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Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːrkɪˈmiːdiːz/;[3] Ancient Greek:
Archimedes of Syracuse
Ἀρχιμήδης; Doric Greek:  [ar.kʰi.mɛː.dɛ̂ ːs]; c. 287 – c. 212 BC) was a
Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and Ἀρχιμήδης
astronomer.[4] Although few details of his life are known, he is
regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity.
Considered to be the greatest mathematician of ancient history,
and one of the greatest of all time,[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]
Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by
applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of
exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical
theorems,[15][16] including: the area of a circle; the surface area
and volume of a sphere; area of an ellipse; the area under a
parabola; the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution;
the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution; and the
area of a spiral.[17][18]

His other mathematical achievements include deriving an

accurate approximation of pi; defining and investigating the
spiral that now bears his name; and devising a system using
Archimedes Thoughtful

exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also

one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, by Domenico Fetti (1620)
founding hydrostatics and statics, including an explanation of the Born c. 287 BC

principle of the lever. Archimedes also introduced one of the Syracuse, Sicily,
most fundamental concepts of physics, the center of gravity, as Magna Graecia
well as the laws of buoyancy. He is credited with designing
innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, Died c. 212 BC (aged
and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from approximately 75)

invasion. Syracuse, Sicily,

Magna Graecia
Archimedes died during the siege of Syracuse, where he was
Known for List
killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be
harmed. Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes, which Archimedes' principle

was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder, which Archimedes Archimedes' screw

had requested be placed on his tomb to represent his Statics

mathematical discoveries. Hydrostatics

Law of the lever

Unlike his inventions, the mathematical writings of Archimedes Indivisibles

were little known in antiquity. Mathematicians from Alexandria

Neuseis
read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation
constructions[1]

was not made until c. 530 AD by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine

Constantinople, while commentaries on the works of Archimedes List of other things
written by Eutocius in the 6th century AD opened them to wider named after him
readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Scientific career
Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages
were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Fields Mathematics

Renaissance and again in the 17th century,[19][20] while the Physics

discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in Engineering

the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how Astronomy

he obtained mathematical results.[21][22][23][24] Mechanics

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Influences Eudoxus

Contents Influenced Apollonius[2]

Hero

Biography Pappus

Discoveries and inventions Eutocius

Archimedes' principle
Influence
Archimedes' screw
Claw of Archimedes
Heat ray
Modern tests
Lever
Astronomical instruments
Mathematics
Method of exhaustion
Archimedean property
The infinite series
Myriad of myriads
Writings
Surviving works
On the Equilibrium of Planes
Measurement of a Circle
On Spirals
On the Sphere and Cylinder
On Conoids and Spheroids
On Floating Bodies
The Quadrature of the Parabola
Ostomachion
The cattle problem
The Sand Reckoner
The Method of Mechanical Theorems
Apocryphal works
Archimedes Palimpsest
Legacy
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
External links

Biography

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Archimedes was born c. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse,

Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia. The
date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek
historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years before
his death in 212 BC.[18] In the Sand-Reckoner, Archimedes gives
his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing
else is known.[26] A biography of Archimedes was written by his
friend Heracleides, but this work has been lost, leaving the details
of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever
married or had children, or if he ever visited Alexandria, Egypt,
during his youth.[27] From his surviving written works, it is clear
that he maintained collegiate relations with scholars based there, The Death of Archimedes (1815) by
including his friend Conon of Samos and the head librarian Thomas Degeorge[25]
Eratosthenes of Cyrene.[a]

The standard versions of the life of Archimedes were written long after his death by Greek and Roman
historians. The earliest reference to Archimedes occurs in The Histories by Polybius (c. 200–118 BC),
written about seventy years after his death. It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person, and
focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city from the
Romans.[28] Polybius remarks how, during the Second Punic War, Syracuse switched allegiances
from Rome to Carthage, resulting in a military campaign to take the city under the command of
Marcus Claudius Marcellus and Appius Claudius Pulcher, which lasted from 213 to 212 BC. He notes
that the Romans underestimated Syracuse's defenses, and mentions several machines designed by
Archimedes, including improved catapults, crane-like machines that could swung around in an arc,
and stone-throwers. Although the Romans ultimately captured the city, they suffered considerable
losses due to the inventiveness of Archimedes.[29]

Cicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes in some of his works.

