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Question:1
Discuss the phases involved in the use of system development life cycle is an approach in
information system development. (50)

System development life cycle is a process in software engineering that includes planning,

building, testing, and the overall structure of how an information system is developed and

maintained. The systems development life cycle serve as a programmatic guide to project

activity and provide a flexible but consistency way to conduct projects to a depth matching the

scope of the project. This process date back to the 1960s when groups of developers would join

together to find out the most efficient way to manage an information system. It is the backbone

of software engineering, which involves series of phases which need to be followed whenever

developers are doing a new product/ software. Phases includes, planning, preliminary analysis,

systems analysis, systems design, development, integration and testing, acceptance, installation,

and deployment, maintenance, evaluation and finally the disposal phase.

Initially, the planning phase is where the idea of a project is put down. The scope of whatever

that needs to done is properly identified here. This is where research is put into the resources

necessary, the human resources personnel that will work on the project, the budget of the project,

and also not to forget everything else that needs to be accomplished to determine the scope of the

project. Parag C. Pendharkara; James A. Rodgerb; Girish H. Subramanian (November 2008).

Secondly, the developers also conduct the preliminary analysis. This has to deal with the

problem under study by the developers. It enables the discovery of the organization`s objectives

and the nature and scope of the problem which they will be studying by that time. It also enables

the assessment of the entire project to see whether the problem under study fits in with them.

This will help the developers to propose alternative solutions. Thus, after digging into the

organization`s objectives and specific problems, several solutions may have been discovered.

Contrary, to this alternate proposals may still come from interviewing customers, workers,

suppliers, and consultants. The developers can also get an insight by searching what competitors

are doing, Taylor, James (2004).  To add on, the developers will have to assess the cost benefit

analysis. This help to analyze and describe the costs and benefits of implementing the proposed

changes. In the final analysis, the final decision on whether to leave the systems as is, improve it,

or develop a new system will be guided by this and the rest of the preliminary analysis data. By

assessing the cost benefit analysis, the developers will have to ascertain the potential risk the new

product pose to the end user, environment as well as the cost of producing it. If the costs

outweigh the benefits, the product would not be produced, but if the benefits outweigh costs,

they can continue with the production of the product. Also if costs outweigh benefits, the

developers can divert to other methods or to the process that is friendly.

More so, the developers will have to carry on an operational feasibility study. This measures how

well a proposed system solves the problems, provides the required solutions, and takes advantage

of the opportunities identified during scope definition, and how the system satisfies the

requirements in the requirements analysis phase of the system development life cycle,

Cummings, Haag (2006). 

Furthermore, the developers will have to carry on the systems analysis. This defines the project

goals broken down into defined functions and operations and operation of the application. This

phase enables the gathering of facts, interpretation of facts, diagnosing problems and also to

recommend improvements. This phase uses several tools which include, CASE (Computer Aided

Systems/ Software Engineering), Requirements Gathering, Structured Analysis and Design

Technique (SADT). CASE organizes and controls the development of software or systems

through use of a computer-assisted method. It allows everyone to share a common view of the

project and where it stands at each stage of development. Requirements Gathering provides

alternative means to illustrate, explain, and specify exactly what must be delivered to meet

business goals. SADT helps people describe and understand systems through a diagrammatic

notation. It can be used as a functional analysis tool of a given process, using successive levels of

detail, Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information Systems. In systems analysis, project

goals will be further aided by analysis of end user information needs and the removal of any

inconsistencies and incompleteness in these requirements. The developers will have to identify

pros and cons of the current system in place, so as to carry the pros and avoid the cons in the new

system. Further, they will have to find solutions to the shortcomings described in step two and

prepare the specifications using any specific user proposals.

