CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
GENERAL:
Demolition of old and deteriorated buildings and traffic infrastructure, and their substitution
with new ones, is a frequent phenomenon today in a large part of the world. The main reasons
for this situation are changes of purpose, structural deterioration, rearrangement of a city,
expansion of traffic directions and increasing traffic load, natural disasters (earthquake, fire
and flood), etc. The most common method of managing this material has been through its
disposal in landfills. In this way, huge deposits of construction waste are created, consequently
becoming a special problem of human environment pollution.

A possible solution to these problems is to recycle demolished concrete and produce an

alternative aggregate for structural concrete in this way. Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is
generally produced by two-stage crushing of demolished concrete, and screening and removal
of contaminants such as reinforcement, paper, wood, plastics and gypsum. Concrete made with
such recycled concrete aggregate is called recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). The main
purpose of this work is to determine the basic properties of RAC depending on the coarse
recycled aggregate content, and to compare them to the properties of concrete made with
natural aggregate (NAC)—control concrete. Fine recycled aggregate was not considered for
RAC production because its application in structural concrete is generally not recommended.

Figure1: Pie chart for solid waste

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Concrete is globally the most widely used material in the construction industry.
Basically, concrete is a harden product consisting of cement, aggregates, water
and admixture. The composition of aggregates forms a major portion of the mixture
consisting of sand, crushed stones and gravel which are inert granular materials.
Construction aggregates make up more than 80 percent of the total aggregate market
and are used mainly for building constructions and pavements.

1.1 CEMENT:

Concrete is the material of present as well as future. The wide use of it in structures, from
buildings to factories, from bridges to airports, makes it one of the most investigated materials
of the 21st century. Due to the rapid population explosion and the technology boom to cater to
these needs, there is an urgent need to improve the strength and durability of concrete. Out of
the various materials used in the production of concrete, cement plays a major role due its size
and adhesive property. So, to produce concrete with improved properties, the mechanism of
cement hydration has to be studied properly and better substitutes to it have to be suggested.

Composition and hydration:

Cement can be described as a crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium
compounds having hydraulic properties. The four major compounds that constitute cement
(Bogue’s Compounds) are Tri-calcium silicate (C3S), Di-calcium silicate (C2S), Tri-calcium
aluminate (C3A), Tetra-calcium alumina-ferrite (C4AF) where C stands for CaO, S stands for
SiO2, A stands for Al2O3 and F for Fe2O3. Tri- calcium silicate and Di-calcium silicate are the
major contributors to the strength of cement, together constituting about 70 % of cement. Dry
or anhydrous cement does not have adhesive property and hence cannot bind the raw materials
together to form concrete. When mixed with water chemical reaction takes place and is
referred to as ‘hydration of cement’. The products of this exothermic reaction are C-S-H gel
and Ca(OH)2. Calcium hydroxide has lower surface area and hence does not contribute much
to the strength of concrete. On hydration of cement aluminates a product is formed known as
ettringite, which has needle like morphology and contributes to some early strength of
concrete. C-S-H gel refers to calcium silicate hydrates, making up about 60 % of the volume of
solids in a completely hydrated cement paste. It has a structure of short fibers which vary from
crystalline to amorphous form. Owing to its gelatinous structure it can bound various inert
materials by virtue of Vander Waal forces. It is the primary strength giving phase in cement
concrete

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 Figure1.1:  Hydration of Cement

1.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONCRETE:

Nanotechnology is an emerging field of science of related to the understanding and control of

matter at the nano scale, i.e., at dimensions between approximate 1 and 100nm.
Nanotechnology is not simply working at ever – smaller dimension rather, working at the nano
scale enables scientists to utilize the unique physical, chemical, mechanical, and optical
properties of material that naturally occurs at that scale. Nanotechnology has a significant
impact in the construction sector. Several applications have been developed for this specific
sector to improve the durability and enhanced performance of construction components, energy
efficiency and safety of the building, facilitating the ease of maintenance and living comfort

Basic construction materials cement, concrete and steel will also benefit from nanotechnology.
Addition of Nanoparticles will lead to stronger, more durable; air purifying, easy to clean and
quick compacting concrete.

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1.3 NANOSILICA:

Recently Nanotechnology has been introducing in civil engineering application. One of the
most used nanomaterials is Nanosilica (NS). This is the first product that replaced micro silica.
The advancement made by study of concrete at nano scale is much better than silica fume use
in conventional concrete. Nanosilica possess more Pozzolanic nature, it has the capability to
react with the free lime during the cement hydration and forms additional C-S-H gel which
gives strength, impermeability and durability to concrete.

The implementation of nanotechnology in concrete has led to an active incorporation of

Nanosilica in concrete in a global level. Different method of Nanosilica production is available
and varies from expansive to cost-effective routes. Nanosilica particles sizes and their chemical
and physical nature depend on method of production. Several types of dispersed Nanosilica are
recommended to be used in concrete. However, the dry powders of Nanosilica particles are
difficult to be dispersed in concrete and require special types or family of nano super
plasticizer. The effective addition of NS leads to C-S-H with improved cementations
properties.

Figure 1.2: Particle sizes and Specific surface area related to concrete particles

As concrete is most usable material in construction industry it is required to improve its

quality. Concrete is a highly heterogeneous material produced by mixture of finely powdered
cement, aggregates of various sizes and water with inherent physical, chemical and mechanical

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properties. Cement can be partially replaced by a number of mineral admixtures such as fly
ash, silica fume, metakaoline etc., which have certain properties related to that of cement. By
adding the Nanomaterials, concrete composites with superior properties can be produced.
Nanotechnology applied to concrete includes the use of Nanomaterials like Nanosilica. If
Nanoparticles are integrated with cement-based building materials, the new material possesses
some outstanding properties. Nanosilica improves the microstructure and reduces the water
permeability of concrete thus making it more dense and durable. Use of Nanosilica in HPC
improves the cohesiveness between the particles of concrete and reduces segregation and
bleeding. Certain problems like longer setting time, lower compressive strength at higher
percentages can be overcome by adding Nanosilica. The addition of supplementary
cementitious materials in the concrete will not only improve the mechanical properties of
concrete, but also its workability, alteration in setting times and durability. The pozzolanic
activity of Nanosilica is more obvious than that of silica fume. Nanosilica can react with
Calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH2)) crystals, which are arrayed in the Interfacial Transition Zone
(ITZ) between hardened cement paste and aggregates, and produce C-S-H gel. Thus, the size
and the amount of calcium hydroxide crystals are significantly decreased, and the early age
strength of the hardened cement paste is increased. Nanosilica can behave as a nucleus to
tightly bond with cement hydrates. The stable gel structures can be formed and the mechanical
properties of hardened cement paste can be improved when a smaller amount of Nanosilica is
added. Nanosilica can improve the pressure-sensitive properties of cement mortar. Fly ash
concrete with Nanosilica has the higher density and strength also indicating that high strength
concrete with Nanosilica has higher flexural strength.

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 Figure1. 3: Hydration of pure cement and hydration of cement with Nanosilica cement

The Nanoparticles of silica act as fillers in the voids or empty spaces. The well dispersed
Nanosilica acts as a nucleation or crystallization centers of the hydrated products, thereby
increasing the hydration rate, that is, Nanosilica assists towards the formation of smaller size
CH crystals and homogeneous clusters of C-S-H composition. Moreover, it was found that
Nanosilica improved the strength of the structure.

1.4 RECYCLED AGGREGATES:

Recycled aggregates are aggregates derived from the processing of materials previously used
in construction. Examples include recycled concrete from construction and demolition waste
material (C&D), reclaimed aggregate from asphalt pavement and scrap tyres. Coarse Recycled
Concrete Aggregate (RCA) is produced by crushing sound, clean demolition waste.

The main reasons for increase of volume of demolition concrete / masonry waste are as
follows:-

i. Many old buildings, concrete pavements, bridges and other structures have overcome
their age and limit of use due to structural deterioration beyond repairs and need to be
demolished;
ii. The structures, even adequate to use are under demolition because they are not serving
the needs in present scenario;
iii. New construction for better economic growth;

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 iv. Structures are turned into debris resulting from natural disasters like earthquake,
cyclone and floods etc.
v. Creation of building waste resulting from manmade disaster/war.

The aim of the project is to determine the strength and durability characteristics of normal and
recycled aggregate concrete with nano-silica for application in structural concrete, which will
give a better understanding of the properties of concrete with recycled aggregates, as an
alternative material to coarse aggregate in structural concrete.

Figure1.4: Recycling process of RCA

Recycling is the act of processing the used material for use in creating a new material. The
usage of natural aggregate is getting more and more intense with the advanced development in
infrastructure area. In order to reduce the usage of normal aggregates, recycled aggregates can
be used as the replacement materials. These materials are generally from buildings, roads,
bridges and sometimes even from catastrophes, such as wars and earthquakes. Due to the
critical shortage of natural aggregates, the availability of demolished concrete for use as
recycled concrete (RCA) is increasing. Recycled aggregates are the materials for the future.
The application of recycled aggregates has been started and increased in many countries for
construction projects.

Applications of Recycled Aggregates

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Traditionally, the application of recycled aggregates is used as landfill. Nowadays, the
application of recycled aggregates in construction areas is wide. The applications are different
from country to country.

 Concrete kerbs

 Granular Base course

 Embankment fill materials

 Paving blocks

 Backfill materials

 Building blocks

Advantages of Recycled Aggregates

There are many advantages using the recycled aggregates. The advantages that occur through
usage of recycled aggregates are listed below:

 Environmental gain:

The major advantage is based on the environmental gain. According to CSIRO, construction
and demolition waste makes around 40% of the total waste produced each year (estimated
around 14million tons) going to landfill. By recycling these materials, it can keep diminishing
the resources of urban aggregates. Therefore, natural aggregates can be used in higher grade
applications.

 Save energy:

The recycling process can be done on site. According to Kajima technical research institute
(2002), Kajima, is developing a method of recycling crushed aggregate that was used in
construction, known as the within site recycling system. Everything can be done on the
construction site through this system, from the process of recycled aggregate, manufacture and
use them. This can save energy to transport recycled materials to the recycling plants.

 Cost :

Secondly, it is based on the cost. The cost of the recycled aggregate is virgin aggregate.
According to According to the PATH Technology Inventory, the costs of recycled aggregate

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are sold around $3.50 to $7.00 per cubic yard. It depends on the aggregate size limitation and
local availability. This is just around half of the cost for natural aggregate used that is used in
the construction works. The transportation cost for the recycled aggregate is reduced due to the
weight of recycled aggregate is lighter than virgin aggregate. Concrete network stated that
recycling concrete from the demolition projects can save the cost of transporting the concrete
to landfill (around $0.25 per ton/mile), and the cost of disposal (around $100.00 per ton).
Besides that, aggregate advisory service also stated that the recycling site may accept the
aggregate materials at lower cost than landfill without tax levy and recycled aggregate can be
used at a lower price than primary aggregates in the construction works

 Sustainability:

The amount of waste materials used for landfill will be reducing through usage of recycled
aggregate. This will reduce the amount of quarrying. Therefore this will extend the lives of
natural resources also extend the lives of sites that area using for landfill.

Disadvantages of Recycled Coarse Aggregates

 Lack of specifications and guidelines:

There is no specification or guidelines when using recycled concrete aggregate in the

constructions. In many cases, strength characteristics will not meet the requirement when using
recycled concrete aggregate. Therefore, more testing should be considered when using
recycled concrete aggregate.

 Water pollution:

The recycled process will cause water pollution. Morris of National Ready Mix Concrete
Association had mentioned that the wash out water with high pH is a serious environmental
issue. According to Building Green (1993). The alkalinity level of wash water from the
recycling plants is OW. This water is toxic to the fish and other aquatic life.

1.5 MANUFACTURED SAND (M-sand):

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Manufactured sand (M-Sand) is a substitute of river sand for concrete construction.
Manufactured sand is produced from hard granite stone by crushing. The crushed sand is of
cubical shape with grounded edges, washed and graded to as a construction material. The size
of manufactured sand (M-Sand) is less than 4.75mm.

Why Manufactured Sand is used?

Manufactured sand is an alternative for river sand. Due to fast growing construction industry,
the demand for sand has increased tremendously, causing deficiency of suitable river sand in
most part of the word.

Due to the depletion of good quality river sand for the use of construction, the use of
manufactured sand has been increased. Another reason for use of M-Sand is its availability and
transportation cost.

Since manufactured sand can be crushed from hard granite rocks, it can be readily available at
the nearby place, reducing the cost of transportation from far-off river sand bed.

Thus, the cost of construction can be controlled by the use of manufactured sand as an
alternative material for construction. The other advantage of using M-Sand is, it can be dust
free, the sizes of m-sand can be controlled easily so that it meets the required grading for the
given construction.

Advantages of Manufactured Sand (M-Sand)

It is well graded in the required proportion.