While serving as a quaestor in Sicily, Cicero found what was
presumed to be Archimedes' tomb near the Agrigentine gate in
Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes.
Cicero had the tomb cleaned up and was able to see the carving
and read some of the verses that had been added as an
inscription. The tomb carried a sculpture illustrating Archimedes'
favorite mathematical proof, that the volume and surface area of
the sphere are two-thirds that of the cylinder including its
Cicero Discovering the Tomb of
bases.[30][31] He also mentions that Marcellus brought to Rome
Archimedes (1805) by Benjamin
two planetariums built by Archimedes.[32] The Roman historian
West
Livy (59 BC–17 AD) retells Polybius' story regarding the capture
of Syracuse and Archimedes' role in it.[28]

Plutarch (45–119 AD) wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the
ruler of Syracuse.[33] He also provides at least two accounts on how Archimedes died after the city
was taken. According to the most popular account, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical
diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet Marcellus,
but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by this
and killed Archimedes with his sword. Another story has Archimedes carrying mathematical
instruments before being killed because a soldier thought they were valuable items. Marcellus was
reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset (he
called Archimedes "a geometrical Briareus") and had ordered that he should not be harmed.[34][35]

The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles" (Latin, "Noli turbare circulos
meos"; Katharevousa Greek, "μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε"), a reference to the circles in the
mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. There
is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account
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given by Plutarch. A similar quote is found in the work of Valerius Maximus (fl. 30 AD), who wrote in
Memorable Doings and Sayings "... sed protecto manibus puluere 'noli' inquit, 'obsecro, istum
disturbare'" ("... but protecting the dust with his hands, said 'I beg of you, do not disturb this' ").[28]

Discoveries and inventions

Archimedes' principle

The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of

how he invented a method for determining the volume of an
object with an irregular shape. According to Vitruvius, a
votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II of
Syracuse, who had supplied the pure gold to be used;
Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had
been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith.[36] Archimedes
had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he A metal bar, placed into a container of
could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order water on a scale, displaces as much
to calculate its density. water as its own volume, increasing the
mass of the container's contents and
In Vitruvius' account, Archimedes noticed while taking a weighing down the scale.
bath that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in,
and realized that this effect could be used to determine the
volume of the crown. For practical purposes water is incompressible,[37] so the submerged crown
would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the
volume of water displaced, the density of the crown could be obtained. This density would be lower
than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added. Archimedes then took to the
streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress, crying "Eureka!" (Greek:
"εὕρηκα, heúrēka!, lit. 'I have found [it]!').[36] The test on the crown was conducted successfully,
proving that silver had indeed been mixed in.[38]

The story of the golden crown does not appear anywhere in the known works of Archimedes. The
practicality of the method it describes has been called into question due to the extreme accuracy that
would be required while measuring the water displacement.[39] Archimedes may have instead sought
a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as Archimedes' principle, which he
describes in his treatise On Floating Bodies. This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid
experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.[40] Using this principle, it
would have been possible to compare the density of the crown to that of pure gold by balancing the
crown on a scale with a pure gold reference sample of the same weight, then immersing the apparatus
in water. The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip
accordingly.[41] Galileo Galilei, who in 1586 invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air
and water inspired by the work of Archimedes, considered it "probable that this method is the same
that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by
Archimedes himself."[42][43]

Influence

In a 12th-century text titled Mappae clavicula there are instructions on how to perform the weighings
in the water in order to calculate the percentage of silver used, and to solve the problem.[44][45] The
Latin poem Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris of the 4th or 5th century describes the use of a
hydrostatic balance to solve the problem of the crown, and attributes the method to Archimedes.[44]

