Direct current generators[edit]

Main article: Dynamo

Hippolyte Pixii's dynamo. The commutator is located on the shaft below the spinning magnet.

This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no

longer used due to the size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power applications.

A coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field produces a current which changes direction with
each 180° rotation, an alternating current (AC). However many early uses of electricity
required direct current (DC). In the first practical electric generators, called dynamos, the
AC was converted into DC with a commutator, a set of rotating switch contacts on the
armature shaft. The commutator reversed the connection of the armature winding to the
circuit every 180° rotation of the shaft, creating a pulsing DC current. One of the first
dynamos was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832.
The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry.
The Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science
Museum, is the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process.[4] It was used
by the firm of Elkingtons for commercial electroplating.[5][6][7]
The modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently
by Sir Charles Wheatstone, Werner von Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took
out a patent on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced
their discoveries on 17 January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to
the Royal Society.
The "dynamo-electric machine" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather
than permanent magnets to create the stator field. [8] Wheatstone's design was similar to
Siemens', with the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were
in series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel. [9] The use of
electromagnets rather than permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a
dynamo and enabled high power generation for the first time. This invention led directly
to the first major industrial uses of electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used
electromagnetic dynamos to power electric arc furnaces for the production of metals and
other materials.
The dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which
provides the magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On
larger machines the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets,
which are usually called field coils.
Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal
use of alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large
direct-current dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC
has come to dominate due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very
high voltages to permit low losses over large distances.
Synchronous generators (alternating current generators) [edit]
Main article: Alternator

Ferranti alternating current generator, c. 1900.

Through a series of discoveries, the dynamo was succeeded by many later inventions,
especially the AC alternator, which was capable of generating alternating current. It is
commonly known to be the Synchronous Generators (SGs). The synchronous machines
are directly connected to the grid and need to be properly synchronized during startup.
[10] Moreover, they are excited with special control to enhance the stability of the power
system.[11]
Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from Michael
Faraday's original discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. Faraday himself
built an early alternator. His machine was a "rotating rectangle", whose operation
was heteropolar - each active conductor passed successively through regions where the
magnetic field was in opposite directions.[12]
Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H.
Gordon, in 1882. The first public demonstration of an "alternator system" was given
by William Stanley, Jr., an employee of Westinghouse Electric in 1886.[13]
Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti established Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882, to market
his Ferranti-Thompson Alternator, invented with the help of renowned physicist Lord
Kelvin.[14] His early alternators produced frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. Ferranti
went on to design the Deptford Power Station for the London Electric Supply Corporation
in 1887 using an alternating current system. On its completion in 1891, it was the first
truly modern power station, supplying high-voltage AC power that was then "stepped
down" for consumer use on each street. This basic system remains in use today around
the world.

A small early 1900s 75 kVA direct-driven power station AC alternator, with a separate belt-driven
exciter generator.

After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing

phases.[15] Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies
between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent
lighting and electric motors.[16]
Self-excitation[edit]
Main article: Excitation (magnetic)
As the requirements for larger scale power generation increased, a new limitation rose:
the magnetic fields available from permanent magnets. Diverting a small amount of the
power generated by the generator to an electromagnetic field coil allowed the generator
to produce substantially more power. This concept was dubbed self-excitation.
The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the
generator first starts to turn, the small amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron
core provides a magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the
armature. This flows through the field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which
generates a larger armature current. This "bootstrap" process continues until the
magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and the generator reaches a steady
state power output.
Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite
the field coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power
outage where islanding of power stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform
a black start to excite the fields of their largest generators, in order to restore customer
power service.

Specialized types of generator[edit]