In addition, the developers will also go on to carry on a system design. They describe in detail

the desired features and operations, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams,

pseudo code, and other documentation. The main objective of this phase is to transform all

requirements into detailed specifications covering all aspects of the system. It should also assess

and plan for security risks. Lastly, approval to progress to the development phase must be

granted to complete the systems design phase. The real work starts in the design stage and
company resources start to finance the product, Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006). During this

stage the developers figurers out what the finished product will look like once development is

completed, leaving potentially risky design choices along the way. Eventually, after this stage the

developers will know what features it will have, and how its inner workings will be built.

Furthermore, the developers will then develop the product. In this phase, code is written for the

desired features and operations. Coding uses tools like compilers, interpreters and language. The

main objective of this phase is to build the system, test and integrate the units into larger

components, prepare the technical environment for the system, and finally get approval to

progress to the integration and testing phase. This is the most crucial phase during the

development of an application and it is considered the most robust. It is where most of the labour

goes into, Unhelkar, B. (2016). The Art of Agile Practice: A Composite Approach for Projects

and Organizations. In this phase, the company is all-in on the project, and the information system

is built to specification. Development, enables the real production to take place. The idea that has

been shaped out through from all the phases is now made a reality in this stage.

Additionally, the developing team will then, move to the testing and integration phase. It

involves the use of quality assurance team to ensure that everything is functioning according to

plan. This involves bugs fixes, as well as the specific improvements based on the feedback of the

quality assurance team. In this phase, most aspects of the program are brought online, one after

another. In this phase, last minute improvements are made which could shift the overall focus of

the information system toward a more efficient direction. Geoffrey Elliott & Josh Strachan

(2004) Global Business Information Technology. During this phase, the developers test the

system for errors and bugs so as to make it compliant and more accurate. The phase consists of

many types which include path testing, data set testing, unit testing, systems testing, integration
testing, black-box testing, white-box testing, regression testing, automation testing, user

acceptance testing, and software performance testing.

Path testing ensures that every path through a problem has been executed at least once. Data set

testing group system into a training set and testing set then randomly samples the data to help

ensure that the testing and training sets are similar. Unit testing takes individual units of software

source code and tests them to determine whether they are fit for use. System testing conducts

testing on a complete, integrated system to evaluate the system`s compliance with its specified

requirements. Integration testing combines and tests individual software module as a group.

Black-box testing examines the functionality of an application without peering it no its internal

structures. White-box testing tests internal structures or workings of an application giving an

internal perspective of the system. Regression testing verifies that software that was previously

developed and tested still performs correctly after it was changed or interfaced with other

software. Automation testing automates some repetitive tasks in a formalized testing process

already in place, US Department of Justice (2003). User acceptance testing tests software in the

real world by the intended user. It is also as beta-testing. Software performance testing

determines how a system performs in terms of responsiveness and stability under a particular

workload.

More so, the developer will then install, deploy and also check on the acceptance of the

application by the end user. This phase puts the software into production and runs as needed. If

application performs according to plan and specifications and represents the system, the

developer moves on to the next phase of maintenance. However, during the deployment process

of the system there are two processes of changeover which are direct changeover and parallel

run. Direct changeover consists of the one-to-one replacement of the old and new systems while
in parallel run both systems are executed simultaneously and if the data is the same between the

manual process and the system, the application is then deployed. Taylor, G.D. (2008).  This

phase is commonly referred to as the acceptance, installation and deployment phase. In this

phase the end user start to use the product.

The other phase in the system development life cycle is the maintenance phase. This is the phase

which assesses and ensures that the system does not become outdated. The main agenda of the

maintenance phase is to manage all changes to the system to support the end user, monitor the

system`s performance, perform required security activities, and finally move into the training and

documentation for end user support. The phase makes use of feedback from end-users to make

changes. This involves addressing any bugs that may still be present in the system. It also

continue to help make improvements to the now full-implemented information system.

In addition, the developer goes on to evaluate the product for its weaknesses and strength. This is

called the evaluation stage. This phase identifies whether the system meets the initial

requirements and objectives. Kay, Russell (May 14, 2002). The main objective of the evaluation

phase of the systems development life cycle is to deploy the system and train the system end

users. Some of the issues which are dealt with in this phase include the product`s reliability,

fault-tolerance as well as functioning of the information system. Additionally, evaluating the

system that was released, is important to assess the effectiveness of the development process. If

there are any aspects of the entire process that management is not satisfied with, this is the time

to improve.

