanas, kushana or Saka everyone had to bring their commodities to
Broach (see location in map near Gujarat) for trade.

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• The Sakas and the Kushans used two routes from the north-western frontier to the
western sea coast.
• Both these routes converged at Taxila and were connected with the Silk Road passing
through Central Asia.
• 1st route – It ran from the north to the south connecting Taxila with the lower Indus basin
from where it passed on to Breach.
• 2nd route – called as uttarapatha was in more frequent use. From Taxila it passed through
the modern Punjab up to the western coast of the Yamuna. Following the course of the
Yamuna it went southward to Mathura. From Mathura it passed on to Ujjain in Malwa
and again from Ujjain to Broach on the western coast.

FOREIGN TRADE
• The volume of trade between two was large but it was not carried on in articles of daily
or common use. It was mainly in Luxury goods (called as aristocratic necessities)
• The Romans first started the trade with the southern-most portion of the country.

Exports

• Roman’s imported – Spices, muslin, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from central and
south India. Iron goods (especially cutlery) formed an important item of export to the
Roman Empire.
• Some articles were brought from china and then sold to Rome.

Silk was directly supplied by china to Rome through Afghanistan but establishment of Parthian in
Iran disturbed this and so silk was sent to eastern ports of India to send it to its destination.

Profit from trade

• In return Rome exported –

1. wine – amphorae
2. Various other types of pottery – it was discovered at Tamluk in West Bengal,
Arikamedu near Pondicherry and sometimes at Guwahati.
3. Lead – in shape of coiled strips to make coins.
4. Gold and silver coins
• The kingdoms of both the Satavahanas as well as the Kushans profited from trade with
the Roman Empire but Satavahanas benefitted more.
• There was considerable no. of gold coins discovered from India. This made many authors
like Plinny to become critic of India, which is accused of draining the gold from Rome.
• Westerners were very much fond of Indian pepper, it is called Yavanapriya in Sanskrit.

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• Roman nobles paid high prices for cutlery and other imports which was changing the
balance of trade.
• Obviously, India was a big gainer from this trade and sometimes Rome had to ban trade
with India in pepper and steel goods.

MONEY ECONOMY

GOLD COINS
• Rulers which issued gold coins –
1. Indo-Greek rulers in north
2. Kushans - issued in considerable numbers.
• It is not necessary that all Kushan gold coins were minted out of Roman gold.
• They might have mined it from Sindh mines or obtained from central Asia or from gold
mines of Dhalbhum in south Bihar.

OTHER COINS
• Andhra issued large no. of Potin or lead coins.
• Copper coins – largest by Kushana in north and North West India.
• Naga dynasty (ruled central India) and Yaudheyas (Rajasthan), mitras (Kaushambi,
Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra) – used copper and bronze coins in large quantities.
• This period had seen growth both in economy and craftsmanship.

URBAN SETTLEMENTS
• Because of growing crafts and commerce and the increasing use of money promoted the
prosperity of numerous towns.
• Important towns which emerged during this period in north India – Vaisali, Pataliputra,
Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura, lndraprastha.
• They all are mentioned in literary texts, and some of them are also described by the
Chinese pilgrims.

SHAKA AND KUSHANA TOWNS

• Most of the towns flourished in the Kushan period in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.
• Prosperous states in Kushan times were Chirand, Sonpur and Buxar (all 3 in Bihar), and
Mason in Ghazrpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• Thriving states in Kushan times were in Uttar Pradesh, Sohgaura, Bhita, Kausambi and
Shringaverapur near Allahabad, Atranjikhera.

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• There were lot of construction (in Sonkh (Mathura), Iullundar, Ludhiana and Roper (last 3
in Punjab)) during Kushan period while the Gupta period made poor structures using used
Kushan bricks.
• In other word urbanization was at peak in Kushan period and Shaka kingdom.
• Ujjain was most important town because –
o It was being the nodal point of two routes, one from Kausambi and the other from
Mathura.
o Of export of agate and carnelian stones.

SATAVAHANA TOWNS

Figure - Remains of the stadium at Nagarjunakonda

• Prosperous towns - Tagar (Tor), Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda,

Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu, Kaveripattanam
• Towns started declining in 3rd C AD or later.

Reasons for prosperity of towns

• Trade with Roman Empire.

• Some towns situated at trade routes or at meeting point of 2 trade routes.
• Power with Kingdoms.

Towns started declining with the ban on trade with India imposed by the Roman empire from the
third century AD. Archaeological excavations in the Deccan also suggest decline in the urban
settlements after the Satavahana phase.

SANGAM AGE

Sangam literally means ‘union’. It was an assembly or Union of Tamil Poets.

Although it was compiled/written in 6-7th C AD, it depicts the society of 1st – 4th AD.
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Three types of Tamil Literary pieces are found – Grammar, Poems and Epics.

It describes the period of Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas, the three important rival kingdoms of
South India. Detailed coverage of these kingdoms will be done later.

According to Legend (not history)

• There were 3 sangams which took more than 10000 years to complete.
• They were patronized by 197 kings.
• 6598 poets participated.

Historically, these figures are considered too exaggerated.

According to the legend, the three sangams were held at:

• Madurai – Presided by Saint Agastya

• Kapatpuram – Presided by Tolkappiyar
• Madurai – Presided by Nakkhiran

IMPORTANT LITERARY PIECES

• The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature.
• It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and
socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period.
• The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
• The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai,
Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram
(valour).
• Pathinen-kilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
• The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
• Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also
provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.

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Tolkappiyam – By Tolkappiyar

It is a treatise on Grammar.

Collection of 18 Anthologies (collection of poems):

• Ettitugai – 8 anthologies
• Padipattu – 10 anthologies

TWO GREAT EPICS

SHILAPADDIGRAM (Jeweled Anklet): by Ilango Idigal

Main characters –

• Kovlan
• Kannagi (wife of Kovalan)
• Madhavi (lover of Kovalan)

Story

First half of novel covers love affair between Kovalan and Madhavi. In second half Kovalan is
executed falsely with a charge that he has stolen a jeweled anklet. Kannagi proves the innocence
of her husband and curses the village. The village asks for forgiveness and she retreats to the
jungle.

Kannagi was worshipped throughout the South up to Srilanka as a Goddess of Chastity.

MANIMEKALAI – by Sattanar

It can be considered a sequel to Silapadigram.

Manimekalai was the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.

She was chased by the local prince for marriage. She refuses and runs away. Since all the cities
are mentioned in the epic, we get to know about the condition of the cities, occupation of people,
dressing sense, trade and other habits of contemporary society.

Finally she takes shelter in a Buddhist monastery and becomes a monk.

HISTORICAL INFORMATION FROM SANGAM LITERATURE

• In Sangam literature, three kingdoms are mentioned – Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.
• The literature informs us about the contemporary economy, like agriculture was well
developed and land was fertile.

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• Cotton cloth industry was also well developed. Main center was Uraiyur.
• They had well developed port cities like Muziri in Kerala.
• Roman coins have been found at Arikamedu (Pondicherry) and a Roman Colony was also
found there. Showing trade relations with Europe.
• They used animal pulled carts for transportation.
• Traders used to take their female folks with them unlike the traders of the north.
• In the society, there were certain similarities and dissimilarities from the north:
• The Varna ‘Kshatriya’ is almost missing in the south.
• The Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the South as in the north but second highest
social significance was that of Vaishya.
• Similar Vedic rituals were prevalent here like that of North.
• The Brahmins of South Ate non – vegetarian and also took wine. It was not a taboo here
like it was in North India.
• According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in
ancient Tamil Nadu (popularly called Muchchangam)
• These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
• It is believed that the 1st Sangam was held at Madurai and it was attended by gods and
legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam is available.
• 2nd Sangam – held at Kapadapuram - all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
• 3rd Sangam – at Madurai. It was founded by Mudathirumaran.
• It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only
a few had survived.
• These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam
Age.

Period of Sangam Literature

• The most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third
century B.C. to third century A.D.

POLITICAL HISTORY
• The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas
during the Sangam Age.

THE CHERAS

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• The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and their important
seaports were Tondi and Musiri.
• Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan and Cheran
Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.
• Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger brother was Elango Adigal,
the author of Silappathigaram.
• Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in
Tamil Nadu.

