EEEE2201: Electrical and Electronic Measurement (3 CV)

Lecture notes

Chap 2: Analog Meters

1- Introduction

An analog device is a device in which the output or display is a continuous function of time and bears a
constant relation to its input. Such instruments find extensive use in present day applications although
digital instruments are increasing in number and applications. The areas of application which are common
to both analog and digital instruments are fairly limited at present. Hence, it can safely be predicted that
the analog instruments will remain in extensive use for a number of years and are not likely to be
completely replaced by digital instruments for certain applications. The most common analog instrument
or meter is the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it is used for measuring a dc current or
voltage of an electric circuit. On the other hand, the indications of alternating current ammeters and
voltmeters must represent the rms (root mean square) values of the current or voltage respectively applied
to the instrument. In this chapter, we will consider an electromechanical meter that can be connected with
additional suitable components in order to act as an ammeter and a voltmeter.
2- Classification of analog instruments

Broadly, the analog instruments (and for that matter digital instruments) may be classified according to
the quantity they measure. For example an instrument meant for measurement of current is classified as
an Ammeter while an instrument that measures voltage is classified as a Voltmeter. Thus we have
wattmeters, power factor meters, frequency meters etc . . . . Electrical instruments may also be
classified according to the kind of current that can be measured by them. Electrical instruments may be
classified as instruments for: (i) direct current (d c.), (ii) alternating current (a.c.), and (iii) direct and
alternating current (d.c./a c.). The analog instruments may also be classifies as:

- Indicating instruments

Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when
it is being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale. Ordinary
ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, frequency meters, power factor meters fall into this category. Analog
indicating instruments may be divided into (i) electromechanical instruments, (ii) electronic
instruments. Electronic instruments are constructed by addition of electronic circuits to electromagnetic
indicators in order to increase the sensitivity and input impedance

- Recording instruments

Recording instruments are those which keep a continuous record of the variation of the magnitude of
an electrical quantity to be observed over a definite period of time. In such instruments, the moving
system carries an inked pen which touches lightly a sheet of paper wrapped over a drum moving with
uniform slow motion in a direction perpendicular to that of the pointer. Thus, a curve is traced which
shows the variations in the magnitude of the electrical quantity under observation over a definite period
of time. Such instruments are generally used in powerhouses where the current, voltage, power, etc., are
to be maintained within certain acceptable limit. For example, we may have a recording voltmeter in a
substation which keeps record of the variations of supply voltage during the day

- Integrating instruments

Integrating instruments are those which measure the total amount of either quantity of electricity (ampere-
hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. The summation, given by such an instrument, is
the product of time and an electrical quantity under measurement. The ampere-hour meters and energy
meters fall in this class.

3- Principle of operation

Analog instruments may be classified according to the principle of operation they utilize. These effects
are:

- Magnetic effect: The majority of analog instruments including moving coil, moving iron and
electrodynamic use the magnetic effect.
- Heating effect: The effect of the heat produced by a current in a conductor is used in
thermocouple and hotwire instruments

- Electrostatic effect: Electrostatic effect is used in electrostatic voltmeters.

- Electromagnetic (Induction) effect: The electromagnetic induction effect is used in induction

wattmeters and induction energy meters.

- Hall effect: Hall effect elements are extensively used in magnetic measurements. They can also
be used for sensing of current
4- Operating Forces

Three types of forces are needed for satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument. These are:

• Deflecting force

The deflecting or operating force is required for moving the pointer from its zero position. The system
producing the deflecting force is called Deflecting system or Moving System.

• Controlling force

The act of this force is opposite to the deflecting force. When the deflecting and controlling forces are
equal in magnitude then the movement will be in definite position or in equilibrium. Spiral springs or
gravity is usually given to produce the controlling torque. The system which produces the controlling
torque is called the controlling system.

• Damping force
A damping force generally works in an opposite direction to the movement of the moving system. This
opposite movement of the damping force, without any oscillation or very small oscillation brings the
moving system to rest at the final deflected position quickly. Air friction, fluid friction and Eddy currents
provide the damping force to act.

5- Permanent magnet moving coil instrument

5-1 Principle of operation

A torque is exerted on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet. A PMMC
instrument is shown in Figure 1. The coil C has a number of turns of thin insulated wires wound on
a rectangular aluminium former F. The frame is carried on a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1
and J2. A pointer PR is attached to the spindle so that it moves over a calibrated scale. The whole of the
moving system is made as light in weight as possible to keep the friction at the bearing to a minimum.