Direct current (DC)[edit]
A dynamo uses commutators to produce direct current. It is self-excited, i.e. its field
electromagnets are powered by the machine's own output. Other types of DC generators
use a separate source of direct current to energize their field magnets.
Homopolar generator[edit]
Main article: Homopolar generator
A homopolar generator is a DC electrical generator comprising an electrically conductive
disc or cylinder rotating in a plane perpendicular to a uniform static magnetic field. A
potential difference is created between the center of the disc and the rim (or ends of the
cylinder), the electrical polarity depending on the direction of rotation and the orientation
of the field.
It is also known as a unipolar generator, acyclic generator, disk dynamo, or Faraday
disc. The voltage is typically low, on the order of a few volts in the case of small
demonstration models, but large research generators can produce hundreds of volts, and
some systems have multiple generators in series to produce an even larger voltage.
[17] They are unusual in that they can produce tremendous electric current, some more
than a million amperes, because the homopolar generator can be made to have very low
internal resistance.
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generator[edit]
Main article: Magnetohydrodynamic generator
A magnetohydrodynamic generator directly extracts electric power from moving hot
gases through a magnetic field, without the use of rotating electromagnetic machinery.
MHD generators were originally developed because the output of a plasma MHD
generator is a flame, well able to heat the boilers of a steam power plant. The first
practical design was the AVCO Mk. 25, developed in 1965. The U.S. government funded
substantial development, culminating in a 25 MW demonstration plant in 1987. In
the Soviet Union from 1972 until the late 1980s, the MHD plant U 25 was in regular utility
operation on the Moscow power system with a rating of 25 MW, the largest MHD plant
rating in the world at that time.[18] MHD generators operated as a topping cycle are
currently (2007) less efficient than combined cycle gas turbines.
Alternating current (AC)[edit]
Induction generator[edit]
Main article: Induction generator
Induction AC motors may be used as generators, turning mechanical energy into electric
current. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor faster than the
synchronous speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC asynchronous motor usually can
be used as a generator, without any internal modifications. Induction generators are
useful in applications such as minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-
pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively
simple controls. They do not require an exciter circuit because the rotating magnetic field
is provided by induction from the stator circuit. They also do not require speed governor
equipment as they inherently operate at the connected grid frequency.
To operate, an induction generator must be excited with a leading voltage; this is usually
done by connection to an electrical grid, or sometimes they are self-excited by using
phase correcting capacitors.
Linear electric generator[edit]
Main article: Linear alternator
In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth
through a solenoid - a spool of copper wire. An alternating current is induced in the loops
of wire by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of
generator is used in the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used
in wave power schemes.
Variable-speed constant-frequency generators[edit]
Many renewable energy efforts attempt to harvest natural sources of mechanical energy
(wind, tides, etc.) to produce electricity. Because these sources fluctuate in power
applied, standard generators using permanent magnets and fixed windings would deliver
unregulated voltage and frequency. The overhead of regulation (whether before the
generator via gear reduction or after generation by electrical means) is high in proportion
to the naturally-derived energy available.
New generator designs such as the asynchronous or induction singly-fed generator,
the doubly-fed generator, or the brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed generator are seeing
success in variable speed constant frequency applications, such as wind turbines or
other renewable energy technologies. These systems thus offer cost, reliability and
efficiency benefits in certain use cases..

Common use cases[edit]

Power station[edit]
Main article: power station

The Athlone Power Station in Cape Town, South Africa

Hydroelectric power station at Gabčíkovo Dam, Slovakia

 Hydroelectric power station at Glen Canyon Dam, Page, Arizona

A power station, also referred to as a power plant or powerhouse and

sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for
the generation of electric power. Most power stations contain one or more generators, a
rotating machine that converts mechanical power into three-phase electric power.
The relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electrical
current. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. Most power
stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate
electricity. Cleaner sources include nuclear power, and an increasing use
of renewables such as solar, wind, wave and hydroelectric.
Vehicular generators[edit]
Roadway vehicles[edit]
Main article: Alternator (automotive)
Motor vehicles require electrical energy to power their instrumentation, keep the engine
itself operating, and recharge their batteries. Until about the 1960s motor vehicles tended
to use DC generators (dynamos) with electromechanical regulators. Following the
historical trend above and for many of the same reasons, these have now been replaced
by alternators with built-in rectifier circuits.
Bicycles[edit]
Bicycles require energy to power running lights and other equipment. There are two
common kinds of generator in use on bicycles: bottle dynamos which engage the
bicycle's tire on an as-needed basis, and hub dynamos which are directly attached to the
bicycle's drive train. The name is conventional as these they are small permanent-
magnet alternators, not self-excited DC machines as are dynamos. Some electric
bicycles are capable of regenerative braking, where the drive motor is used as a
generator to recover some energy during braking.
Sailboats[edit]
Sailing boats may use a water- or wind-powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries.
A small propeller, wind turbine or impeller is connected to a low-power generator to
supply currents at typical wind or cruising speeds.
Electric scooters[edit]
Electric scooters with regenerative braking have become popular all over the world.
Engineers use kinetic energy recovery systems on the scooter to reduce energy
consumption and increase its range up to 40-60% by simply recovering energy using the
magnetic brake, which generates electric energy for further use. Modern vehicles reach
speed up to 25–30 km/h and can run up to 35–40 km.
Genset[edit]
Main article: Engine-generator
An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime
mover) mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The
engines used are usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used, and there
are even hybrid diesel-gas units, called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of engine-
generators are available - ranging from very small portable petrol powered sets to large
turbine installations. The primary advantage of engine-generators is the ability to
independently supply electricity, allowing the units to serve as backup power solutions. [19]
Human powered electrical generators[edit]
Main article: Self-powered equipment
A generator can also be driven by human muscle power (for instance, in field radio
station equipment).

Protesters at Occupy Wall Street using bicycles connected to a motor and one-way diode to charge
batteries for their electronics[20]

Human powered electric generators are commercially available, and have been the
project of some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a
converted bicycle trainer, or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to
charge batteries, and in some cases are designed with an integral inverter. An average
"healthy human" can produce a steady 75 Watts (0.1 horsepower) for a full eight hour
period, while a "first class athlete" can produce approximately 298 Watts (0.4
horsepower) for a similar period. At the end of which an undetermined period of rest and
recovery will be required. At 298 Watts the average "healthy human" becomes exhausted
within 10 minutes.[21] The net electrical power that can be produced will be less, due to
the efficiency of the generator. Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to reduce
battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century, pedal
powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling
(School of the Air), medical and other needs in remote stations and towns.
Mechanical measurement[edit]
A tachogenerator is an electromechanical device which produces an output voltage
proportional to its shaft speed. It may be used for a speed indicator or in a feedback
speed control system. Tachogenerators are frequently used to power tachometers to
measure the speeds of electric motors, engines, and the equipment they power.
Generators generate voltage roughly proportional to shaft speed. With precise
construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for
certain ranges of shaft speeds.[citation needed]
Equivalent circuit[edit]

Equivalent circuit of generator and load.