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Archimedes' screw

A large part of Archimedes' work in engineering probably arose

from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse. The Greek
writer Athenaeus of Naucratis described how King Hiero II
commissioned Archimedes to design a huge ship, the Syracusia,
which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a
naval warship. The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship
built in classical antiquity.[46] According to Athenaeus, it was
capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations,
a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite The Archimedes' screw can raise
among its facilities. Since a ship of this size would leak a water efficiently.
considerable amount of water through the hull, the Archimedes'
screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge
water. Archimedes' machine was a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder. It
was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a low-lying body of water into
irrigation canals. The Archimedes' screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated
solids such as coal and grain. The Archimedes' screw described in Roman times by Vitruvius may
have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon.[47][48] The world's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes,
which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw.[49]

Claw of Archimedes

The Claw of Archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of
Syracuse. Also known as "the ship shaker", the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large
metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm
would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. There have been
modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled
Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable
device.[50][51]

Heat ray

Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking
Syracuse.
The 2nd century AD author Lucian wrote that during the siege of Syracuse (c. 214–212 BC),
Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire. Centuries later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning-
glasses as Archimedes' weapon.[52] The device, sometimes called the "Archimedes heat ray", was used
to focus sunlight onto approaching ships, causing them to catch fire. In the modern era, similar
devices have been constructed and may be referred to as a heliostat or solar furnace.[53]

This purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing debate about its credibility since the
Renaissance. René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate
the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes.[54] It has been
suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have
been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship.

Modern tests

A test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas. The
experiment took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens. On this occasion 70 mirrors
were used, each with a copper coating and a size of around 5 by 3 feet (1.52 m × 0.91 m). The mirrors
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were pointed at a plywood mock-up of a Roman warship at a

distance of around 160 feet (49  m). When the mirrors were
focused accurately, the ship burst into flames within a few
seconds. The plywood ship had a coating of tar paint, which may
have aided combustion.[55] A coating of tar would have been
commonplace on ships in the classical era.[b]

In October 2005 a group of students from the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one-
foot (30  cm) square mirror tiles, focused on a mock-up wooden
ship at a range of around 100 feet (30 m). Flames broke out on a
patch of the ship, but only after the sky had been cloudless and
the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes. It was
concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these
conditions. The MIT group repeated the experiment for the
Archimedes may have used mirrors
television show MythBusters, using a wooden fishing boat in San
acting collectively as a parabolic
Francisco as the target. Again some charring occurred, along with
reflector to burn ships attacking
a small amount of flame. In order to catch fire, wood needs to
Syracuse.
reach its autoignition temperature, which is around 300  °C
(572 °F).[56][57]

When MythBusters broadcast the result of the San Francisco

experiment in January 2006, the claim was placed in the category
of "busted" (i.e. failed) because of the length of time and the ideal
weather conditions required for combustion to occur. It was also
pointed out that since Syracuse faces the sea towards the east, the
Roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for
optimal gathering of light by the mirrors. MythBusters also Artistic interpretation of Archimedes'
pointed out that conventional weaponry, such as flaming arrows mirror used to burn Roman ships.
or bolts from a catapult, would have been a far easier way of Painting by Giulio Parigi, c. 1599.
setting a ship on fire at short distances.[58]

In December 2010, MythBusters again looked at the heat ray story in a special edition entitled
"President's Challenge". Several experiments were carried out, including a large scale test with 500
schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a mock-up of a Roman sailing ship 400 feet (120 m) away. In all of
the experiments, the sail failed to reach the 210 °C (410 °F) required to catch fire, and the verdict was
again "busted". The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding,
dazzling, or distracting the crew of the ship.[59]

Lever

While Archimedes did not invent the lever, he gave an explanation of the principle involved in his
work On the Equilibrium of Planes.[60] Earlier descriptions of the lever are found in the Peripatetic
school of the followers of Aristotle, and are sometimes attributed to Archytas.[61][62] According to
Pappus of Alexandria, Archimedes' work on levers caused him to remark: "Give me a place to stand
on, and I will move the Earth" (Greek: δῶς μοι πᾶ στῶ καὶ τὰν γᾶν κινάσω).[63] Plutarch describes
how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of
leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move.[64] Archimedes has also
been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the
odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism
that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled.[65]