Figure 1: PMMC Instruments

The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed between the shaped soft-iron pole piece (pp) of a
permanent magnet PM and a fixed soft-iron cylindrical core IC [Figure1(b)].

The core serves two purposes; (a) it intensifies the magnetic field by reducing the length of the air gap,
and (b) it makes the field radial and uniform in the air gap. Thus, the coil always moves at right angles to
the magnetic field [Figure 1(c)]. Modern permanent magnets are made of steel alloys which are difficult
to machine. Soft-iron pole pieces (pp) are attached to the permanent magnet PM for easy machining in
order to adjust the length of the air gap. Figure 1(e) shows schematic of internal parts of a moving-coil
instrument. A soft-iron yoke (Y) is used to, complete the flux path and to provide shielding from stray
external fields.

5-2 Deflecting Torque Equation of PMMC Instrument

Let, B flux density in the air gap ( wb / m2 ), i current in the coil ( A) , l effective axial length of the coil
(m) , b breadth of the coil (m) and n number of turns of the coil.

The force on one side of the coil is F  Biln (N)

 T  force  distance from axis of rotation
The Torque on each side of the coil is
 F  b 2  Biln  b 2

The total deflecting torque exerted on the coil is Td  2  T  Blinb ( Nm)

For a permanent magnet, B is constant. Also for a given coil l , b and n are constants and thus the
product Blnb is also a constant, say k1

Therefore Td  k1i

- Control Torque

The control on the movement of the pointer over the scale is provided by two spirally wound, phosphor-
bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the spindle S. Sometimes these springs also conduct the
current into and out of the coil. The control torque of the springs is proportional to the angle θ turned
through by the coil.

Tc  ks 

where Tc is the control torque and k s is the spring constant.

At final steady state position, Control torque = Deflecting torque

Tc  Td
k1
k s  k1i where k   constant
k2
k1
 i  ki
k2

So angular deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current. Thus the scale of the instrument
is linear or uniformly divided.

- Damping Torque

When the aluminium former (F) moves with the coil in the field of the permanent magnet, a voltage is
induced, causing Eddy current to flow in it. This current exerts a force on the former. By Lenz’s law, this
force opposes the motion producing it. Thus, a damping torque is obtained. Such a damping is called
Eddy-current damping.

The operating characteristics of PMMC

Basic range: 10 μA – 100 mA

Coil resistance: 10 Ω – 1 kΩ

Some advantages of PMMC instruments: Sensitive to small current, very accurate and reliable, very
effective built in damping, low power consumption, varies from 25µW to 200 µW

Some disadvantages of PMMC instruments: The moving system is very delicate and can easily be
damaged by rough handling, this type of instrument operates only in direct current, it is costlier.

Example: The coil of a PMMC instrument has 60 turns, on a former that is 18 mm wide, the effective
length of the conductor being 25 mm. It moves in a uniform field of flux density 0.5Tesla. The control
spring constant is 1.5 ×10-6 Nm/degree. Calculate the current required to produce a deflection of 100
degree.

Solution

Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil

Td  Blinb ( Nm)
 0.5  i  25 103  60 18 103

The control torque of the springs is

Tc  ks   1.5 106 100

At equilibrium, Td  Tc

1.5 106 100

i  11,11mA
0.5  25 103  60 18 103

6- Extension of range of PMMC instruments

6-1 Ammeter Shunts

The moving-coil instrument has a coil wound with very fine wire. It can carry only few mA safely to give
full-scale deflection. For measuring higher current, a low resistance is connected in parallel to the
instrument to bypass the major part of the current. The low resistance connected in parallel with the coil
is called a shunt. Figure 2 shows a shunt resistance Rsh connected in parallel with the basic meter.

Figure 2: Extension of PMMC ammeter using shunt

The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.

The voltage drop across the shunt and the meter must be same as they are connected in parallel.
 I sh Rsh  I m Rm
I  I sh  I m  I sh  I  I m

Im I
Rsh  Rm  m Rm
I sh I  Im

The ratio of the total current to the current in the meter is called multiplying power of shunt.
Multiplying power,

I R
m  1 m
Im Rsh
Rm
Rsh 
m 1

Example
A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 5 Ω and gives a full scale deflection of 10 mV. Show how
the instrument may be used to measure a current up to 10 A.