It does not contain organic and soluble compound that affects the setting time and properties of
cement, thus the required strength of concrete can be maintained.

It does not have the presence of impurities such as clay, dust and silt coatings, increase water
requirement as in the case of river sand which impair bond between cement paste and
aggregate. Thus, increased quality and durability of concrete.

M-sand is obtained from specific hard rock (granite) using the state-of-the-art International
technology, thus the required property of sand is obtained.

M-Sand is cubical in shape and is manufactured using technology like High Carbon steel hit
rock and then ROCK ON ROCK process which is synonymous to that of natural process
undergoing in river sand information.

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Modern and imported machines are used to produce M-Sand to ensure required grading zone
for the sand.

Properties of Manufactured Sand for Concrete Construction

 Higher Strength of concrete

The manufactured sand has required gradation of fines, physical properties such as shape,
smooth surface textures and consistency which make it the best sand suitable for construction.
These physical properties of sand provide greater strength to the concrete by reducing
segregation, bleeding, honeycombing, voids and capillary.

Thus required grade of sand for the given purpose helps the concrete fill voids between coarse
aggregates and makes concrete more compact and dense, thus increasing the strength of
concrete.

 Durability of concrete

Since manufactured sand (M-Sand) is processed from selected quality of granite, it has the
balanced physical and chemical properties for construction of concrete structures.

This property of M-Sand helps the concrete structures withstand extreme environmental
conditions and prevents the corrosion of reinforcement steel by reducing permeability,
moisture ingress, and freeze-thaw effect increasing the durability of concrete structures.

 Workability of concrete

Size, shape, texture play an important role in workability of concrete. With more surface area
of sand, the demand for cement and water increases to bond the sand with coarse aggregates.

The control over these physical properties of manufacturing sand make the concrete require
less amount of water and provide higher workable concrete. The less use of water also helps in
increasing the strength of concrete, less effort for mixing and placement of concrete, and thus
increases productivity of construction activities at site.

 Less Construction Defects

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Construction defects during placement and post-concreting such as segregation, bleeding,
honeycombing, voids and capillarity in concrete gets reduced by the use of M-Sand as it has
optimum initial and final setting time as well as excellent fineness.

 Economy

As discussed above, since usage of M-Sand has increased durability, higher strength, reduction
in segregation, permeability, increased workability, decreased post-concrete defects, it proves
to be economical as a construction material replacing river sand.

It can also save transportation cost of river sand in many cases.

 Eco-Friendly

Usage of manufactured sand prevents dredging of river beds to get river sand which may lead
to environmental disaster like ground water depletion, water scarcity, threat to the safety of
bridges, dams etc. to make M-Sands more eco-friendly than river sand

1.6 NECESSITY OF PRESENT STUDY

This study aims to reduce the environmental problems which are generated from dumping the
construction and demolition wastes. This can be achieved by recycling the construction and
demolition wastes to produce concrete mixes for structural elements with high performance as
natural aggregate.

Conventionally concrete is mixture of cement, sand and aggregates. Properties of aggregate

effect the durability and performance of concrete, so coarse aggregate is an essential
component of concrete. It is therefore, important to obtain right type and good quality
aggregate at site, because the aggregate forms the main matrix of concrete or mortar.

The increased use of cement is essential in attaining a higher compressive strength. But,
cement is a major source of pollution. The use of nanomaterials by replacement of a proportion
of cement can lead to a rise in the compressive strength of the concrete as well as a check to
pollution. Since the use of a very small proportion of nano-silica can affect the properties of
concrete largely, a proper study of its microstructure is essential in understanding the reactions
and the effect of the Nanoparticles.

Recycling is the act of processing the used material for use in creating a new material. The
usage of natural aggregate is getting more and more intense with the advanced development in
infrastructure area. In order to reduce the usage of normal aggregates, recycled aggregates can

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be used as the replacement materials. These materials are generally from buildings, roads,
bridges and sometimes even from catastrophes, such as wars and earthquakes. Due to the
critical shortage of natural aggregates, the availability of demolished concrete for use as
recycled concrete is increasing.

Recycled aggregates are the materials for the future. The application of recycled aggregates has
been started and increased in many countries for construction projects.

Manufactured sand is an alternative for river sand. Due to fast growing construction industry,
the demand for sand has increased tremendously, causing deficiency of suitable river sand in
most part of the word.

Due to the depletion of good quality river sand for the use of construction, the use of
manufactured sand has been increased. Another reason for use of M-Sand is its availability and
transportation cost.

The recycling of Construction and Demolition Wastes has long been recognized to have the
potential to conserve natural resources and to reduce energy used in production.

The recycling of Construction and Demolition Wastes has long been accepted to have the
possible to conserve natural resources and to decrease energy used in production.

1.7 OBJECTIVES

 To Study the physical and mechanical performance of recycled aggregate used in

concrete.
 To check the possibility of using recycled aggregate in concrete mixes.
 The bonding strength can be investigated between reinforcement bars and concrete
from recycled aggregate.
 To optimize the ratio of recycled aggregate to natural aggregate which produce better
result of concrete mix.
 To investigate the response of recycled concrete aggregate in M35 grade of concrete
and by using 1.5% Nanosilica by weight of cement and studying the mechanical and
physical of concrete in compression, tension and flexure.
 To evaluate the compressive strengths at 3, 7 and 28 days for all the mixes used in the
investigation.
 To evaluate the split tensile strengths at 3, 7 and 28 days for all the mixes used in the
investigation.
 To evaluate the flexural strengths at 3, 7 and 28 days for all the mixes used in the
investigation.

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 To study the microstructure of the concrete using SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscopy) and XRD (X-ray Diffraction).
 To evaluate the workability characteristics in terms of slump cone test for all the
different types of mixes used in the investigation
 To study the durability test like acid exposure and permeability test.

1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION

 The Chapter 1 presents the general introduction to concrete, necessity of Nano-

silica and recycled aggregates, advantages of recycled aggregates, alternative use
of sand i.e. M-sand, necessity of the project, objectives and finally organization of
the study.

 The Chapter 2 deals with the review of literatures i.e. the work done by various
researchers in the field of recycled concrete using nanomaterials.

 The Chapter 3 discusses about the methodology and experimental investigation.

 The Chapter 4 gives the details about the tests on concrete.

 The Chapter 5 explains the test results and discussions.

 The Chapter 6 represents the conclusions and discussions of the present study.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the works of various authors on the use of nanomaterials and recycled coarse
aggregate in concrete has been discussed in brief. A great number of researches have been
performed to understand the nature of nanomaterials and their effect on the properties of
concrete. A number of Research & Development works dealing with the use of nanomaterials
like nano-silica, colloidal nano-silica (CNS), Al2O3, TiO2, ZrO2, Fe2O3, carbon nanotubes
(CNT) in cement based materials are discussed in the literature. Various research &
development works dealing with the strength, durability and microstructure of nano- silica
were studied. The Pozzolanic activity of the material is essential in forming the C-S-H gel and
hence the CH crystals are prevented from growing and their number reduces. Thus the early
age strength of hardened cement paste is increased. This chapter which will highlight the
significances of each work. Out of the numerous works done in the field only a few relevant
works have been highlighted in the next section.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW:

1) Haider A Ibrahim*, Mohammed B Mahdi, Basim J Abbas. (2020)

This research investigates on the performance Evaluation of Fiber and Silica fume on
Pervious Concrete Pavements Containing Waste Recycled Concrete Aggregate. The
employment of Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA) from site of construction and
destruction wastes to product green concrete as a sustainable solve with varied
environmental interests.
The test results shows that the use of RCA slightly affect hydraulic conductivity and
nugatory effect on compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths where the use of silica
fume and glass fibers more strong effect on the hydraulic conductivity and positive effect
on pervious concrete flexural, splitting tensile strengths.

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2) Rajeeb Kumar1,Shilpa Pal2, Neelesh Jadaun3, Rohit3 . (2019)
PERFORMANCE OF POLYMER TREATED RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE
UNDER DIFFERENT CURING CONDITION OF CONCRETE. this study has been
conducted to evaluate its applications in structural concrete. Study has been carried out to
enhance the performance of recycled aggregate by improving its water absorption by treatment
with polymer. Hardened concrete properties of recycled concrete aggregates for M35 grade
under different types of curing i.e. Normal curing, Open-air curing and Polythene curing has
been done. Experimental investigation has been carried out at various replacements (i.e. 100%
natural coarse aggregate, 100% recycled concrete coarse aggregate, and 100% Polymer treated
recycled concrete coarse aggregate). Also, the durability studies such as water absorption and
water permeability of the recycled concrete aggregate specimens has been carried out.

This study concludes that the hardened concrete properties, water absorption and water
permeability improves after the treatment of RCA which makes the TRCA concrete more
durable and also improve the strength as compared to RCA concrete.

3) QuanminPenga,b,⇑, Li Wang a, Qun Lu a,c (2018)

To investigate the influence of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) content on the fatigue
performance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC), an experiment about compressive fatigue
residual strength on RAC with different replacement percentages was conducted. The results
show that fatigue life, residual strength, and residual stiffness all decrease with an increase in
RCA replacement percentage, with the smallest effect on stiffness. The residual strength and
stiffness degradation curves of RAC were obtained by regression analysis and the replacement
percentage effect on degradation laws was discussed. The fatigue life, residual strength, and
residual secant modulus all decrease with an increase in RCA replacement percentage, but to
differing degrees.
4) Sidam Gangaram1 Vankadothu Bhikshma2 Maganti Janardhana3 (2018):
The recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is very much required to preserve the natural
resources for future generation. Study on recycled aggregate is having high significance as the
concrete contains 60 to 80% with coarse aggregates.. Strength and durability studies pertaining
to Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) of M20 and M30 grades made by replacing 100 %
virgin aggregates with recycled aggregates are presented. The results of compressive strength
test, split tensile strength, flexural strength and permeability tests are presented . The study
shows that 100% replacement of natural aggregate with recycled coarse aggregates gives

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satisfactory results for M20&M30. So the replacement is of much benefit and shall be
encouraged to achieve higher grades of concrete.
5) Nagaraja Ba, Vinay K V a, KeerthiGowda B S a, Karisiddappa b.(2017)
In the present study crushed concrete cube debris of size 20 mm sieve passed and 10 mm sieve
retained) are used as coarse aggregates for the production of cement concrete in economical
way. Here compressive strength of conventional concrete is compared with crushed concrete
debris embedded plain cement concrete. Percentage of replacement of debris is varied from 10,
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50 and 100 to compare the compressive strength results among them. 30 %
replacement of debris for conventional coarse aggregate recorded the highest compressive
strength of 31.11 MPa. Compressive strength of debris embedded concrete showed higher
compressive strength compared to conventional concrete. Also, a plain cement concrete
embedded with debris and 10 mm long raw Banana fibers (1% of cementitious material)
recorded highest compressive strength compared to other concrete.The experiment results
showed high values of water absorption and moisture content for all the recycledaggregates
concrete. Here the mortar adhered it is more porous, thus absorbs more water is the mainfactor
contributing towards decrease of compressive strength.
6)MarcoPepe a, Romildo Dias Toledo Filho b, Eduardus A.B. Koenders c, Enzo
Martinelli (2016)
This paper proposes a conceptual formulation for predicting and controlling the compressive
strength of Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) mixtures, by explicitly taking into account the
specific features of Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCAs).Therefore, the formulation
proposed herein is intended at generalizing the aforementioned rules with the aim to take into
account the higher porosity of RCAs. Although being a mainly conceptual methodology, the
proposed formulation is supported by a wide set of experimental results: they unveil the
influence of several aspects and parameters (such as source and processing procedures of
RCAs, aggregate replacement ratio, water-to-cement ratio, water absorption capacity and
initial moisture condition of aggregates) on the resulting compressive strength of RAC.
Finally, the proposed mix design methodology demonstrates that the resulting compressive
strength of RACs can be predicted by taking into account only one parameter (i.e., water
absorption capacity) identifying the ‘‘quality” of RCAs. Further generalizations intended at
controlling other physical and mechanical parameters of RAC are among the future
development of this research..

7) Shi-cong Kou a,b, Chi-sun Poon a,⇑(2015)

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This paper presents the experimental results of a study on the effect of the quality of parent
concrete (PC) on the properties of recycled aggregates (RAs) that are derived from them, and
on the mechanical and durability properties of normal strength and high performance recycled
aggregate concrete (NSRAC and HPRAC). PC with strength grades ranging from 30 to 100
MPa was crushed to the size of coarse aggregates (<20 mm), and then used to produce new
NSRAC and HPRAC mixes. The results indicated that the compressive strength of the NSRAC
and HPRAC prepared with RA derived from 80 and 100 MPa PCs was similar or slightly
higher than that of natural aggregate concrete. Moreover, the concrete mixtures made with RA
are derived from parent concrete with higher strength had lower drying shrinkage and higher
resistance to chloride ion penetration. The RA derived from 80 and 100 MPa PCs can be used
to replace 100% natural aggregates for the production of high performance concrete.