THE CHOLA
• It extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh.
• Capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar.
• Karikala – one of the famous king of the Sangam Cholas. Pattinappalai portrays his early
life and his military conquests.
• In the Battle of Venni he defeated the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras,
Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
• Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which nine enemy
chieftains submitted before him.
• He built Kallanai across the river Kaveri.

THE PANDYAS
• The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu. Their capital was Madurai.
• The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi and Mudathirumaran.
• There were two Neduncheliyans. The first one was known as Aryappadai Kadantha
Neduncheliyan (one who won victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for the
execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
• The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam)
Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and Mangudi Maruthanar.
• He wore this title after defeating his enemies at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is
located in the Tanjore district.
• Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar describes the socio-economic condition
of the Pandya country.
• The last famous Pandyan king was Uggira Peruvaludhi.

SANGAM POLITY
• Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.

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• The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or
avai.
• Titles adopted by kings –
o Chera - Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar.
o Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi.
o Pandya kings like Thennavar and Minavar.
• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem –
o Cholas – tiger

• Cheras - bow

• Pandyas - carp

• The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils.
• They were –
o ministers (amaichar)
o priests (anthanar)
o military commanders (senapathi)

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o envoys (thuthar)
o spies (orrar).
o Imagine - our PM assisted by ministers, chiefs of army, navy and Air force, RAW
and IB head
o Commanders of the army were credited with the title of ‘Enadi’ at a formal
ceremony
• Each ruler had a regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
• Chief source of state’s income - Land revenue. While custom duty was also imposed on
foreign trade.
• Pattinappalai - custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.
• Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.

SANGAM SOCIETY
• Tolkappiyam- five-fold division of lands - Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). (also recall types of land under
Akbar…polaj was one )
• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as
gods for worship.
• Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.

Figure 1korravai

• Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with
dairy products.
• Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
• Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
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• Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.

o Korravai ancient goddess of war and victory and mother of Murugan,
• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes –
o Arasar – term for ruing class.
o Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
o Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
o Vellalas were agriculturists (they were rich peasants).
• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• Agricultural operations were generally carried on by members of the lowest class
(kadaisiyar). They were landless laborers.

RELIGION
• Primary deity of the Sangam period - Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
• The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God
Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• He was honored with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.

• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone
was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.

POSITION OF WOMEN
• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period
and contributed to Tamil literature.
• Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.
• Love marriage was a common practice.
• Women were allowed to choose their life partners.

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• The life of widows was miserable.

• The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.

FINE ARTS
• Panar and Viraliyar – singing bards
• Kanigaiyar – dance person
• Koothu – most famous form of entertainment

ECONOMY OF THE SANGAM AGE

AGRICULTURE
• Agriculture - chief occupation.
• Common crop – Rice.
• Other crops - Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety
of fruits
• Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.
• Chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country – Paddy

OTHERS
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular and included weaving, metal works
and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.
• There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.

TRADE
• Flourished during this period
• Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place.
• Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.
• External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.
• The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this
port with precious goods.

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• Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and
Marakkanam.
• The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade and he
was the critic of India as it drained Rome’s gold.
• Main exports - cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and
turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
• Chief imports - Gold, horses and sweet wine.

GUPTA PERIOD

BACKGROUND
• Emerged over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushans and Satavahanas.
• Gupta Empire may have been of Vaisya origin.
• It was not as large as the Maurya Empire but it kept North India politically united for more
than a century, from AD 335 to 455.
• UP was the center Point of Gupta Empire.
• The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh
• Their basic strength was because of horses.
• The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages like –
o Fertile land of MP, Bihar and UP
o Iron ores
o Proximity to silk trade route and Byzantine empire (Roman empire)
• Guptas set up their rule over –
o Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin)
o Prayag (modern Allahabad)
o Saketa (modern Ayodhya) (Important terms can be asked in exam)

Gupta Dynasty was started by Sri Gupta. He was a feudatory of Kushans and not a sovereign
ruler. Ghatotkacha was son of Sri Gupta and he succeeded him after his death

The true independent ruler of Gupta Empire was Chandragupta I. He was son of Ghatotkacha
and is considered to be the real founder of Gupta Empire.

Gupta Empire
320 CE–550 CE

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Sri Gupta (240 – 280) not an

independent ruler
Ghatotkacha (280 – 319) not an
independent ruler
Chandragupta I (320 – 335)
Samudragupta (335 – 380)
Ramagupta (375 – 380)
Chandragupta II (380 – 413/415)
Kumaragupta I (415 – 455)
Skandagupta (455 - 467)
Purugupta (467 – 473)
Kumaragupta II (473 - 476)
Budhagupta (476 – 495)
Narasimhagupta (495 – ?)
Kumaragupta III
Vishnugupta (540 – 550)
Vainyagupta (550 – ?)
Bhanugupta

• Beyond Skandgupta the chronology is not well established.

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CHANDRAGUPTA I (AD 319 - 334)

Figure - Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son
Samudragupta, 335–380.

• Chandragupta I was the first independent ruler of Gupta Dynasty.

• He married a Lichchhavi Princess.
• The Guptas were possibly vaisyas, and hence marriage in a Kshatriya family gave them
prestige.
• He seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started the Gupta
era in A.D. 319-20, which marked the date of his accession.
• Later many inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta era.

Two of the greatest kings of Guptas were –

• Samudragupta
• Chandragupta II

SAMUDRAGUPTA (A.D. 335-380)

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta I’s son and successor
Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380).
• Samudragupta delighted in violence and conquest. (Opposite to Asoka’s policy of peace
and non-aggression)
• His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron in
Allahabad’s inscription (Prayag Prashasti)

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• The best source to know about Samudragupta is the Prayag Prashasti in Allahabad.
• It is written on an Ashokan pillar. It is of great historical importance as details of three
kings are engraved on it.
o 1st - Ashoka, who initially established it.
o 2nd - Samudragupta, who got his account written on it in Sanskrit
o 3rd - Jahangir, who got his account inscribed in Persian.

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Figure Prayag Prashasti

According to Prayag Prashasti: Samudragupta defeated

• 9 kings of Aryavrata, the most famous of them being Nag dynasty.

• 18 kings of central India – most famous being Atvika (a forest tribe)
• 12 kings of Southern India – most famous of them being Pallavas.

He had close contact with the kingdom of Ceylon and South East Asian colonies. The eulogy of
Harisena describes him as hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been
testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably first Ashvamedha after
Pushyamitra Shunga.

Vincent Arthur Smith called him the Napoleon of India.

According to the Prayag Prashasti he returned the kingdoms of most of the kings on three
conditions:

• The defeated king had to pay tribute to Samudragupta.

• The defeated king had to come personally to his court at least once in a year, generally
on his birthday.

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• They had to get their daughter married to Samudragupta.

He minted several types of gold coins with different images. His own image with goddess Lakshmi
as he claimed he is an Avatar of Vishnu on earth.

Coin issued by Samudragupta

• Images of ‘Garuda’ were also minted.

• Images showing him playing Veena and doing Ashvameghayajna.
• He was also known as Kaviraja.

CHANDRAGUPTA II: (380 – 415 AD)

Figure - Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II

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• He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. 1st Ujjain ruler to do so

• He extended the limits of his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
• By marrying his daughter (Prabhavati) to Vakataka prince, he exercised indirect control
over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
• This move helped him later to conquer western malwa and Gujarat from Shakas.
• He issued Silver coins. He was the first Gupta king to do so.
• He made Ujjain his second Capital.
• He was a great patron of Art and literature. It is believed that he had Navratnas in his
court. It is a matter of debate whether Aryabhatta was in his court or not.
• Chandragupta’s inscription has been found in Udaigiri and Khandgiri.

Udaigiri caves of Odisha

Fa Hien: the first Chinese pilgrim came to India during 399 – 412 AD. i.e. during Chandragupta II
reign.

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Figure - Fa Hien

• He came through land and returned through sea route via Sri Lanka.
• He came to collect the Holy Buddhist texts.
• He visited several important Buddhist sites and cities, including Patliputra and praised the
beauty of the throne of Chandragupta Maurya.
• He wrote about different Buddhist sects in India.
• He wrote about Indian society, there were things that he praised like Cultural diversity
and certain things that he criticized like untouchability.
• However, he did write about the moral character of Indians which he thought was good.