Astronomical instruments
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Archimedes discusses astronomical measurements of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, as well as
Aristarchus' heliocentric model of the universe, in the Sand-Reckoner. Despite a lack of trigonometry
and a table of chords, Archimedes describes the procedure and instrument used to make observations
(a straight rod with pegs or grooves),[66][67] applies correction factors to these measurements, and
finally gives the result in the form of upper and lower bounds to account for observational error.[26]
Ptolemy, quoting Hipparchus, also references Archimedes's solstice observations in the Almagest.
This would make Archimedes the first known Greek to have recorded multiple solstice dates and
times in successive years.[27]

Cicero mentions Archimedes briefly in his dialogue, De re publica, which portrays a fictional
conversation taking place in 129  BC. After the capture of Syracuse c. 212  BC, General Marcus
Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms, constructed by Archimedes
and used as aids in astronomy, which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero
mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus. The dialogue
says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated the
other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome. Marcellus' mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero,
by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus, who described it thus:[68][69]

Hanc sphaeram Gallus cum moveret, fiebat When Gallus moved the globe, it happened that
ut soli luna totidem conversionibus in aere the Moon followed the Sun by as many turns on
illo quot diebus in ipso caelo succederet, ex that bronze contrivance as in the sky itself, from
quo et in caelo sphaera solis fieret eadem which also in the sky the Sun's globe became to
illa defectio, et incideret luna tum in eam have that same eclipse, and the Moon came then
metam quae esset umbra terrae, cum sol e to that position which was its shadow on the
regione. Earth, when the Sun was in line.

This is a description of a planetarium or orrery. Pappus of Alexandria stated that Archimedes had
written a manuscript (now lost) on the construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere-
Making.[32][70] Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism,
another device built c. 100  BC that was probably designed for the same purpose.[71] Constructing
mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing.[72]
This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but
the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were
known to the ancient Greeks.[73][74]

Mathematics
While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices,
Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics.
Plutarch wrote that Archimedes "placed his whole affection and
ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no
reference to the vulgar needs of life",[34] though some scholars
believe this may be a mischaracterization.[75][76][77]

Archimedes used Pythagoras'

Method of exhaustion theorem to calculate the side of the
12-gon from that of the hexagon and
Archimedes was able to use indivisibles (a precursor to for each subsequent doubling of the
infinitesimals) in a way that is similar to modern integral sides of the regular polygon.
calculus.[15] Through proof by contradiction (reductio ad
absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary

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degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known
as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the areas of figures and the value of
π.

In Measurement of a Circle, he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle then a
smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling the number of sides of each
regular polygon, calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the number of sides
increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such steps, when the
polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 3 71 (approx.
3.1429) and 3 10
71
(approx. 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416.[78]

Archimedean property

He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the
circle ( ). In On the Sphere and Cylinder, Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added
to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude. Today this is known as the Archimedean
property of real numbers.[79]

In Measurement of a Circle, Archimedes gives the value of the square

root of 3 as lying between 265153
(approximately 1.7320261) and 1351780
(approximately 1.7320512). The actual value is approximately
1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this
result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it. This
aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he
was: "as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his
investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of
inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results."[80] It
is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these
values.[81][82]

The infinite series

In The Quadrature of the Parabola, Archimedes proved that the area As proven by Archimedes,
enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 43 times the area of a the area of the parabolic
segment in the upper figure
corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He
is equal to 4/3 that of the
expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series
inscribed triangle in the
with the common ratio 41 : lower figure.

If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two
triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the
1
series 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · · which sums to 3 .

Myriad of myriads

In The Sand Reckoner, Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe
could contain. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large
to be counted. He wrote:
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There are some, King Gelo (Gelo II, son of Hiero II), who think that the number of the
sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about
Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether
inhabited or uninhabited.