8) Mukharjee and Barai (2014) studied the compressive strength and characteristics of
Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) of concrete containing recycled aggregates and nano- silica.
An improvement in the compressive strength and microstructure of concrete was observed
with the incorporation of nano-silica.

9) Dr.s.elavenil (2013)
In this paper Scarcity of good quality Natural River sand due to depletion of resources and
restriction due to environmental consideration has made concrete manufactures to look for
suitable alternative fine aggregate. One such alternative is “Manufactured sand” A durable
concrete covers and bears the responsibility of sustaining the entire R.C.C. structure
throughout it service life. A well processed manufactured sand as partial or full replacement to
river sand is the need of the hour as a long term solution in Indian concrete industry until other
suitable alternative fine aggregate are developed. This contributed to the better binding effect
with the available cement paste and improved the compressive strength.
10) Surya Abdul Rashid et al. (2011) worked on the effect of nano-silica particle on both
mechanical properties (compressive, split tensile and flexural strength) and physical properties
(water permeability, workability and setting time) of concrete which shows that binary blended
concrete with nano-silica particles up to 2% has significantly higher compressive, split tensile
and flexural strength compared to normal concrete. Another inference drawn was that partial
replacement of nano-silica particles decreases the workability and setting time of green
concrete for samples cured in lime solution.

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

3.1 GENERAL:

Experimental investigation was planned to provide sufficient knowledge about the strength and
durability characteristics on 60% use of recycled aggregate concrete with 1.5% of Nanosilica
to cement weight and M-sand as fine aggregate. Tests were conducted on materials to know
their physical properties. Results were analyzed to derive useful conclusions regarding the
strength behavior of the recycled aggregates with nano-silica and M-sand as a fine aggregate
replacement. M35 design mixe were adopted. The design mixes are presented in Appendix.

M35 grades of mixes were employed to examine the influence of recycled coarse aggregate
with Nanosilica and M-sand

The mixes were conventionally cured. The water binder ratio for the mixes is considered as
0.38 for RAC M35. Several trail mixes were done in order to achieve the required target mean
strength for the M35 mixes.

Fresh concrete tests such as Slump flow value, Compaction factor value are investigated.
Hardened concrete tests such as compressive strength for cubes (150mm x 150mm x 150mm);
Split tensile strength for cylinders (150mm x 300mm), flexural strength for prisms (500mm x
100mm x 100 mm), were done at 3,7 & 28 days. And permeability test on concrete cylinders
(100mm x100mm), after 28days curing was conducted. In addition to this bond strength tests
of cubes were tested after 28 days of curing of 100mm x 100mm x 100mm cubes. For acid
attack, cubes (100mm x 100mm x 100mm), were cured for 28 days and then exposed to 0.1%
and 0.3% of acidic solution. The cubes are then tested for weight loss and Residual
compressive strength. And microstructure studies like SEM and XRD test were done on
powdered concrete.

[19]
Table 3.1 Specimens cast for strength and durability tests

Name of the Test RAC M35

Number of cubes cast for compressive
9
strength
Number of cylinders cast for split tensile
9
strength
Number of prisms cast for flexural
9
strength
Number of cylinder for permeability 3
Number of cubes cast for acid attack 24
Number of cubes cast for bond strength 3
Total number of sample cast 57

Total number of samples cast for the present work: 57

3.2 MATERIALS USED AND TEST

Cement

Ramco PPC was used. Physical Properties of Cement are shown in Table 3.2

Fine Aggregate

M-sand of Zone-II was used. The properties of normal sand is shown in Table 3.3

Coarse Aggregate

60% of recycled coarse aggregate of demolished structures of 20mm passing and retained on
10mm sieve were used and natural crashed aggregate were subdivided into another 40% of
passing 20 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve and 60 % passing 10mm and retained on 4.75 mm
sieve was used. The details of both recycled and crushed aggregate and their properties are
shown in Tables- 3.5 to 3.8

Water

Potable fresh water, which is free from acid or organic substances, was used for mixing the
concrete.

Admixture

[20]
Nanosilica CEM SYN XLP type is used. The properties of Nanosilica were shown in Table 3.9

3.2.1 CEMENT   

Cement is the binding material in cement concrete .Cement is produced by intimate mixing of
calcareous, siliceous and aluminous substances at high temperatures and crushing the resultant
clinkers to a fine powder. Cement is the most expensive ingredient in concrete and is available
in a variety of different forms. The properties of cement depend upon the chemical
composition, the process of manufacture and the degree of fineness to which they are ground.
When cement is mixed with water, a chemical reaction takes place as a result of which the
cement paste first sets and then hardens to a stone like mass. Depending upon their chemical
composition, setting and hardening properties, cements can be broadly divided in the following
two categories:    

1. Portland Cement   
2. Special Cement

Portland cement

This is a most widely used type of cement and is so named because of the resemblance of its
properties with a well-known natural stone quarried at Portland (U.K). Joseph Aspdin, a
Yorkshire brick-layer is regarded as the discoverer of Portland cement.

Composition of Portland cement       

Lime, silica and alumina are considered to be the three principal constituents of cement. In
addition most of the cement contains iron oxide, magnesia, sulphur trioxide and alkalis in
small proportions. Cement is manufactured by burning to white heat an intimate mixture of the
above ingredients and then grinding the resulting clinkers with gypsum to an extremely fine
powder. The magnitudes of the different constituents in the comparison of cement are:

Lime (Ca0) --- 60 to 67%

Silica (Si02) --- 17 to 25%

Alumina (Al2O3) --- 3 to 8%

Iron oxide (Fe2O) --- 0.5 to 6%

Magnesia (Mg0) --- 0.1 to 4%

[21]
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) --- 1 to 2.75%

Alkalis (Soda and Potash)  --- 0.5

Pozzolanic materials like fly ash is waste materials emitted from industries to control the
pollution to environment these effluents from industries are trapped and they are ground
granulated and mixed with Ordinary Portland Cement to form a Special type of cement called
Portland Pozzolana Cement. By production of Ordinary Portland Cement large amount of
pollutants are released from cement industries to reduce this we add Pozzolanic material and
produce Portland Pozzolanic Cement which is finer than OPC and have a good durability
properties.

Types of Portland cement

Portland cement can be further sub-divided in to the following types.  The difference in the
properties of the various types of cement is basically on account of variance in the proportions
of its ingredients and degree of fineness to which the clinkers are ground. 

i. Ordinary Portland cement

ii. Portland Pozzolana cement
iii. Rapid hardening Portland cement
iv. Low-heat Portland cement
v. White or colored Portland cement
vi. Sulphate resisting Portland cement
vii. Water-repellent Portland cement
viii. Portland blast furnace cement

Portland Pozzolana cements (IS: 1489-Part-1: 1991).

This cement is the combination of OPC and Pozzolanic material (fly ash), which is produced
by partial replacement of fly ash emitted industries. Which is finer than OPC, Setting time of
PPC is more than OPC. Specifications of Portland Pozzolana Cement was given in IS:
1489(Part-1): 1991.

Specific Gravity Test (IS: 2720 - Part III: 1980).

[22]
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance compared to the density (mass of the
substance per unit volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of
the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference
substance. The reference substance is nearly always water for liquids or air for gases. This test
is performed by using density bottle. 

Fineness Test (IS: 4031-1968).

Fineness is defined as the surface area of cement particles per unit weight, means more
number of particles per unit weight. If the percentage of Fineness is more than 90% the cement
is supposed to be fresh; if it is less than 90%, then cement should be avoided for use in
concrete.

Importance of cement fineness;

1. The fineness of cement affects hydration rate, and in turn, the strength. Increasing
fineness causes an increased rate of hydration, high strength, and high heat generation.
2. Bleeding can be reduced by increasing fineness. However, increased fineness can also
lead to the requirement of more water for workability, resulting in a higher possibility
of dry shrinkage.
3. The increased surface area-to-volume ratio will ensure a more available area for water-
cement interaction per unit volume.

Fineness of cement can be determined by two methods.   

1. By sieving.   

2. By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all particles in gm of
cement) by air permeability apparatus.

Standard consistency Test (IS: 4031- 1988 Part IV)       

The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit the
Vicat plunger to penetrate to a depth of  5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the mould. The
standard consistency of a cement paste is also called normal consistency. The parameter
standard consistency is used to find out the initial setting time, final setting time and soundness
of cement. 

Initial Setting and Final Testing Time Test: (IS: 4031-1988 Part V)        

[23]
Initial setting time of concrete is the time period between addition of water to cement till the
time at 1 mm square section needle fails to penetrate the cement paste, placed in the Vicat’s
mould 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the mould. Final setting time is that time period
between the time water is added to cement and the time at which 1 mm needle makes an
impression on the paste in the mould.

Initial setting time of should not be less than 30min and final setting time of cement should not
be greater than 600min.

Compressive strength of cement: (IS: 1489 Part II – 1991)       

Compressive strength of cement is determined from mortar cubes of size (7.07x7.07x 7.07) cm

and cement to M- sand ratio 1:3. The strength is obtained after 3, 7 and 28 days. The  strength
obtained on 28th day is called compressive strength of cement.

3.3 AGGREGATES  

Aggregates are those chemically inert materials which when bonded by cement paste form
concrete. Aggregates constitute the bulk of the total volume of concrete and hence they
influence the strength of concrete to a great extent. Aggregate is derived from igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or is manufactured from clays, slag etc. The properties of
concrete are directly related to those of its constituents and as such aggregate used, in a
concrete mix should be hard, strong, dense, and durable. And free from injurious amounts of
clay, loam, vegetable and other such foreign matter. The presence of deleterious substances
such as coal, lignite, clay lumps. Soft fragment of foreign materials and other deleterious
materials prevent proper adhesion of cement on the surface of aggregates and thus affect the
properties of concrete adversely. 

Depending upon their size, the aggregates are classified as:  

i. Fine aggregate 
ii. Coarse aggregate 

FINE AGGREGATE           

The material below 4.75mm size is termed as fine aggregate. The sum of percentage of all
types of deleterious materials in fine aggregate should not exceed 5% Natural sand or crushed
stone dust is the fine aggregate chiefly used in concrete mix. Manufactured sand (M-Sand) is a
substitute of river sand for concrete construction. Manufactured sand is produced from hard

[24]
granite stone by crushing. The crushed sand is of cubical shape with grounded edges, washed
and graded to as a construction material. The size of manufactured sand (M-Sand) is less than
4.75mm

Manufactured sand is an alternative for river sand. Due to fast growing construction industry,
the demand for sand has increased tremendously, causing deficiency of suitable river sand in
most part of the word.

Due to the depletion of good quality river sand for the use of construction, the use of
manufactured sand has been increased. Another reason for use of M-Sand is its availability and
transportation cost.

Since manufactured sand can be crushed from hard granite rocks, it can be readily available at
the nearby place, reducing the cost of transportation from far-off river sand bed.

Thus, the cost of construction can be controlled by the use of manufactured sand as an
alternative material for construction. The other advantage of using M-Sand is, it can be dust
free, the sizes of m-sand can be controlled easily so that it meets the required grading for the
given construction.

COARSE AGCREGATE

The material whose particles are of such size as are retained on I.S. sieve No 480(4.75 mm) is
termed as coarse aggregate. The size of the coarse aggregate depends upon the nature of work.
The maximum size may be 20mm for mass concrete, such as in dams etc. and 63mm for plain
concrete work. For R.C.C construction aggregate having a nominal size of 20mm are generally
considered satisfactory Crushed hard stone and gravel are the common materials used as
aggregates for structural concrete Coarse aggregates are usually obtained by crushing granite,
gneiss, crystalline limestone and good variety of sand stone etc. as far as possible flaky and
elongated pieces of stone should be avoided. Broken brick is cheap aggregate for plain
concrete but it renders the mix weak in strength. It is not used in R.C.C work on account of the
possibility of the reinforcement getting rusted due to the high porosity of the aggregate.
Clinker slag, coal ashes and coke-breeze are also used as aggregate for light weight and
insulating concrete where great strength not desired. Gravel (as obtained from pit or river) or
crushed stone contain high percentage of fine material and in this state it is only used for un-
reinforced work.  However, the sum of percentage of all type of deleterious substances in
coarse aggregate should not exceed 5%.

[25]
Grading Of Aggregates

This is one of the factors which will have maximum influence on workability. A well-
graded aggregate is the one which has the least amount of voids in a given volume. Other
factors being constant, when the total voids are less, the excess paste is available to give a
better lubricating effect. With an excess amount of paste, the mixture becomes cohesive and
fatty which prevents segregation of particles. Aggregate particles will slide past each other
with the least amount of compacting efforts. The better the grading, the less is the void content
and the higher the workability.