Lastly, the disposal phase. This is the last phase were plans are then developed for discontinuing

the use of system information, hardware, and software and making the movement to the new

system. The main agenda of this phase is to properly move, archive, discard, or destroy the
information, hardware, and software that is being replaced, in a manner that prevents any

possibility of unauthorized disclosure of sensitive data. Land, S.K.; Smith, D.B.; Walz, J.W.

(2012). Activities in this phase ensure proper migration to a new system. Particular emphasis is

given to proper preservation and archiving of data processed by the organization`s security

requirements.

In conclusion, not every project will require sequential execution of the phases, hence, the phases

are interdependent. Phases may be combined or may overlap depending upon the size and

complexity of the project. System development life cycle makes sure the system meet the

required specifications and once there is a problem it is easily picked and eventually the final

product will have little or problems after the all the phases are followed perfectly.

References;

^ Parag C. Pendharkara; James A. Rodgerb; Girish H. Subramanian (November 2008). "An

empirical study of the Cobb–Douglas production function properties of software development

effort". Information and Software Technology,

Taylor, James (2004). Managing Information Technology Projects,

Cummings, Haag (2006). Management Information Systems for the Information Age. Toronto,

McGraw-Hill Ryerson,
Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information Systems. Palgrave, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-

230-20368-6,

Geoffrey Elliott & Josh Strachan (2004) Global Business Information Technology. p.87,

US Department of Justice (2003), information management resources Chapter 1. Introduction,

Unhelkar, B. (2016). The Art of Agile Practice: A Composite Approach for Projects and

Organizations. CRC Press. pp. 56–59. ISBN 9781439851197,

Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006). Systems Engineering and Analysis, Fourth Edition. Prentice

Hall.

Explain why it is important for a business manager to have an appreciation of management

information system (25).

Management information system can be defined as the knowledge communicated by others or

obtained from investigation or study. It is generally defined as an integrated user-machine system

for providing information to support operations, management and decision-making function in an

organization. Management information system is considered a stronghold of any business to

make it a success by countering competition and failures. It is of paramount importance for

management to have an appreciation of the management information system. The managers need

to aware and be able to partake in whatever that needs to be done for a number of reasons which

are explained in the essay below.

Initially, the management need to have an understanding of the management information of an

organization. Automatic information play a pivotal role in productivity improvement in an

organization. It is important for a manager of an organization to gain a better insight of how

computer systems are important to everybody within the organization. It is important to

understand how managers use the information and this can be explained by styles used by

managers for instance, the knowledge executive and the manager as computer-based

information. The knowledge executive operates with a computer to process information, analyze

it and then interpret it for use, (KY, Cengage Learning, 2007). More importantly, the manager

will be able to work with the computer when executing his roles. Contrary, the manager mainly

depends on the works of others such as junior staff and assistants to get the information.

Secondly, managers need to have an understanding of the management information system so

that they can be in a better position understand their workforce in such a way that they can

determine how receptive they are to change. For instance, if people can easily embrace new

technological changes, the managers will be in a better position to introduce new information

systems that would be effective and efficient allowing proper utilization of resources, (NY, M.E.

Sharpe. Inc., 1980). 

Thirdly, managers need to have an understanding of the management information systems in

order to improve efficiency and productivity. For instance, a good records management program

like a document system can help any organization upgrade its recordkeeping systems so that

information retrieval is enhanced, with corresponding improvements in office efficiency as well

as productivity. The time that is taken in searching for missing or misfiled record is non-

productive. If the filing system is well designed and operated with an effective index can
facilitate retrieval and deliver information to users very fast whenever it is needed. Additionally,

a well-managed information system being an acting corporate asset enables organizations to

objectively evaluate their use of information and accurately lay out a roadmap for improvements

that optimize business returns.