A circle of famous nine persons known as Nine Gems or Navaratnas were present in the court of
Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. The nine gems of the group were

• Kalidasa was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II
(Vikramaditya). He is commonly regarded as the greatest poet in the Sanskrit language.
Kalidasa was the author of three famous plays. Those are:

o Abhijnanasakuntalam: tells the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala

o Malavikagnimitram tells the story love of King Agnimitra with Malavika

o Vikramorvasiyam tells the love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi

o Kalidasa was also the author of two famous Sanskrit epic poems: a) Raghuvamsa
("Raghu Dynasty ") and b) Kumarasambhava.

• Vetala Bhatta - a magician

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• Varahamihira - Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of

Gupta era. He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika, a book on
mathematical astronomy. His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit
literature is the Brihat – Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of
human interest.

• Vararuchi – grammarian and Sanskrit scholar, author of Prakrit Prakasha, which is first
Grammar of Prakrit Language.

• Amarasimha – was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet and his Amarkosha is a vocabulary
of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms.

• Dhanvantari – Physician - is regarded as one of the world’s first surgeons and medical
practitioner from Gupta era. He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda. He is
also worshipped as the God of Medicine. Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta
Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari. He is also credited for the discovery of the
antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt. Dhanvantari is
considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.

• Kshapanak- Astrologer, wrote Jyotishashtra

• Shanku- great scholar and was the author of Shilpashastra.

• Ghatakarpura- expert in sculpture and architecture

KUMARAGUPTA
• His inscription has been found from several of UP and MP like Mathura and Mandsor.
• During his period, the Huns (Central Asian tribe) made their first attack in India.
• During his period the famous Nalanda Buddhist monastery and University was built. He
donated one village to it.

SKANDGUPTA
• His famous inscription has been found in Junagarh.
• This inscription informs us of the victory of Skandgupta over the Huns.

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GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

Unlike Mauryan and Nandas Empire who were centralists, the model of Guptas was different and
this difference lied in decentralized administration.

• Gupta kings adapted pompous titles such as Paramesvara, Maharajadhiraja and

Paramabhattaraka. This signifies that they ruled over lesser kings in their Empire.
• King was considered as divine. In ancient time, this theory was accepted in China and
Persia as well. Samudragupta claimed he was the avatar of Vishnu on earth.
• Kingship was hereditary.
• There was no fixed rule for succession. (primogeniture not fixed)
• King was an absolute monarch.
• Largest number of gold coins is found from this period.
• The violators of guild were punished by fine or excommunication.

ARMY
• The numerical strength - unknown.
• A standing army was maintained. Feudatories occasionally supplemented the forces.
• Cavalry came to the forefront.
• Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.

TAXATION SYSTEM
• Land taxation keep on increasing
• Taxation on trade and commerce decreased
• Taxation rate – ¼ to 1/6 of produce.
• Local people had to feed army when it passes through the countryside
• Villagers were subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving the royal army and
officials.

There were several types of taxes in Gupta era as follows:

• Bali: Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to the King becamecompulsory
in Gupta Era.
• Bhaga: King’s share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6th part of produce.
• Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits etc.
• Hiranya: This was the tax paid in cash (Gold) {Hiranya means Gold}
• Halivakara: Halivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who owned a plough used to pay tax.
• Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers.
• Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi / Octroi in modern times.

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• Udinanga: It might be a social security kind of tax.

• Klipta: It was related to sale and purchase of lands.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM
• More developed than earlier times
• Several law books compiled
• 1st time demarcation of criminal and civil laws
• Criminal law – theft and adultery
• Civil law – disputes regarding various types of property
• Elaborate laws laid down about inheritance
• Like earlier time many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas.
• It was the duty of the king to uphold the law.
• The king tried cases with the help of Brahmana priests.
• During this period autonomous trading bodies called ‘guilds’ were active.
• Rules were made by the guilds for the member of the guilds like fixing the price, quality
of goods and obligations of the members. Guilds used to interfere in some personal issues
as well.
• Guilds of artisans, merchants and others- governed by their own laws. Seals from Vaisali
and from Bhita near Allahabad ludicate that these guilds flourished exceedingly well in
Gupta times.

BUREAUCRACY
• The ministers could hold more than one post unlike the Mauryan administration.
• The post of some ministers and officers was also hereditary.
• The officers were also paid in land. This was the first time in history when officers were
paid in the form of land. This led to the rise of feudalism. (Note: Satavahanas granted land
to priests, not officers.)
• The Brahmins got land grants with power to punish the people to maintain law and order.
These villages were called Agrahara village or Brahmandeya Village.
• The Guptas as compared to Mauryas had small size bureaucracy and the administration
was more decentralized

PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

• The empire was divided as –
• Divisions (bhuktis) → districts (vishayas) → vithis → villages.
• Order of their officers –
• Uparika (for bhuktis)→ Vishayapati (for Vaisayas)

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Gupta rulers did not require as many officials as the Mauryan did because –

• Since much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries
• State did not take part in economic activities on any big scale
• Guilds participation in administration

The Key officers of the Gupta machinery include the below:

Official Functions

Mahabaladhikrita Commander in Chief

Mahadandnayaka Chief Justice

Mahapratihar Maintainance of Royal Palaces

Mahasandhivigrahika or War and Peace

Sandhivigrahaka

Dandpashika Head of Police department

Bhadagaradhikreta Royal Treasury

Vinaysthitisansthapaka Education Department

Sarvadhyaksha Inspector of all central departments

Mahashwapati Cavalary

Mahamahipalapati Elephants

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Official Functions

Vinayapura One who represented guests to

King’s court

Yuktapurusha Accounts of war booty

Khadyapakika Royal Kitchen

Ranbhandagarika Arms and ammunitions stores

Mahanarpati Infantry

ECONOMY

Source – Fa Hien
• According to him the Empire had lot of cities and rich people who gave donations to
Buddhism
• Gold coins – largest in number.
o Not as pure as kushanas
o Served to pay officers, meet the need of sale and purchase of lands
• Silver coins – issued after the conquest of Gujarat for local exchange
• Copper coins – very few
• Decline in long distance foreign trade.
• Eastern Roman Empire learnt from the Chinese the art of growing Silk. This adversely
affected the export trade of India.
• Demand for Indian silk abroad had slackened.
• Guild of silk weavers left their original home in Gujarat and migrated to Mandasor and
took to other professions.

• Gupta period had many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant
development during this period. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta

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people were helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. Gold, silver and
Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins. The Gold coins show the pomp,
power and prosperity of the empire.

• In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in
various literature, inscription, clay seals etc. There is a mention of Guild of architects in
Raghuvamsa. The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen.
The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers. The guild system declined
after the Gupta Period.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS

Land grants to the Brahmanas on a large scale mean that the Brahmana supremacy continued in
Gupta times.
The Guptas made three types of grants.
• First was the religious grants to brahmans, individually or collectively, known
as brahmadeya grants
• Second was the grants to institutions such as temples and monasteries known
as devagrahara or devadana
• Third were secular grants to crown officers, craft guilds or also military commanders in
rare occasions.

CASTE SYSTEM
• The castes proliferated into numerous sub castes.
• Professions were determined by caste though not very rigidly.
• For example –
• Brahmans - followed trade, architecture and service as professions. They had even
become kings.
• Vaishyas - The Gupta emperors were Vaishyas.
• Kshatriyas – they followed commercial and industrial vocations.
• Suhdras - There were many sub-castes among the Vaishyas and Sudras than among the
higher castes. Sudras also could become traders and agriculturists like the Vaishyas.
• Untouchables – lived outside the main settlements. They stroked a piece of wood while
entering the city so that men might know of their coming and they could be avoided. They
were engaged in hunting, fishery, scavenging and similar professions.

FAMILY SYSTEM
• Joint family system was prevalent in the Hindu society.
• Partitions or nuclear family in the lifetime of the father was not approved.

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• Ownership of property was vested in the father but the rights of sons and brothers to the
property were also recognized.
• Adoption was not very much approved.
• The head of the family governed the family unit.
• Patriarchal system - The male members dominated the family and society.

POSITION OF WOMEN UNDER GUPTA EMPIRE

• Though women were subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less
significant.
• Their position improved than earlier periods.
• She was idealized in literature.
• They were given education but they could not recite the Vedic mantras.
• Pre-puberty or child marriages were common.
• Purdah had begun among the higher castes.
• Widow Remarriage was allowed sometimes.
• Sati example 1st – 510 AD
• Ideally woman was regarded as Shakti, the energizing principle. A woman was considered
as Saraswati and Goddess Kali, creator and destroyer.
• They not only participated in public life but there is also reference to women teachers.
• Permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They could also worship a new god called
Krishna
• Upper caste women were treated as property by their husbands.
o They were completely depended on husband for livelihood and it was expected
that they would follow her husband to next world.
• Lacked proprietary rights.