To make a strong, dense, Workable and impervious concrete the mixing of its
ingredients has to be such that cement used is sufficient to fill the voids in the fine aggregate
(sand) and mortar thus produced is sufficient to fill the voids in the coarse aggregates To
achieve this, the fine aggregates as well as the coarse aggregate should be graded suitably so
that the smaller particles can occupy the voids between the Large particles and hence the
percentage voids is reduced considerably. The reduction in void, results in corresponding
reduction in the quantity of mortar required filling the void in the coarse aggregates and hence
there is reduction in the quantity of cement required to make the concrete. Thus grading of
aggregates is also necessary to have the economy in the production of concrete.

The shape of Aggregates:

The shape of aggregates influences workability in good measures. Angular, elongated

or flaky aggregates makes the concrete very harsh when compared ro rounded aggregates or
cubical shaped aggregates. Contribution to better workability of rounded aggregate will come
from the fact that for the given volume or weight, it will have less surface area and fewer
voids than the angular of flaky aggregate. Not only that, being round in shape , the frictional
resistance is also greatly reduced. This explains the reason why river sand and gravel provise
greater workablty to concrete than crashed sand and aggregate.

have less surface area and fewer voids than the angular or flaky aggregate. Not only
that, being round in shape, the frictional resistance is also greatly reduced. This
explains the reason why river sand and gravel provide greater workability to concrete
than crushed sand and aggregate.

[26]
The importance of the shape of the aggregate will be of great significance in the case
of present-day high strength and high-performance concrete when we use very low
w/c in the order of about 0.25. We have already talked about that in the years to come
natural sand will be exhausted or costly. One has to go for manufactured sand. The
shape of crushed sand as available today is unsuitable but the modern crushers are
designed to yield well-shaped and well-graded aggregates.

Recycled Aggregate

Recycled aggregates are comprised of crushed, graded inorganic particles processed from the
materials that have been used in the construction and demolition debris. The aim of the project
is to determine the strength and durability characteristics of recycled aggregate with nano-silica
for application in structural concrete, which will give a better understanding in the properties
of concrete with recycled aggregates, as an alternative material to coarse aggregate in structural
concrete.

Recycling is the act of processing the used material for use in creating a new material. The
usage of natural aggregate is getting more and more intense with the advanced development in
infrastructure area. In order to reduce the usage of normal aggregates, recycled aggregates can
be used as the replacement materials.

These materials are generally from buildings, roads, bridges and sometimes even from
catastrophes, such as wars and earthquakes. Due to the critical shortage of natural aggregates,
the availability of demolished concrete for use as recycled concrete (RCA) is increasing.

[27]
Recycled aggregates are the materials for the future. The application of recycled aggregates has
been started and increased in many countries for construction projects.

Applications of Recycled Aggregates

Traditionally, the application of recycled aggregates is used as landfill. Nowadays, the

application of recycled aggregates in construction areas is wide. The applications are different
from country to country.

 Concrete kerbs
 Granular Base course
 Embankment fill materials
 Paving blocks
 Backfill materials
 Building blocks

In this investigation normal coarse aggregate was replaced by recycled aggregates by 40% by
total weight of normal coarse aggregates.

3.3.1 TESTS CONDUCTED ON AGGREGATES 

Sieve analysis (IS: 383- 1970)        

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used (commonly used in civil
engineering) to assess the particle size distribution (also called gradation) of a granular
material. The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material performs
in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of inorganic or organic granular
materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite, feldspars coal and soil, a wide range of
manufactured powders, grain and seeds, down to a minimum size depending on the exact
method. Being such a simple technique of particle sizing it is probably the most common
method. 

Fineness modulus       

Fineness modulus (FM) is used in determining the degree of uniformity of the aggregate
gradation. Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine the
aggregate is. It is an empirical number relating to the fineness of the aggregate. More fineness

[28]
modulus value indicates that the aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness modulus
indicates that the aggregate is finer.

FINE AGREGATE FINENESS MODULUS

Fine sand 2.2-2.6
Medium sand 2.6-2.9
Coarse sand 2.9-3.2

Generally sand having fineness modulus more than 3.2 is not used for making good
concrete. The higher the FM is the coarser the aggregate. 

Bulk Density (IS: 2386 Part III – 1963)

When dealing with aggregates it is important to know the voids that presents between the
aggregate particles, so that we decide whether to fill them with finer aggregate or with cement
paste. We all know that the Density we often deal with equal the mass divided by volume,
when using this law to measure the density of aggregates the volume we use is the volume of
aggregate + the volume of the voids, and, in this case we get a new quantity called the Bulk
Density.

Specific Gravity (IS: 2386 Part- III – 1963)

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or quality of the

material. The specific gravity test helps in the identification of stone. 

Bulking of Sand (IS 2386 Part-III – 1963)     

When dry sand comes in contact with moisture, thin film is formed around the particles, which
causes them to get apart from each other. This results in increasing the volume of sand. This
phenomenon is known as bulking of sand.

[29]
Table -3.2 Physical properties of cement (PPC) (IS 1489 Part-1 - 1991)

S.N
PROPERTY VALUE
O
1. Specific gravity 2.94
2. Fineness of cement by sieving 2%
3. Normal consistency 30
Setting time
Initial setting time 168 min
4.
Final setting time 284 min
Compressive strength
i. 3days 16.00 MPa
5. ii. 7days 26.00 MPa
iii. 28days 42.01 MPa

Table 3.3 Physical properties of fine aggregate: M-sand

S.NO PROPERTY Value

1 Grading of sand Zone II as per IS 383
2 Specific gravity 2.57
Bulk density
3 Loose state 1.77 g/cc
Compacted state 2.00 g/cc
4 Fineness modulus 2.80

Table 3.4 Sieve analysis of Fine aggregate: M-sand

Weight of sample taken = 1000gms

Weight Cumulative %
Sl. % Weight %
IS Sieve Retained Weight
No retained Passing
(g) retained
1 10mm 0 0 0 100
2 4.75mm 2.1 0.21 0.21 99.79
3 2.36mm 126.5 12.65 12.86 87.14

[30]
 4 1.18mm 240 24 36.86 63.14
5 600 µm 238.2 23.82 60.68 39.32
6 300 µm 266 26.6 87.28 12.72
7 150 µm 127.2 12.72 100 100
Fineness modulus = 2.98

With Reference to IS 383-1970 this M-sand confirms to Zone – II

Table 3.5 Sieve Analysis of Recycled Coarse Aggregate

Weight Cumulative %
% Weight
Sl. No IS Sieve Retained Weight % Passing
Retained
(Kg) Retained
1 80 mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
2 40 mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00
3 20 mm 292 14.6 14.6 85.4
4 10 mm 1704 85.2 99.8 0.2
5 4.75 mm 2 0.1 99.9 0.1
6 2.36 mm 0.23 0.1 100.00 0.00
7 1.18 mm 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00
8 600 µm 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00
9 300 µm 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00
10 150 µm 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00
Fineness Modulus = 7.14

Table 3.6 Physical properties of Recycled Coarse Aggregate

Sl. No PROPERTY VALUE

1 Specific gravity 2.74
Bulk density
2 Loose state 1.45 g/cc
Compacted state 1.60 g/cc
3 Fineness modulus 6.62
Water absorption
4 1. 20mm 1.02%

[31]
Table 3.7 Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

Cumulative
Weight Cumulative
Weight %
S.No. IS Sieve Retained % Weight
Retained Passing
(gm) Retained
(gm)
1 80mm 0 0 0 100
2 40mm 0 0 0 100
3 20mm 118.5 5.925 5.925 94.075
4 10mm 1881.5 94.075 100 0
5 4.75mm 0 0 100 0
6 2.36mm 0 0 100 0
7 1.18mm 0 0 100 0
8 0.6mm 0 0 100 0
9 0.3mm 0 0 100 0
10 0.15mm 0 0 100 0
Fineness modulus = 7.05925

Table 3.8 Physical properties of Coarse Aggregate

Sl. No PROPERTY VALUE

1 Specific gravity 2.82
Bulk density
2 Loose state 1.45 g/cc
Compacted state 1.60 g/cc
3 Fineness modulus 6.62
Water absorption
4 1. 20mm 0.81%
2. 10mm 0.78%
3.4WATER

Water plays a vital role during the life of concrete. First, water is always a component of fresh
concrete ---sometimes an excessive component. Second, water can be retained by concrete
(dams, pipes) or restrained by its (walls).and third; water can go into concrete but generally not

[32]
through it. The water is used in concrete plays an important part in the mixing, laying,
compaction setting and hardening of concrete. The strength of concrete directly depends on the
quantity and quality of water used in the mix. Combining water with a cementitious material
forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate
together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.

Clean portable water is used for mixing concrete. Water used for mixing and curing should be
clean and free from injurious amounts of oils ,acids , alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or
other substances that may be deleterious to concrete and steel.

Water is measured by volume and specified as number of liters per bag of cement. For a given
quantity of water to be mixed in concrete, adjustment should be made for the amount water
present in fine and coarse aggregate. The strength and workability of concrete depends on the
amount of water used.

Water to be used in concrete work should have the following properties:-

1. It should be free from injuries amounts of oils.

2. It should be free from injurious amounts of acids or alkalis or other such organic or
inorganic impurities
3. It should be free from iron, vegetable matter or any other substances which is likely to
have adverse effect on concrete and reinforcement.
4. It should be fit for drinking purposes
The functions of water in the concrete mix may be summarized as below:
1. It acts as lubricant for the fine and coarse aggregates.
2. It reacts chemically with cement to form the binding paste for the coarse    aggregate
and reinforcement. 
3. It is necessary to flux the cementing material over the surface of the aggregate.
4. It is employed to damp the aggregate in order to prevent them from absorbing water
vitally necessary for chemical action.
5. It enables the concrete mix to flow into mould. 

Water Cement Ratio      

The ratio of weight of cement to volume of water used in concrete mix is termed as water
cement ratio. As a result of experiments it is observed that for a given proportion of ingredients
in a concrete mix, there is almost a fixed amount of water (optimum) which gives maximum

[33]
strength. A small variation in the quantity of water causes much wider variation in the strength
of concrete. In case the water used is less, the resultant concrete will be comparatively dry,
difficult to place in position and may pose problems in compaction. Moreover, with less water
complete setting of cement cannot be ensured and hence the strength of concrete gets reduced
appreciably. On the other hand, in case the water used is more; it would result in formation of
excessive voids and honey-combing in the set concrete, thereby reducing its density, strength
and durability. Thus, water cement ratio serves as a yard stick for obtaining concrete of desired
strength.  The lower the water cement ratio greater is the strength of the mix. A rich mix of
concrete gives a higher strength than a lean mix, not because of more cement but it is on
account of the fact that concrete can be used with a lower water cement ratio.  

3.5 NANOSILICA

There are three different types of suspended Nanosilica gel containing different percentage of
active Nanosilica with 99.99% pure SiO2 . Specific gravity of each material varies from 1.08 to
1.32. Particle size of Nanosilica varies between 5-40 nm. The pH of the solution is between 9.3
and 10. The properties of different Nanosilica provided by the manufacturer are given in Table
3.7.

Table 3.9 Properties of Nanosilica

Notation of Nanosilica
XLP XTX XFX
gel
Active nano content
14.0-16.0 30.0-32.0 40.0-41.5
(%wt/wt)
Ph 9.3-9.6 9.0-10.0 9.4-10.4
Specific gravity 1.08-1.11 1.20-1.22 1.30-1.32

1. CemSynXLP is the smallest particle grade and is used to give good strength to concrete
and admixtures and faster setting.
2. CemSynXTX is medium particle Nanosilica which can be used as very good additive for
all kind of cementing and construction grouts and admixture. It is extensively used for
strengthening of study soil, for tunnels, dams, bridges, heavy construction etc..
3. CemSynXFX is large particle Nanosilica used specially for chlorides and sulphate
resistance and offering other properties related to CemSynXTX grade. This is used for
area and underground constructions which are exposed to chloride and sulphate or acid
environment which can be reduce the life of RCC.

[34]
In this present study, particle packing method has been use for mix design of RAC M35 grade
of normal strength concrete and nano modified concrete to optimize the mix design. Here we
are using NANOSILICA CEMSYNXLP. It is observed that the effect of nano material in
filling can’t be depicted correctly using the particle packing method. To know the optimum
quantity of nano material, more trail experimental have to be carried out. In the present study,
trail experiments conduct are very limited and further investigations will be carried out future
to arrive at a precise mix design procedure for nano modified concrete. However, the steps
followed for addition of Nanosilica gel in normal concrete are given in the following section:

Figure 3.1 Nanosilica

1. For filling the pores, Nanosilica has to be in solid form. Hence for calculation of silica
content only solid Nanosilica is taken while remaining liquid gel is subtracted from
water to be used in concrete.
2. Replaced solid Nanosilica is by 15% and 85% of water.
3. Remove the solid Nanosilica (NS) content from cement and liquid gel from water for
balancing mix.