To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad. The word itself
derives from the Greek μυριάς, murias, for the number 10,000. He proposed a number system using
powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million, i.e., 10,000 x 10,000) and concluded that the number of
grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8 × 1063.[83]

Writings
The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek, the dialect of
ancient Syracuse.[84] The written work of Archimedes has not survived
as well as that of Euclid, and seven of his treatises are known to have
existed only through references made to them by other authors. Pappus
of Alexandria mentions On Sphere-Making and another work on
polyhedra, while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction
from the now-lost Catoptrica.[c] During his lifetime, Archimedes made
his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in
Alexandria. The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the
Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus (c. 530  AD), while
commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the
sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience. Archimedes'
work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and
into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187  AD) and William of
Moerbeke (c. 1215–1286 AD).[85][86] During the Renaissance, the Editio 1615 edition of the works of
princeps (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Archimedes, titled
Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin.[87] Complete Works of
Archimedes in Greek, and
Surviving Works of
Surviving works Archimedes in Latin

On the Equilibrium of Planes

There are two volumes to On the Equilibrium of Planes: the first contains seven postulates and fifteen
propositions, while the second book contains ten propositions. In the first work Archimedes proves
the Law of the lever, which states that "magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally
proportional to their weights."

Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various
geometric figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas.[88]

Measurement of a Circle

This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence
with Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes
gives an approximation of the value of pi (π), showing that it is greater than 223
71
and less than 22
7
.

On Spirals

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This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called
the Archimedean spiral. It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point
moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant
angular velocity. Equivalently, in polar coordinates (r, θ) it can be described by the equation
with real numbers a and b.

This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point) considered by a
Greek mathematician.

On the Sphere and Cylinder

In this two-volume treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes

obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the
relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the
same height and diameter. The volume is 43 πr3 for the sphere,
and 2πr3 for the cylinder. The surface area is 4πr2 for the sphere,
and 6πr2 for the cylinder (including its two bases), where r is the
radius of the sphere and cylinder. The sphere has a volume
two-thirds that of the circumscribed cylinder. Similarly, the
sphere has an area two-thirds that of the cylinder (including the
bases). A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb
of Archimedes at his request.
A sphere has 2/3 the volume and
On Conoids and Spheroids surface area of its circumscribing
cylinder including its bases. A
This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this sphere and cylinder were placed on
treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections the tomb of Archimedes at his
of cones, spheres, and paraboloids. request. (see also: Equiareal map)

On Floating Bodies

In the first part of this two-volume treatise, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids,
and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity. This may have been an
attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the
Earth is round. The fluids described by Archimedes are not self-gravitating, since he assumes the
existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape.

In the second part, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was
probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under
water and the summit above water, similar to the way that icebergs float. Archimedes' principle of
buoyancy is given in the work, stated as follows:

Any body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid experiences an upthrust equal to, but
opposite in sense to, the weight of the fluid displaced.

The Quadrature of the Parabola

In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the
area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal
base and height. He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity

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with the ratio 41 .

Ostomachion

Also known as Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes'

Box,[89] this is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the
treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the
Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the
14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square. Research
published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003
argued that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many
ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square.
Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152
ways.[90] The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that Ostomachion is a dissection puzzle
are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been excluded.[91] in the Archimedes Palimpsest.
The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in
combinatorics.

The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient
Greek word for 'throat' or 'gullet', stomachos (στόμαχος).[92] Ausonius refers to the puzzle as
Ostomachion, a Greek compound word formed from the roots of osteon (ὀστέον, 'bone') and machē
(μάχη, 'fight').[89]

The cattle problem

This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem
of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany in 1773. It is addressed to
Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes challenges them to count the
numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations.
There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be
square numbers. This version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor[93] in 1880, and the
answer is a very large number, approximately 7.760271 × 10206 544.[94]

The Sand Reckoner

In this treatise, also known as Psammites, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand that will
fit inside the universe. This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by
Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance
between various celestial bodies. By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad,
Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 × 1063 in
modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an astronomer named
Phidias. The Sand Reckoner is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on
astronomy.[95]