BUDDHISM AND BHAGVATISM

• No longer received royal patronage.
• According to Fa-Hien Buddhism flourished but in reality, it was not so important in the
Gupta period as it was in the days of Asoka and Kanishka.
• Instead Buddhism had been replaced by Bhagvatism.
• Two Gods who commanded were - Vishnu and Siva.
• Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion, and represented as the saviour of the varna
system.
• Vishnupuran – Compilation of legends about Vishnu
• Vishnusmriti – A law book was also name after this god.
• 4th century AD – Bhagavadgita, philosophical text, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna.

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• Siva – The god of destruction was also worshipped.

• Idol Worship – Became a common feature from this period.
• The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects.

LITERATURE

Gupta age was a golden period of literature. Gupta literature can be broadly classified into

• Religious literature
• Secular literature

RELIGIOUS LITERATURE

PURANAS
• It literally means the ‘Past’.
• There are 18 puranas written in ancient period some before Guptas, some during Guptas
and some post Guptas.
• They are written in Chaste Sanskrit and are tales of Gods and Goddesses.

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Some of the important Puranas are:

• Adi purana
• Agni Purana
• Matsya Purana
• Bhagwati Purana
• Bhavisya Purana
• Shiv Purana
• Through these books we get the chronology of the ancient rulers/dynasties, including that
of ‘Mahajanapadas’.
• These literatures are a good source to know the contemporary society and culture and to
understand different social institutions like marriage.
• The books are written in future tense.
• The modern Hindus treat them as holy books whereas reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy
and Dayanand Saraswati condemned the Puranas and said that many social evils of Hindu
society have their roots in Puranas. Dayanand Saraswati said, ‘Go back to the Vedas’.

SMRITIS
• Literally it means ‘Memory’.
• These are the law books written in Gupta and pre- Gupta period.
• Manu Smriti – the oldest Smriti written during post Mauryan period. It is the most
comprehensive law book of the ancient time.
• Narada Smriti – it gives a list of various privileges of Brahmans.
• These smritis made or fixed laws for individual and society based on Varna system or caste
heritage.
• In general most important rights were reserved for the upper caste male and most duties
especially physical duties were assigned to people of lower Varnas and females of all
Varnas.
• Most smritis assigned legalized property rights only to the male members of the family.
Some smriti writers gave ‘Stree dhan’ a right of female but it was given only at the time
of marriage and in the form of cash and jewelry.
• In 18th C the British Government codified some laws of Manusmriti under the title, ‘A code
of Gentoo laws’. It was drafted in 1776.

RAMAYANA
• It is believed by linguistic analysis that it was written in different phases between 2 nd C
and 4th C AD.
• Broadly it was written in two phases:

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• In the first phase 12000 shlokas were written, then again in second phase 12000 more
shlokas were written. Totally there are 24000 shlokas.
• It is believed that it was written by Valmiki.
• This was one of the most famous epics written in long poetic style in Sanskrit. Many other
versions of Ramayana were written in different cultures and periods. Two most popular
ones are Kamban’s Ramayana in Tamil and Ramcharitramanas in Hindi by Tulsidas.
• The epic gives some important messages based on the contemporary value system:
1. Truth shall prevail.
2. Father must be obeyed – Dashrath sent Ram for vanvas and Ram went without a
protest.
3. Elders must be respected – Laksman voluntarily accompanied Ram.
4. Women must obey their husband – Agnipariksha

MAHABHARAT

• Written in different phases, but finally compiled during Gupta period i.e. 4 th – 5th C AD.
• Broadly it was in three phases:
o 1st phase: 8800 shlokas – known as Jai Samhita
o 2nd phase: 16000 shlokas – known as Tav Samhita
o 3rd phase: 1,00,000 shlokas – known as Shat Sahastra Samhita
• Longest epic in the world.

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• The story is set in Later Vedic period to Gupta period. Kingdoms and cities that are
mentioned are of Post Mauryan times.
• Two stories are told parallel. There is a clan clash for kingdom in the story between
Kauravas and Pandavas. The other story is of Vasudev Krishna of Mathura, believed to be
the 8th incarnation of Vishnu. (Ram is 7th incarnation)
• During Gupta period, Ram and Krishna avatars of Vishnu were not that popular. Matsya
avatar was more popular.

For a very long time Mahabharata characters were played on stage in the form of Rasleela.
(Ramayana has been played in the form of Ramleela.)

DRAMAS
• Daridracharudatta – By Bhasa (It is the oldest drama written in India)
• Mrichchakatikam (A little clay cart) – by Shudrak
• Devichandraguptam – by Vishakhadutta
• Mudrarakshas – by Vishakhadutta

Note: Chanakya Niti is mentioned in Mudrarakshas. In order to get the work done, one need
to use the following tools – Sam (agreement), Dam (bribe), Dand (attack) and Bheda(divide).

The most important work in drama is considered by Kalidasa.

Kalidasa’s wok:

Dramas –

• Abhijyan Shakuntala – this is the most famous of his works and his last work as well.
• Malvikaagnimitra
• Vikramurvashi

Epics: (Mahakavya)

• Raghuvansham
• Kumarsambhav

Poetic Collection:

• Ritu Sambhav
• Meghadootam

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SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

ARYABHATTA
Aryabhatta was an extraordinary teacher and scholar who had immense knowledge about
mathematics and astronomy. He suggested the heliocentric theory which proved that the sun is
located in the centre of the solar system and all the planets revolve around it. In fact he made
this discovery way before Copernicus made this discovery in the West.

Aryabhatta was born in Kerala and lived from 476 AD to 550 AD, he completed his education from
the ancient university of Nalanda and later he moved to Bihar and continued his studies in the
great centre of learning located in close proximity to Kusumapura in Bihar and lived in Taregana
District in Bihar in the late 5th and early 6th century.

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He also said that the moon has no light and shines because it reflects light from the sun. He also
proved wrong the false belief that eclipse is caused because of the shadows formed by the
shadows cast by the earth and the moon.

Aryabhatiya: On astronomy and mathematics – By Aryabhatta

• Aryabhatiya is a treatise that includes various facts related to Hindu mathematics and
astronomy that appeared during those times. The treatise comprises of four chapters that
are concerned with sine tables and astronomical constants. It also comprises of rules to
calculate the longitudes of the planets by utilizing epicycles and eccentrics and also the
rules related to trigonometry and calculation of eclipses.

• Aryabhatta was the first person to use ‘zero’. A person who invented zero is an unknown
Indian. (Note: this question has been asked in UPSC. That who of the following have
invented zero? And the answer given was an Unknown Indian.)
• Aryabhatta was the first in India to treat mathematics and Astronomy as the separate
branches.

• He was the one who deduced the approximate value of pi, which he found it to be 3.14.
He also derived the correct formulas for calculating the areas of triangles and circles. He
also played a very important role in the formation of the table of Sines

PANCHASIDDHANTIKA: by Vrahamihir

• The book deals with astronomy and astrology.

Panchatantra: by Vishnu Sharma

• They short animal stories to build social values and morals.

Kamasutra – by Vatsyana

• Book on 64 different arts and crafts it includes – music, sculptor, drama and lovemaking.

ART
• Gupta Era is also known as Golden Age of India
• But it is not true in economic field because towns were declining.
• Guptas possessed a large amount of gold and issued the largest number of gold coins.
• Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were patrons of art and literature.

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• Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (mm) and Chandragupta II is
credited with maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars.
• In ancient India art was mostly inspired by religion.
• Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Mauryan and post-Mauryan times. (creating pillars,
cutting of beautiful caves, stupas and Buddha image sculptures)
• Over 2-metre high bronze image of the Buddha, which was recovered from Sultanganj
near Bhagalpur. (see image)

Figure 2 Sultanganj Buddha

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• Fa-Hein saw an over 25-meter-high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is not
traceable now.

Figure- Sarnath Budhha Figure - Buddha image Mathura

• Beautiful images of the Buddha were made at Sarnath and Mathura in this period.
• One new school was added i.e. Sarnath School of Sculpture
• Noteworthy example is Sultanganj Buddha (7.5 ft in height) – (Near Bhagalpur in Bihar)
• Ajanta painting – time period 1 to 7 C AD. – They depict various events in the life of
Gautama Buddha.