The material has been produced from Bee chems, Kanpur, India

[35]
 CHAPTER-4

TESTS ON CONCRETE

4.1 TESTS ON FRESH CONCRETE

4.1.1 WORKABILITY

Workability is one of the physical parameter of concrete which affects the strength and
durability as well as the cost of labor and appearance of the finished product. It is the property
of concrete which determines the amount of useful internal work; necessary to produce full
compaction i.e. workability is the amount of energy to overcome Friction while compacting.
Also defined as the relative ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported, moulded and
compacted.

Concrete is said to be workable when it is easily placed and compacted homogeneously i.e.,
without bleeding or Segregation. Unworkable concrete needs more work or effort to be
compacted in place, also honeycombs or pockets may also be visible in finished concrete.

Definition of Workability

The property of fresh concrete which is indicated by the amount of useful internal work
required to fully compact the concrete without bleeding or segregation in the finished product.

4.1.2 SLUMP CONE TEST

A Slump test is a method used to determine the consistency of concrete. The consistency, or
stiffness, indicates how much water has been used in the mix. The stiffness of the concrete mix
should be matched to the requirements for the finished product quality.

The concrete slump test is used for the measurement of a property of fresh concrete. The test is
an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete more specifically, it measures
consistency between batches. The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and
simple procedure. The apparatus consists of frustum of a cone and is hollow at top and bottom.

This test is carried out with a metallic mould called slump cone whose top diameter is 10cm,
bottom diameter is 20cm and height is 30cm. before conducting test the internal surface of the

[36]
mould is thoroughly cleaned. Then mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal rigid non-
absorbent surface. The mould is then filled in three equal layers with prepared concrete. Each
layer is tamped 25 times by tamping rod. After the top layer has been rodded, the concrete is
struck off level with a trowel and tamping rod. The mould is removed from the concrete
immediately by raising it slowly and carefully in vertical direction. This allows the concrete to
subside. The subsidence is referred as slump of concrete. The difference in level between
height of the mould and that of the highest point of subsided concrete is measured, this
difference is measured in millimeter (mm) is taken as slump of concrete.

Figure 4.1 Slump cone test

4.1.3 COMPACTION FACTOR TEST

Compacting factor of fresh concrete is done to determine the workability of fresh concrete by
compacting factor test as per IS: 1199 – 1959. The compacting factor test works on the
principle of determining degree of compaction achieved by a standard amount of work done by
allowing the concrete to fall through a standard height. The degree of compaction called the
compacting factor is measured by the density ration. The ratio of the density actually achieved
in the test to density of same concrete fully compacted.

The sample of concrete to be tested is placed in the upper hopper up to the brim. The trap door
is opened so that concrete falls into lower hopper. Then the trap door of the lower hopper is
opened and the concrete is allowed to fall in the cylinder. Then measure the weight of the
cylinder which is known as “weight of partially compacted concrete”. The cylinder is emptied
and then refilled with the concrete from the same sample in three equal layers. The layers are
heavily rammed to obtain full compaction. This weight is known as “weight of partially
compacted concrete”. Compacting factor is the ratio of “weight of partially compacted
concrete” to “weight of partially compacted concrete”.

[37]
 (Weight of partially compacted concrete )
Compaction factor =
(Weight of fully compacted concrete)

Table 4.1 slump cone and compaction factor values

Grade of concrete Slump cone value (mm) Compaction factor

RAC M35 30 0.80

4.1.4 MIXING OF CONCRETE

Concrete was mixed in a tilting type concrete mixer. The mixer was hand loaded with coarse
aggregate first, then with fine aggregate and with cement. During the rotation of the mixer,
water and admixture were added to the ingredients inside. The rotation was continued up to
minutes. The mixer was tilted and the concrete was unloaded one clean platform.

4.1.5 CASTING OF SPECIMENS

Casting is a manufacturing process by which concrete material is usually poured into a mould,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and the allowed to solidify. Each mould is
provided with a metal base plate having a plane surface. The base plate is of such dimension as
to support the mould during the filling without leakage and it is preferably attached to the
mould by springs or screws. In assembling the mould for use, the joints between the sections of
the mould are thinly coated with lubricating oil and a similar coating is applied between the
contact surface of the bottom of the mould and the base plate in order to ensure that no water
escapes during the filling. The interior surface of the assembled mould is also required to be
thinly coated with oil to prevent adhesion of concrete

Figure 4.2 Casting of specimens

[38]
In the present research, the compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of
the test specimens were evaluated. Ingredients for the design mix M35 was mixed. The cement
used was Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC). The coarse aggregate used was crushed stone
passing IS 20mm sieve, retained on IS 10mm sieve and passing IS 10mm sieve, retained on IS
4.75mm sieve and recycled aggregates of passing IS 20mm sieve, retained on IS 10mm.is also
used The fine aggregate used was M- sand conforming to zone II of IS 383-1970. The mould
is placed on a level platform. The well mixed concrete is filled in to the mould by vibration
with table vibrator. Excess concrete was removed with trowel and top surface is finished level
and smooth as per IS: 516-1959. The casting of test specimens is shown in Figure 4.2.

CASTING OF CUBES

To study the compressive strength, of concrete, 9 cubes of (150mm x 150mm x 150mm) size
were cast for each batch of concrete mix. Oil was applied to the cube mould and is filled with
concrete. The concrete filled cube moulds was placed on table vibrator and are vibrated for 1
minute. After the compaction was completed, excess concrete was removed with trowel and
the top surface is leveled.

Figure 4.3 Casting of cubes

CASTING OF CYLINDERS

To study the split tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity of concrete, 12 cylinders of
150mm (diameter and 300mm height) size were cast for each batch of concrete mix. Oil was
applied to the cylinder mould and is filled with concrete. The concrete filled cylinder mould
was placed on table vibrator and is vibrated for 1 minute. After the compaction was completed,
excess concrete was removed with trowel and the top surface is leveled.

[39]
 Figure 4.4 Casting of cylinders

CASTING OF PRISMS

To study the split tensile strength of concrete, 9 prisms of (500mm x 100mm x 100mm) size
were cast for each batch of concrete mix. Oil was applied to the prism mould and filled
concrete. The concrete filled prism moulds was placed on table vibrator and are vibrated for
1 minute. After the compaction was completed, excess concrete was removed with trowel and
the top surface is leveled.

Figure 4.5 Casting of prisms

4.1.6 CURING OF SPECIMENS

Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from concrete to ensure
and uninterrupted hydration of Portland cement after concrete has been placed and finished in
its final position. Curing also ensures to maintain an adequate temperature of concrete in its
early ages, as this directly affects the rate of hydration of cement. Curing of concrete must
begin as soon as possible after placement & finishing and must continue for reasonable period
of time as per the relevant standards, for the concrete to achieve its desired strength and

[40]
durability. Uniform temperature should also be maintained throughout the concrete depth to
avoid thermal shrinkage cracks. Also measures to control moisture loss from the concrete
surface are essential to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks.

STANDARD CURING

The specimens are left in the mould undisturbed at room temperature for about 24 hours after
casting. The specimens are then removed from the mould and immediately transferred to the
curing pond containing clean and fresh water and cured for required period as per IS:516-1959.

The cubes, cylinders and prisms were demolded after 24 hours of casting. These specimens
were cured in a water tank. After curing of the specimens in water for a period of 3,7,28 days
the specimens were taken out and allowed to dry under shade.

4.2 TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE

4.2.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: (IS: 516-1959)

Figure 4.6 Compressive strength on cube

The test set up for conducting cube compressive strength test is depicted in Figure 4.6.
Compressive test on the cubes is conducted on the 300T compressive testing machine. The

[41]
cube was placed in the compression testing machine and the load on the cube is applied at a
rate of 140kg/cm2/min up to the failure of the specimen and the ultimate load is noted. The
cube compressive strength of the concrete mix is then computed. A sample calculation for
determination of cube compressive strength is presented in appendix. This test has been carried
out on the cube specimens at 3,7,28 Days age.

P
Compressive strength=
A

Where, P = Compressive load at failure in kn.

A = cross sectional area of the cube (150mm x 150mm).

4.2.2 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH: (IS: 5816-1999)

This test is conducted on 300T compression testing machine as shown in Figure 4.7. The
cylinders prepared for testing are 150mm in diameter and 300mm height. Diametrical lines are
drawn on the two ends, such that they are in the same axial plane. Then the cylinder is placed
on the bottom compressive plate of the testing machine and is aligned such that the lines
marked on the ends of the specimen are vertical. Then the top compression plate is brought
into contact at the top of the cylinder. The load is applied at uniform rate, until the cylinder
fails and the load is recorded. From this load, the splitting tensile strength is calculated for each
specimen. A sample calculation for computation of split tensile strength is presented in
appendix. In the present work this test has been conducted on cylinder specimens after 3,7,28
days of curing.

2P
f cr =
ΠDL

Where P = Split tensile load

D = Diameter of the specimen (150 mm)

L = Length of the specimen (300 mm)

[42]
 Figure 4.7 Split Tensile Strength on cylindrical specimen

4.2.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH TEST: (IS 516-1959).

This test is conducted on 10T Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The loading arrangement to
test the concrete beam specimens for flexure is shown in Figure 4.8. The beam element is
simply supported on two steel rollers of 38mm in diameter these rollers should be so mounted
that the distance from center to center is 400mm for 10cm specimens. The load is divided
equally between the two loading rollers and all rollers are mounted in such a manner that the
load is applied to the upper most surface as cast in the mould, along two lines spaced 13.3cm
apart. The axis of the specimen is carefully aligned with the axis of the loading device. No
packing is used between the bearing surfaces of the specimen and the rollers. The load is
applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate such that the extreme fiber stress
increases at a rate of 180kg/min for the 10 cm specimens. The load is increased until the
specimen fails, and the maximum load applied to the specimen during the test is recorded. Also
the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support is measured. The sample
calculation for computing flexural strength is presented in Appendix-III(C). In the present
investigation this test has been conducted on beam specimens after 3, 7, 28 days of curing.

[43]
 PL
f b= ( when crack lengthis greater than 13.33 cm)
b d2

3 Pa
f b= (whencrack length is between 13.33∧11.0 cm)
b d2

Where P = Flexural load

L = Support length of the specimen

b = Measured width of the specimen

d = Measured depth of the specimen

a = distance from support to tensile crack

Figure 4.8 Flexural strength on prism

4.3 TESTS FOR DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

4.3.1. ACID ATTACK

After proper water curing the specimens (cubes, cylinders and beams) were exposed to dilute
Sulphuric acid of 0.1% and 0.3% concentrations. The strength of acid was measured at regular
intervals and the depleted acid was replenished. For measuring the strength of acid volumetric
analysis was used.

[44]
4.3.1.1 Procedure for volumetric analysis

To estimate the strength of H2SO4 acid present in the sample, Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was
used as a base in the analysis. Methyl Orange was used as an indicator, which changes from
pink in acid medium to pale yellow color in alkaline medium. The strength of Sodium
hydroxide selected was approximately in the order of the strength of the H 2SO4 acid. The
strength of hydroxide was determined by using the standard Sulphuric acid (for H 2SO4) and
methyl orange as an indicator.

Let the normality of base be N 1. 20ml of Sulphuric acid was taken into a conical flask and two
drops of indicator was added. Sodium hydroxide was added to this solution drop by drop till
the pale yellow color just formed. Let sodium hydroxide consumed is Vb ml. Then

Normality of Sulphuric Acid (N2) = N1 x Vb / 20

4.3.2 Permeability Test on Concrete(IS 3085:1965)

Permeability characteristic of concrete plays an important role for the durability. The test was
performed to evaluate the Permeability characteristics of normal concrete and concrete with
nano silica.

Figure 4.9 Permeability apparatus

[45]
4.3.2.1 Test Specimens

Test specimens for Permeability test were 100mm × 100mm cylinders of recycled concrete and
concrete with Nanosilica. 3 specimens for each mix were prepared and test was conducted on
Permeability test apparatus.

4.3.2.2 Test Procedure

Already cast Cylinders of size (Radius 50mm and height 100mm) were placed in the
permeability moulds and sides of the mould were sealed with the sealant and top plate was
fixed and the reservoir was filled with water up to of its height. Then the pressure was applied
by means of a pressure pump. Water pressure of 10kg/cm 2for the duration of 100h is applied
and when study flow is attained, discharge water from outlet was collected and measured for
the duration of test.

K = Q/{A.T.(H/L)

K = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec

Q = quantity of water in milliliters percolating over the entire period of test after the steady
state has been reached.

A = Area of the specimen face in cm2

T = time in seconds over which Q is measured

H/L = ratio of the pressure head to thickness of specimen, both expressed in the same units.