The Method of Mechanical Theorems

This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work
Archimedes uses infinitesimals, and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of
infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes may have considered
this method lacking in formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results. As
with The Cattle Problem, The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to
Eratosthenes in Alexandria.
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Apocryphal works

Archimedes' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the
nature of circles. The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. The scholars T. L. Heath and
Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it
quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another author. The Lemmas may be based on an
earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost.[96]

It has also been claimed that Heron's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of
its sides was known to Archimedes.[d] The earliest reliable reference to the formula is given by Heron
of Alexandria in the 1st century AD.[97]

Archimedes Palimpsest

The foremost document containing the work of Archimedes is the

Archimedes Palimpsest. In 1906, the Danish professor Johan
Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople and examined a 174-page
goatskin parchment of prayers written in the 13th century AD. He
discovered that it was a palimpsest, a document with text that
had been written over an erased older work. Palimpsests were
created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing
them, which was a common practice in the Middle Ages as vellum
was expensive. The older works in the palimpsest were identified In 1906, the Archimedes Palimpsest
revealed works by Archimedes
by scholars as 10th century AD copies of previously unknown
thought to have been lost.
treatises by Archimedes.[98] The parchment spent hundreds of
years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold
to a private collector in the 1920s. On 29 October 1998, it was
sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $2 million at Christie's in New York.[99]

The palimpsest holds seven treatises, including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the
original Greek. It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems, referred to by
Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest, with
a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest is now
stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it has been subjected to a range of
modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and X-ray light to read the overwritten text.[100]

The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest include:

On the Equilibrium of Planes

On Spirals
Measurement of a Circle
On the Sphere and Cylinder
On Floating Bodies
The Method of Mechanical Theorems
Stomachion
Speeches by the 4th century BC politician Hypereides
A commentary on Aristotle's Categories
Other works

Legacy

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Galileo praised Archimedes many times, and referred to him

as a "superhuman" and as "my master",[101][102] while
Huygens modeled his work after him.[103] Leibniz said "He
who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less
the achievements of the foremost men of later times."[104]
Leonardo da Vinci repeatedly expressed admiration for
Archimedes, and attributed his invention Architonnerre to
Archimedes.[105][106][107] Nikola Tesla once noted;
"Archimedes was my ideal. I admired the works of artists, but
to my mind, they were only shadows and semblances. The
inventor, I thought, gives to the world creations which are
palpable, which live and work."[108] Moritz Cantor, who
studied under Gauss in the University of Göttingen, reported The Fields Medal carries a portrait
that Gauss once remarked in conversation that “there had of Archimedes.
been only three epoch-making mathematicians: Archimedes,
Newton, and Eisenstein."[109]
There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes (29.7°N
4.0°W) in his honor, as well as a lunar mountain range, the
Montes Archimedes (25.3°N 4.6°W).[110]
The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in
mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes, along with a
carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder.
The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote
attributed to 1st century AD poet Manilius, which reads in
Latin: Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri ("Rise above
oneself and grasp the world").[111][112][113] Bronze statue of Archimedes in
Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Berlin
Germany (1973), Greece (1983), Italy (1983), Nicaragua
(1971), San Marino (1982), and Spain (1963).[114]
The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this
instance, the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the
California Gold Rush.[115]

See also
Arbelos
Archimedean point
Archimedes' axiom
Archimedes number
Archimedes paradox
Archimedean solid
Archimedes' twin circles
Diocles
Methods of computing square roots
Pseudo-Archimedes
Salinon
Steam cannon
Trammel of Archimedes
Zhang Heng

References
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18/07/2021 Archimedes - Wikipedia