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ARCHITECTURE
• Gupta Period is called the “Golden age of India” or the “Classical Age of India” partially
due to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture,
painting and literature.
• During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked
the beginning of the Free-Standing temple Architecture.
• Buddhist University at Nalanda was set up in the 5th century, and its earliest structure,
made of brick, belongs to this period.
• Nagara & Dravidian styles of Temple making evolved during this period

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• There are few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh and a stone temple. These are brick
temples of Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in Jhansi.
• Bhitargaon’s temple: It is the first brick temple of India.

Figure-brick temples of Bhitargaon in Kanpur

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Art of temple making started during this time. Most important temples attributed to this period
are:

• Sanchi’s temple – Sanchi

• Dashavatar temple – Devgarhi, Jhansi (UP) – first pyramidal shaped temple in India.
• Nachnakuthar temple – MP
• Bhitargaon’s temple – near Kanpur

Sanchi’s Temple

• It is found near the great Sanchi stupa. It is regarded as the oldest existing temple.
• It is small and has a flat roof.

Dasavtar Temple

• It is the first pyramidal shaped temple in India.

• It is the first temple to have a Mandapa
• Garbha Griha (the room where chief deity is kept) – was generally made dark and narrow
to keep its mystical value intact.
• Devdassi Culture: Devdasis were the girls married to Gods. They devoted their lives to
upkeep of temples. Later on, they were exploited by the priest and merchants.

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PAINTINGS DURING GUPTA PERIOD

They are found from Ajanta and Bagha caves.

The most famous painting of Buddha at Ajanta

• Ajanta’s Rock cut caves were built during 2nd C – 7th C AD. They were patronized by
different rulers and followers of Buddhism.
• 25 caves are Vihara type (Where monks could live and pray) and 4 are Chaitya type.
• The paintings are found on the walls and ceilings of these caves.
• Most famous paintings have been found from caves 16, 17 and 19.
• Natural colours from vegetation were used.
• The themes were taken from Jataka tales and various shades of Buddha’s life.
• Amongst the most famous paintings the ‘Apsara’ of Ajanta had attracted the attention of
the critics the most.

DECLINE OF GUPTA EMPIRE

Reasons of decline

Huna invasion

• Huna invasion made them weak

• Weak successors
• Use of stirrups made of metal by Hunas so they can move quickly. (see image)

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Figure - stirrup

• Excellent archers of Hunas

Loss of Malwa and Yashodharman

• Malwa which was closer to port was lost.

• Though Yashodharman had overthrowed Hunas, he had given severe blow to Guptas

Rise of feudatories

• They tended to become independent

Other reasons

• By 550 Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had passed out of Gupta hands. By the beginning of the
sixth century we find independent princes issuing land grants in their own rights in
northern Madhya Pradesh.
• Loss of western India deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce
and crippled them economically.
• Difficult to maintain large army
• Land grants had reduced the revenues
• Moving of Thaneswar prince towards Kannauj
• Decline of foreign trade had affected income
• No demand of cloth produced by them.
• Debasement of the coins and gradual disappearance of gold coins during the post-Gupta
period indicates the Decline of Trade.

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Do You Know?

• The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple also called Gupta temple at Deogarh. It was
built in the Gupta Period. Archaeologists have inferred that it is the earliest known
Panchayatana temple in North India. A Hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the
main shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines.
• Samudragupta calls himself Lichchavi – Dauhitra the son of the daughter of the Lichchavis.
• The gold coins of Gupta period were called Dinara inspired by the Roman coins but later
the coins were minted in the Indian style with the weight standard of 9.2 gms of gold and
called Suvarna.
• Samudragupta adopted the title of Kaviraj (King of poets), he was an expert ‘Veena’
player.
• Harisena was the court poet of Samudragupta, who mentioned the achievements of
Samudragupta in the Prayag-Prasasti inscription.
• The University of Nalanda was established at Badagoan,Bihar in the 5th century during
the reign of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I.
• Kalidasa was regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist of ancient India. He wrote the
Ritusamhara, the Meghadutta, the Kumarasambava, the Raghuvansa, the
Viramavamsiya, the Malavikagnimitra and Abhijnana Sakuntalam. He was the court poet
of Chandragupta II.
• The titles of Skandagupta are Parambhattaraka, Paramdevta, Maharajadhiraj,
Kramaditya, Vikramaditya, etc. In the Kahaum inscription he is also known as
KsitipaSatapatih (or lord of a hundred kings).
• As per Natya – Darpana (by Vishakadata), the Iron pillar had been put up by Chandragupta
II himself after defeating Vahilakas. He designated that pillar as a memory of the victory.
The pillar is made of 98% wrought iron and has stood more than 1,600 years without
rusting or decomposing.
• The Gupta emperor, Samudragupta granted permission to Buddhist king of Ceylon
Meghavarman to build a monastry at Bodh Gaya. Hence, he was also known as
Anukampavan (full of compassion).

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HARSHA AND HIS TIMES

Harsha Kingdom

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IMPORTANT POINTS REGARDING HARSHAVARDHAN:

• He belonged to Pushyabhati dynasty.
• His elder brother, Rajya Vardhan, was killed by Shashank, the king of Bengal. He is the
same Shashank who chopped off the Bodhi tree.
• Harsha took revenge and defeated Shashank.
• Harsha made Kannauj as his capital.
• The main source of Harsha is ‘Harshacharita’ his biography written by Banbhatta. It’s the
first biography of an Indian king. (Remember, the first biography ever written in India is
that of Buddha that we have discussed before.) Banbhatta also wrote ‘Kadambri’ a
Sanskrit play. Banabhatta was a friend, courtier and biographer of Harsha.

The four most notable works of Banabhatta

• Include Kadambari, Harshacharitam, Chhandakasthtaka and Parvatiparinaya.
• Harsha himself wrote three dramas:
Priyadarshika
Nagananda They can be remembered calling them ‘PNR’
Ratnavali
• According to the Aihole Inscription, Pulakesin II (A chalukyan king) defeated Harsha on
the bank of river Narmada. This is the first instance when a South Indian king had defeated
a north Indian king.
• Huen Tsang visited his kingdom. According to Huen Tsang, Harsha divided his income into
4 equal parts:
• Army and administration
• Royal expenditure
• Religious grants
• Poor and destitute
• He conducted an all religion conference at Kannauj which was presided by Huen Tsang.
• A fire burnt the conclave and 500 Brahmins were exiled by Harsha in this charge. This is
regarded as one of his intolerant acts.
• A festival called ‘Mahamokshaparishad’ held at every 5 years at Prayag (Allahabad) in
which Shiva, Ganesha and Buddha were worshipped. The fourth day was reserved for
donations.
Note: Harshavardhan was a follower of Shiva and Buddha Both. He was a Shaivite and
later converted to Buddhist by Huen Tsang.
• He is regarded as the last great king of the Ancient Indian History.

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ADMINISTRATION
• He governed his Empire on the same lines as the Gupta’s did.
• His administration had become more feudal and decentralized.
• It is believed that the facts about cavalry and military were exaggerated.
• Harsha could possess a larger army only if he could mobilize the support of all his
feudatories at the time of war.
• Land grants continued to be made to priests.
• It seems that practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seems to have
begun under Harsha. And this was the reason for lesser availability of Harsha coins.
• According to Huen Tsang the revenues of Harsha was divided into 4 parts –
o 1st for King
o 2nd for scholars
o 3rd for endowment of officials and public servants
o 4th for religious purposes.
• Law and order were not well maintained.
• Huen Tsang’s belongings were robbed of.
• Severe punishments were there for crime but it seems that under the influence of
Buddhism the severity of punishment was mitigated, and criminals were imprisoned for
life.