4.4 X-ray Diffraction Test (XRD)

X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical technique primarily used for phase
identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell dimensions.
This is now a common technique for the study of crystal structures and atomic spacing. X-ray
diffraction is based on constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays passing through a
crystalline sample. These X-rays are generated by a cathode ray tube, filtered to produce
monochromatic radiations, collimated to concentrate, and directed towards a sample. The
diffraction of X-rays by crystal planes allows one to derive lattice spacing by using the Bragg’s
law shown in Figure 4.10

[46]
 Figure 4.10 Bragg’s Law
nλ = 2 d sinθ

Where, n is an integer called the order of reflection, λ is the wavelength of X-rays, d is the
characteristic spacing between the crystal planes of a given specimen and θ is the angle
between incident beam and the normal to the reflecting lattice plane. By measuring the angles,
θ, under which the constructively interfering X-rays leave the crystal, the interplanar spacing,
of every single crystallographic phase can be determined. This law relates the wavelength of
electromagnetic radiation to the diffraction angle and the lattice spacing in a crystalline
sample. These diffracted X-rays are then detected, processed and counted. By scanning the
sample through a range of 2θangles, all possible diffraction directions of the lattice should be
attained due to the random orientation of the powdered material. Conversion of the diffraction
peaks to d- spacings allows identification of the mineral because each mineral has a set of
unique d-spacings. Typically, this is achieved by comparison of d-spacing with standard
reference patterns. In order to identify an unknown substance, the powder diffraction pattern is
recorded with the help of camera or a diffractometer and a list of d values and the relative
intensities of the diffraction lines is prepared. These data are compared with the standard line
patterns available for the various compounds in the Powder Diffraction File (PDF) database.
This file is released annually and is updated by the International Centre for Diffraction Data
(ICDD). It contains line patterns of more than 60,000 different crystallographic phases.
Basic principle and working of the instrument:
A schematic diagram of an X-ray diffractometer used for qualitative and quantitative analysis
of materials is shown in the Figure 4.11 From the figure it is evident that a diffractometer is

[47]
primarily made up of a compact X-ray protected housing, called goniometer, a high voltage
transformer for X-ray tubes with filters, a highly stable X- ray generator, a detector, and a data
processing system.

Figure 4.11 Schematic x-ray diffractometer

The X-ray tubes may have a different radiation targets like Mo, Cu, Co, Fe, Cr and W with
different Kβ filters like Zr for Mo, Ni for Cu, Fe for Co, Mn for Fe and V for Cr. The tubes can
be of normal, broad or long fine focus type. Depending on the target and nature of focus the
maximum load of X-ray tubes generally varies from 1 to 3 kW while the tube voltage and
current are mostly in the range of 0-60 kV and 0-80 mA, respectively. Primary beam
monochromators made of quartz to remove undesirable radiations and secondary
monochromators made up of LiF flat crystals, or more extensively bent graphite crystal
adjusted for Cr, Co, Fe, Cu or Mo-Kα radiation in order to eliminate fluorescent radiations
from the samples are used in the incident and diffracted beam paths, respectively, along with
different slits (fixed, variable and roller types). X-ray diffractometers consist of three basic
elements: an X-ray tube, a sample holder, and an X-ray detector.
X-rays are generated in a cathode ray tube by heating a filament to produce electrons,
accelerating the electrons toward a target by applying a voltage, and bombarding the target
material with electrons. When electrons have sufficient energy to dislodge inner shell electrons
of the target material, characteristic X-ray spectra are produced. These spectra consist of
several components, the most common being Kα and Kβ. Kα consists, in part, of Kα1 and Kα2.
Kα1 has a slightly shorter wavelength and twice the intensity as Kα2. The specific wavelengths
are characteristic of the target material (Cu, Fe, Mo, Cr). Filtering, by foils or crystal
monochromators, is required to produce monochromatic X-rays needed for diffraction. Kα1 and
Kα2 are sufficiently close in wavelength such that a weighted average of the two is used.

[48]
Copper is the most common target material for single-crystal diffraction, with CuKα radiation =
1.5418Å. These X- rays are collimated and directed onto the sample. As the sample and
detector are rotated, the intensity of the reflected X-rays is recorded. When the geometry of the
incident X- rays impinging the sample satisfies the Bragg Equation, constructive interference
occurs and a peak in intensity occurs. A detector records and processes this X-ray signal and
converts the signal to a count rate which is then output to a device such as a printer or
computer monitor.
The geometry of an X-ray diffractometer is such that the sample rotates in the path of the
collimated X-ray beam at an angle θ while the X-ray detector is mounted on an arm to collect
the diffracted X-rays and rotates at an angle of 2θ. The instrument used to maintain the angle
and rotate the sample is termed a goniometer. For typical powder patterns, data is collected at
2θ from ~5° to 70°, angles that are preset in the X-ray scan.

4.4.1 Procedure of conducting the XRD Analysis:

The concrete sample which are to be tested are crushed by hammer and are sieved through 90
microns sieve. This powdered sample was taken for the test in Powdered XRD Laboratory in
Department of chemistry, IIT Madras, Chennai. The sample is filled in the slit provided for the
test. The green ”door open ” button on the right hand side of the XRD instrument was pressed.
The handles were gently pulled and the doors were slide opened. The sample is then installed
by holding it in place with one hand and with the other the stage is pressed up until it locks.
The slits in the ‘anti-scattering’ and ‘detector’ positions are verified.
On computer ‘XRD commander’ is expanded and the power is raised if necessary. There were
<shutter> and <X-ray> buttons to open and close the shutter or turn on and off the X-rays were
present in the left hand side of the window in XRD commander. The indicator to the right of
the buttons gives the status of the shutter and X-ray. When the shutter light is green , the
shutter is closed and the enclosure doors can be opened.
In XRD commander the jobs tab at the bottom of the page is selected. ‘Create Job ‘ icon on the
tool bar is selected. Then you have start scan. Scan is observed in the adjust tab. Data will be
automatically saved. Sample is removed, when the scan is completed. Do not yank on, pull on
or apply any force or torque to the sample stage pressure unit. Data can be found out in the
‘short-cut scans ‘file on the desktop when it is finished. Remember to remove the sample and
close the doors when your scan has been completed.

[49]
 Figure 4.12 XRD instrument IIT Madras
Diffraction effects are observed when electromagnetic radiation impinges on periodic
structures with geometrical variations on the length scale of the wavelength of the radiation.
The interatomic distances in crystals and molecular amount to 0.15-0.4nm which corresponds
in the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelength of X-rays having photon energies between 3
to 8keV. Accordingly, phenomena like constructive and destructive interference should
become observable when crystalline and molecular structures are exposed to the X-rays.
X-Rays are having wavelength between 0.01nm to 10nm. Hence X-Rays can penetrate
inside the crystal structure of any material very easily; and tells us the properties of
material while coming out from that material. Which is why X-Ray spectroscopy is very
useful technique for characterization of different types of materials? We can easily
calculate the size of particles from Scherrer formula given:

Scherrer Formula:

Dp = (0.94 Χ λ) / (β Χ Cosθ)

Where, Dp = Average Crystallite size, β = Line broadening in radians(FWHM),

θ = Bragg angle, λ = X-Ray wavelength

[50]
4.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis:
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) instrument shown in Figure 4.10, uses a focused
beam of high energy electrons to generate a variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens.
The signals that derive from electron-sample interaction reveal information about the sample
including external morphology (texture), chemical composition, crystalline structure and
orientation of materials making up the sample. In most applications, data are collected over a
selected area of the surface of the sample and a 2-D image is generated that displays special
variations in these properties. Areas ranging from approximately 1cm to 5 microns in width
can be imaged in a scanning mode using conventional SEM techniques (magnification ranging
from 20X to 30,000X, spatial resolution of 50 to 100nm). The SEM is also capable of
performing analysis of selected point locations on the sample; this approach is especially
useful in qualitatively or semi-qualitatively determining chemical compositions (using EDS).
The design and function of SEM is very similar to the EPMA and considerable overlap in
capabilities exists between the two instruments.

[51]
 Figure 4.13 Scanning Electron Microscopy instrument ,IIT Madras

The concrete sample which are to be tested are crushed by hammer and are sieved through 90
microns sieve. The test was done in SEM Laboratory in Department of chemistry, IIT Madras,
Chennai .The sample is mounted on one of a number of sample mounts. The simplest mount is
the pin mount made of Aluminium. They have a “Hummer VI” sputter deposition system for
coating the sample. It has a gold target and a sputter deposition rate of about 38
Angstroms/minute. Thus about 1.0-1.5 minutes of sputtering will apply enough metal to
conduct the SEM electrons to ground and prevent charging without noticeably altering the
topography of your substrate. The next few steps of preparing the SEM for sample loading and
image acquisition require commands from the software.
The SEM user interface is spread across two monitors. The row of icons at the bottom of the
screen has commands allowing us to measure or label things on the image. The SEM image
appears in the large region in the centre. Now that the sample is prepared and mounted on the
SEM sample mount, there is a vent to load it. The stage table has a stainless steel disk at the
centre of the copper table that has a bevel on its rim that fits the reverse bevel over this disk

[52]
until it docks against the cross bar on the top of the SEM stage table. After the sample is
properly mounted on the SEM stage and inspected, gently close the chamber door.
The stage movement is controlled manually by a dual joystick desk console. Left joystick
controls the Z-axis movement and the stage tilt angle, and the right joystick controls the X, Y
motion and the stage rotation. The SEM keyboard has a number of knobs and buttons to give
the operator analogue- like control of SEM parameters. The large kob on the left is
magnification and the large knob on the right is for focus. The two knobs on the upper right are
for brightness and contrast. And the two knobs on the upper left are stigmators.
To know information from the topography of a sample, you should consider the penetration
depth of the probe electrons. As electrons enter the sample surface, they penetrate into the
body of the material a distance depending on several parameters, chiefly the energy of the
electron itself and the material. The deeper they penetrate, the less surface information is
contained in the image and the more material parameter information they convey. The standard
SEM image is generated by ‘Secondary Electron Emission from the substrate. These are low
energy electrons (less than 50eV) produced both by the primary electron beam and
backscattered electrons. However, while the primary electron beam can penetrate the substrate
by several or many microns, the escape depth for the secondary electrons is only on the order
of tens or hundreds of Angstroms.

[53]
TESTS CONDUCTED ON HARDENED CONCRETE
The tests conducted on the hardened concrete in this project are shown in the form of Flow
chart.

Figure 4.14 Diagrammatic representations of tests conducted on hardened concrete

[54]
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In this chapter results based on the experimental work are presented in the form of tables and
graphs and are discussed. The results include compressive strength, split tensile strength,
flexural strength, permeability, acid attack, SEM and XRD analysis.

5.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE OF RAC M35

After mix of m35 grade of concrete the specimens are socked in a curing tank. Compressive
strength of the specimen of 3,7,28 days after the specimen are kept in the curing tank were
tested using compression machine.

Table 5.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete

Average Compressive strength(N/mm2) of RAC M35

Sample No 3 days 7 days 28 days

1 15.11 23.1

2 14.88. 23.1

3 15.55 24

Average 15.18 23.4

[55]
 RAC M35
50
44.8
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

45
40
35
30
25 22.3 RAC M35
20
15
10
5
0
3 DAYS 7 DAYS 28 DAYS

Age of Concrete(days)

Figure 5.4 Compressive strength of RAC M35

5.5 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE OF RAC M35

Table 5.5 Split Tensile Strength of Concrete

Average Split Tensile Strength(N/mm2)of RAC M35

Sample No 3 days 7 days 28 days
1 1.13 1.98
2 1.273 1.84
3 1.556 1.98
Average 1.32 1.93

[56]
 RAC M35
3
Split Tensile Strength(N/mm2)

2.5 2.4

2
2 1.8

1.5 RAC M35

0.5

0
3 DAYS 7 DAYS 28 DAYS

Age of Concrete

Figure 5.5 Split tensile strength of RAC M35

5.6 FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE OF RAC M35

Table 5.6 Flexural Strength of Concrete

Average Flexural Strength(N/mm2)of RAC M35

Sample No 3 days 7 days 28 days
1 4.4 5.8 8.2
2 4.4 5.1 7.6
3 4.5 5.9 6.1
Average 4.4 5.6 7.3

[57]
 RAC M35
8
7.3
Flexural Strength(N/mm2)

6 5.6

5 4.4
4 RAC M35
3

0
3 DAYS 7 DAYS 28 DAYS

Age of Concrete(days)

Figure 5.6 Flexural strength of RAC M35

5.7 ACID EXPOSURE

After proper water curing for 28 days the specimens (cubes 100mm x 100mm)were exposed to
dilute Sulphuric acid of 0.1% and 0.3% concentrations. The strength of acid was measured at
regular intervals and the depleted acid was replenished.