In addition, it is of vital importance for managers to have an appreciation of the management

information system so that they can be able to make important decisions in every level of the

organization. More importantly, in this aggressive business environment where survival against

stiff competition is of paramount importance, a manager with relevant data wins, either by

making decisions ahead of competitors, or by making a better, more informed decision. A good

management information system can help ensure that managers and executives have the

information they need whenever it is needed, (Wiley Inter-science, 2008). Further, if a company

implement an enterprise-wide file organization, including indexing and retrieval capability,

managers can obtain and assemble pertinent information quickly for current decisions and future

business planning purposes. More importantly, if a company implements a good ERP systems to

make account of all the business` processes both financial and operational will enable an

organization to have more advantages than that one which was being operated using a manual

based system.

More-so, the understanding of the management information system by managers is of paramount

importance to an organization in order to safeguard vital information. Every organization either

private or public, requires a comprehensive program in order to protect its vital records and

information from being destroyed. These programs records are of greatest importance to any

organization because if a good management information system is maintained, preserve the

integrity and confidentiality of the most important records and safeguard the vital information
assets according to a plan to keep these records safe and sound. This is mostly the case or

financial information whereby Enterprise Resource Planning systems are being deployed in big

companies for instance unilever (Pvt Ltd) which manufactures household products across the

globe with subsidiaries in many countries.  (MA, John Wiley and Sons, 2008).

Further-more, managers need to have an appreciation of the management information system

because it enables the company to reduce operating costs. The keeping of records requires funds

to administer for filing equipment, space in offices and staffing to maintain an organized filing

system. It costs considerably less per linear foot of records to store inactive records in a Data

Records versus in the office. There is an opportunity to effect some cost savings in space and

equipment, and an opportunity to utilize staff more productively- just by implementing a records

management program. A well-managed and organized management information system reduce

unnecessary costs within an organization.  Kenneth, Kraemer. The Usefulness of Computer-

Based Information to Public Managers. Pg. 14. Costs related to staff to organize data, process

and implement are reduced if the system is well managed and organised. It also helps in goal

setting, strategic planning and evolving the business plans and their implementation. Information

generation, communication, problem and solving and identification as well as the process of

decision-making.

In a nutshell, organization today just cannot do it and develop without well organized,

implemented, maintained management information system. It is of paramount importance for a

company to have its managers have an appreciation of the management information system so

that their work will be easy to execute. Managers should see that information generated possess
good qualities such as reliability, relevance, and consistency as well as comparability to name

but only a few.

References

Ammons, David. “Common Barriers to Productivity Improvement in Local Government,” Public

Productivity Review, 9: 187-202. NY, M.E. Sharpe Inc., 1985.

Worthley, John. “Computer Technology and Productivity Improvement,” Public Productivity

Review (NY, M.E. Sharpe. Inc., 1980).

Ouadahi, Jamal. A Qualitative Analysis of Factors Associated with User Acceptance and

Rejection of a New Workplace Information System in the Public Sector; A Conceptual Model.

(Wiley Inter-science, 2008).

Cohen, Steve, Eimicke, William, and Heikkila, Tanya. The Effective Public Manager: Achieving

Success in a Changing Government, (MA, John Wiley and Sons, 2008).

  Porter, Gary and Norton, Curtis. Financial Accounting: The Impact on Decision Makers (KY,

Cengage Learning, 2007).

 
Rubin, Barry. Information Systems for Public Management: Design and Implementation.

 
Groenewegen, Peter and Wagenaar, Pieter. Managing emergent information systems: Towards

understanding how public information systems come into being.

 Kenneth, Kraemer. The Usefulness of Computer-Based Information to Public Managers.