 G, generator

 VG, generator open-circuit voltage

 RG, generator internal resistance

 VL, generator on-load voltage

 RL, load resistance

An equivalent circuit of a generator and load is shown in the adjacent diagram. The
generator is represented by an abstract generator consisting of an ideal voltage
source and an internal impedance. The generator's 
and 
pa ameters can be determined by measuring the winding resistance (corrected to oper
ating temperature), a
This is the simplest model of a generator, further elements may need to be added for an
accurate representation. In particular, inductance can be added to allow for the
machine's windings and magnetic leakage flux,[22] but a full representation can become
much more complex than this.[23]

See also
History and background

At the most basic level, electric motors exist to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. This is done by way of two interacting magnetic fields -- one
stationary, and another attached to a part that can move. A number of types of electric
motors exist, but most BEAMbots use DC motors1 in some form or
another. DC motors have the potential for very high torque capabilities (although this
is generally a function of the physical size of the motor), are easy to miniaturize, and
can be "throttled" via adjusting their supply voltage. DC motors are also not only the
simplest, but the oldest electric motors.

The basic principles of electromagnetic induction were discovered in the early 1800's
by Oersted, Gauss, and Faraday. By 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre Marie
Ampere had discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The next
15 years saw a flurry of cross-Atlantic experimentation and innovation, leading
finally to a simple DC rotary motor. A number of men were involved in the work, so
proper credit for the first DC motor is really a function of just how broadly you
choose to define the word "motor."

Michael Faraday
(U.K.)

Fabled experimenter
Michael Faraday
decided to confirm or
refute a number of
speculations
surrounding Oersted's
and Ampere's results.
Faraday set to work
devising an experiment
to demonstrate whether
or not a current-
carrying wire produced
a circular magnetic
field around it, and in
October of 1821
succeeded in
demonstrating this.

Faraday took a dish of

mercury and placed a
fixed magnet in the
middle; above this, he
dangled a freely
moving wire (the free
end of the wire was
long enough to dip into
the mercury). When he
connected a battery to
form a circuit,
the current-carrying
wire circled around the
magnet. Faraday then
reversed the setup, this
time with a fixed wire
and a dangling magnet
-- again the free part
circled around the fixed
part. This was the first
demonstration of the
conversion of electrical
energy into motion, and
as a result, Faraday is
often credited with the
invention of the electric
motor. Bear in mind,
though, that Faraday's
electric motor is really
just a lab
demonstration, as you
can't harness it for
useful work.

Also note that if you

plan on repeating this
experiment yourself,
you should use salt
water (or some similar
nontoxic but conductive
liquid) for the fluid,
rather than mercury.
Mercury can be very
hazardous to your
health, and requires
stringent precautions on
its use. The BBC has
instructions on building
just such a device using
salt water here.
Joseph Henry
(U.S.)

It took ten
years, but by
the summer of
1831 Joseph
Henry had
improved on
Faraday's
experimental
motor. Henry
built a simple
device whose
moving part
was a straight
electromagnet
rocking on a
horizontal axis.
Its polarity was
reversed
automatically
by its motion
as pairs of
wires
projecting from
its ends made
connections
alternately with
two
electrochemical
cells. Two
vertical
permanent
magnets
alternately
attracted and
repelled the
ends of the
electromagnet,
making it rock
back and forth
at 75 cycles per
minute.

Henry
considered his
little machine
to be merely a
"philosophical
toy," but
nevertheless
believed it was
important as
the first
demonstration
of continuous
motion
produced by
magnetic
attraction and
repulsion.
While being
more
mechanically
useful than
Faraday's
motor, and
being the first
real use of
electromagnets
in a motor, it
was still by and
large a lab
experiment.

For pictures of
Henry's motor,
as well as more
information on
his further
explorations,
check out the
Smithsonian
Institution's
write-up on
him (part of the
Joseph Henry
Papers
Project) here.
William Sturgeon (U.K.)

Just a year after Henry's motor was

demonstrated, William Sturgeon
invented the commutator, and with
it the first rotary electric motor --
in many ways a rotary analogue of
Henry's oscillating motor.
Sturgeon's motor, while still
simple, was the first to provide
continuous rotary motion and
contained essentially all the
elements of a modern DC motor.
Note that Sturgeon used horseshoe
electromagnets to produce both the
moving and stationary magnetic
fields (to be specific, he built a
shunt wound DC motor).

The BBC has a good set of

instructions on building a replica
of this motor here.
Many later experimenters contributed a number of further refinements; let's skip
forward in time to see just how a modern DC motor works...

Notes:

1. Note that gearmotors are generally just DC motors with an attached gearhead; servos in turn are
gearmotors with control electronics attached.