HUEN TSANG
• He came through the land route and returned from the same route (unlike Fa- Hien).
• He came to study at Nalanda, where he studied ‘Yogashastra’ and also taught for 9 years.
He wrote in detail about Nalanda.
• There was an entrance test for Nalanda.
• 10,000 monks lived there, including teachers and students. (Based on archeological
findings, modern historians believe that this was an exaggerated number.)
• 200 villages were assigned for the maintenance of Nalanda.
• This institution attracted large number of scholars from SE Asia.
• He also describes the ruined city of Patliputra which was burnt before his arrival. Hence
the importance of Kannauj politically increased.
• Huen Tsang also met Pulakesin II at Badami and Narsimha Varman of Pallava dynasty at
Kanchi, Tamil Nadu.
• He wrote about Indian society and people. He praised the moral character of the general
public but complained against regular robbery. He himself was robbed four times.
• He also wrote about various sects of Buddhism (18) which suggests that Buddhism was
still flourishing in India.
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• He wrote his account under the name ‘Shi – Yu – Qui’ (The World of the West).

TEST YOUR CONCEPTS

PAINTINGS/SCULPTURES/ART FROMS/TEMPLES & THEIR LOCATIONS

Statue of The Bodhisattva Maitreya: Pakistan; ancient region of Gandhara (Gandhara School of
Art)

Flying Demigods- Bamiyan, Afghanistan, 5th Century

Famous Paintings of Ajanta

• Avalokiteshvara – Padmapani, Mural Painting

• The Buddha receiving Alms from a Women and Child
• Fighting Elephants, Mural Painting
• Fighting Bulls
• Persian Price and Princess
• Seated Girl, Mural Painting

Famous Statues

• Avalokitesvara holding a lotus flower: Nalanda, Bihar, India, 9th century

• Colossal Bronze Buddha: Sultanganj, Bihar, Gupta Period
• Budda’s Parinirvana- Colossal Rock sculpture, Ceylon
• Horse Trampling a Demon – Konark
• A Girl Musician with Cymbals – Konark
• Maithunas – Konark and Khajuraho
• Apsaras – Orissa and Khajuraho
• Brahaspati, the God of Jupiter- Orissa
• Siva Trimurthi- Colossal Rock-sculpture- Elephanta Island
• The Descent of Ganga- Colossal Rock Sculpture, Mamallapuram
• Torso of Budhisattva- Sanchi
• Seated Buddha- Sarnath, Gupta Period
• Standing Buddha- Mathura, Gupta Period
• Head of Buddha- Gandhara School
• Buddha Preaching-Gandhara School

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IMPORTANT POIINTS/TERMS FROM ANCIENT INDIA & CULTURE

• Zanzibar- A story of 6th or 7th century tells of a merchant’s son who sailed to the island
of the Black Yavanas. It is Zanzibar, present day it is the main island in the Tanzanian
archipelago of Zanzibar.
• The oldest Indian Linguistic text- Yaska’s Nirukta- Dating 5th -7th Century
• Ashtadhyayi- Author- Panini- 4th Century- Sanskrit- a sutra-style treatise on Sanskrit
grammar.
• Mahabhyasa- Author Patanjali
• Kasika Vriti- Author Jayaditya and Vamana
• The first important dynast to use Sanskrit- Sakas of Ujjain and Inscription of Rudraman
at Girnar (Earliest certainly dated records of ancient India, and proves that Rudraman was
reigning in A.D 150.
• Banabhatta: one of the greatest masters of Sanskrit prose, famed principally for his
chronicle, Harshacharita (“The Life of Harsha”). He used Kavya style. His second great
work, the prose romance Kadambari, is named for the heroine of the novel. The book
describes the affairs of two sets of lovers through a series of incarnations.
• Subandhu: Wrote Vasavadatta, is a classical Sanskrit romantic tale written in an ornate
style of language.
• Amarasimha: was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet from ancient India. He is said to have
been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Chandragupta Vikramaditya as
per Xuanzang. He was contemporary of Kalidasa.
• Amarakosha: a thesaurus in Sanskrit written by the ancient Indian scholar Amarasimha.
The Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes
called Trikanda or the "Tripartite". It is also known as "Namalinganushasana.
• Sthaviravadin Buddhists: Buddha taught in Prakrit Magadhi language. Magadhi was the
official language of the Mauryan Court.
• Sauraseni Language: Type of Prakrit, spoken originally in the Western part of modern
Uttar Pradesh.
• Apabhramsa (Falling away): A vernacular of Western India which was used by Jaina
writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for poetry.
• Brahmi Script- Left to Rigth, Kharosthi Script – Right to Left, Semitic Script – Right to Left
• Play by Kalidasa:
o Vikramōrvaśīyam is a five-act Sanskrit play by ancient Indian poet Kalidasa who
flourished in the 4th Century CE, on the Vedic love story of king Pururavas and an
Apsara, a celestial nymph named Urvashi. This story is mentioned in Satapatha
Brahmana.

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o The Mālavikāgnimitram: The play tells the story of the love of Agnimitra, the
Shunga Emperor at Vidisha, for the beautiful lun-maiden of his chief queen. He
falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Mālavikā. The play
contains an account of the Rajasuya sacrifice performed by Pushyamitra Shunga
and an elaborate exposition of a theory on music and acting.
o Abhijñānashākuntala: dramatizing the story of Shakuntala told in the epic
Mahabharata. It is considered to be the best of Kālidāsa's works
• Poems by Kalidasa: Raghuvaṃśa ("Dynasty of Raghu") and Kumārasambhava (Birth of
'Kumara' or Subrahmanya). Minor Peoms- Meghaduta and Rtusamhara (Garland of
Seasons).
• Santi Parvan – A dissertation on statecraft and ethics recited by Bhisma (Mahabharata)
• Author of Mahabharata – Veda Vyās or Krishna Dvaipāyana.
• Uttararamacarita- by Bhavabhuti – Drama/Play of 8th century concludes with the full
reconciliation of Rama and Sita. He also wrote Mahaviracarita.
• Sisupala-Vadha (Sanskrit Poem) – by Magha
• Janaki-harana (Sanskrit Mahakavya): By Kumaradasa
• The Kirātārjunīya (Sanskrit Mahakavya): By Bharavi
• Kavyamimamsa (Sanskrit Poem): By Rajashekhara
• The Ramacharitam (Sanskrit Poem): By Sandhyakar Nandi during Pala Empire
• Bhartṛhari: Sanskrit writer, Vākyapadīya, on Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philosophy
and the Śatakatraya, a work of Sanskrit poetry
• Bilhana: 11th-century Kashmiri poet. He is known for his love poem, the Caurapañcāśikā.
He also authored Vikramankadevacarita.
• Jayadeva: The Gita Govinda is a work composed by the 12th-century Indian poet,
Jayadeva. It describes the relationship between Krishna and the gopis (female cow
herders) of Vrindavana, and in particular one gopi named Radha.
• Brihatkatha: is an ancient Indian epic, said to have been written by Guṇāḍhya.
• The Kathāsaritsāgara ("Ocean of the Streams of Stories") is a famous 11th-century
collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales as retold in Sanskrit by a Shaiva
named Somadeva.
• Hammira-mahakavya: By Jaina Monk, Nayacandra Suri (Sanskrit)
• Yavanika: A diminutive form of the name by which the Greeks were generally known in
India. The term 'Yavanapriya' mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts denoted pepper.
• Bhasa: The oldest complete plays are probably those attributed to Bhasa. The Dream of
Vasavadatta (Svapnavasavadatta), Yaugandharayana’s Vows (Pratijnayaugandharayana).