Discuss threats to the use of digital technologists in business. (25)

Technological break-through has brought about a lot of benefits to the business community,

hence many have embraced it with so much joy without weighing its pros and cons. It has

allowed small fries to compete with big companies on the world through online advertising and

marketing as well as knowledge sharing. To a large extent technological development has

resulted in improved business experience, however it have got a number of setbacks in the form

of threats which has resulted in the loss of billions of dollars annually as a result of hackers and

data loss. These threats can be in the form of cyber-attacks, software and data non-compliance,

employee data security breaches, cloud storage applications, ransom ware, to name but only a

few.

Initially, cyber-attacks has brought about difficult challenges to the business world. It is one of

the top ten threats to the globalized business community according to the World Economic

Forum (WEF). The main aim of these external intruders is to gain entry to crucial company

assets like financial information, personal data, of intellectual property. Oberheide, J., Jahanian,
F., (2010). Sometimes they only get access company systems to disrupt work operations. For

instance, early this year TM Pick n Pay group of supermarkets experienced such a horrible

experience of intruders which resulted in the loss of millions of Zimbabwean dollars which it

later recovers after an investigation. This has been agitated by technological evolution, it the

reason why it is important to actively safeguard company`s data and systems. However, the

company has to embark on a number of programs in order to make sure that its data is safe. It

must ensure that all its systems are protected by updated and high-quality security programs. It

should not be compromised on. The company can also make sure that it only give its employees

information only that they need for their functions, that is restricting access to its information and

data. Additionally, it should shut down systems and remove portable storage devices after use so

they are not the victims of the attackers and make sure its data is encrypted so that hackers are

unable to decode it even if they have gained access to it. More importantly, the company need to

put more emphasis on it more important asset the employee. It must make sure its employees

receive proper and sufficient training to recognize these hackers.

Secondly, an employee can be a danger to the company. Employees can be tricked by intruders

but deep down a study has proven that 20% of people who steal data and pass it to competitors

are its employees. This along with employee negligence create the largest cyber-security risk for

millions hard working Zimbabwean businesses. On the other hand this needs to be battled on two

fronts. Firstly, an employee needs to receive proper training and education, this can prevent

negligent breaches. If one knows that a virtual machine is useless after being stolen or that taking

data offsite is grounds for dismissal, they are less likely to take unnecessary risks. More-over,

their access on company computers can be restricted so that they accidentally install spyware or

other applications that crack open security holes. Archive all outgoing e-mails sent from
corporate accounts and also if an employee is fired or quits, immediately remove their access

privileges, Comput, Fraud Secur. 2005(5), 4–8 (2005). Mischievous employees are difficult to

deal with in order to stop them from such malicious acts, but in the final it is possible. This can

be better achieved by utilizing clear data policies, enforcing strict employee agreements and

monitoring employee access, organizations can cut down on malicious in-house data security

breaches.

Thirdly, another threat is caused by cloud storage applications. The advent of cloud computing

has opened door for cyber criminals to gain easier access to company’s data and information.

The service of these applications need not to be avoided so as to make sure company`s data is

kept safe. However, this can be overcame by choosing a reputable information technology

company to handle company`s storage and network, Hess, T., Matt, C., Benlian, A., Wiesb¨ock,

F, (2016). This can be enhanced by the dual factor authentication and other security tools and

therefore the company can take advantage of all the cloud`s benefits without risking the

company`s or client`s data, for example Microsoft office.

Additionally, most businesses has been the victims of ransom ware. This is a situation whereby

the computer appears to have gotten virus that says it can only be removed with the purchase of a

specific tool or software or application. . SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks (2014).

Professional hackers can block access to your entire network until ransom money has been paid.

Unfortunately, these attacks spiked in 2017 in the United States, in Zimbabwe the cases have

gone high early this year. To a greater extent, proper training and education of employees is of

paramount importance in preventing this sort of breach. Further, the company need to put some

good funds aside as investment against these malicious actions and behavior because good
information technology work and powerful antivirus programs can keep ransom ware away from

any organization. It is better off to be assured that investment is much cheaper than having

company`s data security threatened.

