Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Effect of kansui addition on dough rheology and quality characteristics of T

chickpea-wheat composite flour-based noodles and the underlying
mechanism
⁎
Fangyuan Jia, Zhen Ma , Xiaolong Wang, Xiaoping Li, Liu Liu, Xinzhong Hu
College of Food Engineering and Nutritional Science, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710062, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The impact of kansui on the dough rheology and quality characteristics of chickpea-wheat composite flour-based
Chickpea-wheat composite flour noodles was investigated. For noodle dough, both the relative crystallinity and degree of order obtained from X-
Dough rheology ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy increased with the low level of kansui addition
Yellow alkaline noodles (0.5–1.5%), followed by a decreased trend at higher levels of alkali concentration (2.0–3.0%). Such variation
Cooking properties
was in accordance with the trend observed for G′ and G″. Based on the confocal laser scanning microscopic
Starch crystalline structure
Protein profile
observation for cooked noodle samples, the low concentration of kansui addition (0.5–1.5%) protected the well-
Confocal laser scanning micrographs embedded starch granules being disassociate from the gluten network, whereas with the increased alkali ad-
dition (2.0–3.0%), the protein network was impaired with a greater amount of ruptured starch granules being
disassociated from the gluten network. The observation corresponded well with the electrophoretic profile, and
the results of cooking properties, -SH content, and textural properties of cooked noodles.

1. Introduction increasing interest in finding new alternative raw materials (Zhu & Li,
2019). Chickpeas (Cicer aretinum L.), one of the most cultivated pulses
For several thousands of years, wheat flour-based noodles account in the world with a total production of 14.8 million tons in 2017
for an important part of human diet in oriental countries. With the (FAOSTAT, 2017), are gradually gaining recognition due to their good
increased interest in ready-to-eat products, their popularity is gradually nutritional profile and associated health benefits including the reduced
growing outside Asia (Fu, 2008). Asian noodles can be generally di- risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and gastrointestinal disorders
vided into two categories based on their ingredients, including salted (Afshin, Micha, Khatibzadeh, & Mozaffarian, 2014). Particularly, the
noodle, and yellow alkaline noodle (Asenstorfer, Wang, & Mares, abundance of slow digestible starch (16.9 ± 1.6%) and resistant starch
2006). The yellow alkaline noodles contain kansui, a mixture of sodium (15.2 ± 1.3%) in chickpea contributes to their low postprandial glu-
carbonate and potassium carbonate, which is also known as alkali so- cose response and thereby the reduced risk of type II diabetes
lution. Normally, Na2CO3 and K2CO3 are added at the level of 0.5–3.0% (Demirkesen-Bicak, Tacer-Caba, & Nilufer-Erdil, 2018). Chickpea is also
(w/w) with a ratio between 1:9–9:1 (Hatcher & Anderson, 2007). The characterized by its high lysine content which makes it a potential
addition of alkali in wheat-based dough could modify the hydrophobic value-added ingredient in supplementing the wheat-based product
and/or electrostatic interactions, which play a principal role on the which is sufficient in sulphur-rich amino acids but low in lysine (Iqbal,
aggregation of gluten proteins and thereby the development of the Khalil, Ateeq, & Sayyar Khan, 2006). Several researches have been done
three-dimensional polymeric network (Wieser, 2007). It was reported on the development of chickpea-supplemented products with enhanced
that the addition of kansui increases the dough development time, and nutritional quality and unique functional properties including bakery
tends to yield noodles with a firm texture and a characteristic yellow (Mohammed, Ahmed, & Senge, 2012), durum lasagna (Sabanis, Makri,
appearance, as a result of the chromophoric shift of the natural flour & Doxastakis, 2006), plant-based beverages (Wang, Chelikani, &
endogenous flavonoid pigments in the presence of alkali (Fu, 2008). Serventi, 2018), and salad dressing products (Ma, Boye, Swallow,
The ever-rising occurrence of chronic disease has led to the growing Malcolmson, & Simpson, 2016).
concerns regarding the potential negative health impacts of long-term The supplementation of chickpea flour in wheat-based noodle was
consumption of foods with high glycemic response and has spurred the expected to cause changes in both the dough characteristics and the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Ma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125081
Received 12 March 2019; Received in revised form 6 June 2019; Accepted 25 June 2019
Available online 26 June 2019
0308-8146/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