5.7.1 Acid attack of RAC M35 grade concrete of 0.1% H2S04

Table 5.7.3 Acid attack of RAC M35 grade concrete of 0.1% H2S04

Sl. Age Weight of Weight of cube Weight Average Compressive Average Age
NO (days) cube after removal reduction % weight strength Compressive
before from acid tank (%) reduction (N/mm2) strength
immersion (0.1% of (N/mm2)
(g) H2SO4)

[58]
 (g)
1 2632 2605 1.03 40.00
2 2622 2599 0.88 1.15 41.00 40.67
3 14 2672 2631 1.53 41.00
4 2672 2636 1.35 41.50
5 2798 2736 2.22 2.06 39.50 39.50
6 28 2684 2614 2.61 38.00
7 2634 2588 1.75 36.00
8 2666 2600 2.48 2.22 37.00 36.00
9 42 2732 2665 2.45 35.00
10 2676 2600 2.84 35.00
11 2738 2674 2.34 2.72 33.50 34.50
12 56 2622 2544 2.97 33.00

Weight loss for 0.1 % H2SO4

3
2.72
2.5
2.22
% of weight loss

2.06
2

1.5
1.15
1

0.5

0
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 42 DAYS 56 DAYS

Period of exposure(days)

Figure 5.11 weight loss due to 0.1% of H2SO4 solution on RAC M35

[59]
 Residual compressive strength 0.1 % H2SO4
42
40.67
40 39.5
Residual compressive

38
strength(N/mm2)

36.5
36
34.5
34

32

30
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 42 DAYS 56 DAYS

Period of exposure(days)

Figure 5.12 Residual compressive strength of 0.1% H2SO4 solution RAC M35

5.7.4 Acid attack of RAC M35 grade concrete of 0.3% H2S04

Table 5.7.4 Acid attack of RAC M35 grade concrete of 0.3% H2S04

Sl. Age Weight of Weight of cube Weight Average Compressive Average Age
NO (days) cube after removal reduction % weight strength Compressive
before from acid tank (%) reduction (N/mm2) strength
immersion (0.3% of (N/mm2)
(g) H2SO4)
(g)
1 2718 2685 1.21 39.50
2 2730 2709 0.77 1.23 40.00 39.50
3 14 2656 2611 1.69 39.00
4 2618 2586 1.22 38.00
5 2716 2656 2.21 1.93 37.00 37.17
6 28 2718 2654 2.35 36.50
7 2718 2600 2.40 35.00
8 2664 2604 2.54 2.58 36.00 35.00
9 42 2672 2615 2.79 34.00
10 2676 2588 3.29 3.1 34.00 32.50
11 2738 2624 4.16 32.50

[60]
12 2622 2569 2.02 31.00
56

Weight loss for 0.3% H2SO4

3.5
3.16
3
2.58
% of weight loss

2.5

2 1.93

1.5
1.23
1

0.5

0
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 42 DAYS 56 DAYS

Period of exposure(days)

Figure 5.13 weight loss due to 0.3% of H2SO4 solution on RAC M35

[61]
 Residual compressive strength 0.3% H2SO4
45
39.5
40 37.17
35
35
Residual compressive

32.5
30
strength(N/mm2)

25
20
15
10
5
0
14 DAYS 28 DAYS 42 DAYS 56 DAYS

Period of exposure(days)

Figure 5.14 Residual compressive strength of 0.3% H2SO4 solution RAC M35

5.8 PERMEABILITY TEST ON CONCRETE OF RAC M35

Table 5.8.1 Permeability of Concrete: (RAC M35)

Grade of concrete RAC M35 Drained water Coefficient of Permeability

(ml) ( cm/sec)

26 9.2x10-7
Sample 1
Sample 2 25 8.84x10-7
Sample 3 24 8.49x10-7
Average 25 8.84x10-7

To determine the quality of concrete, comparing with standard classification of concrete

according to Instruction and Maintenance Manual of GWT

[62]
Table 5.8.2.Standard classification of concrete (GWT):

Coefficient of permeability

(mm/sec) Quality of concrete

0-1x10-3 High permeable concrete

1x10-3 – 1x10-5 Average permeable concrete

1x10-5 – 1x10-6 Low permeable concrete

1x10-6 – 1x10-7 High impermeable concrete

1x10-7 – 1x10-9 Higher impermeable concrete

RAC M35

8.84x10-7 cm/sec i.e. multiplied by 10 for mm/sec = 8.84x10-6

The permeability of RACM35 concrete comes under the Average permeable concrete due to
involvement of Nanosilica in concrete improved the concrete by filling pores and voids

5.9 X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS

5.9.1 X-ray diffraction for RAC M35

After the powder analysis done the obtained raw data file is converted into xrdml format by
PowDLL software and the file was analyzed in Xpert high score software

[63]
Counts
MRAC35
Calcite
Wollastonite-2\ITM\RG
Tilleyite
Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide
6000
Boggsite

4000

2000

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Position [°2Theta]

Figure 5.17 Graph obtained from Xpert high score software for RAC M35

Matched chemical compounds in Xpert high score

Visible Ref. Code Score Compound Displacemen Scale Factor Chemical

Name t [°2Th.] Formula
* 00-024-0027 40 Calcite -0.001 0.196 Ca CO3
* 00-027-0088 27 Wollastonite -0.070 0.208 Ca SiO3
-2\ITM\RG
* 00-025-0159 24 Tilleyite -0.015 0.082 Ca5 Si2 O7
( C O 3 )2
* 00-032-0151 12 Calcium 0.091 0.027 Ca3 Al2 ( Si
Aluminum O4 ) ( O H ) 8
Silicate
Hydroxide
* 00-042-1379 14 Boggsite 0.042 0.095 Na3.7 Ca7.4
Al18.5 Si77.5
O192 !74 H2
O

[64]
 Figure 5.18 Graph 2θ degree vs. heights RAC M35

Table 5.9.2 compounds and its 2θ degree for RAC M35

Height
Compound Name Pos.[°2h]
(Counts)

Calcite ((CaCO3)) 39.5449 432.94

Wollastonite ((Ca SiO3 )) 26.7022 4383.09
Tilleyite ((Ca5Si2O7 (CO3)) 25.7658 349.54
Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide 35.7899 560.56
( ( Ca3 Al2( Si O4) (O H )8 )

Boggsite( (Na3.7 Ca7.4 Al18.5 Si77.5 O192 !74H2O)) 39.5449 432.94

Crystallite Size Determination:

[65]
Crystallite size generally corresponds to the coherent volume in the material for the respective
diffraction peak. Sometimes, it also corresponds to the size of the grains of a powder sample,
or thickness of polycrystalline thin film or bulk material. The Scherrer's equation is used for
determination of size of particles of crystals in the form of powder, which can be represented
as follows

Scherrer’s Formula:

Dp = (0.94 Χ λ) / (β Χ Cosθ)

Where, Dp = Average Crystallite size, β = Line broadening in radians, θ = Bragg angle, λ = X-

Ray wavelength

Table 5.9.3 compound and its crystallite size RAC M35

FWHM Crystallite
Compound Name Pos.[°2h] size(nm) Dp
[°2h]

Calcite ((CaCO3)) 39.5449 0.1004 87.86

Wollastonite ((Ca SiO3 )) 26.7022 0.1338 63.76

Tilleyite ((Ca5Si2O7 (CO3)) 25.7658 0.1004 84.81

Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide 35.7899 0.1004 86.88

( ( Ca3 Al2( Si O4) (O H )8 )

Boggsite( (Na3.7 Ca7.4 Al18.5 Si77.5 O192 !74H2O)) 39.5449 0.1338 65.93

Quartz:

Less soluble but still a major component of space filling hydrate

Calcite:

The late or delayed ettringite formation from monosulfate under the combined action of CO2
and water. the monosulfate is decomposed by carbonation to form CaCO3

Tilleyite:

Anhydrous mineral (–silicate –carbonate mineral) occurs in the presence of nano silica

[66]
Ye'elimite:

it is naturally occurring form of calcium sulfoaluminate, Ca4(AlO2)6SO3.On hydration in the

presence of calcium and sulfate ions, it forms the insoluble, fibrous mineral ettringite, which
provides the strength in sulfoaluminate concretes, and/or monosulfoaluminate, and aluminium
hydroxide.

Margarite:

It is clay mineral rarely belongs to mica group it occurs due to special compositional or
physical condition of formation.

Boggsite:

it is a zeolite group which belongs to Pozzolanic in nature it delivers the better performance in
mechanical properties of concrete

Calcium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide:

It is formed due to C-S-H reaction in concrete paste or cement paste.

Wollastonite:

Wollastonite is a naturally occurring mineral known as calcium metasilicate (CaSio3). It

contains silica which reacts with water to form calcium-silicate-hydrate (CSH). CSH is also
responsible for imparting strength to cemented material when Portland cement hydrates

5.10 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE- IMAGES

5.10.2 SEM RAC 35

[67]
 WOLLASTONITE

Figure 5.20 Scanning electron microscopy of RAC M35 at 5 µm

CALCIUM ALUMINUM
SILICATE HYDROXIDE

Figure 5.21 Scanning electron microscopy of RAC M35 10 µm

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY

[68]
6.1CONCLUSIONS

A study was done on 60% use of recycled concrete with 1.5% partial replacement of
Nanosilica by weight of cement, Compressive strength, Split tensile strength, Flexural strength,
effect of acid on concrete, Permeability test, SEM images and XRD analysis were conducted.

Based on the test results, the following conclusions were drawn:

1. Compressive strength at the age of 28 days was increased by 5% and 3% to its target
strength of RAC M30 and RAC M35 grades respectively due to influence of Nanosilica
2. There is a lean variation in split tensile strength and flexural strength of RAC M30 and
RAC M35 at 3, 7 and 28 days curing.
3. There is weight loss due to acid exposure for 14, 28, 42 and 56 days for both the grades
in 0.1% and 0.3 % of H2SO4
4. There is gradual reduction of compressive strength in 42 and 56 days of acid exposure
of 0.1% and 0.3 % of H2SO4 in both the grades.
5. Coefficient of permeability obtained of RAC M30 and RAC M35 and comparing it
to standard quality of concrete (GWT) was found low permeable concrete were
Nanosilica reduced the flow of water in the concrete.
6. Under the scanning electron microscopy the voids and pores were filled by Nanosilica
to some extent is shown and transition zone is also observed.
7. In xrd analysis two theta values was found for matched compounds and its crystallite
size was derived. Concrete exposure to aggressive environment condition and cyclic
loading effect the crystal growth and leads to cracks and deterioration of concrete starts.

6.2 SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY

[69]
 Further studies on durability properties may be carried out.

1. Studies on strength characteristics of concrete using different types of curing

compounds can be done.
2. Studies on replacement of fine aggregate with different types of industrial wastes can
be done.
3. Studies on replacement of cement with fly ash, silica fume and pond ash can be done.
4. Studies on Steel fibers with recycled aggregate can be added
5. Studies on geopolymer concrete with recycled aggregates can be done.

REFERENCE

[70]
 1. Alireza Naji Givi, Surya Abdul Rashid, Farah Nora A. Aziz and Mohamad Amra Mohd
Salleh (2010). Experimental investigation of the size effects of SiO 2 nanoparticles on the
mechanical properties of binary blended concrete. Composites: Part B 41, 673-677.
2. Said A.M, Zeidan M.S, Bassuomi M.T and Tian.Y(2012). Properties of concrete
incorporating nanosilica. Construction and Building Materials 36, 838-844.
3. Byung-Wan Jo, Chang-Hyun Kim, Ghi-ho Tae and Jang-Bin Park. (2007).
Characteristics of cement mortar with nanosilica particles. Construction and Building
Materials 21, 1351-1355.
4. Surya Abdul Rashid, S. A, and Givi, A. N. (2011). The effect of lime solution on the
properties of SiO2 nanoparticles binary blended concrete. Composites (Part B) Vol. 42,
562-569.
5. Hui Li, Hui-gang Xiao, Jie Yuan and Jinping Ou. (2004). Microstructure of cement
mortar with nanoparticles. Composites: Part B 35, 185-189.
6. Nilli, M., Ehsani, A. and Shabani, K. (2009). Influence of nanosilica and microsilica on
concrete performance. Bu-Ali Sina University Iran.
7. Shekari, A. H. and Razzaghi, M. (2011). Influence of nanoparticles on durability and
mechanical properties of SCC with GGBFS as binder. Energy and buildings Vol. 43,
9951002.
8. Ramachandran V.S and James. Beaudoin A Handbook on analytical techniques in
concrete science and technology (Principles, Techniques and Applications).
9. Shetty M.S Concrete technology (text book).
10. Concrete Microstructure properties, and materials-P.k Mehta(text book)

IS CODES

[71]
1. IS: 2386-1963 (Part-III). Methods of Test for aggregates for concrete Part III specific
gravity, density, voids, absorption and bulking. Bureau of Indian Standards.
2. IS: 383-1970. Specification for coarse aggregate and fine aggregate from natural
sources for concrete. Bureau of Indian Standards.
3. IS: 456-2000. Plain and Reinforced concrete- code of practice (Fourth Revision).
Bureau of Indian Standards.
4. IS: 10262-2009. Concrete mix proportioning – Guidelines (First Revision). Bureau of
Indian Standards.
5. IS: 7320-1974. Specification for concrete slump test apparatus. Bureau of Indian
Standards.
6. IS: 1199-1959. Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete. (Reaffirmed 2004).
7. IS: 516-1959 (Reaffirmed 2004). Methods of tests for strength of concrete.
8. IS: 5816-1999 (Reaffirmed 2004). Split tensile strength of concrete – Method of test.
(First Revision).
9. ASTM C1202 rapid chloride penetration test
10. IS : 3085 – 1965 Permeability test on concrete.