Solution
Full scale deflection of v  10mV  R m Im with R m  5
v 10 103
Full scale deflection current Im  I fs  = =2mA
Rm 5
For measuring the current up to 10 A we need to connect a shunt resistance in parallel to the instrument.
R R 5
Rsh  m  m   1.0002 103 
m 1 I 1 10
1
Im 0.002

6-2 Voltmeter Multipliers

For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is connected in series with the instrument to limit the
current in the coil to a safe value. This value of current should never exceed the current required to
produce the full scale deflection. The high resistance connected in series with the instrument is called a
multiplier. In Figure 3, Rsc is the multiplier.

Figure 3: Extension of PMMC voltmeter using multiplier

The value of multiplier required to extend the voltage range, is calculated as under:
 Rsc  multiplier resistance ()
R m  meter resistance ()
I m  I fs  full scale deflection current (A)
v  voltage across the meter for producing the current I m (V )
V  voltage to be mesured (V)

v  I m Rm
V  I m  Rm  Rsc 

V  I m Rm V
Rsc    Rm
Im Im

V I m  Rm  Rsc  R
m   1  sc
Now multiplying factor for multiplier v I m Rm Rm
Rsc   m  1 Rm

Sensitivity: The moving coil instrument is a very sensitive instrument. It is, therefore, widely used for
measuring current and voltage. The coil of the instrument may require a small amount of current (in the
range of µA) for full scale deflection. The sensitivity is sometimes expresses in Ohm/ Volt. The
sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by

Total voltmeter resistance in Ohm R 1

S  /V  m   /V
Full scale reading in volts v I fs

Where I fs is the full scale deflecting current. Thus, the sensitivity depends upon on the current to give
full-scale deflection.

Exemple:

A moving coil voltmeter has a resistance of 100 Ω. The scale is divided into 150 equal divisions. When a
potential difference of 1V is applied to the terminals of the voltmeter a deflection of 100 divisions is
obtained. Explain how the instrument could be used for measuring up to 300 V.

Solution

Let Rsc be the multiplier resistance that would be connected in series with the voltmeter.

Volt/division = 1/100

Voltage across the meter for producing the full scale deflecting current

v  150 1/100  1.5V

Full scale meter current I m  1.5 /100  0.015 A

Meter resistance Rm  100

 V  I m Rm V
Rsc    Rm
Im Im
300  0.015 100
=  19,9k 
0.015

6-3 Comparison between different types of instruments

Exercises chap2 on Analog meters

Exercise 1

1- Describe the various operating forces needed for proper operation of an analog indicating
instrument.
2- What are the difference between recording and integrating instruments? Give suitable examples in
each case.
3- Derive the equation for deflection of a PMMC instrument if the instrument is spring controlled.
4- What are the advantages and disadvantages of a PMMC instrument?

Exercise 2

(a) Derive the expression for the deflection of a spring controlled permanent magnet moving coil
instrument.

Why not this instrument able to measure the ac quantity?

(b) The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 40 mm × 30 mm wide and has 100 turns wound on it. The
control spring exerts a torque of 0.25 × 10-3 Nm when the deflection is 50 divisions on the scale. If the
flux density of the magnetic field in the air-gap is 1 Wb/m2, find the resistance that must be put in series
with the coil to give 1 volt per division. Resistance of the voltmeter is 10000 Ω.

(c) A voltage of 200 V produces a deflection of 90° in a PMMC spring-controlled instrument. If the same
instrument is provided with gravity control, what would be the deflection?

Exercice 3

The coil of a moving-coil voltmeter is 40 mm long and 30 mm wide and has 100 turns on it. The control
spring exerts a torque of 240 × 10-6 N-m when the deflection is 100 divisions on full scale. If the flux
density of the magnetic field in the air gap is 1 wb/m2, estimate the resistance that must be put in series
with the coil to give one volt per division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil may be neglected.
Exercice 4
A moving-coil instrument gives the full-scale deflection of 10 mA when the potential difference across its
terminals is 100 mV. Calculate (a) the shunt resistance for a full-scale deflection corresponding to 100 A,
and (b) the series resistance for full scale reading with 1000 V. Calculate the power dissipation in each
case.