end-use quality due to the absence of gluten in chickpea proteins. It was the value of tan δ (which equals G″/G′) were recorded.
hypothesized that the addition of kansui could lead to the poly-
merization of wheat gluten through covalent and/or non-covalent in- 2.4. Pasting properties of noodle doughs
teractions, the starch gelatinization behavior of the cooked noodles
prepared from the chickpea-wheat composite flours could also be im- Pasting properties of noodle doughs were measured by a Rapid
pacted due to the presence of alkali. However, to what extent the Visco Analyzer (RVA, model 4500, Newport Scientific, Perten
protein network structure is modified and how it would alter the Instruments, Sydney, Australia) according to AACC 76-21 method
pasting behavior of starch macromolecules are still not well understood. (AACC, 2000) and the procedures described by Zhou, Wang, Li, Fang,
The present study was, therefore, undertaken to evaluate the viability of and Sun (2011). The freeze-dried noodle doughs (3 g) were dispersed in
producing yellow alkaline noodles from wheat-chickpea flour blends at 25 mL distilled water in an aluminum canister. The program STD1 was
different levels of kansui addition (0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%, employed during the test.
3.0%). Their dough rheology and the quality characteristics, as well as
the underlying mechanism explaining the impact of alkali addition on 2.5. Determination of cooking properties
gluten aggregation, starch interaction, and the end-use quality during
dough mixing and cooking process were also explored. The cooking properties (water absorption and cooking loss) of the
noodle samples formulated from the whole wheat flour and the
2. Materials and methods chickpea-wheat composite flour with different levels of kansui addition
were measured according to AACC method 66-50 (AACC, 2010). Ap-
2.1. Materials proximately 25 g noodles were cooked in 500 mL boiling water. The
optimal cooking time was determined as the minimum time needed
The commercial chickpea flour (HelijiaTM, 23.2% protein, 5.1% fat, until the white core disappeared when squeezing the noodle between
and 64.3% carbohydrate) was provided by the institute of grain crops, two pieces of glass slides. The cooked noodles were rinsed in 300 mL
Xinjiang academy of agricultural science, China. The commercial wheat deionized water for 30 s and drained for 5 min before being weighed.
flour (10.3% protein, 1.1% fat, and 74.6% carbohydrate) was manu- The cooking water was collected and was diluted to 500 mL with
factured by Shaanxi TianShan Surea Flour Co., Ltd, China. All other deionized water. An aliquot of 50 mL was then taken to a pre-dried
chemical reagents were of analytical grade and purchased from Sigma beaker and evaporated in an oven at 105 °C till a constant weight. The
Aldrich Chemical Company (St. Louis, Missouri, USA). residue was then weighed and the cooking loss was expressed as the
percentage of dry matter that the noodles lose during cooking. The
2.2. Dough and noodle preparation water absorption, which was referred to the percentage of water ab-
sorbed by noodles during cooking, was calculated as the mass ratio after
The flour blends (100 g) were prepared by mixing the chickpea flour and before cooking.
with wheat flour at a ratio of 3:7 (w/w) using a mixer with a spiral
blade. Then 52 g distilled water containing different levels of kansui 2.6. Free sulfydryl group (-SH) content determination
(K2CO3: Na2CO3 = 1:9) was added at the concentrations of 0%, 0.5%,
1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, and 3%. The mixed doughs were then kneaded for The free SH content of the freeze-dried cooked noodle samples was
3 min by a mixer at the speed 2 (Chef classic, KM336, Kitchenwood measured following the procedure reported by Morel, Bonicel, Micard,
titanium machineTM, UK), and rested for 30 min at 23 °C prior to the and Guilbert (2000) with slight modification. The freeze-dried noodle
rheological measurement. A portion of the noodle dough samples was samples containing 20 mg protein were firstly suspended in 8 mL Tris-
freeze dried, ground and sieved (200 μm) for other further analysis. The Gly-8 M Urea buffer A for 60 min. Buffer A was prepared by dissolving
noodles were prepared by extruding the noodle doughs using a la- 2.605 g Tris base, 1.689 g glycine and 0.292 g EDTA in 250 mL aqueous
boratory noodle machine (Ningbo Hantenite Machinery Co., Ltd.). The solution of ddH2O (pH 8.0). The mixed sample was centrifuged at
cooking process was performed according to the procedure described in 13,600 g for 10 min and 1 mL of the supernatant was then loaded in
Section 2.5. Dough and cooked noodles were also prepared with 100% 2 mL buffer A. Next, the Ellman reagent (0.02 mL), which was prepared
whole wheat flour without the addition of kansui to give an insight into by dissolving 5,5′-dithiobis-2,2′-nitrobenzoic acid (DNTB) in 25 mL of
the impact of chickpea flour addition on the characteristics of for- Tris-glycine buffer (pH 8.0), was added and the mixture was incubated
mulated dough and noodles. A portion of the freshly cooked noodles at room temperature at dark for another 25 min. The absorbance of the
was cooled to room temperature and reserved for textural measure- supernatant was read exactly 25 min after adding the DTNB reagent.
ment. The rest samples were freeze dried, ground, and passed through a The absorbance value was converted to the concentrations of free
200 μm sieve until further analysis. Noodle doughs and cooked noodles sulfhydryl content using a calibration curve made with reduced glu-
without the addition of kansui were used as control. tathione.

2.3. Rheological properties of noodle doughs 2.7. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-
PAGE)
The dynamic oscillation test of the rested doughs which were pre-
pared as described above was performed on an AR-G2 rheometer (TA The SDS-PAGE analysis of the freeze-dried cooked noodle samples
Instrument, New Castle, DE, USA) equipped with a parallel plate geo- was performed under both the denaturing and non-denaturing condi-
metry (4 cm diameter) following the procedures described by Kim, Kee, tions according to the method described by Wang, Huang, Kim, Liu, and
Lee, and Yoo (2014). The noodle dough samples (3 g) were placed be- Tilley (2011). The desired amount of cooked noodle samples containing
tween the plates and were then allowed to rest for 5 min for equili- the same quantity of protein (6 mg in dry sample) were dissolved in the
bration. The excessive samples were trimmed and paraffin was applied 1.0 mL loading buffer (pH 6.8, 0.01 M Tris-HCl, 10% (v/v) glycerol,
on the lateral surface to prevent moisture evaporation during the test. 10% (w/v) SDS, and 0.1% (w/v) bromphenol blue). The sample solu-
The linear viscoelastic (LVE) region was determined by performing the tion was centrifuged at 6000g for 10 min after boiling in water for
amplitude sweep within the strain range from 0.1% to 1000% at 1 Hz. 5 min. Subsequently, 10 μL of supernatant was loaded in the gel slad
The oscillation frequency sweep test was carried out within the LVE which contained 12% separating gel (pH 8.8) and 5% stacking gel (pH
range with the oscillation stress set at 100 Pa over a frequency range of 6.8) along with Amersham low molecular mass marker. For the SDS-
0.1–100 Hz at 25 °C. The storage modulus (G′), loss modulus (G″), and PAGE analysis under reducing conditions, 5% (v/v) β-mercaptoethanol

2
F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

Fig. 1. Effect of kansui addition on (A) the storage modulus of noodle doughs; (B) the loss modulus of noodle doughs; (C) tan δ of noodle doughs; and (D) the cooking
properties of yellow alkaline noodles; Wheat refers to the whole wheat flour-based noodle samples without the addition of kansui; 0.0–3.0% represent the chickpea-
wheat composite flour-based dough and cooked noodle samples with different levels of kansui addition. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