Further-more, improper hardware has proven to be a threat to business technology in a great

way. The company`s drives, CDs, USBs among other tools, probably may contain a lot of

sensitive data stored in them. Further, cheap storage options now available which have lured

many companies to store tones of old or redundant data has resulted in data which is poorly

organized and difficult to protect. Obsolete or out of use information should be tossed but proper

data erasure require dedicated effort. A study in America in 2016 showed that 78% of all hard

drives disposed of still contained personal or confidential information. It was further proven that

40% of the drives had undergone a quick format but still contained critical information. Leaving

data in wrong hands can lead to major setbacks for the company and this should be avoided by

following rigorous data wiping procedures. If the undestroyed information is found by hackers

and competitors it can lead to loss of money, Okman, L., Gal-Oz, N., Gonen, Y., Gudes, E.,

Abramov, J, (2011). This data can give them entry into the company`s system which in the

eventual process result in the company losing billions of dollars in trying recover that

information from bad hands.

More-over, the company can also overcome being bullied in the online world by avoiding

software and data non-compliance. The evolution of technology have enabled companies to have

too many tools on their hands and ensuring compliance becomes difficult. Non-compliance with

information technology can result in big financial losses. Software vendors can send expensive

lawsuits on your way and cause major disruptions in your workflows. Further-more, data with
data protection policies for instance GDPR, data processing is also bound to conform to a set of

regulations, Kane, G., Palmer, D., Phillips, A., Kiron, D., Buckley, N (2015). By so doing, taking

the right action can help take the weight off one`s shoulders. The company can set up a dedicated

compliance team by performing internal audits twice a year to assess the entire compliance

framework. It can also ensure that one understand all vendor terms before he or she continues to

software. More-so, the company can do by entrusting a set of individuals with the responsibility

of monitoring compliance so it is actively taken care of. Finally, the company can make sure it

have compliance expertise and legal help at hand at all times.

In summation, the effective protection from technological risks cannot be achieved single-

handedly. It requires everyone`s dedicated effort from all angles of an organization, hence the

company must make sure that it does not restrict its employees the required knowledge and

training so that it can fully achieve its goal of maximum data security and digital technological

threat free business world.

References

Behl, A., Behl, K.: An analysis of cloud computing security issues. In: 2012 World

Congress on Information and Communication Technologies, October

2012.

Kane, G., Palmer, D., Phillips, A., Kiron, D., Buckley, N.: Strategy, not technology,

Drives digital transformation. MIT Sloan Manag. Rev. Deloitte Univ. Press, 1–25

(2015).

Lankshear, C., Knobel, M.: Digital Literacies: Concepts, Policies and Practices,

vol. 30. Kane, G., Palmer, D., Phillips, A., Kiron, D., Buckley, N

Morel, B.: Artificial intelligence and the future of cyber security. In: Proceedings of

The 4th ACM Workshop on Security and Artificial Intelligence, Chicago, Illinois,
USA, AISec 2011, pp. 93–98. ACM, New York.

Creswell, J.W.: Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods

Approaches. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks (2014).

Furnell, S.: Handheld hazards: the rise of malware on mobile devices. Comput.

Fraud Secur. 2005(5), 4–8 (2005).

Hess, T., Matt, C., Benlian, A., Wiesb¨ock, F.: Options for formulating a digital

Transformation strategy 15(2), 123–139 (2016).

Kane, G., Palmer, D., Phillips, A., Kiron, D., Buckley, N.: Strategy, not technology,

Drives digital transformation. MIT Sloan Manag. Rev. Deloitte Univ. Press, 1–25

(2015).

Lankshear, C., Knobel, M.: Digital Literacies: Concepts, Policies and Practices,

vol. 30. Peter Lang Publishing, Bern (2008).

Okman, L., Gal-Oz, N., Gonen, Y., Gudes, E., Abramov, J.: Security issues in

NoSQL databases. In: 2011 IEEE 10th International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy

in Computing and Communications, pp. 541–547, November 2011