[72]
 APPENDIX - I

MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE

The mix design for M35 grade of concrete is described below in accordance with Indian
Standard Code IS: 10262-1982.

Grade : M35-RAC35

Cement : PPC

Size of the aggregate : 20mm &10mm

Min content of cement : 400kgs

Exposure condition : Moderate

Workability of concrete : 50

Degree of super position : Good

Max water cement ratio : 0.395

TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING:

Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days: fck = 35 MPa

Assumed standard deviation (Table 1 of IS 10262:1982): sd = 5 MPa

Target average compressive strength at 28 days: ftarget = fck + 1.65sd =43.25 MPa

1. SELECTION OF WATER-CEMENT RATIO:

From Table 5 of IS: 456-2000, maximum water-cement ratio = 0.60

From Table 2, maximum water content =186

2. SELECTION OF WATER CONTENT:

Maximum water content per cubic meter of concrete (refer Table 2 of IS: 10262-1982)

Wmax = 186L (for 50 mm slump).

water content taken = 158 liters

[73]
3. CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT:

Mass of water selected per cubic meter of concrete = 158 kg.

Mass of cement per cubic meter of concrete = 158/0.395 = 400 kg.

Minimum cement content = 300 kg/m3 (for moderate exposure condition, Table 5

of IS 456:2000)

Maximum cement content = 450 kg/m3 (Cl. 8.2.4.2 of IS 456:2000)

So, the selected cement content is alright.

4. PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE AND FINE

AGGREGATE CONTENT:

Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate (Table 3 of IS:

10262-1982) = 0.62

(This is corresponding to 20 mm size aggregate and Zone II fine aggregate for

Water-cement ratio of 0.47)

As the water-cement ratio is lowered by 0.05, the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is
increased by 0.01 (ref. Table 3 of IS: 10262-1982)

Corrected volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate =

(0.60+0.02) = 0.62

Volume of fine aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 1-0.62 =0.338

5. MIX CALCULATIONS

i. Volume of concrete = 1 m3

ii. Volume of cement = 400 / (2.9×1000) = 0.1379 m3

iii. Volume of water = 158/1000 = 0.158 m3

iv. Volume of all aggregates = 1-(0.1379+0.158) = 0.7041 m3

[74]
v. Mass of fine aggregate = 0.7041×0.38×2.57×1000 = 687.62kg

vi. Mass of Recycled coarse aggregate = 0.7041x0.4x2.74x0.62x1000=478.45kg

vii. Mass of Crushed aggregate=0.7041x0.6x2.82x0.62x1000=738.6kg

viii. Mass of 20mm crushed aggregate= 0.40x738.6= 295.45 kg.

ix. Mass of 10mm crushed aggregate= 0.60x738.6= 443.1kg.

x. volume of Nanosilica=1.5x400/100=6.0

Water : cement : fine aggregate : course aggregate (RCA+NCA)

158 : 400 : 687.62 :1217 (478.45: 738)

1 : 1.719 :3.042

Table a: Mix design contents

Components RACM30 RACM35

grade grade
W/C Ratio 0.43 0.395
Cement (Kg) 368 400
Water (Kg) 182 181
Fine aggregate (Kg) 698 687
Coarse aggregate (Kg)
1. 20mm RCA 486. 478
2. 20mm NCA 300 295
3. 10mm NCA 450 443
Nanosilica (Kg) 5.15 6.0

Nanosilica calculation:

Nanosilica : 1.5% of cement = 1.5x400/100

= 6.00 Kg

Given Solid content: 15%

Liquid content: 85%

[75]
Solid content: (15/100) x 6.00 = 0.90Kg

Liquid content: (85/100) x 6.00 = 5.1 Kg

Subtracting solid and liquid content:

The required quantities of cement and water added are:

Cement = 400 – 0.90 = 399.12 Kg

Water = 186 – 5.07 =180.0 Kg

APPENDIX - II

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

[76]
Sample calculations of the quantities required for the mix with water-cement ratio 0.47 for the
basic mix design with normal sand as fine aggregate.

Volume required:

For 9 cubes = 9 x 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.15 =0.030 m3

π
For 9 cylinders = 9x x 0.152 x 0.3 =0.047 m3
4

For 9 cubes = 9 x 0.50 x 0.10 x 0.10 =0.045 m3

Add 25% extra to the total considering wastage = 0.122 m3

__________________

Total quantity =0.244 m3

Quantity of cement required for 0.244 m3 of concrete = 0.244x 400

=97.6 kg

Quantity of fine aggregate required for 0.244 m3 of concrete=0.244 x 687

= 167.62 kg

Quantity of total coarse aggregate required for 0.244 m3 =0.244 x 1217

of concrete =296.9kg

Quantity of recycled aggregate for 0.224 m3 of concrete (20mm) ==0.4x295

=118.0kg.

Quantity of crushed aggregate for 0.224 m3 of concrete =0.224x738

(40% 20mm+60%10mm) =165.31(66.08+99.2)

Quantity of water required for 0.244 m3 of concrete =0.244 x 158

= 38.524 liters

Quantity of admixture required for 0.244 m3 of concrete

(Nanosilica) =97.6 x (1.5/100)

=1.464

[77]
 APPENDIX – III

STRENGTH CALCULATIONS

[78]
A. Compressive strength of Cube:

Maximum load applied on the specimen (P), in Newton = 1150kN

Cross sectional area of cube (A), in mm2 = 150 x 150mm2

P
Compressive strength of cube =
A

1150 x 1000
=
150 x 150

= 51.11 N/mm2

B. Split tensile strength of Cylinder:

Maximum load applied on the specimen (P), in Newton = 200 kN

π
Area of cylinder (A), in mm2 = x 1502 mm2
4

2xP
Compressive strength of cube =
π xdxl

2 x 200 x 1000
=
π x 300 x 150

= 2.83 N/mm2

C. Flexural strength of Prism:

i. When the tensile crack is between 11.00 cm and 13.33 cm,

Maximum load applied on the specimen (P), in kgs = 1260 kg

Volume of prism (l, b, d) = 500 x 100 x 100 mm3

3 xPxa
Flexural strength of the beam =
bxd xd

3 x 1260 x 9.81 x 131

=
100 x 100 x 100

= 4.85 N/mm2

[79]
ii. When the tensile crack is greater than 13.33 cm,

Maximum load applied on the specimen (p), in kg = 1260 kg

Volume of prism (l, b, d) = 500 X 100 X 100 mm3

P xl
Flexural strength of the beam =
b xd xd

1260 x 9.81 x 400

=
100 x 100 x 100

= 4.94 N/mm2

APPENDIX – IV

[80]
Sample calculation for 0.1% H2SO4 solution:

Say, Normality of sodium hydroxide is 1N, Sodium hydroxide consumed by 20ml of

sulphuric acid is 2.2 ml.

N 1 ×1 1×2 .2
N 2= = =0 . 11 N
V b 20

Sample calculation for 0.3% H2SO4 solution:

Say, Normality of sodium hydroxide is 1N; Sodium hydroxide consumed by 20ml of

sulphuric acid is 3.3 ml.

N 1 ×1 1×3 .3
N 2= = =0 .166 N
V b 20

Sample calculation for 0.3% H2SO4 Solution

0.136 liters of Sulphuric acid was added to 25 liters of water. To neutralize 20ml of this
solution 3.3ml of Sodium hydroxide was consumed. Concrete specimens were exposed in this
solution, after 3 days, a sample of solution was collected. This time 2.2of sodium hydroxide
was required to neutral 20ml of the solution.

Calculation for the amount of acid consumed by the concrete are

N 2 ×M ( NaHCO3)×V b
ANo. =
Vs

( 1×83×2. 2 )
= 20

= 9.3

H2SO4 + 2NaOH ==> Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Each mole of H2SO4 needs 2 moles of NaHCO3 for neutralization.

Moles of H2SO4 present in one liter of solution

18 .816
Co = ( 40×2 )

[81]
 = 0.2352 moles of H2SO4/lt

Where the subscript of AN and C refers to the age in days at which the sample is analyzed.

0. 98×40×1. 8
AN3 = 5

= 14.112

14 . 112
C3 = ( 40×2 )

= 0.1764 moles of H2SO4/lt

(c o −c t )×v 0
Acid consumed in three days = co

( 0. 166−0 .11 )×136

= 0 . 166

= 42.5ml

Therefore approximately 42.5ml of acid was added to the solution and thoroughly
mixed to get a uniform solution. Similar procedure was employed for all the samples and at all
ages.

APPENDIX – V

[82]
XRD DATA:

RAC M30

Counts
MRAC30
Quartz, syn
Calcite, syn
Yeelimite, syn
Margarite-2\ITM\RG#1

4000

2000

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Position [°2Theta]

DATA OBTAINED FROM XPERT HIGH SCORE

Pos. [°2Th.] Height [cts] FWHM [°2Th.] d-spacing [Å] Rel. Int. [%]
8.9662 2352.85 0.1004 9.86295 42.46
13.8041 268.74 0.1338 6.41525 4.85
18.1838 883.80 0.1004 4.87878 15.95
19.5844 107.92 0.1004 4.53291 1.95
20.9812 581.33 0.0669 4.23420 10.49
21.1874 375.10 0.0669 4.19345 6.77
22.1217 288.37 0.1004 4.01841 5.20
22.6806 169.79 0.1004 3.92064 3.06
23.2085 92.96 0.2676 3.83263 1.68
23.7662 463.62 0.2007 3.74394 8.37
24.1560 264.18 0.1004 3.68441 4.77
24.5285 168.99 0.1338 3.62930 3.05
25.0849 107.49 0.2007 3.55004 1.94
25.8129 234.31 0.1338 3.45154 4.23
26.7868 3204.32 0.1004 3.32823 57.83
27.7113 5540.97 0.1004 3.21926 100.00
27.9368 1793.63 0.0669 3.19379 32.37
28.1762 2487.19 0.1004 3.16719 44.89
28.5778 145.78 0.1338 3.12359 2.63
29.5335 833.47 0.1338 3.02465 15.04
29.9647 473.60 0.1673 2.98210 8.55
30.6271 149.34 0.1338 2.91910 2.70
31.0986 187.78 0.1338 2.87591 3.39
31.5964 129.30 0.1338 2.83173 2.33
32.8394 132.90 0.2007 2.72733 2.40
33.9381 95.14 0.1338 2.64151 1.72

[83]
34.9690 75.06 0.2007 2.56596 1.35
35.7091 264.88 0.1004 2.51446 4.78
36.1508 197.16 0.1338 2.48475 3.56
36.6800 129.48 0.1338 2.45010 2.34
39.5659 408.74 0.1338 2.27779 7.38
40.4356 169.52 0.1338 2.23079 3.06
40.9680 52.79 0.2676 2.20302 0.95
41.7876 194.97 0.1004 2.16168 3.52
42.3553 109.44 0.1338 2.13402 1.98
43.2767 158.87 0.1673 2.09069 2.87
43.9596 109.27 0.1673 2.05979 1.97
45.9783 95.00 0.2676 1.97394 1.71
47.4766 254.39 0.1338 1.91509 4.59
48.5810 176.75 0.1338 1.87410 3.19
49.2770 161.06 0.1338 1.84925 2.91
50.2482 1044.53 0.0669 1.81576 18.85
50.8805 229.05 0.1004 1.79467 4.13
51.6290 47.48 0.2007 1.77040 0.86
55.0475 57.67 0.2007 1.66827 1.04
57.5522 71.01 0.2007 1.60149 1.28
58.9352 54.50 0.4015 1.56717 0.98
60.0652 283.22 0.1004 1.54036 5.11
62.3662 61.96 0.5353 1.48894 1.12
63.4261 161.57 0.1004 1.46659 2.92
63.9798 68.32 0.2007 1.45523 1.23
67.8454 215.87 0.1004 1.38143 3.90
68.2287 296.16 0.1224 1.37346 5.34
68.4207 227.98 0.0816 1.37348 4.11
75.7485 93.91 0.1224 1.25470 1.69
81.6533 64.91 0.6528 1.17824 1.17
83.9365 53.94 0.4896 1.15190 0.97

[84]