Notes
a. In the preface to On Spirals addressed to Dositheus of Pelusium, Archimedes says that "many
years have elapsed since Conon's death." Conon of Samos lived c. 280–220 BC, suggesting that
Archimedes may have been an older man when writing some of his works.
b. Casson, Lionel. 1995. Ships and seamanship in the ancient world (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=sDpMh0gK2OUC&pg=PA18&dq=why+were+homer%27s+ships+black#v=onepage&q=wh
y%20were%20homer's%20ships%20black&f=false) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210
417145911/https://books.google.com/books?id=sDpMh0gK2OUC&pg=PA18&dq=why+were+hom
er%27s+ships+black#v=onepage&q=why%20were%20homer's%20ships%20black&f=false) 17
April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 211–12.
ISBN 978-0-8018-5130-8: "It was usual to smear the seams or even the whole hull with pitch or
with pitch and wax". In Νεκρικοὶ Διάλογοι (Dialogues of the Dead), Lucian refers to coating the
seams of a skiff with wax, a reference to pitch (tar) or wax.
c. The treatises by Archimedes known to exist only through references in the works of other authors
are: On Sphere-Making and a work on polyhedra mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria; Catoptrica,
a work on optics mentioned by Theon of Alexandria; Principles, addressed to Zeuxippus and
explaining the number system used in The Sand Reckoner; On Balances and Levers; On Centers
of Gravity; On the Calendar.
Of the surviving works by Archimedes, T.L. Heath offers the following
suggestion as to the order in which they were written: On the Equilibrium of Planes I, The
Quadrature of the Parabola, On the Equilibrium of Planes II, On the Sphere and the Cylinder I, II,
On Spirals, On Conoids and Spheroids, On Floating Bodies I, II, On the Measurement of a Circle,
The Sand Reckoner.
d. Boyer, Carl Benjamin. 1991. A History of Mathematics. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8: "Arabic
scholars inform us that the familiar area formula for a triangle in terms of its three sides, usually
known as Heron's formula — , where is the semiperimeter —
was known to Archimedes several centuries before Heron lived. Arabic scholars also attribute to
Archimedes the 'theorem on the broken chord' ... Archimedes is reported by the Arabs to have
given several proofs of the theorem."

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ship in Antiquity, the Syracusia, was constructed under his supervision), and of mechanics (from
machines to hoist weights to those for raising water and devices of war)."

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Further reading
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes 23/24
18/07/2021 Archimedes - Wikipedia

Boyer, Carl Benjamin. 1991. A History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-
8.
Clagett, Marshall. 1964–1984. Archimedes in the Middle Ages 1–5. Madison, WI: University of
Wisconsin Press.
Dijksterhuis, Eduard J. [1938] 1987. Archimedes, translated. Princeton: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08421-3.
Gow, Mary. 2005. Archimedes: Mathematical Genius of the Ancient World. Enslow Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-7660-2502-8.
Hasan, Heather. 2005. Archimedes: The Father of Mathematics. Rosen Central. ISBN 978-1-
4042-0774-5.
Heath, Thomas L. 1897. Works of Archimedes. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-42084-4.
Complete works of Archimedes in English.
Netz, Reviel, and William Noel. 2007. The Archimedes Codex. Orion Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-0-297-64547-4.
Pickover, Clifford A. 2008. Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind
Them. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533611-5.
Simms, Dennis L. 1995. Archimedes the Engineer. Continuum International Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-0-7201-2284-8.
Stein, Sherman. 1999. Archimedes: What Did He Do Besides Cry Eureka?. Mathematical
Association of America. ISBN 978-0-88385-718-2.

External links
Heiberg's Edition of Archimedes (https://www.wilbourhall.org/index.html#archimedes). Texts in
Classical Greek, with some in English.
Archimedes (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00773bv) on In Our Time at the BBC
Works by Archimedes (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Archimedes) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Archimedes (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22A
rchimedes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Archimedes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Arch
imedes%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Archimedes%22%29%20OR%20%28%22287-212%22%20
AND%20Archimedes%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Archimedes (https://www.inphoproject.org/thinker/2546) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
Archimedes (https://philpapers.org/s/archimedes) at PhilPapers
The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland (http://ww
w.archimedespalimpsest.org/)
"Archimedes and the Square Root of 3" (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath038/kmath038.h
tm). MathPages.com.
"Archimedes on Spheres and Cylinders" (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath343/kmath343.
htm). MathPages.com.
Testing the Archimedes steam cannon (http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/experiments/steamCannon/
ArchimedesSteamCannon.html)

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