(β-Me) was added to the solution. The electrophoresis was carried out 2.10. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR)
at the voltage of 120 V during the run. The gel was stained with Bio-Rad
Coomassie Blue R-250, followed by destaining in 10% (v/v) acetic acid, Two milligrams of the freeze-dried noodle dough and cooked noodle
and 40% (v/v) methanol. samples were ground with pre-dried potassium bromide in an agate
mortar, dried, and pressed into a sheet. The obtained samples were then
scanned on a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (TENSOR27;
2.8. Texture properties of cooked noodles Bruker Optics GmBH, Ettlingen, Germany) within the range of
400–4000 cm−1 at a resolution of 4 cm−1.
The textural properties of the cooked noodle samples were mea-
sured by a TA-XT Plus Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro System, Surrey,
2.11. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
UK) following the method described by Guo, Wei, and Zhu (2017). The
test was performed at room temperature precisely at 5 min after
The cooked noodle samples were cut into 3 mm lengths and were
cooking. Prior to the measurement, all noodle samples were cut into a
immersed in phosphate buffer saline (PBS, 0.1 mol/mL, pH 7.4) con-
cylindrical probe (10 mm in diameter). Eight strands of noodles were
taining 2.5% (v/v) glutaraldehyde for 12 h at 4 °C. After the samples
situated on the platform and subjected to a double compression test
were washed with buffer, they were dehydrated in a series of ethanol
under the “Texture Profile Analysis” pattern. The samples were com-
solutions (60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, v/v). Both the dehydrated
pressed by a P36/R probe at a speed of 1.0 mm/s and 75% of the strain.
cooked noodles and the freeze-dried noodle dough powders were
The test was repeated at least five times for each set of experiment.
placed on a copper stubs by using double-sided adhesive tape and were
coated with gold by Cressington 108 auto sputter coater (Cressington
Scientific Instruments, Watford, UK). The morphological characteristics
2.9. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
of the cooked noodles and the freeze-dried noodle doughs were ex-
amined by a scanning electron microscopy (Quanta 200 FEI Company,
The crystalline characteristics of the freeze-dried noodle dough and
Hillsboro, OR, USA) at an accelerating voltage of 15 keV.
cooked noodle samples were determined by an X-ray diffractometer
(Bruker D8 Advance, Karlsruhe, Germany) following the method de-
scribed by Ma et al. (2018). The samples were scanned at 40 kV and 2.12. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)
100 mA using a Cu-Kα radiation detector (λ = 1.5406 nm). Diffracto-
grams were recorded from 4 °C to 40 °C at a scan rate of 5 °C /min and a Both freeze-dried noodle dough and cooked noodles samples were
step size of 0.02. The relative crystallinity was estimated by the pro- stained with a solution of 0.2% (w/w) Fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate
portions of the peak areas to the total diffractogram area by using JADE (FITC) and 0.025% Rhodamin B in water following the procedures
5.0 software (Materials Data Inc., Livermore, CA). descried by Silva, Birkenhake, Scholten, Sagis, and van der Linden
(2013). FITC preferentially stains starch and Rhodamin B preferentially
dyes protein. After decolorization with 0.1 M (pH 7.2) PBS buffer,

3
F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

Wheat refers to the whole wheat flour-based noodle samples without the addition of kansui; 0.0–3.0% represent for the chickpea-wheat composite flour-based noodle samples with different levels of kansui addition.
samples were incubated at room temperature overnight in the dark to
Sulfydryl group (-SH)
ensure the complete diffusion of the dye. The samples were observed

0.22d

0.03b
0.49b
0.37a
0.02e

0.50c
0.22c
0.21c
/μmol g−1
under a CLSM (FV1200, Olympus, Japan), and the excitation/emission

±
±
±
wavelengths of 488 nm and 543 nm were used for FITC and Rhodamin

±
±

±
±
±
Effects of kansui addition on the textural properties, RVA pasting properties, and free sulfydryl (-SH) content of the cooked yellow alkaline noodles prepared from chickpea-wheat composite flour blends.

5.45
5.26
5.42
0.08
8.19

6.32
6.51
4.58
B during the measurement.

2.13. Statistical analysis

Temperature (°C)

88 ± 1ab

91 ± 1ab
91 ± 1ab
91 ± 0ab

91 ± 0ab
92 ± 0ab
91 ± 6b
93 ± 1a
Pasting

All experiments were conducted at least in triplicates. Significant

differences were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
using PRISM software (Version 3.02, GraphPad Software, Inc., San
Diego, CA, USA). The statistical differences between the mean values
Setback (mPa·s)

were determined by Duncan’s multiple comparison tests (P < 0.05).

329 ± 17de
349 ± 21cd

382 ± 17cd
593 ± 21a

292 ± 22e
189 ± 24f

236 ± 28f
524 ± 8b

3. Results and discussion

Pasting properties by RVA

3.1. Dynamic rheological measurements of noodle dough

Final viscosity

1045 ± 30b

1199 ± 18a
809 ± 68de

742 ± 74de
874 ± 42cd
960 ± 14bc
971 ± 26bc
379 ± 39f
(mPa·s)

The impact of kansui on rheological properties of the noodle dough

was measured by an oscillation frequency sweep test within the linear
viscoelastic region (LVE). The variation in storage modulus (G′), loss
modulus (G″), and tan δ, which generally reflects the structural inter-
303 ± 14b
350 ± 13a
Breakdown

130 ± 12c
128 ± 31c

action changes of the dough system, is presented in Fig. 1(A–C). Par-

29 ± 4de

46 ± 3d
45 ± 1d
11 ± 0e
(mPa·s)

ticularly, the specific structural interactions between starch-starch,

starch-gluten associations, as well as the intermolecular cross-links and
aggregations of gluten polymers play a key role in affecting the vis-
coelastic behavior of the noodle doughs. As starch is acting as a filler
Peak viscosity

770 ± 74bc
628 ± 23cd

particle in the gluten network, it thus can be assumed that its enhanced
547 ± 20d