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• Sudraka: Contemporary of Kalidasa, wrote Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart-Play). Love
story between Charudatta and Vasantasena. Also wrote Vinavasavadatta, and a bhana
(short one-act monologue), Padmaprabhritaka. He was an Indian King.
• Visakhadatta: Mudraraksasa play (Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya). Also wrote
Devichandragupta.
• King Harsha: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda
• Mahendravikramavarman (Palva King): Mattavilasa, a Sanskrit Play
• Dasakumaracarita (Tales of the Ten Princes) – By Dandin.
• Lavana in ancient India refers to Salt and Kalaya, a type of Pea.
• The Panchatantra "Five Treatises" is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal
fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story. The text's author is
unknown, but has been attributed to Vishnu Sharma in some recensions and Vasubhaga
in others, both of which may be pen names.
• Hitopadesha (Beneficial Advice or Salutary Instruction) is an Indian text in the Sanskrit
language consisting of fables with both animal and human characters. It incorporates
maxims, worldly wisdom and advice on political affairs in simple, elegant language, and
the work has been widely translated. The surviving text is believed to be from the 12th-
century, but was probably composed by Narayana between 800 to 950 CE.
• Suparnas: A class of large mythical bird, of whom Garuda is the chief.
• Theragatha and Therigatha: Elder Monks and Nuns in Buddhism
• The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle", Pali Mahāvaṃsa) (5th century CE) is an epic poem
written in the Pali language. It relates the history of Sri Lanka from its legendary
beginnings up to the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura (A.D. 302) covering the period
between the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE to his reign (277–304 CE). It
was composed by a Buddhist monk at the Mahavihara temple in Anuradhapura about the
fifth century A.D.
• Sūtrakṛtāṅga also known in Prakrit as Sūyagaḍaṃga is the second agama of the 12 main
aṅgās of the Jain canons. According to the Svetambara tradition it was written by
Gandhara Sudharmasvami in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.
• Saptasataka (Seven Hundred) By Hala in Prakrit.
• Pattuppattu: The Ten Songs- Tamil Poem.
• Narrinai-Love Poem, Kuruntogai-Love Poem, Aingurunuru- Erotic Poem, Padirruppattu-
Poem in praise of Cera King, Paripadal-Poems in praise of GODs, Kallitogai-Love Poem,
Agananuru- Love Poem, Purananuru-Poems in praise of Kings.
• Silappatikaram: The Jeweled Anklet is one of Five Great Epics according to later Tamil
literary tradition. Ilango Adigal is the author of Silappatikaram. The epic revolves around
Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the

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Pandyan Dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom. Kovalan - Son of a wealthy
merchant in Puhar. Kannagi - Wife of Kovalan
• Manimekalai: is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil
literary tradition. Satthanar or Chithalai Satthanar was the Tamil poet who composed
the epic Manimekalai. A total of 11 verses of the Sangam literature have been attributed
to Satthanar, including verse 10 of the Tiruvalluva Maalai
• Sivaka Sintamani: is a classical Tamil epic poem. It is a Jain religious epic authored by
Tirutakkatevar. It means "fabulous gem", is also known by alternative name Mana nool
or Book of Marriage.
• Samyutta Nikaya: is a Buddhist scripture, the third of the five nikayas, or collections, in
the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that compose the Pali Tipitaka of
Theravada Buddhism. It was translated into Chinese by Fa-hsien.
• Pravrajya: Ceremony to mark a person’s going forth from home into homelessness (in
Buddhism)
• Parajika: It includes four most serious offences involving expulsion from the Sangha i.e
Sexual intercourse, killing someone, making false claim of spirirual attainment and taking
what is not given. (in Buddhism)
• Upasakas: Male followers who have taken refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
but who have not taken monastic vows. (Upasika is for female followers)
• Pavarana: It is a Buddhist holy day celebrated on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month.
It marks the end of rainy season, also called Buddhist Lent.
• Uposatha/Upavasatha: Ceremony held on full moon and new moon for act of confession
(Buddhism)
• Paribbajaka/Parivarajaka: Wandered
• Samana/Shramana: One who strives to realize the truth.
• According to Buddha’s First Sermon: Craving which is at the bottom of human misery is
ultimately due to ignorance, a sort of cosmic ignorance which leads to the delusion of
selfhood. The ignorance primarily concerns the fundamental nature of the universe,
which has three salient characteristics- it is full of sorrow (dukkha), it is transient (anicca)
and it is soulless (anatta).
• Paticca-samuppada: Chain of Dependent Origin, is a key principle in Buddhist teachings,
which states that all dharmas arise in dependence upon other dharmas: "if this exists,
that exists; if this ceases to exist, that also ceases to exist"
• Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) and Culvamsa (Lesser
Chronicle): Verse chronicle that tell the history of Buddhism in Ceylon
• Sautrantikas, Saravastivadins, Sammitiyas: Sects of Buddhism
• Mahakalpa: Over an enormous period of time.

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• Krakusandha, Kanakmuni, Kasyapa, Sakyamuni and Maitreya (yet to come): Cycle of

Buddha. Kakusandha (the first Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Kanakmuni (the second
Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Kassapa (the third Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Gautama
(the fourth and present Buddha of the bhadrakalpa), Maitreya (the fifth and future
Buddha of the bhadrakalpa).
• It is nowhere claimed in the Pali scriptures that the Buddha was in any way supernatural.
• Saoshyant: Saoshyant is the Avestan language expression that literally means "one who
brings benefit", and which is used in several different ways in Zoroastrian scripture and
tradition.
• Amitabha or Amitayus: The Buddha’s body of bliss is the presiding deity of the most
important Mahayana heaven, Sukhavati, the Happy Land (Heaven), where the blessed
are reborn in the buds of lotuses, which rise from a lovely lake before the Buddha’s
throne. This divine Buddha is usually called Amitabha (Immeasurable Glory) or Amitayus
(Immeasurable Age)
• Tathagatagarbha: Tathagata is a Pali and Sanskrit word; Gautama Buddha uses it when
referring to himself in the Pāli Canon. The term is often thought to mean either "one who
has thus gone" (tathā-gata) or "one who has thus come" (tathā-āgata). The
Tathagatagarbha are a group of Mahayana sutras that present the concept of the
"womb" or "embryo" (garbha) of the tathāgata, the buddha.
• Lalitavistara: Mahayana Text- A flowery narrative of the life of the Buddha containing
much more of supernatural and marvelous than the Pali account.
• Light of Asia: Written by Sir Edwin Arnold
• Madhyamika: also known as Sunyavada (the emptiness doctrine) and Niḥsvabhavavada
(the no svabhāva doctrine) refers to a tradition of Buddhist philosophy and practice
founded by the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna. The foundational text of the Mādhyamaka
tradition is Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way).
• Yogacara: or Vijnanavadin School completely rejected the realism of the Lesser Vehicle
and maintained a thorough-going idealism. It emphasize the study of cognition,
perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditative and yogic practices.
(School of Buddhism)
• Vajrayana: School of Buddhism: The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt. (Vajra also means
Diamond). Followed in China, Tibet, Bhutan, East Asia etc.
• The Acharanga Sutra or Acaranga Surta is the first of the twelve Angas, part of the
agamas which were compiled based on the teachings of Mahavira (Jainism)
• Tattvopaplavasimha – The Lion Destroying all Religious Truths, it is an anti-religious text
written by Jayarasi in 8th century.

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• Charles Wilkins – Only British who learnt Sanskrit. Founding member of The Asiatic
Society. He is notable as the first translator of Bhagavad Gita into English, and as the
creator, alongside Panchanan Karmakar, of the first Bengali typeface.
• William Jones – Sir William Jones' translation of Kālidāsa's play, was first published in
Calcutta, followed by European republications. Charles Wilkins and William Jones
together is known as Fathers of Indology.
• Alexander Cunningham – Father of Indian Archeology.
• Archaeological Survey – Was formed in with the effort of Lord Curzon and John Marshall
was its Director General.
• Vibhisaka or Vibhidaka – The word ‘Aksa’ in the context of gambling is generally
translated as ‘Dice’ but aksas in the earliest gambling games were not dice but small hard
nuts called vibhisaka or vibhidaka.
• Viragal – A stone erected in the memory of a hero killed in battle
• Viravalanjigar- Company of Merchant
• Visti – It is kind of forced labour.
• Vratya – wandering ascetic, member of either an ethnic group or a sect, located
principally in the Magadha (Bihar) region of ancient India. In the Veda, a type of
unorthodox ascetic.
• Vajji or Vrijji was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including the Licchavis and one of
the principal mahājanapadas of Ancient India.
• Vritra or Vrtra- In the early Vedic religion, Vritra is a serpent or dragon.
• Vyapti, (relation of constant concomitance) a Sanskrit expression, in Hindu philosophy
refers to the state of pervasion. It is considered as the logical ground of inference which
is one of the means to knowledge.
• Campa and Tamralipti Port- In the East the Ganga Basin was served by Campa Port.
Tamralipti Port became important in the times of Mauryan (Ganga Basin).
• Musiri Port- Kerala, Korkai Port-Tamil Nadu
• Trika- School of Saivism in Kashmir. Also known as Triad because of three chief scriptures.
• Syadvada, in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding
good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syat
(Sanskrit: “may be”). The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number.
• Sutrakratanga-Jaina Text. It is the second agama of the 12 main aṅgas of the Jain canons.
• Sarvastivada (din) and Vaibhasika- Early School of Buddhism.
• Mulasarvastivada- Early School of Buddhism.
• Sautrantika or Sutravadin- Early School of Buddhism/Buddhist Sect
• Sammitiya, Dhammuttariyas, Bhadrayanikas, and the Sandagarikas - Buddhist Sect