551 ± 48d
802 ± 21b

978 ± 14a
258 ± 6e

708 ± 9c
(mPa·s)

phase volume would influence the structural integrity of the gluten

network as well as the degree of molecular cross-linking polymeriza-
tion, which would ultimately affect the elasticity and consistency of the
dough rheological properties. A continuous increase in G′ and G″ was
Average values with different superscripts within the same column are significant different at P < 0.05.
± 0.02h

± 0.01b
± 0.01d
± 0.04g

± 0.02a
± 0.01e
± 0.01c
Resilience (g)

± 0.01f

noticed with the increase in frequency. All noodle dough samples were
found to be more elastic than viscous across the studied frequency
range, based on the greater G′ values than G″ values shown in
0.32
0.38
0.34

0.46
0.28

0.42
0.36
0.21

Fig. 1(A–B). The dynamic moduli (G′ and G″) for noodle doughs pre-
pared from chickpea-wheat composite flours were relatively higher
Springiness (g)

± 0.04h

± 0.02b
± 0.03d
± 0.04g

± 0.02a
± 0.01e

± 0.02c

± 0.02f

than those for whole wheat flour-based dough, suggesting that the
substitution of wheat flour by chickpea flour increased the viscoelastic
0.51
0.81
0.58

0.74
0.46

0.66

0.86
0.42

behavior of the noodle dough samples. Both G′ and G″ increased with

the increased level of kansui addition (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%) com-
5002.16 ± 140.30d

5910.14 ± 110.25b
3890.95 ± 107.73g

6885.10 ± 128.10a
2811.64 ± 78.18h

4727.92 ± 64.10e

5387.92 ± 72.44c
4528.06 ± 53.40f

pared with control (0%) and reached to a maximum point at 1.5% of

Gumminess (g)
Textural properties by TPA

kansui concentration. However, the addition of higher levels of kansui

(2.5%, 3.0%) tended to decrease the G' and G'' values over the studied
frequency range. The increased elastic (G′) and viscous (G″) behavior
with 0.5–2.0% kansui in dough formulation compared with control
could be attributed to the strengthened protein network induced by the
3252.43 ± 108.06d

presence of alkaline salt, yielding a firmer and more extensible noodle

893.00 ± 188.96h

4659.80 ± 75.04b
1832.04 ± 97.71g

5054.86 ± 80.05a
2663.37 ± 98.57e

3940.03 ± 81.87c
2244.82 ± 72.41f
Chewiness (g)

dough. Shiau and Yeh (2001) also observed that the addition of kansui
tended to cause an increase in G′ and apparent viscosity when the al-
kaline concentration was between 0.25% and 1.0%. Nevertheless, the
stability of the dough network is dependent on the concentration of
alkali salt, the addition of high concentrations of alkali salt (> 2%)
10150.79 ± 136.61a

prone to increase the chances of competition between alkali salt and

3290.19 ± 120.96h

8194.63 ± 149.27b
7044.32 ± 178.33d
6483.59 ± 152.39e
7583.03 ± 113.37c
5807.37 ± 122.77f
4958.46 ± 81.53g

glutens for available water, leading to delayed protein hydration and

Hardness (g)

matrix development, contributing to decreased G′ and G″ in mixed

dough samples (Edwards, Scanlon, Kruger, & Dexter, 1996).
Tan δ, ratio of G′ and G″, exhibited a decreased trend with the in-
creased level of alkali addition (Fig. 1C), suggesting that the addition of
kansui increased the proportion of solid-like behavior in noodle dough.
content (%)

Similar finding has also been reported by Guo et al. (2017) and Li, Sun,
Wheat
Alkali

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0

Han, Chen, and Tang (2018). The values of tan δ were all less than 1,
Table 1

indicating that the increase of G′ was more rapid than that of G″.

4
F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

3.2. Pasting properties of noodle dough by RVA noodles during cooking and indicates the surface characteristics of
noodles (Shiau & Yeh, 2001). The increase in both the results of cooking
The pasting properties measured by RVA give insights into the loss and water absorption at the high levels of kansui addition could be
viscosity changes of starch-based suspension during heating and cooling attributed to the interplay between the influence of alkali on gluten
cycle (Fan, Ai, Chen, Fu, & Bian, 2018). The obtained viscosity para- network formation and increased degree of starch gelatinization. Ac-
meters are used to provide information on predicting the quality of the cording to Shiau and Yeh (2001), the degree of starch gelatinization in
derived noodle products. From Table 1, it was observed that the addi- extruded noodles increased with the addition of kansui. The existence
tion of kansui in the chickpea-wheat composite flour-based noodle of high levels of alkali could have promoted quicker heat transfer by
doughs caused a significant increase (P < 0.05) in peak viscosity (PV), increasing boiling point of cooking water and more rapid starch gela-
breakdown (BD), final viscosity (FV), and setback (SB) compared with tinization by weakening the protein-starch matrix, leading to a greater
control. The higher PV values indicated that the addition of kansui led amount of starch to be dissolved into cooking water and the increased
to an increased extent of starch swelling before the rupturing of starch water absorption of cooked noodles (Tan et al., 2018). The values of
granules. The breakdown viscosity is positively associated with the cooking loss reported in the literature for wheat-based noodles were
number of damaged starch granules. The increased BV thus suggested a generally lower than the values obtained in this study for chickpea-
faster loss of the integrity of starch granules and increased starch de- wheat composite flour-based noodles (Rombouts, Jansens, Lagrain,
polymerization induced by the alkali addition (Zhou et al., 2011). Ac- Delcour, & Zhu, 2014), possibly attributed to the fact that the addition
cording to Lai, Karim, Norziah, and Seow (2004), the presence of alkali of chickpea flour contributed to a dilution effect of the gluten-forming
such as Na2CO3 and NaOH could promote the gelatinization of starch proteins and hence caused the weakening of doughs.
by destroying the hydrogen bonding between starch molecules. The
relatively higher PV and FV also contributed to the elastic mouthfeel
and smooth surface of the cooked noodle samples. In addition, with the 3.4. Determination of free sulfydryl (-SH) content of cooked yellow alkaline
increase of kansui concentration, PV, BD, FV and SB of noodle dough noodles
samples firstly increased at low levels of alkali salt (0.5–1.0%), and then
decreased with the higher levels of kansui addition (1.5–3.0%), Generally, the following two chemical changes are involved with
achieving to the maximum value at 1.0%. Similar trend in RVA visc- the consumption and generation of sulfydryl groups, where the pre-
osities as affected by alkali has also been reported by Fan et al. (2018), dominant one determines the free -SH content in cooked noodle sam-
where the maximum values RVA viscosities for wheat flour-based ples: (i) the oxidation of free -SH groups and the SH-SS interchange
noodle dough samples was reached at 0.2% of kansui addition. The reaction, which could lead to the reduced content free sulfydryl groups;
supplementation of chickpea flour in the dough formulation decreased and (ii) the β-elimination reaction (e.g., cystine followed by the for-
the RVA viscosities including PV, BD, FV and SB, but increased the mation of non-reducible, dehydroalanine-derived cross-link), which
pasting temperature. This would be conducive to the application of could result in an increased level of free -SH. In all cases, the -SH
chickpea flour in food processing, since the reduction of SV and BV contents of cooked noodle samples prepared from chickpea-wheat
could improve the thermal stability of starch and reduce the retro- composite flour in this study were comparatively higher
gradation of starch. (4.58–8.19 μmol g−1) than those cooked noodles prepared from whole
wheat flours (0.08 μmol g−1). It has been suggested that the cross-
3.3. Cooking properties of yellow alkaline noodles linkage by disulfide bonds plays an important role in the formation of
gluten network either by oxidation of free -SH groups or SH-SS inter-
The water absorption of cooked noodles directly determines their change reactions. The substitution of wheat flour by chickpea flour
textural properties and cooking qualities (Tan, Tan, & Easa, 2018). which contains the non-gluten-forming proteins could be possibly re-
Incorporating chickpea flour into wheat -based noodles produced a sponsible for the higher levels of -SH obtained in this study. As can be
decrease in water absorption and an increase in cooking loss, which was seen in Table 1, the cooked noodles containing kansui appeared to have
in agreement with those reported by Zhao, Manthey, Chang, Hou, and significantly reduced content (P < 0.05) of free sulfydryl group (-SH)
Yuan (2005). The higher cooking loss could be due to the increase in in comparison with control, suggesting that the addition of alkali in-
fiber content, which interrupted the protein and starch matrix in the duced the oxidation between free -SH groups, which contributed to the
chickpea-wheat composite flour formulated noodles (Bharath Kumar & cross-linking and chain entanglement through intermolecular disulfide
Prabhasankar, 2015). Cooked noodles containing low levels of kansui bonds in the protein network structure (Li, Guo, Zhu, & Zhou, 2018).
(0.5–1.5%) appeared to exhibit significantly decreased values of water Similar finding has also been reported by Shiau and Yeh (2001) that the
absorption (Fig. 1D). This could be attributed to the formation of a formation of more disulfide cross linkages for gluten network was ob-
strong protein-starch network structure through disulfide bonding in- served for noodles with kansui addition. When at high alkali con-
duced by kansui addition that reduces the contact with water and thus centrations (2.5–3.0%), the reduction of -SH content was less pro-
leading to the reduced values of water absorption (Tan et al., 2018). nounced, where the -SH content was slightly increased compared with
The reduced water absorption at low concentrations of kansui addition the values obtained at low alkali level (0.5–2.0%). This observation was
could also be attributed to electrostatic shielding of charged amino in agreement with the cooking loss and water absorption results as
acids on the surface of gluten proteins, lowering the thickness of elec- discussed earlier that the protein polymerization with increased SeS
trostatic repulsions between individual gluten proteins, which in turn cross linking was more favored at the low kansui level during cooking.
induced stronger inter-protein hydrophobic and hydrophilic interac- This suggested that a strong aggregated protein network formed by
tions and resulted in an increased aggregation and stronger gluten interchain disulfide bond of glutenin under low kansui conditions could
network (Avramenko, Tyler, Scanlon, Hucl, & Nickerson, 2018; Tan protected the embedded starch granules being separated from the
et al., 2018). However, higher levels of kansui addition with the con- gluten network. According to Li et al. (2018) and Rombouts et al.
centration between 2.0 and 3.0% tended to increase the water ab- (2014), the β-elimination reaction was more likely to occur at high
sorption of cooked noodles. Similarly, the low level of kansui addition alkali condition. The observation in this study could thus be attributed
(0.5–1.5%) generally had a negligible impact on cooking loss which to the assumption that the β-elimination reaction was more intense
was stable at about 7% with small variations noticed, whereas the than the oxidation reaction when at high kansui conditions, accounting
higher levels (2.0–3.0%) of kansui addition tended to cause a remark- for the slightly increased content of free sulfydryl groups.
able increase in cooking loss of the mixed noodle samples (Fig. 1D).
Cooking loss is a measure of the quantity of the solid released from

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F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

clearly seen that the addition of kansui had a pronounced effect on the
intensities of polypeptide bands between 20.0 and 45 kDa where the
bands were gradually disappeared on the SDS-PAGE profile of cooked
noodles under non-reducing conditions. This could be attributed to the
increased aggregation induced by alkali, as a result of the reduced
electrostatic repulsion between protein molecules and thereby the
stronger hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions in the kansui noo-
dles, consequently, the polymers with large molecular weight and
complex structure were unable to enter the SDS-PAGE gel under the
non-reducing condition. Similar finding has also been reported by Li
et al. (2018).