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• Pudgalavada- was a Buddhist philosophical view and also refers to a group of Nikaya
Buddhist schools (mainly known as Vatsiputriiyas)
• Mahavibhasa- The Abhidharma Mahavibhaṣa Sastra is an ancient Buddhist text
• Vita- A character in Ancient Texts/Drama- Noted as cultured but rather shallow man of
the World who befriends the Hero, and somewhat resembles the parasite of classical
Greek Comedy.
• Vidusaka- Who provides cosmic relief.
• Susruta- was an ancient Indian physician known as the main author of the treatise The
Compendium of Suśruta. Susruta Samhita is a Medical text.
• Suta- Royal Charioteer
• Sthanvisvara- Modern Thanesar in Haryana
• Srauta Sutra- Text on sacrificial rituals
• Snataka- Unmarried man who has completed his studenthood
• Sivaga-sindamani- Tamil Epic
• Sigala- Address to, sermon of Buddha
• Sandhivigrahika- Minister of Peace and War
• Samskara- Personal Ceremonies
• Sahasrara- Center of psychic energy in the skull
• Romaka Siddhanta- System of Astronomy
• The Rbhus are a class of gods often mentioned in the Rgveda
• Gandharva is a name used for distinct heavenly beings in Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism. Divine Musicians mentioned in Rig Veda. It is also a term for skilled singers in
Indian classical music.
• Ratnins- Officers who advised the king. Court Dignitaries.
• Raksasa- Marriage by capture (Also known as class of Demon)
• Rajatarangini- By Kalhana, metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-
western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir.
• Pyrrhonism was a school of skepticism founded by Pyrrho in the fourth century BC.
• The five precepts- is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay people. hey
constitute the basic code of ethics undertaken by lay followers of Buddhism.
• Pratyeka Buddha- A Buddha who does not preach his doctrines.
• Prajnaparamhita- Buddhist Goddess. It means "the Perfection of Wisdom" in Mahāyāna
Buddhism. Prajnaparamita refers to this perfected way of seeing the nature of reality, as
well as to a particular body of sutras and to the personification of the concept in the
Bodhisattva known as the "Great Mother"
• Pradvivaka- Chief Judge and Legal Adviser
• Pinda- A ball or lump, specially of rice offered at ceremonies
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• Parivrajaka- A wandering ascetic

• Pancaratra- Vaisnavite Sect
• Forms of Marriage- The eight types are: brahma, daiva, arsa, prajapatya, asura,
gandharva, raksasa and paisaca.
• Paksa- Fortnight
• Nayavada- Jaina theory of stand point. The doctrine of Nayavada signifies the system of
describing reality from different points of view. ‘Naya’ can be understood as partially true
statements but they cannot lay claim to absolute validity.
• Syādvāda, in Jaina metaphysics, the doctrine that all judgments are conditional, holding
good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syāt
(Sanskrit: “may be”).
• Niska- Gold ornament
• Mitaksara- Legal text and system of family law.
• Marumakkatayam- Matrilineal family
• Marduk- Mesopotamian God
• Manvantara- Secondary Cosmic Cycle
• Manigrama- Merchant Company
• Majjhima Nikaya- Pali Text, Buddhist Scripture
• Mahasanghika- Buddhist Sect
• Mahamatra- A High Official
• Mahamantri- Chief Councilor
• Mahasamanta- Great Vassal (equivalent to prime minister)
• Kundalini- Serpent-power. in Hinduism refers to a form of divine energy (or shakti) said
to be located at the base of the spine (muladhara).
• Kulinism- Hypergamous matrimonial system in Bengal
• Kumaramatya- Title of honour
• Khuddaka Nikaya- Pali Text, Thervada Buddhism
• The Nitisara of Kamandaka (Polity), also known as the Kamandakiya-Nitisara, was
composed during the period of Gupta Dynasty. It was based on Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
• Kalkin- 10th incarnation of Vishnu
• Jimutavahana was an Indian Sanskrit scholar and writer of legal and religious treatises of
early medieval period.
• Jaimini was an ancient Nepali scholar who founded the Mimansa school of Hindu
philosophy. He was a disciple of sage Veda Vyasa, the son of Parashara. Traditionally
attributed to be the author of the Mimamsa Sutras and Jaimini Sutras, he is estimated to
have lived around the 4th-century BCE.
• Gopa- Petty officials supervising small group of families
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• Gosala Maskariputra- Founder of Ajivika Sect

• Vamana, the dwarf, is the fifth of the ten avatars (Dashavataras) of the god Vishnu
• Digha Nikaya- Pali Text, Thervada Buddhism.
• The Dhammapada is a collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form and one of the
most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures. The original version of the
Dhammapada is in the Khuddaka Nikaya, a division of the Pali Canon of Theravada
Buddhism
• Dayabhaga-legal text and system of family law. The Dayabhaga is a Hindu law treatise
which primarily focuses on inheritance procedure.
• Dadhikara- A divine Horse
• Cakravartin- Universal Emperor
• Cakrapalita- City Governor
• Candala- Untouchable, one who is engaged in carrying and cremation of corpses.
• Antyesti- Funeral Rights
• Antapala- Warden of Roads
• Antahpura-Women’s quarters
• The Anguttara Nikaya is a Buddhist scripture, the fourth of the five nikayas, or
collections, in the Sutta Pitaka, which is one of the "three baskets" that comprise the Pali
Tipitaka of Theravada Buddhism.
• Amuktamalyada-Text on Polity. Amuktamalyada is an epic poem in Telugu composed by
Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Dynasty. Amuktamalyada translates to a garland of
pearls. Amuktamalyada describes the story of wedding of the Hindu Lord Vishnu and
Andal the Tamil Alvar poet and daughter of Periyalvar, at Srirangam
• Agrahara was a grant of land and royal income from it, typically by a king or a noble
family, to religious purposes, particularly to Brahmins to maintain temples in that land or
a pilgrimage site and to sustain their families.

SIX SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY

Early Indian philosophical schools can be classified into Astika and Nastika. The Astika schools
accepted the authority of the Vedas and comprised a number of schools that later came to be
considered the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy.

The Nastika schools, such as the Buddhist, Jaina, and Charvaka, which rejected the authority of
the Vedas.

Six systems of the Astika tradition: Purva Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa (or Vedanta), Nyaya,
Vaisheshika, Samkhya and Yoga

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Nyaya

• Logic and Epistemology.

• Founder- Gautama
• Logic and reasoning as means of salvation

Vaiseshika

• School of individual characteristics

• Founder-Uluka Kanada
• More focus on physics than theology
• Nature is atomic. Atoms are distinct soul and each element has individual characteristics
which distinguish it from the four non-atomic substances (time, space, soul and mind)
• Dualism of Matter and soul

Samkhya

• Oldest
• Founder is Kapila Muni
• It resembles Jainism in its rigid dualism and fundamentalism atheism
• Purusha (soul) and Prakriti are the basis of reality. And they are absolute and
independent.
• Believed in dualism or dvaitavada. Soul and Matter are distinct. And this was basis of real
knowledge.
• Knowledge can be acquired through Perception, Inference and Hearing

Yoga

• Salvation by combining meditation and physical application of yogic techniques.

• The orgin of Yoga School is attributed to Yogasutra of Patanjali.

Mimamsa

• Founder is Rishi Jaimini

• Reasoning, interpretation and application
• Vedas contain the eternal truth and Samhita and Brahmana are part of it.

Vedanta

• Believe in Upanishads. Vedanta literally means the ‘end of the vedas’. They denote the
last phase of vedic period.

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• Brahma is the reality of life and everything else is unreal or Maya

Advaitya Vedanta

• Shankaracharya- Founded this philosophy

• Brahma has no attributes
• Knowledge is the mean of attaining salvation

Ramanujan

• Brahma has certain attributes

• Loving the faith and practicing devotion as the path to attain salvation.

Various Era

• Vikram Era (58 B.C)

• Saka Era (78 AD)
• Gupta Era (320 AD)
• Harsha Era (606 A D)
• Kalacuri Era (248 A D)
• Kali Era (3102 A D)

Local Era

• Laksmana Era
• Saptarsi or Laukika Era
• Nevar Era
• Kollam Era

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