3.6. Textural properties of cooked yellow alkaline noodles

Textural properties are considered as one of the most critical char-

acteristics in evaluating the quality and determining consumer ac-
ceptability of noodle products. It can be clearly seen from Table 1 that
the textural parameters including hardness, chewiness, gumminess, and
resilience of the cooked noodles tended to be increased upon the sub-
stitution of wheat flour by chickpea flour, which was in agreement with
Zhao et al. (2005). The analysis of textural parameters also showed that
hardness, chewiness, gumminess, springiness, and resilience were
consistently higher (P < 0.05) for cooked noodle containing kansui
than those for control sample (Table 1). With the increasing of alkali
concentration, a significant increase was observed for hardness, che-
winess, and gumminess. The springiness and resilience showed a sig-
nificant (P < 0.05) increase at the low level of kansui addition which
reached to a maximum point at 2.0% and 1.5%, respectively, higher
levels of kansui addition (2.0 up to 3.0%) tended to result in decreased
values of springiness and resilience, which nevertheless, were still
higher than control. Springiness is defined as the ability of noodles to
return to their original shape after compression, while resilience de-
scribes the rubbery state of the noodles and is a measure of recoverable
energy after compression. The variations in these two parameters could
be attributed to the decreased aggregation and impaired gluten network
due to excessive shielding effect and repulsion induced by higher levels
of alkali (Tan et al., 2018).
Fig. 2. SDS-PAGE of cooked yellow alkaline noodles: (A) at denaturing condi-
tions with the presence of β-mercaptoethanol; (B) at non-denaturing conditions 3.7. X-ray diffraction and FT-IR of noodle dough and cooked yellow
with the absence of β-mercaptoethanol; M: Standard marker; Wheat refers to alkaline noodles
the whole wheat flour-based noodle samples without the addition of kansui;
0.0–3.0% represent the chickpea-wheat composite flour-based dough and The X-ray diffraction patterns and FT-IR spectra of the freeze-dried
cooked noodle samples with different levels of kansui addition. (For inter-
noodle dough and cooked noodles containing different levels of alkali
pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
are given in Fig. 3(A–D). XRD is able to measure the repeating units of
the web version of this article.)
long-range crystalline structure in starch granules, whereas FT-IR gives
insights into the molecular structure of starch granules on the scale of
3.5. SDS-PAGE analysis of cooked yellow alkaline noodles short-range order (Ma & Boye, 2018). The FT-IR absorption band be-
tween 3000 and 3600 cm−1 (Fig. 3C–D) is associated with the inter-
The SDS-PAGE profile of the cooked noodle samples with different and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding, the band at 2931 cm−1 is sus-
levels of kansui addition under both reducing and non-reducing con- ceptible to the asymmetric stretching vibration of CeCH2eC, the band
ditions are shown in Fig. 2A and B, respectively. In comparison with the at 1156 cm−1 is attributed to CeO, and CeC stretching with some
SDS-PAGE profile of cooked noodle samples under non-reducing con- CeOH contribution, the absorption 1656 cm−1 is associated with the
dition (Fig. 2B), a different protein profile was observed for noodle stretching vibrations of the alkenes C]O, and the band at 1528 cm−1 is
samples in the presence of β-Me (Fig. 2A) which was characterized by related to the NeH bonding (Liu, Pu, Liu, Kan, & Jin, 2017). The ratios
the appearance of several major bands between 94 and 14.4 kDa, sug- of 995/1022 cm−1 and 1047/1022 cm−1, which are frequently used to
gesting that disulfide bonds played a dominant role in connecting the quantify the degree of double helix (DD) and degree of order (DO) of
polypeptides in the cooked noodle samples. It was noticed in Fig. 2A starch granules (Ma et al., 2018), are given in Table 2.
that for the cooked noodle samples with 2.5–3.0% kansui addition, the As can be seen from the XRD spectra (Fig. 3B), the chickpea-wheat
band intensities were significantly reduced. This observation was cor- composite flour- based cooked noodle samples displayed a typical A-
responded well with the results of free -SH content obtained at high type crystalline polymorph, resulting from the diffraction peaks at 2θ of
alkali conditions (2.5–3.0%), where the -SH content was slightly higher 15.17°, 18.13°, and 23.69°. On the other hand, the XRD patterns of
compared with that at low alkali concentration (0.5–2.0%). As the same composite flour-based noodle dough samples showed a unique broad
quantity of proteins was loaded for each sample on the electrophoretic peak centered at 19.8°, which was characterized as a characteristic V-
gel, the fainter bands thus indicated the decreased quantities of protein type crystal structure (Fig. 3A). Different from the observations ob-
subunits and thereby the influence of alkali at different concentrations tained for the chickpea-wheat composite flour-based dough and noo-
on the protein profiles of alkaline noodles. From Fig. 2B, it can be dles, a typical A-type diffraction pattern (with strong reflections at 15°,

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F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

Fig. 3. (A) XRD spectra of noodle doughs; (B) XRD spectra of cooked yellow alkaline noodles; (C) FT-IR spectra of noodle doughs; (D) FT-IR spectra of cooked yellow
alkaline noodles. Wheat refers to the whole wheat flour-based noodle samples without the addition of kansui; 0.0–3.0% represent the chickpea-wheat composite
flour-based dough and cooked noodle samples with different levels of kansui addition. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

17°, 18°, and 23°) for whole wheat flour-based noodle dough was than those for whole wheat flour-based dough and noodles. The relative
transformed into a typical V-type crystalline polymorph (with 2θ peaks crystallinities (C1) obtained from the XRD spectra were generally
at ∼20°) for cooked noodles containing whole wheat flour. The DO and higher for cooked noodles than those for noodle doughs, suggesting that
DD values were also consistently lower (P < 0.05) for dough and process of extrusion and cooking promoted the reassociation of neigh-
cooked noodle samples containing chickpea-wheat composite flour boring double helices into closely packed crystalline array. For noodle

Table 2
Molecular order and relative crystallinity obtained by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction of the noodle doughs and cooked yellow alkaline
noodles.
Samples Alkali content (%) 1047/1022 cm−1 ratio (DO) 995/1022 cm−1 ratio (DD) Crystallinity by XRD (C1, %)

a a
Noodle doughs Wheat 1.1096 ± 0.0009 1.0586 ± 0.0011 2.28 ± 0.06b
0.0 1.0731 ± 0.0036d 1.0408 ± 0.0017c 1.13 ± 0.01f
0.5 1.0936 ± 0.0063b 1.0418 ± 0.0095c 1.41 ± 0.01e
1.0 1.0819 ± 0.0014c 1.0606 ± 0.0003a 1.82 ± 0.09d
1.5 1.0953 ± 0.0006b 1.0496 ± 0.0017b 2.51 ± 0.01a
2.0 1.0716 ± 0.0011d 1.0565 ± 0.0009a 1.95 ± 0.06c
2.5 1.0625 ± 0.0007e 1.0328 ± 0.0011d 1.45 ± 0.02e
3.0 1.0604 ± 0.0047e 1.0435 ± 0.0042bc 1.11 ± 0.01f

Cooked noodles Wheat 1.2064 ± 0.0112a 1.2031 ± 0.0139a 2.72 ± 0.03h

0.0 1.0828 ± 0.0020b 1.0849 ± 0.0015b 16.47 ± 0.04a
0.5 1.0675 ± 0.0015b 1.0672 ± 0.0014b 9.32 ± 0.02d
1.0 1.0492 ± 0.0005c 1.0549 ± 0.0003c 9.87 ± 0.02b
1.5 1.0643 ± 0.0008c 1.0652 ± 0.0010cd 3.03 ± 0.02g
2.0 1.0974 ± 0.0012d 1.0841 ± 0.0004de 9.39 ± 0.02c
2.5 1.0819 ± 0.0027d 1.0748 ± 0.0033ef 7.90 ± 0.01e
3.0 1.0953 ± 0.0019e 1.0575 ± 0.0002f 6.32 ± 0.03f

DO (degree of order); DD (degree of double helix); Wheat refers to the whole wheat flour-based noodle samples without the addition of kansui; 0.0–3.0% represent
the chickpea-wheat composite flour-based dough and cooked noodle samples with different levels of kansui addition. Average values with different superscripts
within the same column for noodle doughs or cooked noodles are significant different at P < 0.05; statistical analyses were done for noodle doughs and cooked
noodles separately.

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F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

dough samples, the values of relative crystallinity (C1) and degree of structure. However, when kansui addition reached to 2.0–3.0%, the
order (DO) both increased at the low level of kansui addition gluten network tended to become more incoherent and looser, with a
(0.5–1.5%), followed by a decreased trend with higher levels of alkali large amount of starch granules leached out from the network. The
(2.0–3.0%). Such variation was also in accordance with the trend ob- interplay between the influence of high level of alkali on the gluten
served for G′ and G″ values obtained during the dynamic oscillation network formation and the increased degree of starch gelatinization
test. Several previous studies have suggested that the stabilizing effect could be responsible for changes in the microstructure obtained in this
of alkali could enhance the starch granule stability by electrostatic in- study. Similar effects of alkaline salt at varying concentrations on the
teractions between Na+, K+ ions and hydroxyl groups of starch, and microstructural characteristics of wheat flour-based noodles have also
this effect was especially pronounced at lower concentration of alkali been reported by Fan et al. (2018).
(Jane, 1993; Lii & Lee, 1993). This could most likely lead to the rela-
tively higher crystallinities and DO values at the low levels of kansui 3.9. CLSM of noodle dough and cooked yellow alkaline noodles
addition (0.5–1.5%). On the other hand, the existence of anions in
kansui could also exert a destabilization effect on starch granules by Confocal laser scanning micrographs (CLSM) can be used as an
disrupting the adjacent hydrogen bonds, as hypothesized by Oosten optical tool to monitor the morphological distributions of protein and
(1990). Such destabilizing effect might play a leading role than the starch macromolecules in cereal and legume-based foods. The starch
stabilizing effects of cations when at higher kansui concentration component was characterized by the green color and proteins by the red
(2.0–3.0%), contributing to the lower values of C1 and DO. The as- color, whereas the yellow color represented the composite structure of
sumption was further supported by the decreased intensity between starch and protein. Compared with the cooked noodles containing
3000 and 3600 cm−1 which is related to OeH stretching on the FT-IR chickpea-wheat composite flour, the whole wheat flour-based noodles
spectra for noodle dough samples containing 2.0–3.0% kansui. exhibited an extensible gluten matrix that covered starch granules, with
For freeze-dried noodles, an opposite trend was observed, the low more pronounced aggregation of proteins. With the addition of alkali
kansui addition (0.5–1.5%) tended to decrease the values of relative (0.5–2.0%), the well-developed gluten network was characterized by
crystallinity and degree of order, whereas higher concentration of the continuous yellow lumped structure distributed throughout the
kansui (2.0–3.0%) caused an increased trend in crystallinity (C1) and noodle dough samples. This suggested that a strengthened entangle-
DO values. During the cooking of noodle dough, a physical competition ment was formed between the two macromolecules in the clustered
between protein coagulation into a continuous network and starch network for noodle dough, especially at the low levels of kansui addi-
gelatinization would take place (Ding, Ainsworth, Plunkett, Tucker, & tion. Comparatively, when the alkali concentration reached to
Marson, 2006). The obtained results seemed plausible considering that 2.5–3.0%, a relatively weaker and less aggregated clustering network
the protein network was strengthened during cooking by disulfide structure was instead observed. This observation was consistent with
bonds when at lower kansui concentration (Table 1), which somewhat the rheological measurements as discussed above for noodle doughs.
protected the embedded starch granules being separated from the For cooked noodle samples, the low concentration of kansui (0.5–1.5%)
gluten matrix, leading to restricted mobility of amylose and amylo- addition seemed to somehow prevent the expansion of starch granules
pectin and thus a decreased C1 and DO values. Contrarily, as discussed and protected the well-embedded starch granules being dissociate from
above, the degree of starch gelatinization in extruded noodles was en- the gluten network. On the other hand, with the increase of alkali ad-
hanced with the addition of high levels of kansui. The higher degree of dition (2.0–3.0%), the protein network was impaired and tended to
gelatinization increased the mobility of amylose chains which further become less tight and less continuous, with a greater amount of rup-
increased the availability of amylose (AM) and amylopectin (AP) for tured starch granules being disassociated from the gluten network. This
AP-AP and AM-AP interactions. Lai, Karim, Norziah, and Seow (2002) observation also corresponded well with the results of SEM, the elec-
also reported that NaOH and other alkaline salts played a key role in trophoretic analysis, the results of cooking loss, water absorption, -SH
depolymerizing starch, especially upon heating. Consequently, the content, and textural properties for cooked noodle samples.
greater repolymerization of degraded starch in cooked noodles con-
taining high kansui concentration (2.0–3.0%) could also lead to the 4. Conclusion
higher values of C1 and DO, as a result of the strengthened association
of neighboring double helices. The yellow alkaline noodles were prepared by the partial substitu-
tion of wheat flour with chickpea flour at the level of 30%. The sup-
3.8. SEM of freeze-dried noodle dough and cooked yellow alkaline noodles plementation of chickpea flour tended to increase the viscoelastic
property while decrease the RVA viscosities of the noodle doughs.
The scanning electron micrographic images of the freeze-dried Meanwhile, a decreased extent of cross-linking and a less pronounced
noodle dough are presented in Fig. 4A (a–g). It can be clearly seen that aggregation of gluten network were also observed upon the in-
the addition of alkali tended to cause the formation of aggregates with corporation of chickpea flour into the wheat-based noodles. The effect
enlarged particle size as compared with control. The morphological of kansui addition (0–3.0%) on the dough rheological behavior and
characteristics of the cross-section of the cooked noodles are char- quality characteristics of chickpea-wheat composite flour-based noodles
acterized by the appearance of a continuous matrix with gelatinized was investigated. Both G′ and G″ increased with the increased level of
starch granules embedded in the developed gluten network (Fig. 4B). A kansui addition compared with control (0%) and reached to a max-
decreased extent of cross-linking and entanglement was observed upon imum point at 1.5% of kansui concentration. The observation was in
the incorporation of chickpea flour into the wheat-based noodle sam- accordance with the XRD and FT-IR results, where the C1 and DO va-
ples (Fig. 4B). This was in accordance with the significantly higher lues increased with the low level of kansui addition (0.5–1.5%), fol-
content of free -SH observed for the cooked noodle samples containing lowed by a decreased trend at higher levels of alkali concentration
composite flours (Table 1). The pronounced changes could also be (2.0–3.0%). The obtained results were further corroborated by the
observed in the internal structure of cooked noodles with varying CLSM observation that a strengthened entanglement was formed in the
kansui contents. The low levels of kansui addition (0.5–1.0%) resulted clustered network for noodle doughs, especially at the low levels of
in a membrane-like structure with smaller visible ditches and more alkali addition. The cooked yellow alkaline noodles generally exhibited
closely wrapped starch granules in the gluten network in comparison relatively higher C1 values than those for noodle doughs. When at high
with control (0%). With the increase of alkali addition (1.5–2.0%), the alkali concentration (2.5–3.0%), the reduction of -SH content was less
starch granules were further gelatinized, swollen, and partly fused to- pronounced, which also agreed with the electrophoretic profile, and the
gether, which were, nevertheless, still adherable to the protein network results of cooking properties and textural analysis that the higher levels

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F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

Fig. 4. (A) SEM of noodle dough samples; (B) SEM of cooked yellow alkaline noodles; (C) CLSM of noodle dough samples; (D) CLSM of cooked yellow alkaline
noodles; (a)–(g) represent the chickpea-wheat composite flour-based noodle dough or cooked noodle samples with different levels kansui addition, where (a) 0%; (b)
0.5%; (c) 1.0%; (d) 1.5%; (e) 2.0%; (f) 2.5%; (g) 3.0%; (h) represent the whole wheat flour based noodle dough or cooked noodle samples without kansui addition.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

of kansui addition (2.0–3.0%) tended to cause a remarkable increase in characteristics of chickpea-wheat composite flour-based noodles as af-
water absorption and cooking loss, as well as a significant decrease in fected by kansui addition could guarantee for a better understanding on
springiness and resilience of the noodle samples. It is thus re- the underlying mechanism explaining the behavior of gluten aggrega-
commended that the 1.5% of kansui addition would be optimal for the tion, starch interaction, and the end-use quality during dough mixing
production of chickpea-wheat composite flour-based alkaline noodles. and cooking process. The results obtained was expected to provide a
The interplay between the influence of alkali on the gluten network theoretical basis for the development of yellow alkaline noodles based
formation and the increased degree of starch gelatinization could be on chickpea-wheat flour blends with enriched nutritional values and
generally responsible for the obtained results for cooked noodles. The desired quality, as well as to further expedite the new market potential
SEM and CLSM observations suggested that the addition of 0.5–2.0% for chickpea flours.
level of alkali could improve the internal structure and thus the overall
quality of the cooked noodles, whereas with the increased amount of Declaration of Competing Interest
kansui addition (2.5–3.0%), the protein network was impaired with a
greater amount of ruptured starch granules being disassociated from The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
the gluten network, which was not conducive to the improvement of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
noodles quality. Basic knowledge of the dough rheology and quality ence the work reported in this paper.

9
F. Jia, et al. Food Chemistry 298 (2019) 125081

Fig. 4. (continued)

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National Natural Science Foundation of China (31501405), China; the of Asian alkaline noodles. Journal of Cereal Science, 43(1), 108–119.
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of China Avramenko, N. A., Tyler, R. T., Scanlon, M. G., Hucl, P., & Nickerson, M. T. (2018). The
chemistry of bread making: The role of salt to ensure optimal functionality of its
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